\par \tab The mountainous country of Afghanistan lies in south-central Asia. It is bordered by Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Iran, and Pakistan. A panhandle on the northeast, the Wakhan Corridor, connects it with China. Its southernmost part is separated from the nearest sea, the Arabian Sea, by 300 miles (480 kilometers) of Pakistani territory.
\par \tab Afghanistan has been known as a crossroads between East and West. Isolated and landlocked, it clung to traditional ways of life. By the mid-1900s the Afghans began to accept the ideas, methods, and machines of modern industrial societies.
\par \tab Afghanistan is approximately 252,000 square miles (652,000 square kilometers) in area. In the early 1990s the country's population was estimated at about 15.5 million. Kabul, the capital and largest city, had more than 1 million inhabitants.
\par {\b Land and Climate}
\par \tab Mountains cover about four fifths of Afghanistan. From the Pamir Mountains in the northeast, the giant Hindu Kush range stretches westward across the country. The range is highest in the Wakhan Corridor, where Nowshak Peak rises to 24,557 feet (7,485 meters) above sea level. Narrow river valleys and broad plains spread from the central highlands to barren desert country in the west.
\par \tab Afghanistan's rivers are fed by melting snow and glaciers in the mountains. Northern streams flow toward the Amu Darya, which forms part of the country's northern border. The Amu Darya is Afghanistan's largest river; but the Helmand in the southwest is longer. The Kabul River provides water for the fertile valleys and basins around Kabul and Jalalabad.
\par \tab In winter and spring Afghanistan receives most of its meager rain- and snowfalls. Temperatures drop below 0░ F (-18░ C) in the windswept uplands. The lowlands have milder winters. But the summer sun may raise desert temperatures to 115░ F (46░ C) or higher. Frontal winds sweeping in from the west may bring huge sandstorms or dust storms. The desert regions receive less than 4 inches (10 centimeters) of rain a year; the high mountains receive more than 40 inches (100 centimeters) of precipitation, most of which falls as snow.
\par {\b Plant and Animal Life}
\par \tab Like its climate, Afghanistan's plant life is diverse. In the southern deserts, few trees grow. Spring rains may bring flowering grasses and herbs. Farther north, plant life becomes richer; at the higher altitudes it may be almost luxuriant. Plants, shrubs, and herbs include camel thorn, locoweed, spiny restharrow, mimosa, and common wormwood. In addition to stands of conifers, trees include wild walnut, oak, alder, hazel, wild peach, and others. North of the Hindu Kush are pistachio trees, which yield nuts for export.
\par \tab Afghanistan has more than a hundred mammal species, some of which are nearing extinction. They include the leopard, snow leopard, goitered gazelle, markhor goat, and Bactrian deer. Other wild animals that survive in the country's subtropical Temperate Zone include wolves, foxes, hyenas, jackals, and mongooses. Grazing animals include ibex, wild goats, and sheep. Wild boar, jerboa, hedgehogs, shrews, hares, mouse hares, bats, and various rodents also occur. More than 380 bird species have been identified in Afghanistan; 200 of them breed there. Birds are widely hunted, and some species are becoming rare. Few Siberian cranes, for example, survive. Snakes, lizards, skinks, salamanders, and frogs are also common to the country. There are many varieties of freshwater fish in the rivers, streams, and lakes, trout being the most common.
\par \tab Desertification, in which human intervention causes good land to turn into desert, is far advanced in Afghanistan. Because many Afghans are poor, they collect dung, uproot shrubs, and cut trees for fuel. Domestic animals overgraze the ranges. Improper irrigation adds salt to fields. Ancient records and archaeology show that once-rich areas have become barren stretches of rock and sand.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab Afghanistan's people reflect their country's location astride historic migration and invasion routes. Most Afghans belong to the Pashtun (Pathan), Tajik, Uzbek, Hazara, Turkmen, and Aimak ethnic groups. Constituting about 50 percent of the population, the Pashtuns claim to be related to the Hebrews. The Turkish-descended Uzbeks and Turkmens farm the plains north of the Hindu Kush. The Tajiks, who live near Iran, are of Persian descent. The Hazaras, a Mongol people who remained after the invasion of Genghis Khan, live in the central highlands.
\par \tab Islam, the official religion, pervades all aspects of Afghan life. Religious codes provide standards of conduct and means of settling legal disputes. About 99 percent of the population is Muslim, and of these about 84 percent belong to the Sunnah sect. Most of the Hazaras are Shi'ites. The country also has small numbers of Hindus, Sikhs, Jews, and Parsis (Zoroastrians).
\par \tab The official languages of Afghanistan are Pashto and Dari, which are spoken by 80 percent of the people. Pashto, or Pushtu, is the native tongue of the Pashtuns; Dari is a Persian dialect. Turkmen and Uzbek are spoken widely in the north. In the isolated eastern mountain valleys, the smaller Kafir, or Nuristani, tribes speak a variety of languages.
\par \tab About 19 percent of Afghanistan's people live in cities. The remainder are farmers or nomads. Living mainly in small villages, farmers cultivate land irrigated by rivers. In the highlands, seminomadic farmers may move their herds to upland pastures, remaining all summer and returning to their villages in the fall. Nomadic groups, mainly Pashtuns, move repeatedly, taking their families, belongings, and animals with them.
\par \tab Kabul forms the focal point of Afghanistan's artistic and cultural life. The city has theaters, concert halls, and libraries. Other cities offer historic, cultural, and artistic attractions to a lesser extent. A revival of the arts took place in the 1960s, bringing renewed interest in traditional and Western-style art forms.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab About two thirds of Afghanistan's people are farmers or herdsmen, but only about 12 percent of the land is cultivated. The remainder is either too rugged or too dry for farming. The country has extensive natural gas, coal, and iron deposits. About 4 percent of the total land area is irrigated. Farmers use terrace, tunnel, and well methods to irrigate their land.
\par \tab In the early 1990s about half of Afghanistan's land area was being used for grazing. Afghanistan has vast herds of sheep, goats, cattle, horses, donkeys, and camels--as many as 20 million head. Of these, sheep number about 14 million; cattle, 1.5 million; and goats, 2 million. The sheep provide wool and skins for clothing and flesh for meat.
\par \tab The farmers live in the fertile valleys or on the plain, wherever water is available for irrigation. Wheat, corn (maize), grapes, and rice are the chief crops. Industrial crops include cotton, sugar beets, and sugarcane. Oilseed, nuts, and fruits, particularly grapes, are also important, and large quantities of vegetables, especially potatoes, are grown. Agriculture contributes more than half of the gross domestic product.
\par \tab Aided by loans and grants from the World Bank and other sources, Afghanistan's government has tried since World War II to improve economic conditions.
\par \tab The Helmand Valley project, undertaken with aid from the United States, was designed to supply water for 1,000 square miles (2,600 square kilometers) of desert. With aid from the Soviet Union, the Afghan government built the Nangarhar Canal near Jalalabad in the south.
\par \tab Afghanistan has little industry. By estimate, only about 20,000 persons make up the industrial labor force; most of them are employed in the cotton-textile industry. Others work in the cement, sugar, vegetable oil, woolen and artificial-silk textile, and fruit-processing industries. Handworkers in cottage industries produce woven, embroidered, metal, pottery, and wooden goods and utensils. Cottage industries account for some 8 percent of the gross domestic product, while manufacturing industries account for only about 4 percent. The yearly income per person in Afghanistan was about 230 dollars in the mid-1980s.
\par \tab Natural gas accounts for nearly half of the country's exports. Fruits and nuts, cotton, carpets, and karakul skins are also exported. Leading imports include textiles, machinery, vehicles, and petroleum.
\par {\b Transportation and Communication}
\par \tab In the 1980s Afghanistan still lacked railways. But the country has more than 11,000 miles (17,700 kilometers) of roads and highways. The most important roads connect Kabul with Shir Kahn, on the Tajik border in the north, and with Peshawar in Pakistan in the east. Paved roads also link Kabul with Qandahar (the country's second largest city), Herat, and Mazar e Sharif.
\par \tab Other forms of transportation range from the very primitive to the very advanced. Camels and donkeys serve as draft animals in many parts of the country. Jet-age airports, however, have been built in Kabul, Qandahar, Shindand, and Baghram, near Kabul. Airports of varying quality are located in more remote parts of the country.
\par \tab Government-operated telephone, telegraph, and postal facilities form the heart of the communications system. The facilities serve only the principal cities and some towns, however. People's Television Afghanistan transmits over one station at Kabul. Radio programs are broadcast in a variety of languages, including English and Russian.
\par {\b Education and Health}
\par \tab Afghanistan's 1964 constitution provided for free and compulsory education at all levels. Regardless, relatively few children attended school, and literacy was near only 20 percent in the early 1980s. Some 30 percent of the country's children now attend the more than 3,700 schools. In the mid-1980s the country had more than 300 general secondary schools and about 800 primary schools. Kabul University has an enrollment of about 6,500 students. To earn their degrees some Afghan students go abroad, now mostly to Communist countries.
\par \tab Afghanistan's public health services have long been handicapped by a lack of doctors, hospitals, and sanitary facilities. Neglect of the rules of health and hygiene has also been a problem. Diseases such as malaria, smallpox, and cholera had been eliminated in the early 1980s, but the country had fewer than 60 hospitals and only 1,500 doctors. An estimated 38 percent of all newborn children do not survive beyond their first birthday--one of the world's highest infant mortality rates.
\par {\b Government and History}
\par \tab On July 17, 1973, a military coup overturned the two-century-old Afghan kingdom and established a republic. From 1964 to 1973 the country had been run as a true constitutional monarchy, with royalty barred from high public office. A prime minister appointed by the shah directed the government. This constitution was abolished in 1973 after a military coup overthrew the shah and established the Republic of Afghanistan. The Democratic Republic of Afghanistan was set up in 1978, after which the Afghan Revolutionary Council ruled by decree. A new constitution was approved in November 1987. The word Democratic was dropped from the republic's name.
\par \tab The remains of buried cities indicate that settled peoples lived in Afghanistan more than 5,000 years ago. The land was invaded repeatedly by nomads and conquering armies. Historic figures who passed through Afghanistan included Darius I of Persia, Alexander the Great, the Muslim invaders, Genghis Khan, Timur Lenk (Tamerlane), and Baber (Babur). Through Afghanistan's mountain passes, China's trade flowed westward and southward on the ancient silk route.
\par \tab The modern Afghan kingdom dates from 1747, when Ahmad Shah Durrani freed the country from Persian domination. To preserve their independence, the Afghans shut off the outside world.
\par \tab In the 19th century Afghanistan was caught in the rivalries of great empires. Russia, to the north, threatened Britain's domination of India to the east. Britain waged two bloody wars, from 1839 to 1842 and from 1878 to 1880, to gain control over Afghanistan. Defeated in the first war but victorious in the second, Britain bought Afghanistan's cooperation by paying a large annual subsidy to 'Abdor Rahman Khan and supporting his rule.
\par \tab When Amanollah Khan ascended the Afghan throne in 1919, he declared war on Britain. The third Afghan War ended that year with no clear-cut winner, but Afghanistan gained its independence. Amanollah turned to internal reform and tried to modernize the country. The mullahs--religious teachers and leaders--incited a revolt against him, and he abdicated in 1929. Mohammad Zahir Shah became king in 1933.
\par \tab The Westernization policy begun by Amanollah made significant advances. Under the 1964 constitution, women voted and ran for office for the first time in 1965. The separation of the state's executive, legislative, and judicial powers was completed when a supreme court was established in 1967.
\par \tab In 1973 the country was taken over by a military regime, which was overthrown in 1978. A Revolutionary Council with leanings toward the Soviet Union was then established. A treaty of friendship was signed with that country in December 1978. The new government oppressed the Islamic majority, and civil war broke out. In December 1979, as the military regime weakened, the Soviet Union claimed Western interference, invaded the country, and joined government forces against Muslim rebels. The council president was killed in the invasion, and the Soviets installed Babrak Karmal in his place. Soviet advisers were sent into Afghanistan to aid the government. Opposition spread; demonstrations and violence increased. In 1986 Karmal was replaced by Mohammad Najibullah. The Soviet Union, honoring a 1988 agreement to withdraw all of its troops, completed its pullout on Feb. 15, 1989. More than 15,000 Soviet soldiers were killed during the nine-year occupation.
\par \tab Three days after the Soviet troops pulled out, Najibullah declared a state of emergency and replaced the non-Communists in the cabinet with Communists. A March 1990 coup attempt failed to bring down Najibullah. The Communist party was urged to surrender its constitutional monopoly on power; in June of that year the Homeland party was created, though with essentially no political power. The United States and the Soviet Union agreed in late 1991 to end military aid to the Kabul government and the rebels. In April 1992 the rebels closed in on Kabul, forcing Najibullah out of power. Ethnic and political rivals vied for power.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by John F. Shroder, Jr., Professor of Geography, University of Nebraska.\par \tab There are more than 50 independent countries in Africa and on the islands off its coasts. Together, they make up more than one third of the membership of the United Nations. In 1991 Egyptian Deputy Prime Minister Boutros Boutros-Ghali became the first African and the first Arab to serve as secretary-general of the United Nations.
\par \tab After the conclusion of World War II, the African people gained their independence from European countries that had controlled most of the continent since the 19th century. France and the United Kingdom had the largest colonial empires, though Spain, Portugal, Belgium, Germany, and Italy also had African possessions. By the end of 1990, only South Africa remained under the control of a white minority government; even there, President F.W. de Klerk in 1990 took steps toward clearing away obstacles to negotiations for a new constitution.
\par \tab The African countries have developed political and economic relations with nations throughout the world. Many of the world's essential minerals, including copper, gold, and uranium, are mined in Africa. The continent's extensive river system represents one of the world's major potential sources of hydroelectric power.
\par \tab Long before the colonial period, there were great African kingdoms whose rulers presided over magnificent courts. Their merchants traded in gold, salt, and other goods with faraway countries, often traveling vast distances over caravan routes across the plains and deserts. The art, language, and, especially, the music of the Western world have been affected by African culture. Jazz has its root in Central and West African rhythms.
{\b NATURAL ENVIRONMENT}
\par {\b The Land}
\par \tab The continent of Africa lies astride the equator, extending beyond 35░ N. latitude and reaching almost 35░ S., or about as far north as Washington, D.C., and about as far south as Uruguay. It is the second largest landmass in the world, after Eurasia, and its area is more than three times that of the United States. Its population in 1990 was estimated at 648 million, increasing at a rate of 3 percent a year. The average population density is only 55.5 per square mile (21.4 per square kilometer), but this is misleading because much of the land is almost uninhabitable desert or rain forest. Roughly one third of Africa's total land area is devoted to agriculture, but in nearly half the countries less than 6 percent of the land is cultivated.
\par \tab Geologically, Africa is one of the oldest continents. It formed the core of the ancient landmass of Gondwanaland, from which the Southern Hemisphere continents are said to have drifted. Because of its age, Africa has undergone erosion for hundreds of millions of years. Most of the mountains have been worn away, and today much of the continent is a rolling plateau ranging between 500 and 4,500 feet (150 and 1,400 meters) above sea level. While Africa has no massive mountain ranges like the Rocky Mountains or the Himalayas, it does have the Atlas Mountains in the northwest, the Ahaggar and Tibesti ranges in the Sahara, and the East African Highlands stretching from Ethiopia to Tanzania.
\par \tab The highest mountain in Africa, snow-capped Mount Kilimanjaro at 19,340 feet (5,895 meters) high, is in the Eastern Highlands.
\par \tab Running the length of the highlands is the Great Rift Valley. This deep, narrow break in the Earth's surface has a number of branches in which long, narrow lakes such as Tanganyika, Nyasa, and Rudolf are located. The valley is about 4,000 miles (6,400 kilometers) long with an average width of 30 and 40 miles (50 and 65 kilometers). Of several island nations off the coast of Africa, Madagascar is the largest. Others include Cape Verde, Comoros, Mauritius, and Seychelles.
\par {\b Climate and Vegetation}
\par \tab The climate and vegetation reflect the continent's position astride the equator. A sequence of ecological zones extends north and south from the equator: the equatorial forest, the savanna grasslands, the desert, and the area of mild, Mediterranean-type climate. Where highlands occur within these zones, conditions are cooler and wetter. The rainfall of these zones is associated with the movement of air masses, caused by the seasonal warming and cooling of different parts of the Earth as it rotates around the sun.
\par \tab In the Northern Hemisphere, or north of the equator, rain falls from April to September. In the Southern Hemisphere, it rains from October to March. The exceptions are the equatorial regions, which have year-round rainfall; the extreme north and south of the continent, which have only winter rainfall (Mediterranean climate); and parts of West and East Africa, where the climate is affected by the seasonal monsoon winds. The heaviest rainfall occurs in the equatorial regions. The savanna areas receive moderate rainfall. In the deserts rainfall is extremely rare, but when it does occur it usually comes in the form of heavy downpours. In the savanna and desert areas rain falls mainly in the summer months; winters are almost completely dry.
\par \tab Because of the differences in rainfall between various parts of the continent, the vegetation is also widely varied. In the areas around the equator, where it rains the year around, are dense rain forests that may contain as many as 3,000 different tree and plant species per square mile. The rain forest usually consists of three layers: a ground cover of shrubs and ferns between 6 and 10 feet (2 and 3 meters) high; a woody layer of trees and climbers reaching about 60 feet (18 meters); and a canopy of broad-leaved evergreen trees growing as high as 150 feet (46 meters).
\par \tab Between the equatorial rain forests and the great deserts to the north and south are the savanna areas. These are open grasslands scattered with trees such as acacias and baobabs. Farmers and herders live in the savanna. In the eastern and southern regions of Africa, certain savanna areas contain large numbers of wild animals. A serious problem for the people of the savanna is that the vegetation is being used up, leaving the land bare. The population in these areas has grown rapidly since the 1950s, creating a rising demand for pasture and for wood used as fuel and for construction. There is concern among conservationists that the removal of vegetation may cause the savanna to become more desertlike.
\par \tab Another problem is that the summer rains are unpredictable in amount, duration, and distribution. Occasionally the monsoons fail and drought results. Between 1970 and 1974 a drought occurred over much of the African savanna. It was particularly severe in West Africa, where it is estimated that 250,000 people and 6 million head of livestock died.
\par \tab Beyond the savanna, where the annual rainfall is less than 16 inches (40 centimeters), are the Sahara, the Namib, and the Kalahari deserts. The deserts cannot support large populations. In the Sahara there are a few nomadic herders, such as the Tuareg and the Gabbra. A number of countries extract minerals, notably petroleum in Algeria and Libya.
\par \tab While the rain forest, savanna, and deserts cover most of the continent, there are smaller areas of mountain and Mediterranean environments. The mountain environments are found in such highland areas as the Atlas Mountains and the Ethiopian Highlands. The Mediterranean climatic zones are restricted to two narrow bands, one in Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia and one in South Africa.
\par {\b Animal Life}
\par \tab Africa is the home of some of the largest and most varied wildlife populations in the world, from the rare mountain gorillas in the highlands of Rwanda and Zaire to the lemurs of Madagascar. In the savanna regions there were once vast populations of zebras, wildebeest, and antelopes and their predators--the lions, cheetahs, and leopards--as well as hyenas, jackals, rhinoceroses, hippopotamuses, and elephants.
\par \tab The wildlife of Africa has been greatly reduced in the past 50 years, partly as a result of overhunting and poaching and partly because large areas of their natural habitats have been taken over for farming. Today many species are threatened with extinction. To protect wildlife, several countries have set aside land for the exclusive use of wild animals. These areas, called national parks, have tourist facilities that permit visitors to watch the animals in a natural setting. Among the countries that have established such parks are Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Kenya, Tanzania, Zimbabwe, and South Africa. Besides providing greater protection for the animals and promoting tourism, the parks make it possible for scientists to study animal behavior in the wild.
\par \tab While scientists, tourists, and animal lovers praise the national parks, the creation of these areas has led to conflict with people who would like to use the land for other purposes. The population of Africa is growing rapidly, and where there is a shortage of land for herders and farmers, the parks are seen as depriving people of land. The conflict is a difficult one, and it appears that it could continue for decades.
\par \tab One place where this problem is particularly serious is Kenya. There the government deals with the conflict by paying money earned from tourism as compensation for the loss of land to people who live next to the parks. It also spends money on projects that will directly benefit these people. The Kenyan government hopes that if people see and share in the economic benefits of the parks, they will be more willing to accept their presence. Although many people associate Africa with big game, the most important animals are the cattle, poultry, goats, and pigs that are raised for food. There are far more domestic farm animals in Africa than there are wild ones.
\par \tab Insects are another important form of African animal life. One common ant in the southern part of Africa builds high anthills. The clay mud from these anthills is very good for making bricks for houses and farm buildings. Most insects, however, are not helpful. The Anopheles mosquito is a carrier of malaria and other diseases. The tsetse fly, which transmits sleeping sickness, has made large tracts of land in East and Central Africa uninhabitable for people or cattle. Rodents are also a problem. They eat grain and can carry diseases, such as cholera. Even the beautiful birds of Africa can be destructive to grain crops.
{\b PEOPLE AND CULTURES}
\par {\b The People}
\par \tab The people and cultures of Africa are as diverse as its geography. North of the Sahara the inhabitants are a mixture of Arab stock with indigenous peoples such as the Berbers. Egypt, Libya, and the Maghreb (Arabic for "west," comprising Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco) have strong cultural and ethnic ties with the Arabic Middle East. In many ways they are more a part of that world than of Africa south of the Sahara.
\par \tab Arab influence is also strong in East Africa, where intermarriage of Arabs with the local Bantu produced the distinctive Swahili culture, and in Western and Central Africa just south of the Sahara. Hamito-Semitic peoples are found in the Horn of Africa (Ethiopia and Somalia), as well as in Egypt, while the extreme southwestern part of the continent is the home of certain Khoisan peoples--the Bushmen and Hottentots. Most of the rest of the continent is dominated by black peoples of various ethnic groups. Anthropologists have identified almost 3,000 different ethnic groups or peoples in Africa, speaking approximately 1,000 different languages.
\par \tab During the colonial period, many Europeans went to Africa to live, and some remained permanently. Most gravitated to the possessions of their respective countries. Many people from Lebanon, Syria, India, and Palestine also immigrated to Africa. Some went to work for the colonial governments and then became involved in business and trade. Asians still live in a number of African countries and are still employed as shopkeepers and traders.
\par \tab For the most part, Europeans who planned to settle in Africa went to the southern parts of the continent. The Dutch arrived in South Africa as early as the mid-17th century, settling first in the Cape and then moving north, where they fought a series of wars with the Africans. Later, the British also settled in South Africa, principally in Natal, as well as in Northern and Southern Rhodesia (now Zambia and Zimbabwe) and in the Eastern Highlands. The Germans went to South-West Africa (Namibia) and the Portuguese to Angola and Mozambique.
\par \tab The presence of these white settler populations, which usually controlled the local government and economy, complicated the arrangements made at independence. In most parts of Africa, however, people of different races have learned to live together peacefully. Most African nations have official policies of equal rights under the law regardless of race, color, or creed. Even Zimbabwe, where the whites fought a bitter rearguard action for 15 years, became independent in 1980 under black leadership with an official multiracial policy. Most white settlers in Kenya and Zambia have been accepted by the native peoples of those two countries.
\par \tab The major exception is South Africa. Whites make up less than one fifth of the South African population. If the so-called Bantu homelands are included, the percentage is even smaller. (These black homelands have been granted independence by South Africa but are not recognized by any other country.) Nevertheless, the whites continue to maintain control over the African and Asian people in South Africa. Racial segregation has been an official government policy, but starting in 1990 many legal pillars of apartheid were toppled. Securing racial equality in South Africa has been a major aim of all other African countries. Another aim was freedom for Namibia, Africa's last colony. Accords for its independence from South Africa were finally signed in late 1988.
\par \tab {\b Traditional societies.}
\par \tab Usually foreigners refer to African people who speak the same language as members of the same "tribe." Although the family is the most important social unit in Africa, non-Africans mistakenly overemphasize the "tribe." Indeed, the use of the term is inappropriate; African peoples should instead be referred to as belonging to different societies.
\par \tab Six major types of societies developed in Africa before colonial rule in the 19th century. They were: hunting and gathering societies; cattle-herding societies; forest dwellers; fishermen; grain-raising societies; and city, or urban, societies.
\par \tab The hunting and gathering societies were those whose livelihood was based on hunting wild game. When game was scarce, they relied on roots, herbs, and berries. Few of these societies still exist, though the Khoisan of the Kalahari Desert are an example.
\par \tab Cattle-herding societies still live on the savanna, in areas where there are no cattle-killing tsetse flies. These groups have developed around the herding and trading of beef cattle. Cattle herders include, among others, the Fulani of northern Nigeria, the Masai of Kenya, and the Zulu of South Africa. They have a division of labor: men herd and hunt, while women garden and build houses. Such societies require a great deal of land for grazing cattle because there is little grass on the plain.
\par \tab The tropical forest societies related to nature in a different way. Because the land was relatively more fertile, large populations could be supported in these areas. Most often, people lived in scattered villages. This scattering prevented overuse of the land. With axes and hoes, these people cut away at the dense brush, piled and burned it, and used the ashes for fertilizer (slash-and-burn agriculture). Their crops included cassavas (plants with tuberous roots that taste like potatoes), sweet potatoes, bananas, plantains (hard, green fruits of the banana family), and some cereal grains. The villagers were bound to one another in tightly knit, dependent groups. Together they cleared the dense forest, and in times of trouble they assisted one another.
\par \tab On the coasts and along the rivers, the societies of fishermen found good sources of protein for their diet. Their life centered around fishing, usually with nets. They traded the fishes for animal skins and other necessities produced by the people of the interior forests. Some members of the village were specialists in boatbuilding or netmaking, but all the work required cooperation. The high quality of these people's diet was a major factor in their producing large and dense populations.
\par \tab The granary societies developed on the open plateau and in areas infested with tsetse flies. These people used the slash-and-burn technique to clear land in order to grow millet, sorghum, cassava, rice, and corn. Unlike the cattle herders who moved from place to place, the granary societies had more settled life-styles that required order and stability. Stable systems of land use guaranteed each family adequate land for growing grain and other crops.
\par \tab Before European colonization large urban societies had flourished for centuries in West Africa along the edge of the forest-savanna areas. Successful cattle herding and grain agriculture created agricultural surpluses that supported these societies. As the cities grew wealthy, trade became possible, and long trade routes developed southward into the Congo region (now largely Zaire) and northeastward across the Sahara to the Arab societies of the Mediterranean. Leather, ivory, gold, animal skins, feathers, timber, metal artwork, and other trade goods were sold. Bureaucracies were established to control taxes, trade, and land. Great urban centers developed in the kingdoms of Ghana, Mali, and Songhai. The influence of these urban trading societies can still be seen in Kano and Zaria in Nigeria, Ouagadougou in Burkina Faso, and Timbuktu in Mali, as well as in the lakeside and port cities that are located in Central and East Africa.
\par \tab {\b Contemporary societies.}
\par \tab Today, these different types of societies have become mixed in regions, cities, and even rural areas. Intermarriage among different groups has made it difficult to identify people according to these categories. Herding societies now have gardens, and grain-growing people keep milk and beef cattle or goats and pigs. Some traditional hunting and gathering peoples have become soldiers, traders, farmworkers, and other types of laborers.
\par \tab Once the people living in the same geographic area tended to have work and life-styles in common, but now there are many differences. People's work and standards of living vary not only according to where they live but also according to the opportunities they have had to go to school, to better themselves, and to find better jobs. As these changes occur, the people learn to identify with many different groups, not just their geographic roots. Thus, Africans, like other peoples, have many loyalties: to their family, neighborhood, school, social class, state, and nation. People in the large cities share a way of life and cultures similar to those of urban people in other parts of the world.
\par \tab Although nearly 70 percent of the people of Africa still live in rural areas, African cities and towns are growing more rapidly than those of any other continent. More than in any other continent, people in Africa are moving to urban areas. From 1950 to 1990, as much as 15 to 20 percent of some rural populations moved to cities and towns. In Zambia, for example, more than 40 percent of the population now lives in urban areas and mining towns. This is still much lower than in the United States, where about 75 percent of the people live in cities and towns. However, urbanization in African countries continues to grow.
\par \tab The establishment of independent national governments in Africa after the end of colonial rule led to the growth of cities, as well as regional and district administrative towns. New towns have arisen and old cities have expanded near mines, industries, ports, and markets. Even though the urban areas in any given African country generally contain less than one fourth of the population, they are exceedingly important. They include the centers of government and education and the headquarters of businesses and industry.
\par {\b Religions}
\par \tab Three major forms of religion exist in Africa: Christianity, Islam, and African traditional religions. The African traditional religions vary from society to society, but most share certain common beliefs and practices. For example, there is a strong tradition of a belief in animism among Africans. Most Africans who follow traditional religions believe in a supreme creator god or spirit. Other "lesser gods" or spirits work and speak through the ancestors of the community. Most traditional religions also practice rituals of celebration through dance and song that involve the entire community. The belief in a supreme being and in spirits that reveal themselves through ancestors is somewhat similar to the Roman Catholic belief in one god and many saints.
\par \tab Christianity first came to Africa, according to tradition, when the holy family of Jesus, Mary, and Joseph fled to Egypt from Bethlehem. Later, Christianity spread across North Africa through the work of early missionaries such as St. Augustine of Hippo, an African. The 6-million-member Coptic church in Egypt and the Ethiopian church are the direct heirs of that long Christian history. In sub-Saharan Africa, Christianity was introduced by Roman Catholic and Protestant missionaries from Europe and North America. Portuguese Catholic missionaries arrived as early as the late 15th century, at about the same time that Columbus sailed to North America. However, most missionaries came after 1880.
\par \tab Today, it is estimated that more than 25 percent of Africa is Christian. Christian churches are growing rapidly in the nations south of the Sahara and especially in southern Africa. Indeed, some statisticians think that by the year AD 2000 there will be more Christians in the Southern Hemisphere than in the Northern Hemisphere, which is the traditional stronghold of Christianity.
\par \tab Islam, a monotheistic religion related to the Jewish and Christian traditions, originated in Arabia in the 7th century AD when Muhammad proclaimed himself as the prophet of Allah, the one god. After the death of Muhammad in AD 632, it swept across North Africa in the wake of conquering Arab armies. Like Christianity, Islam is making many African converts. Today, Muslims, the followers of Islam, number about 146 million in all of Africa and probably constitute more than 25 percent of the population. The largest Muslim populations are found in Egypt, Nigeria, Algeria, Sudan, and Morocco, but there are Muslims as far south as Malawi, Zambia, and Mozambique. Most African Muslims belong to the Sunni branch of Islam.
\par {\b Art and Literature}
\par \tab African art is as diverse as the cultures and languages of the continent. The artistic styles of the countries of North Africa have been strongly influenced by Islamic art and are, in large measure, part of the Middle Eastern tradition. South of the Sahara there exists a rich diversity of artistic forms that Westerners have begun to appreciate only recently.
\par \tab One artistic activity common to all African cultures consists of crafts or cottage industries, where specialists make objects needed by other members of the society. In the case of textiles, these specialists include spinners, weavers, dyers of cloth, tailors, and seamstresses. Others work in leather, wood, clay, or metal. Another branch of art consists of wood and metal sculpture used in religious and cultural ceremonies. Craftsmen and craftswomen are called upon to fashion objects to be worn as part of a costume at a New Year festival, a dance in hope of the first rains, or a harvest ceremony where the guardian spirits are thanked for providing food. Many of these objects have found their way into art exhibitions and museums in Europe and North America, where they have influenced Western arts and crafts.
\par \tab Another branch of the arts can be called court art. This consists of objects made at the courts of the kingdoms that dominated many parts of Africa before colonial rule. The artists were full-time professionals maintained at the court, where they fashioned clay, wood, and metal sculptures in honor of the king, the queen mother, and various officials. Often they produced naturalistic or realistic art as they tried to capture the expression of a person. The bronze and terra-cotta sculptures of Ife and Benin City, two very old cities in Nigeria, are the best-known objects in this category. Power and authority were expressed through other arts, as well. Kente cloth, for example, was only made for the political leaders of the Ashanti state (now southern Ghana). This brightly colored cloth includes threads laced with gold.
\par \tab Every African community has its own music, which is intertwined with everyday life. Traditional music and dance form an important part of the festivals, rites, and religious celebrations of the community. Work songs accompany such activities as hoeing and threshing, often with a leader singing different phrases and the others singing the refrain, in the manner of a Western sea chantey. Although Westerners tend to associate African music with drums, a wide variety of stringed instruments, wind instruments, and vibrating instruments such as xylophones, rattles, and clappers are used. In recent years African musicians, especially in urban areas, have tended to adopt Western harmonies and instruments. On the other hand, through the music brought to America by African slaves, elements of traditional African music have entered the mainstream of the music of the West.
\par \tab Africa also has a strong literary tradition. For centuries specialists in the kingdoms composed chronicles and epics, some written and others transmitted orally from one generation to another. The epic of Sundiata, who founded the kingdom of Mali in West Africa in the 13th century, is one of the best examples of this "oral literature." Since the 19th century, many Africans have been writing poetry, novels, and a variety of nonfiction works in European languages. Chinua Achebe of Nigeria and Ngugi Wa Thiong'o of Kenya are two of Africa's most brilliant contemporary authors. These African writers--Wole Soyinka of Nigeria, Naguib Mahfouz of Egypt, and Nadine Gordimer of South Africa--have been awarded the Nobel prize for literature in 1986, 1988, and 1991, respectively.
\par \tab Contemporary art takes many other forms. One is cinema, a field in which the Senegalese filmmaker Ousmane SembΦne is especially noteworthy. African drama builds on a long tradition of dance dramas and dramatic presentations. Painters, weavers of tapestry, photographers, and a variety of musicians and dancers are at work all over the continent, often without workshops, good materials, or much recognition from the larger society. Many have achieved a new synthesis of older traditions and contemporary styles.
\par {\b Education and Health}
\par \tab A majority of the African population cannot read or write, but African governments are well aware that an educated population is necessary for economic development. Literacy drives are given a high priority in many countries, and national budgets usually allot more money to education than to military expenditures. The people, too, realize the importance of education in attaining better jobs and higher social status. Schools and colleges across the continent are crowded with students. Thousands of Africans also are enrolled in European, Asian, and North American colleges and universities. Most African governments support these overseas students.
\par \tab Even though literacy is still at a low level by Western standards, modern communications media such as television and, especially, radio have spread information about the rest of the world. Through them, Africans have learned about Europe, Japan, and North America where the standards of living for most people are higher. They hear about people whose lives are made easier through good health care, efficient transportation systems, well-equipped schools, and time-saving conveniences in their homes. Some scholars describe the resulting attitude as a "revolution of rising expectations"--the demand of increasing numbers of Africans for a quality of life that North Americans and Europeans enjoy.
\par \tab Africa has the highest death rate of any continent, reflecting the poor level of health care, sanitation, and, more basically, protein and caloric deficiencies in many African countries. The United Nations estimates the death rates in some very poor African nations at more than 18 deaths per 1,000 population, compared with approximately 11 for the world as a whole and 7 to 12 for most Western countries. An even more dramatic figure is the infant mortality rate, or number of deaths of infants under one year of age per 1,000 live births. In the late 1980s this was estimated at more than 100 for many less developed African nations, compared with less than 10 in the West. Expectation of life at birth in these countries ranges between about 40 and 50 years of age; in the United States it is over 70. Even so, the population of Africa is growing rapidly because of extremely high birthrates and the introduction of modern medical treatment and techniques.
\par \tab Because much of Africa is near the equator, large areas suffer from fatal or debilitating tropical diseases such as malaria, sleeping sickness, schistosomiasis, and river blindness, or onchoceriasis. Many of these diseases are caused by parasites that are extremely difficult to eradicate. Malaria, for example, is caused by a protozoan that is transmitted to humans by the bite of the female Anopheles mosquito. Despite a long and expensive World Health Organization campaign to exterminate the mosquito carrier, the disease has not been eliminated; in some areas it appears to be staging a comeback.
\par \tab The blood fluke that causes schistosomiasis, a painful and debilitating disease that afflicts millions in the tropics, spends part of its life cycle in certain species of freshwater snail. Ironically, the snails and the disease have been introduced into previously free areas--including parts of Egypt and Ghana--by irrigation projects that were meant to better the lot of the people. Conquering these diseases requires vast sums of money and immense efforts in medical research and education in better hygiene.
\par \tab Another cause of poor health in Africa is malnutrition. Large parts of the continent, especially marginal areas such as the region just south of the Sahara, are subject to crop failures resulting from droughts, locust plagues, and other natural disasters. Wars and revolutions have driven refugees into countries where the people have difficulty feeding themselves, much less the newcomers. One of the most severe health problems in Africa in the late 20th century was the prevalence of Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) throughout the population. By 1991 two thirds of the world's AIDS cases were in Africa.
\par \tab As with education, the African governments recognize these problems, and national budgets typically reflect high expenditures on health care. In addition to training doctors and nurses and building hospitals and clinics, some governments are experimenting with the use of paramedical helpers who can provide everyday health care and teach the people improved methods of sanitation and hygiene. Traditional medicines, utilizing native plants and herbs, are being examined for possible useful properties. Unfortunately, resources for health care are frequently inadequate.
{\b ECONOMY}
\par \tab Because most African nations have inherited economic problems from the colonial period and because the prices for African products on world markets have been low, the governments of these nations are finding it very difficult to fulfill the hopes and demands of their people. Although living standards have improved since independence, they are still below expectations.
\par \tab At the time of independence, many African countries relied on a single crop or mineral to export for sale in other countries, a pattern that had been encouraged by the colonial powers. This was their only source of national income, and as a result they were highly exposed to the fluctuations of international prices for their products. Since independence, African governments have tried to diversify their exports so their income does not depend on just one item. They also have begun to sell their goods to more countries to avoid being dependent on only one foreign buyer.
\par \tab Senegal is an example of a country that has been relatively successful in changing its export pattern. At the time of independence in 1960, peanut products made up 83 percent of Senegal's exports and France bought more than three fourths of Senegal's produce. Three decades later peanuts had been reduced to about 25 percent of exports and France's portion of the market was less than a third of the total. Not all countries have done as well, and trade in a single product remains a problem for certain countries, among them Zambia (copper), The Gambia (peanuts), and Mauritius (sugar).
\par {\b Agriculture}
\par \tab Even though Africa is wealthy in minerals and other raw materials, agriculture continues to be the economic base of life for most people. Since independence, African farmers have greatly increased the cultivation of cash crops, such as cacao, coffee, tea, and bananas, for export. However, small-scale or subsistence farming to meet the daily needs of the family continues to be the most common rural life-style. Sixty percent of Africa's farmlands and nearly three fourths of the working population are involved in subsistence agriculture.
\par \tab The biggest problem facing Africa today is the failure of agricultural production to keep pace with the very rapid increase in population. Food production per person declined in most African countries, and even in Nigeria, Africa's most populous and resource-rich nation, the growth in population outpaces the growth in agricultural output.
\par \tab To overcome the food crisis, African governments must give more attention to the rural areas. Some governments have recognized this and have put special emphasis on agriculture, generally with positive results; Senegal, C⌠te d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast), Tanzania, and Malawi are examples. On the other hand, at one time Nigeria spent only 1 percent of the government budget on agriculture. African governments also require cooperation from the rest of the global community to help keep down the costs of farm equipment, fertilizers, and imported oil, all needed to improve food production.
\par \tab In the forest areas of Africa, subsistence farming is carried out under a form of land use known as shifting agriculture. A farmer clears a plot in the forest, grows crops such as bananas and yams until the soil fertility declines, then abandons the area to let the soil recover (lie fallow), and moves on to a new plot. Where population growth is rapid, the land often is not left fallow long enough to allow the soil to regain its fertility.
\par \tab Over the years large areas of forest have been cleared by this process. Land has also been cleared for plantation crops, such as rubber in Liberia, cacao in Ghana, and oil palm in C⌠te d'Ivoire.
\par \tab Farmers can cultivate crops in the wetter parts of the savanna. They grow grains such as millet, sorghum, and corn (maize), often in the same field as other crops such as beans, cassava, and sweet potatoes. Many also produce crops for sale, such as cotton, peanuts, and soybeans. These crops must be grown during the short rainy season, but in some areas along rivers it has been possible to build irrigation projects that allow farmers to grow crops over a longer period of time.
\par \tab Herders also live in the savanna, moving their herds of camels, cattle, sheep, and goats from place to place to find water and pasture. During the dry season they go to the hills, swamps, and river valleys that have water and grasses all year round. When the rains arrive, the herders spread out over the savanna, grazing their herds on the grasses and shrubs that grow during the wet season.
\par {\b Forestry and Fishing}
\par \tab Lumbering is an important activity in the forest areas. Countries such as Gabon, Ghana, Liberia, and C⌠te d'Ivoire have lumbering industries that exploit such valuable tree species as mahogany. Together with agriculture and mining, lumbering has contributed to the deforestation that is becoming a serious problem in some areas. Removal of the vegetation cover increases soil erosion, ultimately reducing agricultural productivity.
\par \tab The long coastline and large number of rivers and lakes provide Africa with ample fish resources. Fishes are caught by spear and net from dugout canoes, from motorboats, and in some countries such as Senegal and Morocco by fleets of trawlers. Fish farming is being developed in low-lying areas of the savanna where water can be retained for the entire year.
\par \tab Among African nations, South Africa, Nigeria, Tanzania, Namibia, Senegal, Morocco, Ghana, and Uganda account for the greatest catches, but even larger amounts are caught by Japan, Russia, and the United States fishing in African waters. Fishing agreements, such as that between Kenya and Japan, regulate this exploitation of Africa's fishing grounds. To help protect African waters, proposals have been made to extend territorial waters from 12 to 200 miles (19 to 320 kilometers) offshore and to strengthen national naval forces to control illegal fishing.
\par {\b Mining}
\par \tab Africa has tremendous mineral wealth. Many different minerals are found in large deposits of high quality. The continent produces 70 percent of the world's diamonds (Zaire, South Africa, Botswana, Namibia, Ghana, Angola), 55 percent of its gold (South Africa, Ghana, Zimbabwe, Zaire), and at least 25 percent of its chromite for hardening steel (South Africa, Zimbabwe), phosphate for fertilizer (Morocco, Tunisia, South Africa), beryllium for hardening copper or nickel (Rwanda, Zimbabwe, Mozambique), and copper (Zambia, Zaire, South Africa). It is also an important producer of oil (Nigeria, Libya, Algeria, Egypt), uranium (South Africa, Namibia, Niger, Gabon), tin (Zaire, South Africa, Nigeria), and iron ore (South Africa, Liberia, Mauritania, Algeria). Cobalt is mined in Zaire, Zambia, and Morocco and bauxite in Guinea, Sierra Leone, and Ghana. Almost all of the mining and petroleum operations are managed by foreigners, though African governments are committed to increasing their share of ownership.
\par {\b Manufacturing}
\par \tab At independence, most African countries had little industry. Under colonial rule, African raw materials were exported to Europe to be manufactured into finished goods, some of which were exported back to Africa and sold at very high prices. To change this pattern, many African leaders have encouraged industrial expansion in their countries so that they will not need to depend on imported textiles, automobile tires, canned goods, and other manufactured products. But economic independence is often more difficult to achieve than political independence. Despite some successes in industrial expansion, manufacturing still accounts for only a small fraction of the total economic activity in most countries.
\par \tab Generally, manufacturing is concentrated in the areas of textiles, building materials, and the processing of fish, fruits, and other agricultural crops. Most of these industries are owned by foreign companies. However, some African private businesses and governments have become partners with foreign businesses in building new enterprises.
\par {\b Africanization}
\par \tab As in the case of mining, African governments are committed to becoming more involved in "Africanizing" their countries' businesses and industry. One thing that Africanization does is place African people in leadership positions in these enterprises. Thus, for example, Zambian businessmen and women would make decisions affecting other Zambians, rather than leaving those decisions to foreigners who may not even consider Zambia their home. The East African countries of Kenya and Tanzania have taken the lead in limiting the role and power of foreigners in their economies. The effects of this drive on African living standards have been mixed. Africanization in some countries, such as Kenya and Nigeria, has made a few people very rich while the others remain poor. In other countries, such as Angola and Tanzania, most people are better off than before, but the total increase in economic development has been small.
\par \tab The sharp increases in the world price of oil that began in the 1970s created serious problems for oil-importing African countries seeking to expand their industrial base. However, the countries of Africa possess a tremendous potential source of energy in the hydroelectric power of their many rivers, and as oil prices rise, African nations are actively exploiting hydroelectric power. Some rivers, like the Nile, Congo, and Niger, are very long and are navigable over much of the interior but not at the coast. While this limits their use as transport links to the coast, they have the potential to produce 23 percent of the world's hydroelectric power. At present only about 2 percent is used. Among the largest hydroelectric dams are the Kariba Dam on the Zambezi River between Zambia and Zimbabwe, the Aswan High Dam on the Nile in Egypt, the Akosombo Dam on the Volta River in Ghana, and Cabora Bassa Dam in Mozambique.
\par {\b Transportation and Communications}
\par \tab Africa had extensive transportation networks long before the colonial period. Camel caravans crossed the Sahara carrying goods between Africa and Europe. In eastern and southern Africa traders brought goods to the coast, where they were exchanged for products brought by Arab traders from as far away as China. Boats carried trade goods on the major rivers.
\par \tab The colonial period brought major changes in the transportation systems of the continent, in terms of both technology and the pattern of routes. Since 1900 railways have been built and roads improved to allow motor transport. Steamboats are found on rivers and lakes, and aircraft fly internationally.
\par \tab These modern modes of transport required large investments. They were justified by the colonial powers as a means to exploit the mineral and agricultural resources of Africa. Since independence, few changes have been made in the old transportation systems.
\par \tab The transportation systems within most African countries tend to be treelike, with a major rail line or road fed by a few branches. These routes were built to connect mines and plantations with the coast, so minerals and crops could be exported to the colonial country. Only a few countries have integrated systems designed for people rather than goods.
\par \tab The countries that do not have direct access to the sea require road and rail links to a port if they are to engage in trade. Some landlocked countries do have good transportation systems. These are the countries whose mineral or agricultural resources were valuable enough to make a heavy investment in transport facilities worthwhile for the colonial powers. Countries without such resources were neglected, however. Many of these countries are among the poorest in the world, and their lack of transportation facilities and landlocked positions contribute to their poverty.
\par \tab Another consequence of the colonial transportation pattern is that communications among African countries are not well developed. The highest priority was given to linking areas that produced export goods with the port in each country. Furthermore, the colonial powers themselves were often at odds with one another, and they had no interest in improving communications between their own colonies and those of rival powers. This is changing to some extent. New railroads have been built, such as the Tanzam Railway between Tanzania and Zambia, and others are proposed between Cameroon and Chad and between Benin and Niger. Transcontinental highways from Cairo to the Cape of Good Hope and from Kenya to Nigeria are under construction. Communications among African nations are being steadily improved, even though the systems of most of the countries are still oriented toward Europe.
\par \tab Improved transportation and communications are important if Africa is to achieve a measure of unity and integration in its economic, social, and political development. Regional economic associations among African countries exist, and their continued success depends to a large degree on better communications.
{\b INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS}
\par \tab Contemporary Africa is marked by a great variety of political and economic systems. There are, however, certain common themes that most African countries share. Many of these arise from the fact that almost all of the African countries have been independent from European colonial rule only since the 1960s or early 1970s. The arrival of the Europeans in Africa, and the political and economic ideas they brought with them, deeply affected the way of life of the local inhabitants and greatly influenced the thinking of important segments of the African population. The colonial legacy has created serious problems for the independent African governments.
\par {\b The Colonial Legacy}
\par \tab Perhaps the most important legacy of colonialism is the division of Africa into more than 50 states whose boundaries were set without regard for where the people lived or how they organized their own political divisions. The present boundaries often divide single African ethnic communities among two or more nation-states. For example, although most of the Somali people live in Somalia, there are significant minorities in Kenya and Ethiopia, many of whom would like to become citizens of Somalia. This has led to tension, and on occasion to border warfare, among Kenyan, Ethiopian, and Somali governments. Similarly, the Bakongo people of central Africa were colonized by three different European powers--Belgium, Portugal, and France--and now live in three different independent African nations--Zaire, Angola, and the Congo.
\par \tab A second important legacy of colonialism was its effect on the economic life of the African people. All the colonial systems disrupted existing economic patterns, though the extent of the disruption varied from area to area. The change from food-crop to cash-crop production is an example. Colonialism also linked Africa economically to the European colonial powers. The benefits of these new patterns usually went to the European countries rather than to the African colonies. This history of economic exploitation has played an important role in shaping the way independent African governments have attempted to develop their own economies. Some countries, such as C⌠te d'Ivoire, have built on the export-oriented economic base created by colonial rule. Others, such as Tanzania, have attempted to redirect their economies away from the production of exports and toward producing crops and goods needed by the Tanzanian people. Julius Nyerere, the first president of Tanzania, described this approach as "Self-Reliance."
\par \tab The third important legacy of colonialism was the introduction of ideas of European racial and cultural superiority. The colonial powers attempted to convince Africans that effective participation in the modern world required them to discard their own identities and cultures and become more like Europeans. Schools in colonial Africa taught African children about European history and European literature, while neglecting the history and cultural heritage of Africa itself.
\par \tab The experience of colonialism in Africa, as in the 13 American Colonies, also generated a powerful desire among the colonized to be free. This feeling was strengthened after thousands of African soldiers fought for France and Britain in World Wars I and II. They returned home with a renewed spirit of freedom and desire to build independent countries that would take their proper place among the global community of nations. While the colonial authorities first resisted these notions, by the late 1950s they had become too strong to be denied.
\par {\b Government}
\par \tab {\b European political systems.}
\par \tab At independence, the new African nations inherited European forms of government. Most former British colonies had a parliamentary system that included a legislature and competing political parties. The head of government was a prime minister chosen by the legislature rather than directly by the people, and the prime minister and his Cabinet of ministers could be dismissed by the legislature. Former French colonies generally inherited governments that were modeled on the French presidential system. These countries also had political parties competing for legislative office, but the president was elected directly by the people, as is the case in France. By and large, these European-style political systems have not lasted. In the decades after 1960, when most of Africa became independent, African countries have moved away from the forms of government left by the Europeans, and their political systems have become more diverse.
\par \tab One noteworthy feature of the African political scene has been the importance of individual political leaders, "fathers" of their countries, like Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana, Nyerere of Tanzania, and Jomo Kenyatta of Kenya. As the African countries gained independence, their leaders felt that they themselves could become symbols that would bring together the various regions and peoples and create a sense of nationhood and loyalty. They proposed strong leadership to achieve national unity and to begin the difficult tasks of economic and social development. In order to be successful, however, the new national leaders had to recognize the continuing strength of the traditional African political systems. The authority of the traditional leaders, especially over the rural population, had not been destroyed by colonial rule. Some of the new leaders, like Nyerere and President FΘlix Houphouδt-Boigny of C⌠te d'Ivoire, worked with them successfully. President Nkrumah of Ghana and President Milton Obote of Uganda, on the other hand, failed to take them into account. Their governments lost support and were overthrown.
\par \tab {\b One-party states.}
\par \tab Another important general feature of African political life has been the emergence of states with only one political party. At the time of independence, most African governments had competitive party systems, but the parties usually did not function as they do in Europe and the United States. African political parties were often based on regional or ethnic loyalties, and this led to conflict and instability rather than to compromise and stability. In response, many African countries attempted to create broad-based, single-party political systems in order to build a strong basis for national unity and development. Some single-party states became authoritarian with no political choice, but others--notably Tanzania, Mozambique, Kenya, and Zambia--encouraged political competition and choice.
\par \tab Eventually, some countries became disillusioned with single-party systems and military governments and began experimenting with a return to competitive party politics. These included Senegal, Sierra Leone, Nigeria, and Uganda. Starting in 1990 the call to multiparty democracy was heard in more and more countries, including Benin, Algeria, and Zambia.
\par \tab {\b Military governments.}
\par \tab Until the early 1990s in most African countries, political power has become more centralized at the top, and the influence of representative legislatures had decreased. However, as nonmilitary or civilian leaders centralized their authority and attempted to build single-party states, their governments often became more fragile. These leaders sought help from the military. In many cases, the military became so discouraged with civilian government that they took over political power directly. In a one-year period during the mid-1960s, military coups that overthrew civilian governments were especially evident. They occurred in eight African countries, including the most populous nation, Nigeria. There are many reasons why African military leaders lost confidence in civilian governments and why military intervention was accepted by the people. Some civilian governments did not manage economic development well, and in many cases political corruption had been widespread, causing unrest and rebellion. In general, however, the governments that came to power in military takeovers or "coups" did not prove any better at the tasks of governing than the civilian governments they replaced. Military regimes also were usually reluctant to step down from power, though there have been several exceptions. Most notably, Nigeria returned to civilian rule within a democratic political framework.
\par \tab One important cause of political instability in Africa is the inability of governments to meet the rapidly growing demands for more schools, roads, hospitals, and other expensive services that were denied by the colonial powers. The people thought that political freedom would bring quick changes in their standard of living. When such hopes are not fulfilled, these people lose faith in their government.
\par {\b Regional and Continental Organizations}
\par \tab Many Africans have long dreamed of unifying their continent into a giant "United States of Africa." After World War II, along with the rise of nationalism in colonial territories, there emerged a continent-wide Pan-African movement. While the dream of a United States of Africa remains distant, African governments have participated in several international and regional organizations designed to promote African cooperation and unity.
\par \tab The most important of these organizations is the Organization of African Unity (OAU), founded in 1963. The goals of the OAU are to promote unity and solidarity among African states; coordinate efforts to improve living standards; defend the territorial integrity and independence of African states; eradicate all forms of colonialism; and promote international cooperation in keeping with the United Nations Charter. In 1991 the OAU adopted a 51-nation treaty to establish the African Economic Community. The OAU has played an important role in the struggle to end colonialism and racial domination in southern Africa and has been generally successful in settling disputes between African nations.
\par \tab African governments also have established regional organizations for economic and political cooperation. In recent years these organizations have achieved some success in strengthening the economic and political positions of their members. The two most important regional organizations in Africa today are the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) and the Southern African Development Coordination Conference (SADCC).
\par \tab ECOWAS is comprised of 16 West African nations that are trying to expand trade and economic cooperation among the member countries and to promote self-reliance. Currently, only 10 percent of West African trade is within the region. The ECOWAS countries encompass a vast area with almost 150 million people and a wide range of agricultural, mineral, and petroleum resources. Their chances of developing trade within the region are good.
\par \tab SADCC is comprised of nine independent African-ruled countries in southern Africa. SADCC has two major goals: to expand and coordinate the economic and transportation ties among member countries and to decrease the power and influence of white-ruled South Africa within the region. Both ECOWAS and SADCC have sought and received support from non-African nations, including the United States, to assist them in their efforts at regional economic and political development.
{\b HISTORY}
\par \tab It has been generally agreed that the first human beings evolved on the African continent more than one million years ago. Archaeological excavations at various sites in eastern and southern Africa have produced evidence for this theory. If this is correct, all human history began with a series of migrations from Africa to other world regions.
\par \tab Settled agriculture and iron working are two important developments in human history. The first known instance of settled agriculture was in the Middle East around 7000 BC, although Africans in various regions also were experimenting with wild plants at about the same time. These Africans adapted Middle Eastern agricultural techniques to the African context and produced local food crops.
\par \tab Iron working also has a long history on the African continent. Archaeologists have found iron objects in Nigeria that were constructed by the people of Nok more than two thousand years ago. Agricultural tools made of iron helped African societies bring more land into cultivation and, at the same time, expand the process of agricultural experimentation.
\par \tab Agricultural production in Africa has been dominated by people organized into small groups or societies. The Africans in these small societies usually identified themselves as the descendants of an important ancestor, often the leader of a migration. These societies treated everyone equally, although special respect was shown to elders who were considered wise and experienced leaders of the community. Elders were assisted by others in governing the community; together they discussed the common problems of the people and sought solutions that would bring the most good to the greatest number. The purpose of their decisions was to help the community remain peaceful and prosperous. Under this system everyone in the community shared in the wealth as well as the hardships of their common life.
\par \tab Most people in these societies were engaged in agricultural production. After the harvest season, people had time to produce useful household objects, such as kitchen utensils, and to practice other arts and crafts. Societies that had a particularly skillful group of ironsmiths or other specialized craftsmen traded their products to societies that specialized in other products. Such local systems of trade and specialization developed in several regions. If an area had a particularly valuable resource, such as fertile land or rich iron deposits, a small chiefdom or state often emerged to control that resource.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was prepared by the African Studies Center, Michigan State University under the direction of Dr. David Wiley and Marylee Crofts.
\par \tab {\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR AFRICA}
\par \tab {\b Books for Children}
\par \tab Aardema, Verna. Bimwili and the Zimwi: A Tale from Zanzibar (Dial, 1988).
\par \tab Lewin, Arthur. Africa Is Not a Country--It's a Continent! (Clarendon, 1990).
\par \tab Linfield, Esther. The Secret of the Mountain (Greenwillow, 1986).
\par \tab Poland, Marguerite. The Mantis and the Moon: Stories for the Children of Africa (Ohio Univ. Press, 1983.)
\par \tab Stevenson, William. The Bushbabies (Peter Smith, 1984).
\par \tab {\b Books for Young Adults}
\par \tab Addison, John. Traditional Africa (Greenhaven, 1980).
\par \tab Ayittey, G.B.N. Africa Betrayed (St. Martin's, 1992).
\par \tab Bentley, Judith. Archbishop Tutu of South Africa (Enslow, 1988).
\par \tab Boamah-Wiafe, Daniel. Africa Today: Its Peoples and Contemporary Cultures, 2nd ed. (Kendall-Hunt, 1988).
\par \tab Dinesen, Isak. Isak Dinesen's Africa: Images of the Wild Continent from the Writer's Life and Words (Harrison House, 1987).
\par \tab Fetner, P.J. The African Safari (St. Martin's, 1987).
\par \tab Harden, Blaine. Africa: Dispatches from a Fragile Continent (Norton, 1990).
\par \tab Harris, E.L. Native Stranger: A Black American's Journey into the Heart of Africa (Simon & Schuster, 1992).
\par \tab Lye, Keith. Africa (Gloucester Press, 1987).
\par \tab Rowell, Trevor. The Scramble for Africa (B.T. Batsford, 1986).
\par \tab Vail, J.J. Nelson and Winnie Mandela (Chelsea House, 1989).\par \tab The tiny Republic of Albania is located on the Balkan Peninsula. It is bordered on the south by Greece and on the north by Yugoslavia. The Adriatic Sea washes its western shore. Albania became a Communist state in 1946. In succeeding decades it became the poorest country of Europe. In the 1990s, like its Eastern European neighbors, it rejected Communism. The Communist party itself was voted out of office in March 1992.
\par \tab Albania is the smallest country on the Balkan Peninsula, with an area of only 11,100 square miles (28,749 square kilometers). The country is largely mountainous, with some peaks reaching over 8,000 feet (2,500 meters) in height. The highest mountain is Korab at 9,026 feet (2,751 meters). The only lowland area, which is located along the coast, occupies about a quarter of the total area of the country and contains about half the population.
\par \tab The country has a Mediterranean climate, with hot, dry summers and mild, wet winters. The seasonal nature of the rainfall affects the flow of the rivers. In winter they become torrents and cause severe flooding, while in summer they are reduced to mere trickles. The longest river is the Drin, which begins in Yugoslavia and flows for 174 miles (280 kilometers) through northern Albania. The major rivers of the south are the Shkumbin, the Mat, and the Vijosδ.
\par \tab Soils in general are poor, and even in the plains they are infertile and poorly drained. Only about 20 percent of the country's area is used for farming.
\par {\b Plant and Animal Life}
\par \tab Much of Albania was once forested, but little of the original vegetation remains, due to centuries of clearing and livestock grazing; many areas are covered with only bushes and scrub. The remaining forests in the mountains are mainly of oak, beech, and pine. Mountain meadows are found above the timberline. Reforestation is a primary government goal.
\par \tab Because hunting was unrestricted, few wild animals remain in Albania except in the remote forests. Among the animals are wolves, wild hogs, bears, deer, and a few chamois (small goatlike antelopes). Wild birds are plentiful, however. Hunting laws to preserve the country's wildlife have now been enacted.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab The people of Albania belong to two major groups, the Ghegs, to the north of the Shkumbin River, and the Tosks, to the south. Each group speaks its own dialect of the Albanian language. In 1972 a unified literary (written) language was created, incorporating elements of both dialects. Minority groups are small and consist mainly of Gypsies, some Greeks in the south, and the Vlachs, a Romanian-speaking people. These groups together make up only about 3 percent of the population.
\par \tab Under the Communist regime religion was discouraged and Albania became officially an atheistic nation, but religion-based cultural differences remain among the population. Of those professing a faith the most numerous are Muslim, Roman Catholic, and Greek Orthodox.
\par \tab Albania has the smallest population of the Balkan countries. Only about 3.3 million people live there. However, in the late 1980s Albania had the highest rate of population increase of any European country--about 2 percent per year. The Albanian people are traditionally divided into clans or tribes, each of which traces its ancestry back to a single individual. Disputes or crimes involving other clans often resulted in blood feuds between males in the clans.
\par \tab As a result of almost five centuries of Turkish rule the Albanians adopted a way of life (including clothing, building styles, and art forms) which was similar to that of western Asia. This was especially true of the Muslim population. In the late 20th century, however, the way of life has become increasingly Western in style.
\par \tab About two thirds of the population live in rural areas, with the rest in a few cities that lie mainly in the lowlands. The largest city is the capital, Tiranδ, with more than 200,000 inhabitants. Durrδs has about 83,000 inhabitants, while Vlorδ, Shkodδr, Korτδ and Elbasan are smaller. Many of these cities are of ancient origin, and most have architectural features that reveal Turkish influence.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab The Albanian economy is one of the poorest in Europe. It relies largely on agriculture. When the Communists took control after World War II, they abolished private land ownership. About 80 percent of agricultural land was put into cooperatives and the rest was farmed directly by the state.
\par \tab The Albanians were traditionally herders who took their herds of sheep and goats to mountain pastures during summer. Herding is still important, but at present crops account for two thirds of the farm products. The chief grain crop is wheat, followed closely by corn (maize). Other important farm products include rice, cotton, sugar beets, potatoes, vegetables, and fodder crops. The warm summers permit the growing of olives, grapes, tobacco, and citrus fruits.
\par \tab Albania has substantial reserves of several industrial minerals. There is sufficient oil to meet the country's requirements and permit some export. A pipeline leads from the oil fields at Qytet Stalin to the port of Vlorδ, and the nation also has several refineries. Some natural gas is produced. There are scattered deposits of lignite (brown coal) suitable for electric-power production. Most of the electric power of the country is, however, obtained from hydroelectric-power stations. Among metallic minerals chromite is the most important and is exported in substantial quantities. Other exports of Albania include copper, iron ore, asphalt, tobacco, fruit and vegetables, and wine. Imports are restricted generally to the country's equipment requirements.
\par \tab The development of industry, especially oil and chemicals, is being given the highest priority in Albania. A small iron and steel plant at Elbasan opened in 1976, and there are several small chemical plants. Large textile combines operate at Tiranδ and Berat.
\par {\b Transportation, Communication, and Education}
\par \tab The first railroad line in Albania was built in 1948 linking Tiranδ with Durrδs on the coast and Elbasan in the interior. The main ports are Durrδs, Vlorδ, Shδngjin, and Sarandδ.
\par \tab Albania has a somewhat limited telephone network. There is a fairly extensive broadcasting service, however, and television programming began in 1971. Newspaper circulation is quite limited. There is a state university at Tiranδ.
\par {\b Government}
\par \tab From 1946 until 1990 political power rested entirely in the hands of Albania's Labor (Communist) party. The party was the government, and it made all decisions about social, economic, political, and religious matters. Multiparty rule began and a transitional constitution was adopted in 1991, after the fall of Communism in the rest of Eastern Europe. There are a People's Assembly and a Presidential Council, respectively the highest legislative and executive bodies in the country.
\par {\b History}
\par \tab Before the Roman invasion in the 2nd century BC, the present territory of Albania was inhabited by the Illyrians, an Indo-European people. After the collapse of the Roman Empire in the west, Albania first came under the control of the Byzantine Empire and later of Bulgaria and Serbia.
\par \tab When the Ottoman Turks invaded the Balkans in the late 14th century, Albania became part of the Ottoman Empire. In spite of the fierce resistance of the Albanians, led by their national hero Skanderbeg, the Turks ruled the country for almost 500 years. Albania did not gain its independence from the Turks until 1912. At that time, however, the country was too weak to resist the pressures exerted by the major European powers, which awarded to Serbia a large area with an Albanian population.
\par \tab During World War I Albania was occupied by the warring powers, including Italy. Although these troops ultimately withdrew, the Italians retained an interest in the country. In 1922 Ahmed Bey Zogu became the premier. He then became president, and in 1928 he declared himself King Zog I. After the Italians invaded in April 1939, Zog fled the country.
\par \tab During World War II the country was also occupied by the Germans. When they retreated in 1944, a leader of the Communist-led resistance movement, Enver Hoxha, became head of the Albanian government. In 1946 a people's republic was declared; private land was confiscated and industry nationalized. After the war Yugoslavia virtually controlled Albania. When Yugoslavia left the Soviet bloc in 1948, Albania broke its ties with that country and became an ally of the Soviet Union, joining the Warsaw Pact in 1955. Albania broke with the Soviet Union and became an ally of China in 1961; these ties to China were severed in 1978 but were renewed in 1991.
\par \tab At his death in 1985 Hoxha was the longest-serving head of a Communist country. Under his successor, Ramiz Alia, Albania slowly emerged from the isolation that had marked the Hoxha era. Diplomatic relations were established with many countries, and Albania began to take an active role in Balkan affairs. In December 1990 the Democratic party was established, and in March 1991 the first multiparty elections in 68 years were held. A non-Communist multiparty regime took control in June 1991 as a result of a successful strike, but amid nationwide food shortages and general inefficiency this regime fell in December 1991. Thousands of Albanian refugees fled to Italy in August 1991, but only a handful were allowed to remain there. In April 1992 Sali Berisha, a heart surgeon, was elected Albania's first non-Communist president since World War II.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab Ian Matley\par \tab Situated on the north coast of Africa, Algeria is the second largest country of the continent. It covers more than 900,000 square miles (2,300,000 square kilometers), about four fifths of which is in the Sahara Desert. The country's Mediterranean coastline extends about 620 miles (1,000 kilometers). Algeria is bordered by Tunisia, Libya, Niger, Mali, Mauritania, Western Sahara, and Morocco.
\par \tab Eighty percent of Algeria's inhabitants live in the agricultural lands and cities of the north, called the Tell. An independent republic since it won freedom from France in 1962, Algeria has links to Europe across the Mediterranean Sea and to southern Africa via the Sahara. History, language, and the Muslim religion make the country a part of the Arab world.
\par \tab Northern Algeria is divided into five distinctive physical regions. Three are in the far north: the arable coastal strip, the plains just to the south, and the Tell Atlas Mountains running east and west along the plains. Farther south, the High Plateaus form another east-west barrier. The fifth region is the Saharan Atlas Mountains, which extend into the desert.
\par \tab The region of the Tell Atlas Mountains is geologically young and unstable, and earthquakes are common. It has a Mediterranean climate, with warm, wet winters and hot, dry summers. Rainfall averages 28 inches (71 centimeters); mean temperatures range from 50░ F (10░ C) in January to 80░ F (27░ C) in July. Hot, dry winds from the Sahara intensify summer drought, which may severely damage crops.
\par \tab The semiarid lands of the High Plateaus area form a wide, almost featureless plain in the southern part of the country. Annual rainfall ranges from 16 inches (41 centimeters) in the north to 8 inches (20 centimeters) in the south. Temperatures range from 48░ F (9░ C) in January to 80░ F in July. The High Plateaus region has no permanent streams.
\par \tab The Saharan Atlas Mountains are rugged and vegetation is sparse. The northern edge of the mountains receives about 8 inches of rain yearly. Farther south, precipitation decreases.
\par \tab The arid Sahara region consists of several large, saucer-shaped basins, plateaus, and highlands. Some of the basins contain extensive fields of sand, called ergs. To the south are large heavily eroded volcanic massifs (mountain blocks). The Ahaggar is the largest, with Algeria's highest peak, Mount Tahat, at 9,573 feet (2,918 meters). At the desert's northern edge, the annual rainfall is about 7 inches (18 centimeters). Average temperatures range from 45░ F (7░ C) in January to 85░ F (29░ C) in July. The central Sahara has less than 1 inch (2.5 centimeters) of rainfall annually; average temperatures range from 57░ F (14░ C) in January to 99░ F (37░ C) in July.
\par {\b Plant and Animal Life}
\par \tab Plant and animal life relate to the patterns of rainfall. The amount of rainfall increases from west to east but decreases from north to south. The Saharan Atlas Mountains roughly divide the country into two principal agricultural and vegetation zones. North of the mountains, dry farming is possible, and fine forests and abundant vegetation are found. Cork oaks grow, along with grapes, olives, citrus fruits, grain, tobacco, and cotton. Other trees include Aleppo pines, evergreen oaks, and thugas. To the south, vegetation common to steppe regions, including esparto grass or wormwood, appears. Some plants grow quickly after a rain and disappear almost at once. Grasses, stunted shrubs, athels, acacia, jujube trees, and other plants can survive despite meager rainfalls.
\par \tab Vegetation on the High Plateaus consists mainly of scattered bushes and clumps of grasses. Seasonal pastures are used for grazing livestock. Depending on the amount of rainfall, the cultivation of grain crops may be possible. In 1975 the government began to plant a belt of trees just south of the Saharan Atlas chain. Some 930 miles (1,500 kilometers) long, it was designed to keep the desert from drifting northward.
\par \tab Elephants, hippopotamuses, and crocodiles once lived in Algeria. Today, few species are found, mainly because the sparse vegetation will not support diverse animal life. Hyenas and jackals, monkeys, hawks, and desert snakes are native to the region; so are some antelope, gazelles, hares, jerboa, and wild boars.
\par {\b The People}
\par \tab Two ethnic strains, the Arab and the Berber, predominate in Algeria. Many of the country's inhabitants are of mixed Arab and Berber descent. The Berbers originally lived in the region and today form an important element of the population; the Arabs came later, during the 600s, and today make up about 90 percent of the population.
\par \tab Islam, the religion of the Muslims, helps to unify Algeria's peoples. About 99 percent of the population is Muslim; the great majority belongs to the Sunni sect of Islam. Most of the others are Roman Catholics of French descent.
\par \tab Both Berber and Arabic are spoken in Algeria. But most Berbers also speak Arabic, the official language. Even though most of the French residents left after 1962, French continued to be used as a second lan-guage. Efforts have been made to increase the use of Arabic. At the same time the Berbers have struggled to keep their own language and culture.
\par \tab Algeria's peoples follow ways of life that vary from region to region. In the capital, Algiers, and other cities many people maintain a modern lifestyle. In the northern plains, farmers lead simple lives while seminomadic and nomadic groups range the highlands and deserts.
\par \tab In 1968 the National Institute of Music began programs to encourage traditional music and dances and preserve folklore. Many of these forms developed from Arabian and Spanish Andalusian styles. The Algerian National Theater has presented the Arabic-language works of Algerian playwrights. In painting, the themes of revolution and socialism have been widely used. Craft workers produce inlaid furniture, rugs, earthenware, camel-skin products, jewelry, and a variety of other goods.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab The Algerian government controls the nation's economy. Since independence, Algeria has nationalized most foreign-owned companies and properties. The government also runs all heavy industry and controls the production and distribution of petroleum, natural gas, and minerals.
\par \tab Most Algerians work in agriculture, but less than 5 percent of the arable land is permanently cultivated. On the coastal plains, cereal grains, grapes, olives, and citrus fruits are the principal crops. Cereal growing and livestock herding take place in the Tell Atlas and the High Plateaus. Permanent meadows and pastures support goats, sheep, and cattle.
\par \tab The Algerian government has enacted several land-reform programs since independence. In 1971, for example, large farms were redistributed to landless peasants who were organized into agricultural cooperatives. The government also nationalized 6.7 million acres (2.7 million hectares) of pastureland.
\par \tab Petroleum and natural gas are Algeria's main exports. The major oil fields are located in the northeastern Sahara and on the Libyan border. Algeria has petroleum reserves of 9 billion barrels (1985 estimate). Natural gas reserves are the fourth largest in the world (1988 estimate). Most of the reserves are at Hassi R'Mel, 250 miles (400 kilometers) south of Algiers. Gas is piped to the coast in liquefied form. Throughout the 1980s the government invested in new pipelines, liquefaction plants, and tankers.
\par \tab Algeria also produces minerals. It mines and exports high-grade iron ore, mercury, and phosphate rock. Most of the iron ore is produced at the Ouenza open-pit mine.
\par \tab Manufacturing accounts for only a small part of Algeria's income. The major industries are iron, steel, and petroleum refining. The production of fertilizers and the manufacture of industrial vehicles and farm machinery are also significant. The country's growing industries include paper, textiles, electrical goods, and flour milling.
\par {\b Transportation, Communication, and Education}
\par \tab Two thirds of Algeria's roads and railroad tracks are located in the northern half of the country. Main roads link towns and large cities and extend to the petroleum and natural gas fields. The trans-Saharan Road of African Unity has been completed to Tamenghest. Algeria has some 2,300 miles (3,700 kilometers) of railway.
\par \tab Algiers is the country's main port. Other major ports are Annaba and Oran (Wahren). Houari Boumedienne, near Algiers, is a modern airport. Annaba, Qacentina (Constantine), and Oran have smaller modern airports. Air AlgΘrie (Air Algeria) provides domestic and international service.
\par \tab Throughout the 1970s and 1980s the country's postal, telephone, and telegraph services were expanding. The official Algerian Press Service reported local and international news for radio, television, and newspapers. Several Arabic-language and French-language newspapers are published. Founded in 1962, the Algerian Radio and Television System broadcasts throughout the country. Programs are produced in both Arabic and French.
\par \tab Education is compulsory for children between the ages of 6 and 15. Arabic is the language of instruction. From a literacy rate below 20 percent in 1954, Algeria's population became 50 percent literate by 1985. Eighty percent of all school-age children were receiving educations in the late 1980s. Ten major universities serve thousands of students, and more are planned.
\par {\b Government and History}
\par \tab Since becoming independent in 1962 Algeria has been controlled by the National Liberation Front (Front de Liberation Nationale, or FLN) party. The president is the head of state. He must be more than 40 years old, of Algerian birth, and a Muslim. The president is nominated by the FLN party; he is elected by popular vote for a five-year term. He may be reelected for any number of consecutive terms. The president presides over a Council of Ministers, all of whom he appoints. The National People's Assembly passes all national laws.
\par \tab Berbers made up the majority of ancient Algeria's population. The country was called Numidia by the Romans. The Berbers were conquered by successive waves of invaders--Phoenicians, Carthaginians, Romans, and Vandals. Arab armies conquered Algeria in the 7th and 8th centuries. Mass Arab migrations to Algeria followed in the 11th century. Although the Berbers converted to Islam, they later resisted Arab rule and joined radical Islamic sects.
\par \tab The Ottoman Turks gained control of northern Algeria in 1518. By the 17th century, Algiers maintained diplomatic relations with European states and yet, ironically, profited by piracy in the Mediterranean Sea. Piracy flourished relatively unchallenged until 1815, when an American fleet defeated the Barbary Coast pirates. The Berbers maintained their independence under Turkish rule.
\par \tab France conquered Algiers in 1830. The country was not wholly subdued until 1857, at which time the last Berbers surrendered. The French confiscated most of the best land. By 1961, some 1.5 million Europeans, about half of them Algerian-born, controlled the country's economy, politics, and foreign policy.
\par \tab The Algerian nationalist movement began after World War I. The promises of the new constitution of 1947 went unfulfilled, and a war of independence was begun by the FLN in 1954. After Charles de Gaulle came to power in France in 1958, he agreed that Algeria should be independent. A truce was signed in March 1962, and Algeria became independent on July 3. Ahmed Ben Bella became premier of the new republic in September and president the following year. Economic reconstruction was the major government goal. War and the departure of the Europeans after 1962 left most of the labor force unemployed and unskilled.
\par \tab In 1965 Col. Houari Boumedienne deposed Ben Bella in a military coup. Boumedienne installed a revolutionary regime dedicated to socialism and political and economic independence. Boumedienne died in 1978, and Col. Chadli Bendjedid was elected president. He was reelected in 1984 and 1988. After bloody rioting in October 1988 against the FLN Bendjedid proposed constitutional reforms that would separate the FLN from the government. Voters approved initial reforms in November 1988 and, on Feb. 23, 1989, a new constitution that had no references to socialism and allowed free speech and a multiparty political system.
\par \tab Algeria's first multiparty elections were held in December 1991, and the fundamentalist Islamic Salvation Front won a large number of seats. A military group took power in January 1992 and created a council to run the country for two years. Gen. Lamine Zeroual was appointed president in January 1994, replacing the five-member High State Council.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab William Keefe
\par \tab {\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR ALGERIA}
\par \tab Entelis, J.P. Algeria: The Revolution Institutionalized (Westview, 1986).
\par \tab Horne, Alistair. A Savage War of Peace: Algeria, 1954-1962 (Penguin, 1987).
\par \tab Wolf, J.B. The Barbary Coast: Algeria Under the Turks (Norton, 1982).\par \tab One of the smallest countries in the world, Andorra has been independent for more than 1,000 years and was an autonomous coprincipality for more than seven centuries. Despite the transformations that neighboring European countries have undergone over the centuries, Andorra has managed to preserve its mountain tranquillity and medieval traditions as well as a stable political system.
\par {\b Landscape}
\par \tab Andorra's 179 square miles (464 square kilometers) comprise an alpine landscape of high peaks and deep valleys on the southern slopes of the Pyrenees, bounded on the south and west by Spain and on the north and east by France. The physical setting prohibits air transportation. No railway system exists, but good roads link Andorra with France and Spain and permit access by car to the most secluded spots.
\par \tab The climate is generally dry, with heavy rainfall in spring and autumn and abundant snow that remains for several months in the highlands. Temperature varies greatly, depending on altitude. In the highlands are typical small Andorran villages, with their houses of granite, wood, and slate. In the valleys are the larger villages, where economic growth has brought modern buildings that contrast sharply with the traditional architecture.
\par \tab The largest villages are Andorra la Vella, the capital, and Escaldes, which has a hydroelectric station and sulfur springs. The Andorrans, mostly of Spanish origin, are predominantly Roman Catholic. Catalan is the official language.
\par {\b Public Services}
\par \tab The French and Spanish governments shared jurisdiction over the coprincipality from 1278 to 1993. They provided some public services, including postal, telegraph, and schools. Catalan-speaking children are taught in both foreign languages. No national monetary unit existed; however, the French franc and the Spanish peseta currencies were used. In 1969 mandatory social insurance went into effect, covering illness, disability, and old-age pensions. A new constitution adopted in 1993 changed the coprincipality status. This change gave new obligations and powers of taxation to Andorran officials.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab Andorra's principal agricultural products are potatoes, cereal, and tobacco. Minerals include iron, lead, and alum. Sheep and other livestock are raised.
\par \tab Since the 1950s the country has been affected greatly by a profound change from the traditional pastoral and farming economy to one of commerce and year-round tourism. With the economic expansion, several banks have been established in association with French and Spanish investment firms. The population has increased dramatically, but only about 12,000 of the 59,000 inhabitants are citizens. Most of the others have moved there to escape onerous taxes in their home countries. In addition, Andorra gets about 12 million tourists each year.
\par {\b History and Government}
\par \tab Andorra has survived as an independent state since the earliest period of European history. In the year 819 Louis the Pious, a son of the emperor Charlemagne, gave the land belonging to the counts of Urgel, in Spain, to the bishop of Urgel. Andorra's independence traditionally has been attributed to this grant. In 1278 the principality was placed under joint control of the French count of Foix and the Spanish bishop of the See of Urgel. This dual allegiance was interrupted only during the French Revolution in the late 18th century. From the late 13th century, although Andorra was governed jointly by the Spanish bishop of Urgel and the president of France, the state has maintained its original status of neutrality. In March 1993 the citizens voted to adopt a new constitution that greatly reduced the power of French and Spanish authorities.
\par \tab The government is administered by the General Council of the Valleys, or parliament. Its 28 members are elected for four-year terms. Suffrage has been universal since 1970, when women received the right to vote, but the noncitizen majority cannot vote. Population (1992 estimate), 57,100.\par \tab After almost 500 years of Portuguese rule, Angola became an independent nation in 1975. Angola, which is the seventh largest country in Africa, has an area of 481,351 square miles (1,246,700 square kilometers). The nation's estimated population is more than 9 million. Angola was Portugal's largest and richest African colony.
\par \tab Angola lies on the southwestern coast of Africa. Most of the country consists of a plateau covered by open grasslands and small bushes. It also has lowlands along the coast and in the north near the Congo River. In the north a small area of Angola called Cabinda is separated from the rest of the country by the Congo River and the nation of Zaire, which also borders on the northeast. Angola is bordered by Zambia on the southeast and Namibia (formerly South-West Africa) on the south. Angola has a tropical climate, with a rainy season from October to mid-May.
\par \tab Bantu peoples make up most of Angola's native population. Several tribes of Bushmen live in the southeast. Angolan farmers raise sugarcane and cotton on lowland plantations and also grow beans, rice, and corn (maize). On the Central Plateau of Angola coffee, sisal, and beeswax are produced for export. Some cattle are raised in the plateau areas, where disease-carrying tsetse flies do not threaten them. Angola has valuable diamond deposits and also produces petroleum and natural gas.
\par \tab The Angolan government has expanded the number of schools, hospitals, medical clinics, and community centers, as well as many social services. The government supplies water in some rural areas, and irrigation projects provide water for farmers. Roads have been built to remote areas.
\par \tab During Angola's war for independence, all but 30,000 of the 335,000 Portuguese left the country. Many were mechanics, doctors, chemists, and others with special skills. Few trained technicians remained to run the economy. This problem, combined with repeated South African military attacks and local political difficulties, kept the economy in crisis. Only petroleum production prevented economic collapse.
\par {\b History}
\par \tab Before Europeans gained control of Africa during the colonial period, various societies in the Angola area established powerful kingdoms that traded iron and other products. Their economies were based on farming, raising cattle, hunting and fishing, and producing tools and household goods.
\par \tab The Angolan coast was one of the first areas in Africa settled by Portuguese traders after their ships sailed the coastal waters near the end of the 15th century. Angola's capital, Luanda, was founded in 1576.
\par \tab Until the end of the 19th century, Portugal actually ruled only parts of the coastal area and a small section of the interior of Angola. But through the slave trade, military penetration into the interior, and trading in textiles, guns, and other imported goods, the Portuguese had an impact on the entire region. They took about 7 million people from the Congo-Angola area away into slavery, and the area prospered through its slave trade with Brazil, another Portuguese possession. Some Angolan leaders tried to stop the slave trade in the 16th century, but could not.
\par \tab Other Angolan leaders, including Queen Nzinga in the 17th century, fought the Portuguese. Some Angolans cooperated with the Portuguese. By the time World War I began in 1914, Portugal had finally conquered all of Angola through a series of bloody wars. The Portuguese officially abolished slavery, but many Africans remained in forced labor.
\par \tab Under colonial rule Portuguese farmers and businessmen controlled the Angolan economy, which depended largely on the production of coffee, cotton, and other crops. Large companies from South Africa, Europe, and the United States administered Angola's diamond and iron mines and the production of its petroleum, which was discovered in the 1950s.
\par \tab Many African colonies became self-governing nations during the 1960s, but the Portuguese dictator, Ant≤nio Salazar, did not grant Angola independence. Angola went to war against Portugal in 1961 to gain its freedom, and violent guerrilla fighting lasted for 14 years. Such organizations as the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) and the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) fought for independence. South Africa and the United States provided military aid to UNITA, but with the help of Cuban troops and arms from the Soviet Union the MPLA forces won the war. Angola became independent on Nov. 11, 1975, and the country was plunged into civil war when the two groups proclaimed two rival republics. The MPLA gained control of the government, and its leader, Agostinho Neto, took office as Angola's first president. After his death in 1979, he was succeeded by JosΘ Eduardo dos Santos. From 1975 Angolans and Cubans fought the UNITA rebels. In 1988 South Africa agreed to grant independence to Namibia in exchange for the phased withdrawal of Cuban troops from Angola. The withdrawal began in January 1989.
\par \tab Because the agreement did not resolve Angola's internal problems, fighting continued between the MPLA and UNITA. Attempts to end the civil war failed until the end of the Cold War brought together United States and Soviet officials at talks between MPLA and UNITA mediated by Portugal. On May 25, 1991, the withdrawal of Cuban troops was completed. On May 31 the MPLA government and UNITA signed a cease-fire. The elections of September 1992 were won by the MPLA. Refusing to accept defeat, Jonas Savimbi's UNITA renewed the civil war, bringing any chance of economic development to a halt. About one fifth of the population had become displaced persons by 1994. Population (1993 estimate), 10,916,000.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab William M. Minter and David S. Wiley\par \tab Anguilla, island of West Indies, in Saint Kitts-Nevis group, Leeward Islands; 34 sq mi (88 sq km); withdrew from island federation and declared independence 1967, a move not recognized by United Kingdom; reverted to colonial status 1971; became self-governing British dependency 1976; formally separated from St. Kitts and Nevis 1980; new constitution in effect 1982; pop. 7,000\par \tab The icy continent surrounding the South Pole is called Antarctica. This region is larger in area than Europe. It is a cold and forbidding land that has no permanent human population and is almost devoid of animal or plant life. However, the oceans adjoining Antarctica teem with life.
\par \tab Ice and stormy seas kept anyone from seeing Antarctica until about 1820. In 1950 more than half the continent still had not been seen. Now airplanes and tractors have taken people to most parts of Antarctica, and satellite photographs have revealed the rest. But Antarctica remains a frontier, and much is yet to be learned about it.
\par \tab Almost no one goes to Antarctica except scientists and some adventurous tourists. The continent has natural resources that someday may be used, but the harsh environment of the continent makes them difficult to exploit. Nations interested in Antarctica have signed a treaty that reserves the region for science and other peaceful purposes.
\par {\b The Land}
\par \tab An ice sheet covers nearly all of Antarctica. At its thickest point the ice sheet is 15,670 feet (4,776 meters) deep--almost 3 miles (5 kilometers). It averages 7,000 to 8,000 feet (2,100 to 2,400 meters) thick, making Antarctica the continent with the highest mean elevation. This ice sheet contains 90 percent of the world's ice and 70 percent of the world's fresh water.
\par \tab The Antarctic ice was formed from the snows of millions of years that fell on the land, layer on layer. The weight of new snow squeezes the old snow underneath until it turns to a substance called firn, then ice. As the ice piles up, it moves toward the coast like batter spreading on a pan. The moving ice forms into glaciers, rivers of ice that flow into the sea. Pieces of the floating glaciers break off from time to time, a process called calving. These icebergs float north until they reach warm water, break into pieces, and melt. Icebergs as large as 40 by 30 miles (64 by 48 kilometers) have been sighted, but most are smaller. In some places the floating glaciers stay attached to the land and continue to grow until they become ice shelves. The Ross Ice Shelf alone is bigger than France and averages 1,000 feet (300 meters) thick.
\par \tab The Transantarctic Mountains extend across the continent, dividing the ice sheet into two parts. The larger, eastern part rests on land that is mostly above sea level. The sheet has been there at least 14 million years, and scientists doubt that it will ever melt. The smaller, western part is on land that is mostly below sea level. Scientists think that if global warming continues, the western part could melt--perhaps in as little as a one-hundred-year period. The melted ice would raise sea level throughout the world by about 20 feet (6 meters).
\par \tab Other mountain ranges include the Prince Charles Mountains and smaller ranges near the coasts. The Antarctic Peninsula has many mountains. The Ellsworth Mountains are Antarctica's highest, the Vinson Massif rising 16,066 feet (4,897 meters) above sea level. Mountains with only their peaks showing through the ice (called nunataks) are found in some areas. Several active volcanoes on the continent provide spectacular and scenic landforms at many places and are located near the Antarctic Peninsula and in the Transantarctic Mountains.
\par \tab About 2 percent of Antarctica is ice-free. These unusual land areas, called oases, generally are near the coast and include the dry valleys of southern Victoria Land and the Bunger Oasis in Wilkes Land. High rims at the end of the valleys prevent entry of large glaciers. The warm local climate melts the ends of smaller glaciers extending into the valleys.
\par \tab Surrounding Antarctica are the southern parts of the Pacific, the Atlantic, and the Indian oceans. The Antarctic Convergence, which encircles Antarctica roughly 1,000 miles (1,600 kilometers) off the coast, divides the cold southern water masses and the warmer northern waters. The Antarctic Circumpolar Current, the world's largest ocean current, moves eastward around the continent at an average speed of about half a knot (1 kilometer per hour). Sea ice up to 10 feet (3 meters) thick forms outward from the continent every winter, making a belt 300 to 1,000 miles (500 to 1,600 kilometers) wide. Even in summer the sea ice belt is 100 to 500 miles (160 to 800 kilometers) wide in most places.
\par \tab Antarctica has three points that are called south poles. The best known is the geographic South Pole, at 90░ S. latitude on the axis of the Earth's rotation. The geomagnetic south pole is at about 78░ S. 110░ E., in East Antarctica; it is the center of the Southern Hemisphere auroras. The magnetic south pole is the area toward which compasses point; it is just off the AdΘlie Coast at about 65░ S. 140░ E.
\par \tab Antarctica does not have 24-hour periods broken into days and nights. At the South Pole the sun rises on about September 21 and moves in a circular path upward until December 21, when it reaches about 23.5░ above the horizon. Then it circles downward until it sets on about March 22. This "day," or summer, is six months long. From March 22 until September 21 the South Pole is dark, and Antarctica has its long "night," or winter.
\par \tab According to theory, some 200 million years ago Antarctica was joined to South America, Africa, India, and Australia in a single large continent called Gondwanaland. There was no ice sheet, and trees and large animals flourished. Today, only geological formations, coal beds, and fossils remain as clues to Antarctica's warm past.
\par {\b Climate}
\par \tab Antarctica is the coldest continent. The world's record low temperature of -128.6░ F (-89.2░ C) was recorded there. The mean annual temperature of the interior is -70░ F (-57░ C). The coast is warmer. Monthly mean temperatures at McMurdo Station range from -18░ F (-28░ C) in August to 27░ F (-3░ C) in January. Along the Antarctic Peninsula temperatures have been as high as 59░ F (15░ C).
\par \tab Because it is such a large area of extreme cold, Antarctica plays an important role in global atmospheric circulation. In the tropics the sun warms the air, causing it to rise and move toward the poles. When these air masses arrive over Antarctica, they cool, become heavier, and fall from the high interior of the continent toward the sea, making some Antarctic coasts the windiest places in the world. Winds on the AdΘlie Coast in the winter of 1912 to 1913 averaged 40 miles (64 kilometers) per hour 64 percent of the time, and gusts of nearly 200 miles (320 kilometers) per hour have been recorded.
\par \tab Antarctica's interior is one of the world's major cold deserts. Precipitation (if melted) averages only 1 to 2 inches (2.5 to 5 centimeters) a year.
\par {\b Plant and Animal Life}
\par \tab The severe climate has kept nearly all of Antarctica almost devoid of life. Nevertheless, botanists have found bacteria and yeast growing just 183 miles (295 kilometers) from the geographic South Pole. A lichen was found in a sunny canyon 266 miles (428 kilometers) from the pole, and a blue-green alga in a frozen pond 224 miles (360 kilometers) from the pole. Microbes related to lichens colonize in green and brown layers just beneath the surface of rocks facing the sun. Mosses and liverworts grow in some ice-free areas along the coast. Two species of flowering plants--a grass and an herb--grow on the peninsula.
\par \tab The native land animals are limited to arthropods (such as insects), of which 76 species have been discovered. Nearly all of the species are found only in Antarctica. These springtails, midges, and mites live generally along the coast among plant colonies. The southernmost known animal, the mite, has been found 315 miles (507 kilometers) from the South Pole.
\par \tab The immense numbers of birds and seals that live in Antarctica are, properly speaking, sea animals. They spend most of their time in or over the water, where they get their food. These animals come ashore only to establish rookeries and breed.
\par \tab About 45 species of birds live south of the Antarctic Convergence. Two penguin species--the emperor and the AdΘlie--are distributed widely around the entire coastline. Gentoo and chinstrap penguins occupy Antarctic Peninsula coasts and some islands. Penguins, fine swimmers, catch their food--mostly krill (a shrimplike animal) and fishes--underwater.
\par \tab Four species of seals breed almost exclusively in the Antarctic. They are the Weddell seal, which ranges as far south as the sea does and can dive as deep as 2,000 feet (600 meters) for nearly an hour; the crabeater seal, which spends most of its time around pack ice (sea ice); the leopard seal, which favors penguins as its food; and the Ross seal, rarely seen. Other Antarctic species include the fur seal and the huge elephant seal. Most populous is the crabeater, whose numbers are estimated at 50 to 75 million. Leopard and Weddell seals by comparison number only 250,000 to 500,000 each. The others exist in even smaller numbers.
\par \tab Fishes peculiar to the Antarctic include the Antarctic cod and the icefish. These and other Antarctic fish have developed blood that enables them to live in seawater as cold as 28░ F (-2░ C).
\par \tab The most important single member of the Antarctic marine food chain is the krill. This crustacean looks like a small shrimp and exists in huge numbers; one vast swarm stretching several miles in length was observed from ships, and some biologists think the total population may be 5 billion tons or more. Krill eat small marine plants (phytoplankton) and animals (zooplankton) and in turn are eaten in great numbers by squid, birds, seals, and whales.
\par {\b Economic Development}
\par \tab Antarctica is so far from world markets, and its environment is so hostile, that little economic development has taken place. Also, little is known about the amounts of natural resources that exist there. But, if world shortages of food and energy products become severe enough, Antarctica may be more intensely explored. In anticipation of such a need, 15 nations have signed a convention for the conservation of living marine resources on the Antarctic continent.
\par \tab The first people to make money by going to Antarctica were whalers and sealers, who first crossed the Antarctic Convergence in 1778. Seal hunters began catching Antarctic seals for their oil and fur in the early 1790s. Fur seals and then elephant seals were reduced almost to extinction by the mid-1800s, at which point the sealers finally stopped their Antarctic hunts. The populations of fur and elephant seals once again are growing.
\par \tab In 1978 the nations interested in Antarctica agreed to prohibit the taking of fur, elephant, and Ross seals. This pact also limits the annual catch of crabeater, leopard, and Weddell seals. But no seal hunting has taken place in Antarctica since 1964.
\par \tab Whaling began in Antarctic waters in the 19th century. The industry enlarged greatly in the early 1900s, when steamships, harpoon guns, and shore processing stations (notably at South Georgia) were introduced. During the 1912-13 season 10,760 whales were caught. After that time nearly all the whales caught in the world were caught in Antarctic waters. In 1931, a peak year, 40,199 whales were caught in the Antarctic, while only 1,124 were caught in the rest of the world. So many whales were caught that their numbers declined, just as had those of the seals. The industry declined after 1960. In the 1980-81 season fewer than 6,000 whales were caught in the Antarctic; all were minke whales, a relatively small-sized species also called the lesser rorqual.
\par \tab Commercial fishing was begun by the Soviet Union in 1967. In 1971 a Soviet fleet of 40 trawlers and support ships in the southern ocean landed an estimated 300,000 tons--mostly cod, herring, and whiting. Today fleets of other nations, mainly Japan and Norway, also fish the waters.
\par \tab Krill fishing began in the early 1970s, and by 1980 the Soviet Union and Japan were taking about 100,000 tons a year for use as a shrimp substitute and animal feed. Some scientists believe that huge amounts of krill could be harvested from the Antarctic, enough to double the worldwide catch of seafood. But much remains to be learned about the biology and population of krill to know how much damage would be done by huge harvests.
\par \tab In 1982 the nations that were interested in Antarctica set up a scientific committee to study the Antarctic ecosystem and a commission to set catch limits. The nations wanted to protect the unique ecosystem and to avoid any activities that had already reduced the numbers of whales and seals in the area.
\par \tab Petroleum and minerals have never been exploited in Antarctica. Minerals have been found in great variety but almost always in small amounts. Large mineral deposits probably exist, but the chances of finding them are small. Manganese nodules on the ocean floor, geothermal energy, coal, petroleum, and natural gas are potential resources that could perhaps be exploited in the future. Only two large mineral deposits have been found: iron ore in the Prince Charles Mountains and coal in the Transantarctic Mountains. But it would cost too much to get these materials to market to make them economically attractive.
\par \tab Some authorities think that there may be large reserves of oil and natural gas in Antarctica, simply because the continental shelf is so large. However, very little exploration has been done, and even if they are found, extraction will be difficult. The edge of the Antarctic continental shelf is 1,000 to 3,000 feet (300 to 900 meters) deep, much deeper than the world average continental shelf depth of about 600 feet (200 meters), and Antarctica's huge icebergs would threaten drill rigs. Also, the environmental impact of spills would be greater in Antarctica than elsewhere because the low temperatures retard the growth of biological organisms that reduce crude oil to environmentally harmless components.
\par \tab Some people have devised ingenious schemes for towing Antarctic icebergs north to warm, dry lands as a cheap source of fresh water. But many scientists and engineers believe that an iceberg, even if protected by the best possible means, would break and melt before it got to the place where it would be used.
\par \tab Commercial tourist visits to Antarctica began in the 1950s. Between 1958 and 1980 an estimated 16,640 passengers on 80 ship cruises visited places along the Antarctic Peninsula and in the Ross Sea. Between 1977 and 1980 airliners from New Zealand and Australia carrying some 11,145 passengers made about 45 sight-seeing flights over portions of the Antarctic continent.
\par {\b Political and International Relations}
\par \tab Because it has never had permanent human settlements, Antarctica has had an unusual political history. Seven nations have claimed pie-shaped sectors of territory centering on the South Pole. Three of the claimed sectors overlap on the Antarctic Peninsula. One sector is unclaimed. Most other nations do not recognize these claims. The United States policy, for example, is that the mere discovery of lands does not support a valid claim unless the discovery is followed by actual settlement. Also, like many other nations, the United States reserves all rights resulting from its explorations and discoveries.
\par \tab This unsettled situation might have continued had it not been for a surge of scientific interest in Antarctica that developed in the middle 1950s. At that time scientists of 12 nations decided to make research in Antarctica the major portion of a large investigation, the International Geophysical Year. The 12 nations were Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Chile, France, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, South Africa, the United Kingdom, the United States, and the Soviet Union. When this program was completed in 1958, these nations decided to continue their research programs in Antarctica.
\par \tab Much of the research had been achieved through international cooperation, and the 12 nations carried their new, friendly ties from science into politics. They met in Washington, D.C., in 1959 to write the Antarctic Treaty. The treaty reserves the region for peaceful purposes, especially scientific research. It prohibits nuclear weapons and disposal of radioactive waste, and it does not allow military activities except to support science and other peaceful pursuits. The treaty does not recognize or dispute the territorial claims of any nation, but it also does not allow any new claims to be made. It allows members to inspect each others' installations, encourages the exchange of personnel, and requires each nation to report to the others on its plans and results.
\par \tab The treaty does not include anything about sharing Antarctica's natural resources, but it does provide for meetings every other year to further its objectives. At these meetings the treaty nations have agreed on conservation plans and on responsible collection and sharing of resources. Other nations later joined the Antarctic Treaty, and by 1982 there were 26 that had signed it.
\par {\b Scientific Research}
\par \tab Every year about a dozen nations send scientists to Antarctica to do research. In the Antarctic summer about 2,500 people are in the region for this work. They operate research stations and camps; travel in airplanes, helicopters, and snowmobiles to the areas that they need to study; and operate ships for resupply and oceanic research. In winter fewer than 1,000 people remain to operate about 30 research stations scattered around the continent. The winter inhabitants are isolated for several months at a time because it is too cold for anyone to get to them, even in airplanes. Biologists, geologists, oceanographers, physicists, astronomers, glaciologists, and meteorologists conduct experiments here that cannot be duplicated anywhere else. In the 1970s researchers began taking measurements of the protective ozone layer in the atmosphere over Antarctica. A seasonal hole (thinning) was reported over the region in 1985. By the 1990s the ozone depletion had reached alarming proportions and the effects had spread beyond Antarctica.
\par {\b Exploration and History}
\par \tab The first expedition to come close to Antarctica took place from 1772 through 1775. The English navigator James Cook sailed around the continent and came within 100 miles (160 kilometers) of it. Land was seen in about 1820, when British and United States seal hunters and a Russian exploring expedition reached the Antarctic Peninsula. In the Antarctic summer of 1839-40 a United States Navy expedition headed by Charles Wilkes mapped 1,500 miles (2,400 kilometers) along the coast of East Antarctica. The next summer James Clark Ross of Great Britain sailed into the Ross Sea, traveling as far south as a ship can go. The first recorded landing on Antarctica was on Cape Adare in 1895, and the first group to spend a winter on the continent did so at Cape Adare during the period from March 1898 to March 1899.
\par \tab The struggle inland and toward the geographic South Pole began with the first expedition by Robert F. Scott of Great Britain in 1901-04. But the first person to reach the pole was Roald Amundsen of Norway on Dec. 14, 1911. On another Antarctic expedition Scott arrived at the pole just a month later; he died on March 29, 1912, trying to return to the coast.
\par \tab These early expeditions relied on sail power, dog power, and human power for their transportation. The mechanical age arrived on Nov. 26, 1928, when George Hubert Wilkins, leading an American expedition, made an airplane flight from Deception Island. On Nov. 29, 1929, Richard E. Byrd of the United States flew a three-motor Ford plane over the South Pole. Byrd also explored parts of Antarctica by air and on the surface in 1933-35 and 1939-41 and commanded the largest single expedition ever made to Antarctica--the United States Navy's Operation High Jump in 1946-47. Thirteen ships, many airplanes and helicopters, and thousands of men made surveys almost all the way around the continent. In 1990 a six-man international expedition led by an American named Will Steger completed a 221-day trek across Antarctica from west to east using dogsleds. At more than 3,700 miles (6,000 kilometers), it was the longest dogsled trek, as well as the first unmechanized passage through the South Pole. The team members were from the United States, the Soviet Union, France, China, Japan, and Great Britain.
\par \tab The International Geophysical Year (IGY), 1957-58, was a major scientific effort that established 50 year-round stations, including one at the geographic South Pole and one at the south geomagnetic pole. In 1988 the IGY nations that had signed the Antarctic Treaty agreed on a convention to permit strictly controlled mining in Antarctica--probably by the end of the 20th century. There are no known mineral deposits of value, however, and the harsh climate does not encourage offshore oil exploration. Both the Antarctic Treaty and the new convention avoided the issue of sovereignty, claimed by seven nations over various parts of the region.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by Guy G. Guthridge, Manager of the Polar Information Program at the National Science Foundation.
\par \tab Stewart, John. Antarctica: An Encyclopedia, 2 vols. (McFarland, 1990).\par \tab An island nation of the Lesser Antilles, Antigua and Barbuda lies at the southern end of the Leeward Islands. Located in the eastern Caribbean Sea, the independent state includes Redonda, an uninhabited rock. The total area of the three islands is about 171 square miles (443 square kilometers).
\par \tab The main island of Antigua, unlike the other Leeward Islands, has no forests, mountains, or rivers and few springs. Prolonged droughts occur; rainfall averages only about 40 inches (100 centimeters) per year. The mean average temperature in this tropical climate is 81░ F (27░ C). Rainwater catchments and a desalinization plant supplement the water supply.
\par \tab Barbuda, formerly known as Dulcina, lies 25 miles (40 kilometers) north of Antigua. A game reserve, it is a coral island, flat and well wooded. Although planned as a slave-breeding colony, it instead developed a unique system of communal landownership.
\par \tab The major source of national income is tourism, which accounts for about 70 percent of the gross domestic product. Basic education is compulsory, and both teacher and technical training are offered at State Island College. The official language is English.
\par \tab Antigua's major crop is sugarcane, though mangoes, melons, limes, eggplant, pumpkin, and sweet potatoes are also grown. Industries include manufacturing rum and assembling garments and appliances. The government operates a fish-processing corporation and a petroleum refinery.
\par \tab In 1493 Christopher Columbus landed on Antigua, which was named after a church in Seville, Spain. The island was colonized in 1632 by English settlers, who grew tobacco there. Later in the century sugarcane proved to be a more profitable crop, and slaves were brought to the islands to work on the sugarcane estates. The slaves were emancipated in 1834. A fire in 1841, an earthquake in 1843, and a hurricane in 1847 were severe blows to the economy. The naval dockyard, closed in 1854, was reopened in 1961 as a historic monument and yachting center.
\par \tab Until 1956 Antigua was administered by the British under the governor of the Leeward Islands. During the years 1958 to 1962, it was a member of the West Indies Federation. In 1967 it became an associated state in the Commonwealth. The neighboring Barbuda and Redonda were dependencies of Antigua. In November 1981 the three-island nation became independent as Antigua and Barbuda. Barbuda had been seeking separate independence. The capital and principal city is St. John's, on Antigua. The main settlement on Barbuda is Codrington. Population (1992 estimate), 64,000.\par \tab By far the smallest of the world's oceans, with an area of 5,440,000 square miles (14,090,000 square kilometers), the Arctic Ocean covers the northern polar region of the Earth. The North Pole is located approximately at its center.
\par \tab Russia, Canada, Greenland, Iceland, Norway, and the United States (Alaska) border on the Arctic Ocean. There are islands around the ocean's outer edges but none in its central region.
\par \tab In the center of the Arctic Ocean is an immense area of floating pack ice several hundred miles in diameter. The pack ice moves slowly in a clockwise direction, making a complete revolution around the top of the world every ten years. It consists of countless gigantic islands of ice that crash and grind together as they move. There are many small areas of open water. People and animals regularly travel across the pack ice, but they do so in constant peril from the ice itself and from the region's brutally cold climate.
\par \tab The pack ice restricts the amount of sunlight that can penetrate to the waters beneath it. This reduces the occurrence of photosynthesis, which is fundamental to plant growth. As a result, few of the microscopic plants called phytoplankton grow beneath the ice cap. Since phytoplankton, directly or indirectly, provide the food for all oceanic life, the number of fishes is also limited. Overall, the Arctic Ocean has less than 10 percent as much marine life as the other oceans. It is a kind of frigid, watery desert.
\par \tab At the ocean's borders, however, where its waters mix with those of the Atlantic and Pacific, animals thrive. Fishes and birds are numerous. Mammals common to the area include seals, walruses, and the most famous Arctic animal of all--the polar bear.
\par \tab The major circulation of water into and out of the Arctic Ocean takes place through a single deep channel between Greenland and the Norwegian islands of Svalbord. Only 2 percent of this water leaves the ocean as ice--pieces broken loose from the pack--but this tiny amount creates great problems. The channel is one major source of icebergs in the North Atlantic. Although their movements are constantly monitored by satellites and radar, these huge floating masses of ice have destroyed innumerable ships.
\par \tab Despite the inroads of modern civilization, many of the native peoples of the Arctic regions still follow their traditional ways of life as reindeer herders (primarily in Eurasia) or hunters. Some Inuit, or Eskimo, live near the edge of the pack ice and spend most of their lives hunting and fishing.
\par \tab Early European explorers tried to find a Northwest Passage--a sea route through the Arctic Ocean from Europe to the Orient. Modern explorers have conducted climatic and other scientific research.
\par \tab The discovery of oil, gas, and other minerals in the lands bordering the Arctic Ocean and beneath its floor greatly increased economic activity there after the 1960s. Russia, which has the longest coast on the Arctic Ocean, estimates that 70 percent of its untapped oil resources are located under its northern continental shelf.
\par \tab Canada, which also has a long Arctic coast, can give only rough estimates of the oil, gas, coal, and other mineral resources in its northernmost territories, but they are thought to be substantial. After finding huge oil reserves on the Arctic coast of Alaska, the United States constructed a pipeline across that state from Prudhoe Bay in the north to the ice-free port of Valdez in the south. The Arctic Ocean floor may someday be mined as well. There are indications that valuable metals may be present.
\par \tab The increased economic activity in the Arctic Ocean area has caused considerable environmental concern. Habitats and living patterns of wildlife and sea life have been disturbed. The potential dangers from oil spills and other forms of pollution are immense. The Arctic ecosystem is fragile, with comparatively few species; therefore any disruption has far-reaching effects. Because of the harsh Arctic cold, many areas that border the pack ice are open for shipping and construction of drilling platforms for only a few weeks each year. When this "summer" season is over, the ocean freezes and becomes impassable. This raises the danger that an oil leak might continue for months before it could be stopped and the spill cleaned up. Also, in the frigid Arctic climate, the rate at which crude petroleum and other pollutants decompose into environmentally harmless components is extremely slow. The effects of such pollution on wildlife and sea life could be catastrophic.
\par \tab So far the Arctic Ocean has survived increased human activity. Scientists are seeking ways to exploit its abundant resources without damaging the fragile environment.\par \tab Within Latin America the nation of Argentina is second in area only to Brazil and fourth in population only to Brazil, Mexico, and Colombia. This large land covers more than 1 million square miles (2.7 million square kilometers), in the southern part of South America east of the Andes Mountains. It extends from the Tropic of Capricorn south to the tip of the continent--within about 700 miles (1,100 kilometers) of Antarctica. Argentina claims a portion of that continent as well as the Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas) and several other islands of the South Atlantic Ocean. The country is bounded by Chile on the west and south, Bolivia and Paraguay on the north, and Brazil, Uruguay, and the Atlantic Ocean on the east.
\par \tab The official language of Argentina is Spanish, and more than 90 percent of the population is Roman Catholic. The country was settled from the 16th through the 18th centuries by colonists from Spain and other parts of South America. Emmigrants from many European countries, including Italy and Germany, settled in the central plains and south during the 19th century. Agriculture, based on grain and livestock, became the dominant factor in the Argentine economy and accounts for most of its exports. Industry in general has not kept pace with the country's population growth. A United States-style constitution was adopted in 1853, but military government and political instability have been the norm.
\par {\b The Land}
\par \tab The Argentine landscape slopes downward from the Andes Mountains in the west to the Atlantic coast in the east. The western border with Chile follows the crest of the Andes, where heights of peaks range from more than 20,000 feet (6,000 meters) in the north to less than 5,000 feet (1,500 meters) in Tierra del Fuego at the southern tip of the continent. One of these peaks, Aconcagua (22,831 feet; 6,959 meters) is South America's highest mountain. The highest part of the Andean area lies in Argentina's Northwest region, which tapers from a width of nearly 350 miles (560 kilometers) in the north to about 200 miles (320 kilometers) in the south. In the northern Andes is a dry altiplano, or high plain, surrounded by mountains. A string of artesian oases lies along the eastern foothills.
\par \tab Eastward from the northern Andes lies an arid plateau called the Gran Chaco. It is a region of scrub woodland mixed with grassy savannas. Farther to the east, between the Paranß and Uruguay rivers, is the region called Mesopotamia. It has extensive subtropical pine forests and fertile plains on which are grown rice, oranges, and flax. Gran Chaco and Mesopotamia together form the Northeast region of the Argentine Republic.
\par \tab The next region to the south is the Pampa, a low, flat plain interrupted only by low hills or sierras. Over millions of years the Pampa has been covered by a fertile wind-borne soil known as loess, and by waterborne alluvium eroded from the Andes. The pampas, or plains, are the homeland of the famous Argentine gaucho, or cowboy.
\par \tab South of the Colorado River is Patagonia, the largest region of Argentina. It extends from the Pampa to Tierra del Fuego and was named in 1520 by the Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan, while sailing for Spain, on his trip around the world. The landscape is dominated by the Andes in the west and plateaus that stretch eastward to the Atlantic, forming cliffs along much of the shoreline. The climate is dry and windy.
\par \tab Sizable rivers flow across Argentina. The Northeast is drained by the Paraguay and Paranß rivers, which originate in the Central Plateau of Brazil. The Upper Paranß is the site of the famous Iguaz· (Iguaτu) Falls, where the river plunges over the plateau edge. Also in the Northeast is the Uruguay River, which forms Argentina's border with both Uruguay and Brazil. These three north-south flowing rivers and their Andean tributaries, such as the Pilcomayo, the Bermejo, and the Salado, empty into the so-called Rφo de la Plata, an estuary between Argentina and Uruguay. The most important rivers of central and southern Argentina are the Colorado, Negro, Chubut, Deseado, Chico, and Santa Cruz. They all originate high in the Andes.
\par {\b Climate, Soil, and Vegetation}
\par \tab The climate of Argentina is marked by seasonal change characteristic of the temperate middle latitudes. In Argentina, because it is in the Southern Hemisphere, the seasons are reversed from those in North America, winter occurring during June, July, and August and summer extending from January through March. Because most of Argentina is close to the Atlantic Ocean, seasonal temperature extremes are moderated. Only in the Northwest do continental extremes similar to those in North America occasionally occur.
\par \tab Argentina's very great north-south distance covering 33 degrees of latitude also influences the climate of the country. In the Northwest, for example, only the Andean peaks that rise above 20,000 feet (6,000 meters) high are covered by snow, whereas at the southern tip of the nation the snow line is below 1,500 feet (500 meters). Glaciers can be found in mountain lake valleys, such as that of Lago Argentino, as far to the north as 50░ S. latitude.
\par \tab Moist mid-latitude winds rise from the Pacific Ocean to bring rain and snow to the higher slopes of the Andes. Winter snow cover has made the area near San Carlos de Bariloche a world famous ski resort known as the Argentine Switzerland. As the prevailing westerly winds descend the eastern slopes of the Andes, they become warmer and increase their capacity to absorb moisture. Consequently, few clouds form and precipitation is minimal throughout the western plateau of Argentina. Locally these drying winds are called the zondas.
\par \tab In addition to the presence of the zondas a cold offshore ocean current in the Atlantic contributes to the dryness of the climate. Moist air over the Atlantic cools over the frigid waters of the current and loses its moisture as fog or rain before it can move inland.
\par \tab The two conditions described combine to keep most of Patagonia dry. There, precipitation of less than 10 inches (250 millimeters) falls per year. More than two thirds of Argentina does not receive soil moisture sufficient for nonirrigated agriculture. As is typical of such regions occasional short-lived heavy rains produce flash floods. At other times dust storms cover extensive areas. In central north Argentina the precipitation is not sufficient to sustain the flow of rivers, especially during the warm summers when evaporation is highest. Many end in salt lakes, like the Mar Chiquita, or in large saltwater swamps. Storms moving in the westerly wind belt across Patagonia occasionally become diverted to the northeast and may bring frost and even light snow to Buenos Aires. Such storms are usually accompanied by strong south winds and are called pamperos. They occur several times a century and cause crop damage in the Gran Chaco and Misiones.
\par \tab In the extreme south of Patagonia precipitation once again increases because the Andes are lower. There the climate is cool and moist throughout the year and much of the land is forested. In Ushuaia, Argentina's southernmost city, winter snows are sometimes heavy, and, because of the high latitude of nearly 55░ S., the sun in June and July barely rises above the mountainous horizon even at noon.
\par \tab Another notable weather condition is caused by an Atlantic storm called the sudestada that passes over northeastern Argentina. This storm produces heavy rains that cause the sudden flooding of rivers.
\par \tab The Pampa can be divided into two climatic zones, the coastal humid pampa, or pampa h·meda, and the dry pampa, or pampa seca. The pampa h·meda receives abundant precipitation and is Argentina's major grain and livestock region. In the pampa seca, precipitation is less abundant and crops grown there must be irrigated.
\par \tab The soils of Argentina's two main agricultural zones, the Pampa and the Northeast, differ greatly. In the Pampa sufficient moisture and grass cover have combined with sedimentary and windblown material to form brown-black phaeozems, which have considerable organic matter at the surface, and deep, fertile prairie soil sometimes called chernozem. In certain areas alfalfa roots penetrate 15 feet (4.5 meters) into this soft, easily crumbled soil.
\par \tab In northeastern Argentina deep red soils that are derived from basaltic (volcanic) rocks of the Paranß plateau extend over most of Misiones Province. These red soils are unlike many similar-looking ones that are found elsewhere in the tropics and the subtropics in that they are only slightly acidic, possess some plant nutrients, and are well-drained. Consequently, such crops as citrus fruits, sugarcane, and matΘ can be grown well in them, especially when fertilizers are used.
\par \tab Relatively intensive settlement in the most habitable parts of Argentina has decimated the formerly abundant animal life. The two most notable remaining forms are members of the wildcat family in Misiones Province, and the rhea, the American three-toed ostrichlike bird of the pampas. Some ranches feature rides for children on the backs of rheas.
\par {\b The People}
\par \tab The first people to live in what is now Argentina were American Indians. The most important groups belonged to the Guaranφ tribes in the Northeast. They were farming Indians among whom the Roman Catholic Society of Jesus (Jesuits) during the colonial era established Utopia-like missions (Misiones Province). A group of nomadic Indians lived on the pampas. When they obtained horses from Spanish invaders, they became highly successful military opponents of the Europeans and were not finally conquered until the 20th century. Scattered tribes inhabited the Andean zone from north to south. Most of the native peoples died in warfare and from diseases following the Spanish invasion, which began in 1516. Today only 3 percent of the people of Argentina are Indians and mestizos (mixed). The rest of the people are of European descent.
\par \tab Modern Argentina is inhabited by many people of European descent and by a few American Indians. Although various estimates have been made for the Indian population before the Spanish conquest, a conservative number might be 300,000 for the present national area. After the various phases of discovery, exploration, and settlement, the Indian population had been drastically cut. About 40,000 live in Argentina today, primarily in remote Andean valleys and in the Gran Chaco. However, their physical features are sometimes apparent in many gauchos--the Pampa cowboys descended from Spanish fathers and Indian mothers and who are, therefore, mestizos.
\par \tab It should be noted that African slaves were never important in Argentina because neither mining nor plantation agriculture played a significant role in the colonial economy. Consequently, as European settlers arrived, a white population soon became dominant. By the time Argentina achieved its independence in 1824, the vast majority of the populace had been born in South America.
\par \tab After independence was gained, political chaos prevented unification of the country. However, the idea of planned pioneer settlement for the purpose of inhabiting the country's vast empty spaces was carried forward from time to time. In 1856, for example, Swiss and German settlers were invited to found new colonies in the provinces of Buenos Aires and Santa Fe. Other small European groups went to Misiones Territory far to the northeast on the Brazilian border. Then a great wave of foreign immigration began in the early 1880s and lasted for a decade. At that time Italians along with some Spaniards arrived to open the pampas. This marked the beginning of change in the Argentine economy, as European demand for wool, tallow, mutton, and hides increased rapidly until the end of the century. Domestic sheep flocks replaced wild cattle on the plains, and cattle breeding from new European stock began.
\par \tab Another immigration wave occurred from 1904 to 1913. Prosperity brought about the construction of a railroad network, which began to stretch across the pampas, and the blossoming of the city of Buenos Aires with its international port. Everything was paid for by the productivity of agriculture on the rich soils of the immediate hinterland. By the time World War I began 30 percent of the Argentine population was foreign-born.
\par \tab Another period of immigration between the two world wars marked the onset of the modern development of Misiones Territory by many groups from Europe, especially Germans. A more recent immigration between 1947 and 1955 brought tens of thousands of Italians and Spaniards to the country. Thereafter, immigration from Europe ceased because of the improved economic conditions there. Moreover, the Argentine economy began to falter seriously at the same time.
\par \tab Though immigration from Europe stopped in recent years, Argentina at this time began to attract migrants from other South American countries. This resulted in such oddities as the largest population of urban Paraguayans not being in Asunci≤n, Paraguay, but in Buenos Aires. In northwestern Argentina Bolivians cross the border in sizable and growing numbers, and a small but steady migration from Chile has influenced the population in Patagonia since the early 1900s.
\par \tab In addition to immigration there is also a seasonal movement of foreign labor into various parts of Argentina. This is due largely to the lack of mechanization for harvesting crops in much of the nation. For instance, thousands of Paraguayans cross the border to work during the matΘ harvests in Misiones between December and March. Others come from Bolivia and Chile to help with grape picking in Cuyo and Mendoza from April to July and following that for the sugarcane, cotton, and tobacco harvests in the northern sections of Argentina.
\par \tab In the early 1900s the Argentine population structure reflected a growing rural element with the majority of the people less than 20 years of age. In more recent years, especially in the cities, the 30- to 50-year olds have emerged as the dominant group. These data reflect the composition of the capital city of Buenos Aires, in which more than 10 million people live--more than one third of the country's population. By the early 1980s there were 17 other cities in the country of more than 100,000, reflecting a trend that shows the nonurban population of Argentina steadily declining.
\par {\b The Economy}
\par \tab Argentina has traditionally been one of the more prosperous Latin American countries. Unlike many of its neighbors, the country has developed a strong manufacturing industry and has become less dependent on agriculture. Today the country is largely self-sufficient in consumer goods. However, the Argentine economy in the late 20th century, like that of many countries, suffered from severe inflation. This condition has been complicated by an unstable government and continuing domestic and international political problems.
\par \tab {\b Agriculture and livestock.}
\par \tab Argentina is one of the world's chief exporters of food and other agricultural products. Wheat, the chief crop, occupies about one seventh of the nation's cropland and is raised mainly in the Pampa. Corn (maize) covers less land, but the crop yields are high. Flax, grown for linseed oil, and rye, barley, and oats, used mainly for livestock feed, are also important. Sunflower seeds are a major source of the nation's cooking oil.
\par \tab Cotton is raised in the Chaco for use in the nation's textile factories. Near Tucumßn, in the Northwest, stretch Argentina's principal sugarcane fields. Vineyards and fruit orchards thrive farther south around Mendoza and San Juan.
\par \tab The country has vast pasturelands to match its grainfields. The first cattle, horses, and sheep were introduced by the early Spanish settlers. The cattle were stringy animals used chiefly for hides and jerked beef. After the 1880s fields were fenced and high-grade breeds were introduced. The construction of railways by foreign, mainly English, investors made it possible to ship stock and crops to markets and ports. Refrigerating plants and refrigerator ships permitted the meat to be exported.
\par \tab Today Argentina is a world leader in the raising of livestock. Animal products such as fresh and canned meat, wool, and hides rank high among the country's exports.
\par \tab {\b Mining and lumbering.}
\par \tab Argentina does not have adequate mineral resources. The leading minerals produced are petroleum, lead, and zinc. From the Northwest come tungsten, beryllium, and manganese. The country has little iron ore or other ores necessary to modern industry. It is poorly supplied with coal, especially high-grade coking coal for steel manufacture. Natural gas is piped to more than a million homes and factories, but more is needed.
\par \tab Lumbering is limited mostly to the quebracho forests of the Gran Chaco and the pine and broadleaf forests of northern Mesopotamia and, especially, Misiones Province. One variety of quebracho is cut for telephone poles, railway ties, and fence posts. Another is a source of tannin, used in making leather.
\par \tab {\b Manufacturing.}
\par \tab Argentina is one of the leading manufacturing countries of Latin America. It has been following a trend of breaking away from dependence on food processing and consumer goods and placing greater emphasis on heavy industry. A large integrated iron-and-steel plant, for example, has been constructed at San Nicolßs. The petrochemical, plastics, synthetic rubber and fiber, and motor vehicle industries are all developing.
\par \tab Food processing, however, is the leading industry. Meat-packing, flour milling, sugar refining, and vegetable and fruit canning are principal activities. The processing of linseed oil and the production of wine, beer, and soft drinks are also extensive. Other manufactures include textiles, metal goods (excluding machinery), chemicals, drugs, vehicles and machinery, wood and lumber, clay, glass, and stone products. The publishing business is also significant.
\par \tab In recent decades the Argentine government has played a strong role in the development of industry. It has assisted with the production of aircraft at C≤rdoba, steel at San Nicolßs, and petroleum-based industry at Comodoro Rivadavia.
\par \tab {\b Trade.}
\par \tab More than 90 percent of Argentina's exports are made up of crops, especially wheat, and livestock products. Countries that usually buy extensively from Argentina include the United States, Russia and other Eastern European countries, The Netherlands, Brazil, Germany, China, and Italy.
\par \tab The largest quantity of imports comes from the United States. Germany, the United Kingdom, Venezuela, and Brazil are other major suppliers. The chief imports are iron and steel products, fuels, chemicals, nonferrous metal products, lumber, and paper.
\par \tab {\b Transportation and communication.}
\par \tab Argentina's airlines, railways, and bus and ship lines constitute the most extensive transportation system in Latin America. The rail network is the most complete on the continent, fanning out from Buenos Aires in all directions. Rail lines are government owned. Roads are extensive and link all parts of the nation with the capital. Telephone and telegraph networks are mainly government owned.
\par {\b Architecture and the Arts}
\par \tab In colonial times Argentina's culture was mainly adopted from Spain. Churches and public buildings in such cities as C≤rdoba and Salta reflect Spanish architectural styles. Development of a national culture based on Argentine life came about in the 19th century. Foremost among artists was Prilidiano Pueyrred≤n, who is noted for his paintings of the Pampa region and of gaucho life.
\par \tab Melancholy songs sung to the accompaniment of a guitar formed the basis of Argentine folk music. This music figured prominently in the rise of Argentina's major contribution to popular music, the tango. In 19th-century literature the gaucho's decline is mourned in the popular gaucho poem 'Martφn Fierro' by JosΘ Hernßndez.
\par \tab French, Spanish, and Italian influences have been strong in art, music, and literature. Argentina has about 100 art museums, many with schools. Numerous painters and sculptors reside in the picturesque La Boca district on the waterfront of Buenos Aires. The large Italian population helps account for the strong support of grand opera. There are symphony orchestras in many of the country's cities. The Teatro Col≤n in Buenos Aires is one of the world's largest performing arts centers and attracts many famous artists during its regular June to August season. It is also the headquarters of the national ballet and national symphony.
\par {\b Education}
\par \tab Argentina has one of the highest literacy rates in South America. Public schools were built by government subsidies, especially under the leadership of President Domingo F. Sarmiento from 1868 to 1874. Primary education is compulsory and free, but further training is expensive. Vocational schools offer commercial, agricultural, and industrial instruction.
\par \tab The first university in the country was established at C≤rdoba in 1613. Other national universities were founded in Buenos Aires (1821), La Plata (1884), San Miguel de Tucumßn (1914), Santa Fe (1919), Mendoza (1939), Bahφa Blanca (1956), Corrientes (1957), and Santa Rosa (1959).
\par {\b The Government}
\par \tab The constitution of Argentina was adopted in 1853 and has been amended several times. It established Argentina as a federal republic with separate executive, legislative, and judicial branches. The constitution calls for an executive branch to be headed by a president, who is elected directly by the people for a term of four years and who may not succeed himself. The president and the vice-president must both be Roman Catholics and at least 30 years old. The president also serves as commander in chief of the armed forces.
\par \tab According to the constitution the legislature--the Argentine National Congress--is to consist of two houses, the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies. The Senate is to be composed of a minimum of two members from each of Argentina's provinces and from the Federal District. Provincial senators must be 30 years of age and are elected by their local legislatures for nine-year terms. Members of the Chamber of Deputies must be at least 25 years old and are elected directly by the people for four-year terms. The number of deputies is based on population. Voting is compulsory for all citizens between the ages of 18 and 70 with exceptions based on such conditions as health and distance from a polling place. Some people have also been deprived of the right to vote for legal reasons.
\par \tab The judiciary consists of a Supreme Court and a series of lower courts. The nine justices of the Supreme Court are appointed for life by the president with the consent of the Senate. Federal court jurisdiction includes those cases that involve the constitution and laws and treaties of the nation.
\par \tab In 1976 the elected civilian government was deposed by the armed forces, an event that has often occurred in Argentine history. A military junta then took control of Argentina under a revised constitution that called for the president to be a retired army officer in addition to the other requirements. All activity by political parties was suspended by the regime established by the junta. With the return to civilian rule in 1983, the constitution of 1853 was restored.
\par \tab In international affairs Argentina is a member of the United Nations, the World Bank, and the General Agreement on Tariff and Trade. To participate in regional matters it belongs to the Organization of American States.
\par {\b History}
\par \tab The level of Indian civilization before the arrival of the Europeans in the early 16th century did not approach that of the Aztecs, Mayas, and Incas farther north. Some of the Indians in what is now Argentina were nomadic hunters, while others grew crops.
\par \tab Initial attempts by the Spaniards, the first Europeans to arrive, in 1516, in Argentina, to found settlements on the south bank of the Rφo de la Plata as well as on the Paranß River failed because of Indian attacks. The original colony of Buenos Aires, which was founded in 1536 by Pedro de Mendoza, was abandoned four years later, and a new settlement was established in safer territory far upstream at Asunci≤n. The Spaniards first succeeded at Asunci≤n because the more sedentary Guaranφ Indians living there were friendlier than the nomadic types farther south. Finally, working downstream from Asunci≤n, the Spaniards founded Santa Fe in 1573. They resettled Buenos Aires in 1580, and this time it became a permanent settlement.
\par \tab The Spaniards hoped to establish an inland trade route leading from Buenos Aires to the silver mines located at Potosφ, Bolivia. Transport of silver and supplies over this route never succeeded because of flooding during the wet season and low water in the Pilcomayo River region of the Gran Chaco during the dry season. As a result of their interest in the silver trade and also because of hostile Indians to the south the Spaniards did not settle the fertile pampas until the 19th century.
\par \tab Before the Spaniards tried to open the northwest trade route to Bolivia, other conquistadores had crossed the Andes in Chile and Peru and founded a line of cities stretching from north to south along the east side of the mountains. Their purpose was to supply the Bolivian mining region with food and mules for transport and to secure the region for trade. The latter was important to Buenos Aires, which received supplies from Spain via Panama, the Pacific Ocean, and Chile rather than directly across the Atlantic. The whole La Plata region was a subdivision of the viceroyalty of Peru and did not carry on direct trade with Spain until after 1776, when it was made a separate viceroyalty.
\par \tab Because of this enforced isolation the inhabitants of what is now Argentina had to develop their own production. For example, escaped horses that roamed wild on the pampas were periodically hunted for their hides and tallow and were also used in the transport of cargo and for riding. There quickly arose a gaucho tradition much like the cowboy tradition once found in the western United States. Indians who captured wild horses became formidable enemies who were not conquered easily. They were the basic reason that forts had to be built near Buenos Aires and that horses were obtained from hunting expeditions rather than raised by breeding ranches, or estancias. These horse ranches were not even developed until after the Indian threat had ended.
\par \tab As local agriculture and industry grew in the La Plata region, surplus products such as hides, vicu±a (a small llama-like animal) wool, and silver were used to trade for smuggled European goods. The long Pacific trade route with Spain was time-consuming and expensive, and so Spanish settlers bargained with the Portuguese who sold merchandise in Colonia, a town they had built on the left bank of the Rφo de la Plata opposite Buenos Aires. However, after the creation of the Rφo de la Plata viceroyalty in 1776 Buenos Aires traded directly with Spain. Hides and meat preserved by salting were shipped to Spain and became the most important trade items. The interior Andean towns declined in importance after the center of trade became focused on the Atlantic coast.
\par \tab In 1806 British troops occupied Buenos Aires. Deserted by the Spanish viceroy, the people (porte±os) ousted the British by themselves. After Napoleon I conquered Spain, colonial resistance to Spanish rule spread in Latin America. The porte±os set up a revolutionary government on May 25, 1810. The formal independence of the new United Provinces of the Rφo de la Plata was declared on July 9, 1816. Several years of fighting followed before the Spanish royalists were finally defeated. The hero of the war was Gen. JosΘ de San Martφn. Rival parties sought control of the new government. The resulting chaos permitted Juan Manuel de Rosas to seize power in 1829. He maintained a cruel and repressive dictatorship until it was overthrown in 1852. In 1853 Argentina became a federal republic.
\par \tab During the next several decades the nation's economy expanded. As Indian tribes were defeated on the pampas, tracts of their land were given away by the government. In 1880 Gen. Julio Roca, hero of the Indian wars, became president. Other presidents of that era were BartolomΘ Mitre (1862-68) and Domingo Faustino Sarmiento (1868-74), who fostered educational reforms. Roque Sßenz Pe±a (1910-14) established the secret ballot and allowed adult males to vote. Hip≤lito Irigoyen (1916-22 and 1928-30) instituted advanced labor laws.
\par \tab Argentina remained neutral during World War I. The postwar economic depression and growing corruption in government led in 1930 to a military coup, after which Gen. JosΘ FΘlix Uriburu was installed as president. A gradual return to democratic government in the 1930s was countered by a strong dicta torial trend. Argentina remained neutral in World War II until 1945, when it finally declared war on Germany.
\par \tab Colonel Juan Per≤n emerged after the war as Argentina's new strongman. Promising a better living for the urban workers, Per≤n was elected president in 1946. He repressed demands for democratic government, but, aided by his popular actress-wife, Eva, was reelected by an overwhelming majority in 1951. He was determined to make Argentina industrially self-sufficient. Supported by constitutional reforms adopted in 1949, he nationalized railways, utilities, and other foreign-owned properties. Per≤n's downfall came when students, bankers, industrialists, and other groups turned against him. In 1952 the death of his wife, who had her own political following, also weakened his support. In September 1955 the armed forces rebelled, and Per≤n fled the country. After Per≤n's ouster, the country suffered from high unemployment, high inflation, and a series of military dictatorships.
\par \tab Political unrest brought Per≤n back to leadership for a short time. He died in 1974, and he was succeeded by his third wife, Marφa Estela (Isabel) Martφnez de Per≤n, the first woman head of state in South America. In 1976 she was forced by the military to resign because she was unable to curb the extreme inflation rate. The military took over, and Gen. Jorge RafaΘl Videla assumed the presidency. During the so-called dirty war that followed, thousands of leftists and other political opponents were killed or imprisoned or simply disappeared. The Argentine government, maintaining that it was fighting a civil war, was subject to much criticism at home and abroad for civil rights violations.
\par \tab In 1982 a military conflict took place between Argentina and Great Britain over control of the Falkland Islands, known in Argentina as the Islas Malvinas. Although the islands lie about 300 miles (480 kilometers) off the east coast of Argentina, they have been controlled by Britain since 1833. Argentina also claimed the Falklands, and in 1982 Argentine troops invaded East Falkland. A British naval force counterattacked soon after the Argentine occupation, and the British quickly regained control over the islands.
\par \tab The defeat caused Lieut. Gen. Leopoldo Galtieri to resign as president of Argentina; his successor, Maj. Gen. Reynaldo Bignone, promised a return to civilian rule. In October 1983 a lawyer, Ra·l Alfonsφn of the centrist Radical Civic Union, was elected president. His victory ended the military regime and the domination the Peronist party had held since the 1940s. In 1987 and 1988 there were uprisings by military officers who opposed Alfonsφn's government. In 1989 the country faced its worst energy crisis in 40 years and continued to be plagued by severe inflation. In May 1989 Carlos Sa·l Menem of the Peronist party was elected president. Alfonsφn resigned at the end of June, and Menem was inaugurated on July 8, five months ahead of schedule, so he could tackle the huge economic problems of the country. Menem reversed five decades of state control of the economy by planning a free-market economy, with lower tariffs based on wage-price pacts between labor, business, and government, and by declaring that all major state-owned industries would be privatized by 1993. He also sought to quell the military's discontent by pardoning those involved in the dirty war of the 1970s, a move for which he was strongly criticized.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab Robert C. Eidt
\par \tab {\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR ARGENTINA}
\par \tab Crawley, Eduardo. A House Divided: Argentina 1880-1980 (St. Martin, 1984).
\par \tab Hintz, Martin. Argentina (Children's, 1985).
\par \tab Lye, Keith. Take a Trip to Argentina (Watts, 1986).
\par \tab Waisman, C.H. Reversal of Development in Argentina (Princeton Univ. Press, 1987).\par \tab One of the world's oldest centers of civilization and once the smallest republic of the Soviet Union, Armenia is an independent republic in the Caucasus Mountains.
\par \tab Armenia covers an area of 11,500 square miles (29,800 square kilometers). It is situated in the southern part of the Caucasus, the region between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea. Armenia borders on Azerbaijan, Georgia, Turkey, and Iran. Yerevan, near the Turkish border, is the capital and chief city, with a population of about 1.2 million.
\par \tab The land is a lofty plateau, crossed by mountain ridges and cut by valleys. The highest peak is Mount Aragats, an extinct volcano 13,418 feet (4,090 meters) high. The climate is cool in the highlands and warm in the lowlands.
\par \tab About 90 percent of the people are ethnic Armenians. The remainder of the population is made up primarily of Azerbaijanis and Russians, with a small number of Kurds, Ukrainians, and other groups. The Armenians belong mainly to the Armenian Apostolic church or the Armenian Catholic church.
\par \tab The chief agricultural and industrial region is the Araks River valley. Irrigated fields produce wine grapes--the most important crop--figs, olives, pomegranates, cotton, and fruits. In higher altitudes grains, sugar beets, tobacco, potatoes, and hay are grown and cattle, sheep, and goats are pastured. Mineral resources include metal ores.
\par \tab The development of hydroelectric power transformed ancient Yerevan into a major industrial city. Its chief products are chemicals, clothing, precision instruments, and machinery. Other Armenian industries include food processing and textiles.
\par \tab {\b History.}
\par \tab In ancient times Armenia was conquered by Assyria and by Persia, but it continued to be governed by native kings. Following conquest by Alexander the Great, it was ruled by a Greek dynasty.
\par \tab In AD 300 the Armenian king Tiridates III was converted to Christianity. He at once made Christianity the state religion and took steps to stamp out the old Persian religion, Zoroastrianism. In the 5th century a separate Christian church was established. In 653 Armenia fell to the Arabs, who were spreading their new Islamic religion. Persia took Armenia again in 1502, but the Turks soon wrested most of it from them and brought it into the Ottoman Empire. Both the Persians and the Turks oppressed their Christian subjects. The Armenians began to leave their homeland and scattered over Asia and Africa.
\par \tab In 1828 Russia took from Persia the region later known as Russian Armenia. In 1878, at the Congress of Berlin that followed the Russo-Turkish War, Russia gained part of Turkish Armenia. Kurds, who had been resettled on Armenian land, massacred thousands of Armenians in 1894, 1895, 1896, and 1909. During World War I the Turkish government systematically began to annihilate the Armenians. Many fled and immigrated to Russia, Syria, Egypt, the Balkans, Western Europe, and the United States.
\par \tab The Treaty of SΦvres (1920) between Turkey and the victorious Allies recognized the independence of Armenian territories in both the Soviet Union and Turkey. In December 1920, however, the Soviets sent troops to Yerevan and set up a Soviet government over Russian Armenia. In 1922 Russian Armenia became part of the Transcaucasian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic. In 1936 the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic was made a separate constituent republic of the Soviet Union.
\par \tab Since 1988 violent ethnic riots and armed demonstrations have been common between Armenians and Azerbaijanis. The unrest followed a vote in 1988 by the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast, which is mostly populated by ethnic Armenians but is part of Azerbaijan, to secede and be united with Armenia. Soviet troops were sent to restore order in the disputed region and in Yerevan. Azerbaijanis blockaded Armenia's rail lines to the region, and fighting continued to break out along the border even though the Supreme Soviet voted to return control of the region to Azerbaijan.
\par \tab A massive earthquake, measuring 6.9 on the Richter scale, devastated a widespread area near the Turkish border on Dec. 7, 1988. About 25,000 people were killed and more than 500,000 left homeless. The cities of Spitak, Kirovakan, and Leninakan were partially or totally destroyed.
\par \tab Armenia was one of six republics that boycotted a referendum on March 17, 1991, on continuing the union. Armenia, Georgia, Moldavia, Latvia, Lithuania, and Estonia declared their intention to secede from the Soviet Union, and refused in May to sign a union treaty that would fundamentally change the structure and formal name of the Soviet Union. The union treaty collapsed after the August 1991 attempted coup to oust Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev. Armenia declared its sovereignty and its independence in late August, and proclaimed its independence again in September. On Dec. 21, 1991, with ten other former Soviet republics, Armenia joined the Commonwealth of Independent States, which was to be an alliance of fully independent states. Population (1991 estimate), 3,376,000.\par \tab A self-governing island of The Netherlands, Aruba is approximately 50 miles (80 kilometers) west of Curaτao and 15 miles (24 kilometers) north of Venezuela. The island is mostly flat and covers an area of about 75 square miles (194 square kilometers).
\par \tab Tourism benefits from Aruba's deepwater harbors for cruise ships, its international airport, long stretches of white sandy beaches, and a favorable climate. The Lago Oil refining complex was the main source of employment until it closed in 1985. Two plants produce low-sulfur fuel oil, and a petrochemical plant produces ammonia.
\par \tab More than half the people are of Indian ancestry; the rest are European or other immigrants. The official language is Dutch, but the native language used in daily life is Papiamento, a mixture of Portuguese, Dutch, Spanish, and African origin.
\par \tab Aruba's earliest inhabitants were Arawak Indians. Aruba was claimed by Spain in 1499. The Dutch West India Company garrisoned the island in 1634, and it has remained under Dutch control, except for 13 years of intermittent British rule in the early 1800s.
\par \tab On Jan. 1, 1986, Aruba seceded from the Netherlands Antilles. All local affairs are handled by an island government. The Netherlands, however, still controls the island's defense and foreign affairs. Aruba is expected to gain complete independence in 1996. Population (1991 estimate), 66,000.\par \tab A land of extremes and contrasts, Asia is the largest and the most populous continent. It has the highest mountains and most of the longest rivers, highest plateaus, and largest deserts and plains of all the continents. Asia is also home to some of the world's oldest cultures. It has some of the poorest as well as some of the richest nations in the world. It contains a major share of the world's largest cities, yet most of Asia's people are rural dwellers. Because of its size, age, population, and rich resources Asia has long been of great interest to the rest of the world. During much of Asia's history, outsiders, principally Europeans, have tried to exploit and control it and its people. In the 20th century, however, Asia has been the scene of great change. Many of the undeveloped countries of the region are taking various approaches to modernizing their economies and societies, some under Communism. Progress has often been slow because of physical and cultural barriers, but there have been some notable advances and the efforts to upgrade living standards continue.
\par {\b Two Definitions of Asia: Classical and Modern}
\par \tab Asia is actually just one part of the Eurasian landmass, the largest body of land on Earth. Through time, a division of Eurasia into two parts, Europe and Asia, became generally accepted. The dividing line started with the Ural Mountains in Russia and then continued south to the Caspian Sea, turning west to follow the boundary between today's Iran and Turkey and Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan. Turkey thus was the westernmost part of Asia. Asia then, in the classical sense, extends east as far as the Pacific Ocean, north to the Arctic Ocean, and south to the Indian Ocean and the islands of Southeast Asia. Europeans called Asia the Orient, meaning "east," and the Western world was referred to as the Occident, meaning "west." These old terms are seldom used anymore.
\par \tab Some geographers prefer to define Asia in a narrower sense. This smaller Asia is based on the region's more recent political, cultural, and economic changes. Thus, modern Asia would exclude two subregions, Russian Asia (Siberia) and Southwest Asia. Remaining in the modern version of Asia are three subregions: South Asia, Southeast Asia, and East Asia. Although this article on Asia uses the classical, larger definition of the continent, some recognition is given to the modern interpretation of Asia.
{\b THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT}
\par {\b Land and Population}
\par \tab Even the modern, smaller definition of Asia would make it the largest and most populous of the continents. Classical Asia is even larger. Its area of more than 17 million square miles (44 million square kilometers) accounts for almost one third of the Earth's land surface, or an area greater than the two Americas or Europe and Africa combined. From a population perspective, Asia leads the world even more. There are about 2.6 billion people in Asia, 60 percent of the world total. Most of those people, some 2.2 billion, are concentrated within the modern limitations of Asia (South, Southeast, and East), which is one reason for trying to confine the study of Asia.
\par \tab Regardless, the share of the world's people living in Asia is increasing steadily. By the year 2000, Asia's share should reach about 3.8 billion or about 61 percent of the world total. This fact alone demonstrates the importance of Asia. Asia's population density thus is high, about 151 persons per square mile (58 per square kilometer), compared to around 40 per square mile (15 per square kilometer) in North America. Moreover, Asia's population is unevenly distributed, so that in some of the most populous countries of the continent, the densities are far higher. In Japan, for example, the density is about 850 per square mile (330 per square kilometer).
\par {\b Seas and Islands}
\par \tab One of the major characteristics of Asia is that most of the population is crowded onto a broad fringe extending to the ocean; an area that is relatively fertile, level, and well-watered. This can be pictured as an arc extending through the three subregions of East, Southeast, and South Asia. The association with the sea is strong. Three oceans border Asia, the Arctic, Pacific, and Indian, but the latter two are by far the most important to the people of Asia. Within the areas where these oceans touch the continent are many of the world's largest and most important islands and archipelagoes.
\par \tab On its eastern side Asia is strung with island arcs that enclose many seas. In the northeast, Asia comes closest to North America, where the Alaskan mainland lies only 53 miles (85 kilometers) from Siberia. The Aleutian Island chain encloses the Bering Sea. The Kamchatka Peninsula and the Kuril Islands fence off the Sea of Okhotsk in Siberia. Sakhalin Island and the main islands of Japan bend in another arc toward the Korean Peninsula to set off the Sea of Japan. The Ryukyu Islands arc southward to the island of Taiwan, enclosing the Yellow Sea and East China Sea. From Taiwan south, the Philippine archipelago picks up the pattern, blending into the island of Borneo to delimit the South China Sea. Much of Southeast Asia is a complex mix of islands and seas.
\par \tab This distinctive pattern of island arcs is the result of the so-called Ring of Fire that largely encloses the Pacific Ocean. In this area the land is geologically young and still developing. The islands along the ring are thus rugged, and volcanoes and earthquakes are common in this region.
\par \tab In South Asia, the pattern of seas and islands is not so striking, and the region is dominated by the mass of the Indian Ocean fronting directly on the mainland. The largest island, Sri Lanka (formerly Ceylon) lies off the tip of the Indian subcontinent. The Bay of Bengal directly to the east is separated from the Andaman Sea by the Andaman and Nicobar islands that trail southward toward Sumatra. To the west of India there is a sprinkling of mostly coral atolls in the Laccadive Islands and Maldives, running south out of the Arabian Sea. Southwest Asia is distinctly shaped by the peninsulas of Arabia and Turkey and the seas that surround them, particularly the Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea, Red Sea, and Persian Gulf.
\par {\b Continent of Extremes}
\par \tab Asia's great expanse from the equatorial tropics to the arctic (6,000 miles; 9,650 kilometers) and from the Pacific Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea (5,900 miles; 9,500 kilometers) results in a continent of extreme contrasts. Asia contains virtually every kind of natural landscape. Roughly half the continent consists of highlands, and about 8 percent is more than 10,000 feet (3,000 meters) above sea level. Asia's average elevation exceeds that of all the other continents except Antarctica.
\par {\b Mountainous Center}
\par \tab Dominating the Asian landscape is the huge Tibetan-Qinghai Highlands, which occupy much of western China. This plateau is the highest and largest in the world. According to some geologists it was created by movements of the Earth's crust between India and Tibet that forced the plateau upward. Geologists say it is still rising.
\par \tab In the western part of this plateau are the Pamir Mountains, called the Roof of the World, where China, Tajikistan, Pakistan, and Afghanistan meet. From this mountain knot, lofty ranges spread outward in many directions. The Hindu Kush runs southwest through Afghanistan. To the northeast extends the Tian Shan. The Karakoram runs southeast and merges into the Himalayas, the highest mountain range in the world. Mount Everest, the tallest peak (29,023 feet; 8,846 meters), is located there, as are the other eight highest peaks of the world. The Himalayas are a favorite challenge for mountain climbers.
\par \tab The largest area of highlands in Asia thus is connected with the Tibetan plateau. Most of western and northern China, as well as all of Mongolia and much of southern Siberia, is dominated by mountains and plateaus.
\par \tab To the north is the great plain of Siberia that rims the Arctic Ocean and stretches west, with few physical barriers, to European Russia. The Caspian Sea and the Ural Mountains mark the traditional western limit of Asia. South, southwest, and east of the highland core of Asia, the landscape is a mix of lower mountain ranges, hills, plains, and valleys, which blends into the island arcs of the east and southeast.
\par {\b Great Rivers and Their Basins}
\par \tab The drainage pattern of Asia is also dominated by the central highland core. With the exception of Southwest Asia, all the great rivers of Asia flow out of this central highland region. Eight of the twenty longest rivers in the world are found in Asia. Those that flow to the Arctic through Siberia include the Ob, Yenisey, and Lena. The valleys they form are largely uninhabited because of the harsh climate.
\par \tab The rivers that flow to the east and south, however, have been home to millions of people since the beginning of history. Their valleys have the combination of warmth and moisture that was favorable to early civilizations. These rivers include the eastward flowing Amur (or Heilongjiang), the Huang He, the Yangtze, and the Hsi, all in China. Southeast Asia has the great rivers of the Mekong, Chao Phraya, Salween, and Irrawaddy. In South Asia are located the Ganges-Brahmaputra and Indus rivers. Southwest Asia is arid and has few major rivers. The most important are the Tigris and Euphrates, which flow out of the highlands of Turkey.
\par \tab Not all of Asia's rivers reach the sea. From the Caspian Sea eastward through parts of the central mountain core of western China is a region of interior drainage. Here rivers flow from the mountains across arid lands and disappear into salty lakes or swamps. This is a rugged land and is among the least populated parts of Asia.
\par {\b Extremes of Climate}
\par \tab Asia has every type of climate found in the world. The major factors that influence Asia's climate pattern are its huge land area, its location between the tropics and the arctic, and its great range in elevations from sea level to high plateaus and mountains. The dominant climatic pattern over most of the inhabited part of Asia is the monsoon, the seasonal shift in wind patterns between winter and summer. Most of Asia's people live in what is sometimes called "monsoon Asia." This includes the subregions of East, Southeast, and South Asia. During winter, cold, dry air moves southward out of the Mongolian Plateau, giving northern Asia little precipitation in winter. In summer the pattern reverses, with warm, moist air moving northward from the tropics. Rainfall is heaviest at this time, especially in the coastal band of the three subregions. By the time the air masses reach farther north, most of the moisture is gone. Precipitation is therefore heaviest in southern and eastern Asia where most of the people live.
\par \tab To the north, in Siberia, the climate is cold and dry. The extreme northern fringe, as well as much of the Tibetan-Qinghai Plateau, has a tundra climate, sometimes also called a cold desert because the land is dry like a desert but with cold temperatures. Most of the remainder of Siberia has a subarctic climate. In this area stands a vast evergreen forest known as the taiga. There, some of the world's coldest temperatures have been recorded.
\par \tab Steppe and desert climates dominate the regions just south of the subarctic; they affect most of north and west China, Russia, and virtually all of Southwest Asia and western South Asia. These are regions of low precipitation and hot summers. Because of the dryness and lack of sources of fresh water, large parts of the steppe and desert regions are uninhabited.
\par \tab Parts of northern China, plus North and South Korea and part of Japan, have a continental warm summer climate. Winters are fairly cold, but summers warm and humid, and thus the land is well-suited for agriculture and human settlement. To the south a large humid subtropical climate zone prevails. It stretches from southern Japan through all of southern China and parts of northern Southeast Asia and South Asia. Because of the mild climate of this region, it is one of the most densely populated parts of Asia the world. Nearly 1 billion people live in this hospitable climate zone of Asia.
\par \tab Farther south are the tropical humid climate zones of South and Southeast Asia. They have high year-round temperatures and heavy precipitation, which have given rise to some of the world's densest tropical rain forests. On the mainland, where the winter monsoon effect is felt, precipitation is concentrated in summer and there is a winter dry season, producing a savanna climate. Particularly in a high population density region such as India, the timely arrival of the summer monsoon is critical to millions of people who depend on the rains for agriculture.
\par {\b Plant and Animal Life}
\par \tab The distribution of Asia's natural vegetation and wildlife is directly related to the continent's climate patterns. Thus, the types of plant and animal life are as various as the climate. Wherever humans have been present in large numbers for a long time, such as India and China, the need for land for agriculture and settlement has meant the destruction of wildlife and natural vegetation. In Southeast Asia the once extensive tropical rain forest is rapidly disappearing because of logging operations, population growth, and agricultural expansion. China has barely 12 percent of its land under natural forest cover, the lowest proportion of any major country in the world. Only in Siberia, where the population is small, has the natural landscape survived relatively unchanged. To a lesser extent that is also true in the steppes and deserts.
\par \tab Asia was once the range for countless species of wildlife, including some found only in Asia. Now many species have been drastically reduced in numbers, some close to the point of extinction. The governments of most nations in Asia have not had strong policies for protecting wildlife, and uncontrolled hunting has often been allowed. Nevertheless, some unique animal species that are found only in parts of Asia still survive, including the yak, giant panda, Siberian tiger, Bactrian camel, Bengal tiger, Indian leopard, Indian elephant, Indian rhinoceros, Malay tapir, gibbon, and orangutan.
\par {\b Asia's Geographic Regions}
\par \tab The five major regions, or realms, into which classical Asia is divided are distinguished primarily by culture, history, political development, and, to some extent, natural environment. The five regions, as stated earlier, are: Russian Asia, Southwest Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia, and East Asia.
\par \tab {\b Russian Asia.}
\par \tab Russian Asia (largely Siberia) accounts for about three fourths of the territory of the former Soviet Union. It includes Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan. This region was controlled by Imperial Russia during the 17th to 19th centuries. A vast, largely barren land, it has always resisted human settlement because of severe cold in the north and dryness in the south. Only a small proportion of Russia's people live there today despite the area's size. The population is denser in a narrow band running east and west along the southern border of the region, just north of Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Mongolia, China, and North Korea. This is the route of the Trans-Siberian Railroad.
\par \tab Russian Asia extends all the way to the Bering Strait, which separates it from North America. The principal economic activities in Russian Asia are mining of the region's rich mineral wealth, particularly coal and oil, and logging in the taiga, the world's largest forest. Heavy industrial activities include petroleum and gas refining, chemical and metal production, machine building, and construction. The harsh climate and vast area hamper greater development.
\par \tab {\b Southwest Asia.}
\par \tab Like Russian Asia, Southwest Asia is a subregion that is not regarded as part of the modern concept of Asia. The area extends from Asian Turkey and Iran in the north, south through Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Jordan, and Saudi Arabia and the other states of the Arabian Peninsula. This is a regiondominated by a dry climate, and thus the total population has never been large. Of the more than 134 million people in the region, Iran and Turkey account for more than half. Culturally, the region is the easternmost extension of the Middle East-North Africa realm, that area dominated by the Arabic-Islamic culture. Although Southwest Asia has had long historical associations with the rest of Asia to the east, its main economic and political ties have been to the West, with North Africa and Europe.
\par \tab Southwest Asia was the site of some of the earliest civilizations. This was in the Fertile Crescent, starting in the Tigris-Euphrates valleys in present-day Iraq and curving down through the valley of the Jordan River and the Dead Sea in present-day Jordan and Israel. Although economically limited by the arid climate, Southwest Asia has been fortunate during the 20th century because of the vast oil deposits found there, especially around the Persian Gulf. The wealth earned from oil exports has economically transformed much of the region and made some of the nations among the richest in the world. Oil has made Southwest Asia a region of vital importance to the world's industrial countries. In the 20th century Southwest Asia has been the focus of numerous world crises, both because of cultural conflicts and the attempts of industrial nations to influence and control the oil-rich region.
\par \tab {\b South Asia.}
\par \tab South Asia is sometimes referred to as the Indian subcontinent. It consists of modern India, plus the smaller nations of Pakistan and Afghanistan to the west, Bangladesh to the east, Nepal and Bhutan to the north, and the island nations of Sri Lanka and the Maldives to the south. The northern boundary of South Asia is the great Himalayan mountain chain, which forms the southern border of Tibet, a part of China. South Asia is about half the size of the United States and has a great range of natural features and climates. Nepal and Bhutan are landlocked mountain states with limited agricultural potential. The same is true of Afghanistan, though it has a much larger territory.
\par \tab Afghanistan's strategic location near Russian Asia has made it a crossroads and the target of numerous invasions including one by the Soviet Union in 1979. Most of western South Asia, including parts of Pakistan and western India, is extremely arid. Irrigation, mainly from the Indus River, has long been vital to agriculture there. In the east, Bangladesh shares the valleys of the Ganges and Brahmaputra with India. This is the heartland of South Asia, with the most humid climate and best conditions for agriculture. More than half of South Asia's 1 billion people live in these valleys. South of the Ganges Valley the land slopes to the Indian plateau and the climate is subtropical to tropical. With the development of irrigation and hydroelectric projects, the region has made industrial progress.
\par \tab All of South Asia was controlled by the British, as part of their worldwide colonial empire, until independence was granted in the late 1940s. The British left a legacy of many economic improvements, including an extensive railway system, and a strong political and cultural imprint on the traditional societies of the region. However, the great diversity of peoples, languages, and religions in South Asia, combined with overpopulation and extensive poverty, left the region with many problems of national development.
\par \tab Since independence, there have been many improvements characterized by growth of industry, mechanization of agriculture, urbanization, and an increase in literacy. The South Asian nations are still poor, but they are developing.
\par \tab {\b Southeast Asia.}
\par \tab Southeast Asia consists of two main parts: mainland and insular (largely the island area). The mainland is composed of parallel mountain ranges and river valleys that run south and southeast out of the Tibetan plateau and surrounding highlands. Thus, the mainland nations of Myanmar (formerly Burma), Thailand, Laos, Cambodia (Kampuchea), and Vietnam consist of river valley cores in which most of the people live. These cores are surrounded by less populous highlands. In Myanmar the core is the Irrawaddy Valley. In Thailand it is the Chao Phraya. In Laos, Cambodia, and southern Vietnam, the cores center along the Mekong River. In northern Vietnam the core is in the Red River valley. Insular Southeast Asia consists of the Malay peninsula and the many islands that make up the nations of Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Brunei, and the Philippines. Indonesia alone has about 13,000 islands. People on these islands live largely along coastal plains and short river valleys that flow out of the mountainous interiors of the islands. Most of the islands are mountainous, and many are of volcanic origin. The most famous and important of the islands is Java in Indonesia.
\par \tab Southeast Asia's population of about 440 million is much smaller than that of South or East Asia, but the land area of Southeast Asia is also smaller. The population is unevenly distributed, and population densities in parts of the region range among the world's highest. Indonesia alone has more than 181 million people, more than half of them on the island of Java. All of Southeast Asia was under colonial rule or influence until after World War II. Independent civilizations, such as the Khmer and Thai, flourished in the region long before the colonial rule of the British, French, Dutch, Spanish, and Portuguese was imposed starting in the 16th and 17th centuries. Since independence these countries have struggled to develop their natural resources and industries. For example, Singapore and Jakarta have become modern industrial centers. Indonesia is a major petroleum producer, and Malaysia is a major tin producer. Throughout the region new techniques are being used to increase production of rice and other grain crops. Plantation crops such as rubber, bananas, coconuts, sugarcane, tea, palm oil, and spices are also important.
\par \tab The Indochina conflict that raged from World War II until the mid-1970s hampered progress in the states of Indochina, of which Vietnam has become perhaps the most powerful. Turmoil has continued in the region, especially in Cambodia, further complicating economic growth.
\par \tab {\b East Asia.}
\par \tab East Asia consists of the nations of Japan, North and South Korea, China, Taiwan, and Mongolia, and the colonies of Macao and Hong Kong. An old term for the region is the Far East, dating from earlier history when the area was "far" from Europe and "east" of Europe in terms of traveling time and direction. It lies mostly within the Temperate Zone, and thus the climatic patterns and natural environment are similar in many ways to those of Europe and southern North America.
\par \tab China, with its huge size and population, dominates East Asia physically. The remaining much smaller states are located along the eastern side of the region, which includes the peninsula of Korea, divided today into the two nations of North Korea and South Korea. The island nation of Japan is also there. In the southeast is the island of Taiwan (formerly Formosa), where the Republic of China government rules in exile as a legacy of the Chinese Revolution. The government of the People's Republic of China also claims control of Taiwan. Hong Kong, on China's southeast coast, is still administered as a British colony. There is also the tiny Portuguese colony of Macao just across the bay from Hong Kong. Both Portugal and Britain agreed in the 1980s to transfer control over these colonies to China in the 1990s. Culturally, the Republic of Mongolia is also part of East Asia. However, Mongolia was politically tied to the Soviet Union for much of the 20th century and plays no significant role in current East Asian affairs.
\par \tab East Asia is the most populous region in the world, with about 1.4 billion people, or more than one fourth of the world total. More than 1 billion of those people are in China alone. Most of these people are concentrated in the eastern fringe of the region, where there are extensive lowlands and the most favorable climate. In this area population densities are among the highest in the world.
\par \tab China was the first great civilization in East Asia and strongly influenced the cultural development of the other peoples in the region. For this reason, East Asia is also sometimes referred to as the Sinic (meaning "Chinese") culture realm. During the 19th and early 20th centuries, China was gravely weakened by internal political and economic problems, which were aggravated by Western and Japanese colonial efforts to exploit the country. The Chinese Revolution, which started in 1911, resulted finally in the Communists seizing power in 1949. Since then China has struggled to overcome its problems of overpopulation and lack of technology in order to develop as a modern industrial nation. Progress has been gradual but slow. Although much smaller in size and population, Japan is the economic giant of the region and one of the most powerful industrial nations in the world. South Korea, Taiwan, and Hong Kong are rapidly industrializing, following the Japanese model.
{\b PEOPLES AND CULTURES}
\par \tab The racial pattern of Asia is extremely complex. The three main racial groups are found there: Caucasoid, Mongoloid, and Negroid. The Caucasoid dominates in South and Southwest Asia, and the Mongoloid in East and Southeast Asia, as well as in Siberia. The Negroid peoples, much fewer in numbers, are found mainly in South Asia. The Aryo-Dravidians of India are also sometimes regarded as a separate main racial group. Among these racial families are many variations, commonly based on language and culture differences. On the one hand, there has been considerable mixing of the races. On the other hand, many groups have been isolated because of physical barriers, such as mountains, deserts, and seas. This isolation has influenced the development of special ethnic characteristics among certain groups.
\par {\b Languages}
\par \tab The language patterns of Asia reflect the great diversity of peoples. Ural-Altaic languages are predominant in Siberia. In East Asia and parts of Southeast Asia various Sino-Tibetan languages are spoken. Korean and Japanese are unique variations derived from both the Ural-Altaic and Sino-Tibetan groups. The peoples of insular Southeast Asia speak various Malay languages. In South Asia the Dravidian and Indo-Aryan are the main language families. In Southwest Asia, Arabic and Irano-Armenian languages are the most common. These are the broadest patterns. Actually, the language situation in Asia is far more complex, because there are often dozens of variations in each language family. South and Southeast Asia are especially complex in their language patterns. Indeed, the great variety of spoken and written languages is often one of the main obstacles to developing a sense of national unity in the countries of these regions. In some places, inhabitants share a common written language but are unable to understand the spoken dialects of their neighbors.
\par \tab To overcome problems of communication, most Asian countries have adopted a national or official language. Often this is the language spoken by a large segment of the population. Hindi spoken in India and Bahasa Indonesia (Javanese) in Indonesia are examples. In China the spoken dialect of the Beijing region of northern China has been the national language for decades. As a result of past colonialism, European languages, especially English and French, are widely used in Asia. Throughout Asia most schoolchildren study English for at least a few years. Most educated people in Asia know more than one language. English remains the unofficial national language of India and a number of other former British colonies. Dutch, Spanish, and French may also still be heard in other former colonies.
\par {\b Religions}
\par \tab Asia was the birthplace for most of the great world religions, including Christianity, Judaism, Islam, Hinduism, and Buddhism. The first three emerged out of the ancient Middle East (Southwest Asia). These three faiths share the belief that there is but one God. There are other similarities, but there are also some fundamental differences among the three. Such differences have often been among the causes that led to bloody conflict between followers of the faiths, beginning with the Crusades of the Middle Ages and most recently in the Israeli-Arab struggle. Fierce internal struggles have also taken place between factions within each religion. Of these three religions Islam has become the most widespread on the Asian continent. Muslims are the dominating group in the countries of Southwest Asia and in parts of South and Southeast Asia.
\par \tab Hinduism and Buddhism developed in South Asia. The latter was carried to East and Southeast Asia where it is still significant. Buddhism, however, is no longer a major religion in South Asia itself. Sikhism, a combination of Islamic and Hindu elements, also grew out of South Asia. Confucianism emerged in China more than 2,000 years ago. Not a true religion, Confucianism is more of a social-ethical system, and it profoundly influenced China's development. Many elements of Confucianism still play important roles in Chinese society, even under Communism, which discourages religion.
\par \tab Other religions confined to East Asia include Taoism in China and Shintoism in Japan. These are also not considered true religions. In Southeast Asia, Buddhism dominated the mainland area and Islam spread through most of the insular area. As a result of Spanish colonialism, many of the peoples of the Philippines were converted to Catholicism. That country has one of the only dominant Christian populations in all of Asia today, though there are notable Christian minorities in many Asian countries. Christian missionaries worked throughout much of Asia during the colonial era, trying to convert people. Their religious impact was slight in terms of numbers of converts, but they sometimes made contributions to health and education, especially among rural people. Christian missionaries are still active throughout Asia.
\par \tab Religious divisions, often related to language and cultural differences, have been the source of many social and political problems. For example, the partition of British India after World War II was mainly the result of the inability of the Muslims (believers in Islam) and Hindus to live peaceably together. Thus, a Muslim Pakistan was created in two sections on the subcontinent, leaving a mostly Hindu India in between. The two nations have frequently feuded since. In Southeast Asia, religious and cultural differences between Muslim Malays and nonreligious Chinese have been a source of tension in some of the countries there. In Iran, after the overthrow of the shah in 1979, a militantly orthodox Shiah Muslim government attempted to suppress other religious faiths. Islamic militancy has marked much of Asia's history and has continued in the 20th century.
\par \tab As the nations of Asia have modernized, the hold of traditional religions has weakened. This is particularly true in East Asia. During the era of Mao Zedong in China, from 1949 to 1976, for example, religion was officially discouraged. Some religious freedom, however, has been restored. In non-Communist East Asia social and technological modernization has tended to weaken the role of religion in society. Through Southeast, South, and Southwest Asia, where there is less economic development, religion still plays an important role in the daily life of millions of people.
\par \tab In addition, there are many other Asians who practice various forms of animism. These are tribal religious beliefs concerned with spiritual beings that can help or harm the believer. Animistic peoples are generally isolated and have little contact with others.
\par {\b Arts and Literature}
\par \tab The richness of Asia's cultures is reflected in its arts and literature. China, for example, developed one of the world's most distinctive cultures over a period of some 3,000 years. The Chinese developed unique forms of art, such as painting, ceramics, and bronzeware, as well as architecture, literature, and music. These profoundly influenced the cultures of Korea and Japan. The Indian civilization of South Asia also developed distinctive art forms, different from those of East Asia and in many ways related to the arts of the Middle East. Islamic art and architecture have also had a major influence on world culture. The art, architecture, and literature of Asia have long been highly appreciated by Westerners.
\par {\b Education and Health}
\par \tab In the more developed countries, especially Japan, there are high standards for education and health care. Most of the developing nations of Asia face major problems in improving education and health care for their large populations. Overpopulation remains the chief obstacle to improving the lives of the people. This is not only because of the large populations within each nation. It is also because such a large proportion of the population is young. In China, for example, more than 60 percent of the people are under 30 years old. In most of the region it is not uncommon for 40 to 50 percent of the population to be under 21. Subsequently there is an enormous demand for education, and the demand for health care and various other social services is growing continually.
\par \tab Most Asian countries, however, do not have economies strong enough to provide adequate services. Young people often receive only a primary school education. Many get no education at all and remain illiterate. A lucky few go on to high school, and even fewer to college. The labor forces thus tend to be poorly trained. Combined with low incomes and poor nutrition, this means that millions of Asians have shortened life-spans and suffer from chronic illnesses, untreated diseases, and reduced energy levels. Population control is generally recognized as a major requirement in solving these health and education problems in Asia's poorer countries.
{\b THE ECONOMY}
\par \tab Great poverty contrasted with great wealth characterizes Asia's economies. Parts of Asia, such as Japan, Singapore, and some of the Middle East oil-rich nations, have standards of living equal to that of most Western countries. Other parts of Asia, such as Indonesia, Myanmar, Indochina, and Bangladesh, have much lower standards of living. Many of the people live in poverty. Within many of the countries of Asia, there are great gaps in income levels, with a relatively small and wealthy elite living beside large masses of people who struggle to survive. Many factors account for this inequality; probably one of the most important is that Asia's people still depend largely on agriculture for their living; so a middle class has not been able to develop through industrial growth. What limited industrialization there is in most Asian countries tends to be concentrated in a few large cities. The wealth produced by such urban-centered industry tends not to spread evenly throughout the countries. Asia's traditional societies, reluctant to change customs, also foster inequality.
\par \tab The situation caused by these conditions is that of dual economies. In many of the smaller countries this means there is a small, relatively modern industrialized economy concentrated in the largest city, which is often the national capital. A small proportion of the people live there, but their average income tends to be higher than that of the majority of the people living in rural areas, where most of the people work in agriculture. There is little industry, and income levels are low. Society changes slowly in these areas. Because of this gap between rural areas and the large cities, millions of rural people have been moving from the countryside to the cities to seek a better life. This migration burdens the large cities with too many people, who often cannot find jobs, adequate housing, and other social services. The rural areas also suffer because most of the migrants are young men. This trend is one of the major problems facing Asian nations that are still largely agricultural.
\par {\b Agriculture}
\par \tab Most of Asia's peoples are farmers who struggle just to produce enough food to survive. Throughout the continent, the average person consumes only about 2,000 calories a day, which is just barely enough for minimum nutrition. Moreover, those calories tend to be high in starches and low in protein. Meat is a luxury for most Asians, eaten only on special occasions. The diet tends to consist mostly of rice or other grains, plus small amounts of vegetables and fruits, and protein from nonanimal sources, such as beans. In many countries fish is another source of protein.
\par \tab {\b Subsistence farming.}
\par \tab The type of agriculture practiced by most farmers is called subsistence farming. The whole family works hard in farming; there are few if any farm machines, and little surplus is produced for market. Farms tend to be small, an average of no more than two to three acres (about one hectare). Farming thus tends to be intensive; that is, the farmer must get a small land area to produce the highest possible yields. Fortunately, much of Asia lies in the tropics and warmer climates, so that double-cropping, or growing two crops each year, is possible. Rice is preferred in the warmer, wetter places; wheat and other dry grains are grown in the cooler and drier areas. The farmers often raise a little poultry or livestock as well, usually for the market.
\par \tab In hilly and mountainous areas farmers practice slash and burn cultivation, which is the crudest form of subsistence agriculture. This kind of agriculture consists of cutting down the forest cover, then burning it. Seed is then planted in the ground among the tree stumps; nothing more is done to help the plants grow until harvesttime. Yields are low, and after a few harvests the farmer must abandon the land and move on to a new forest area, where he starts the process again.
\par \tab {\b Commercial agriculture.}
\par \tab Commercial agriculture, in the form of plantations and small holdings, is also widespread in Asia, especially in the countries of Southeast and South Asia. European colonial rulers began this type of agriculture. The Europeans first acquired control over huge estates of land all over Asia and then planted them with a single crop, such as rubber, sugarcane, coffee, tea, or bananas. Labor was supplied by local peasants who worked for small wages. Most of the profits were returned to Europe.
\par \tab Plantation farming has declined greatly since the early 1950s, because most of the nations in which it was practiced regained independence. A few countries, such as Malaysia and Sri Lanka, have encouraged plantation farming in order to increase exports. Some countries have encouraged local farmers to produce commercial export crops on their small holdings. Most commercial production now comes from small holdings, and these crops provide a major source of export income for a number of Asian countries.
\par \tab {\b Nomadic herding.}
\par \tab In the drier parts of Asia, especially Southwest Asia, most rural people make a living by raising livestock. Many are nomads who move with their herds of animals over large territories, constantly seeking good supplies of grass and water. The people live simply and carry their tents and belongings with them. Such animals as goats, sheep, camels, and yaks, raised by these herders, are able to withstand dry climates.
\par \tab {\b Collectivized agriculture.}
\par \tab In the Communist nations of Asia, particularly China and the Soviet Union before its dissolution, agriculture has been collectivized. Governments ordered the farmers to pool their land and other resources with their neighbors to make large farms. In China these are called communes. The farmers work the land together and share the income produced. The government's goal is to produce more than was possible on the traditional small subsistence farms of the past. With more-efficient farming, surpluses would be produced to help feed the huge Chinese population. The commune system, however, did not meet expectations. In the era after Chairman Mao Zedong's death in 1976, the government determined that the commune system might not be providing enough incentives for farmers.
\par \tab To encourage farmers to produce more, China experimented with changes in the commune system. For example, in some areas families are given free use (but not ownership) of a plot of land. They can grow what they want on the land, as long as they turn over a fixed quota to the commune after the harvest.
\par \tab {\b Fisheries.}
\par \tab Much of the Asian population has traditionally relied upon fishing as an occupation and fishes as a source of protein in the diet. Most of the fishing is traditional and is done in small boats that stay close to shore. Japan and Russia have Asia's largest and most highly developed oceangoing fishing industries. They send large, modern fleets throughout the world in search of sea products, including whales. Aquaculture, or sea farming, is also common in Asia. This consists of raising shellfishes and other seafood, such as oysters, clams, shrimp, and seaweed, in offshore shallow waters. Freshwater fishes are also raised in ponds or caught in rivers in inland areas. This practice is widespread in warm, humid areas.
\par \tab {\b Forestry.}
\par \tab Timber for construction, firewood, and many other uses is widely harvested in Asia. In wetter, warmer areas, especially in the Southeast, bamboo plays a vital role in some traditional societies because of its many uses. The young bamboo shoots are even an important source of food. Commercial logging is most developed in Southeast Asia, where large areas are still covered with tropical and subtropical forests. Teak and mahogany are two notable wood products of this area. However, the demand for forest products for local use and for export has resulted in abuse of the forest cover. One of the main threats to the forest is that the people must use wood as cooking fuel. In parts of South Asia, such as India and Nepal, for example, the forest cover is rapidly disappearing for this reason. Soil erosion and other problems commonly result from this stripping of the forests. Increased conservation programs are sought, but they are difficult to implement where people depend on forest products for survival.
\par {\b Minerals and Power}
\par \tab Asia contains some of the richest mineral deposits in the world. The mining industry, however, is still poorly developed in many areas, and both total output and per capita output are low. The extent of mineral resources is still not fully known, and discoveries made since the early 1950s have improved projections for the future. Other natural resources that would serve as the basis for industrial growth, such as waterpower, are also plentiful.
\par {\b Energy Resources}
\par \tab The development of cheap energy for industrial growth is essential to the improvement of most Asian economies. Asia's energy resources are among the world's largest, but still only partially tapped. China, for example, contains the world's third largest coal deposits. Large coalfields are found in Siberia as well. India and Southeast Asia also have notable deposits.
\par \tab The richest oil reserves in the world are in Asia, mainly in Southwest Asia around the Persian Gulf. Most of the world's oil is produced there. But China and Russia have also become major petroleum producers, and Indonesia is the largest producer in Southeast Asia. Much of Russia's oil comes from Siberia. Oil exploration is being carried out all along the perimeter of Asia, from the waters off Korea and China south to Indonesia and west to the Persian Gulf. Oil exports have become important sources of income for an increased number of Asian nations. China and Malaysia now enjoy wealth from petroleum, and prospects for further finds are promising. Russia is the continent's chief producer of natural gas.
\par \tab Asia has the greatest waterpower potential of all the continents, but only a tiny fraction of this power has been developed. China has enormous quantities of undeveloped waterpower, especially along the Yangtze River. With so many of the world's major rivers located in Asia, it is understandable that the continent has such great potential power. However, the obstacles to development of this resource are many, including the cold climate in Siberia and the lack of capital in other areas. Dams for tapping waterpower are extremely expensive to build. A number of nations have been involved for decades trying to develop the waterpower of the Mekong River in Southeast Asia. Unfortunately, the Indochina conflict delayed that cooperative effort. Although hydroelectric power is continuing to grow, thermal power is generally a more widely used source for producing electricity.
\par \tab Another growing power source in Asia is nuclear energy. Nuclear power plants are operating in a number of Asian countries, but especially Japan, which is probably the largest producer and user of power in Asia. India, Pakistan, South Korea, and Russia are other places served by nuclear power, and many more plants are planned.
\par \tab {\b Metals and Other Minerals for Industry.}
\par \tab Among the mined metallic minerals useful to industry, iron ore is one of the most important because it is the basis of steelmaking. India and China are the largest iron ore producers in Asia. Accordingly, those two countries have the largest iron and steel industries in Asia, using their abundant coal supplies as fuel. Other iron ore deposits are located in North Korea, Malaysia, and Siberia. Bauxite, for aluminum production, is found in large amounts in India and Indonesia. Copper is mined in the Philippines and in other parts of Southeast Asia. Much of the world's tin comes from the tin belt that stretches from South China through Thailand and the Malay Peninsula to Indonesia. There are deposits of most of the other metallic minerals in Asia as well. Nonmetallic minerals are also abundant, but unevenly distributed, as are the metals. Sulfur, one of the most important, is produced in Japan, Korea, and China, as well as parts of Southwest Asia and Siberia. North and South Korea and China produce a large share of the world's graphite.
\par \tab Most of Asia's nations are not major consumers of minerals, because of their low levels of industrial development. One of the primary exceptions is Japan, which largely lacks the most important minerals but is highly industrialized. Japan must buy minerals from other parts of Asia and the rest of the world. Japan is one of the largest world importers of mineral products. European powers started mining industries in many of the former colonial states of Asia. Foreign investment in mining is still common throughout the region, especially in oil prospecting and drilling.
\par {\b Manufacturing}
\par \tab Asia has some of the most highly industrialized countries in the world, like Japan, and some of the least, such as Bangladesh, Laos, Nepal, and Afghanistan. Between these extremes are found all levels of industrial development, from countries just beginning to develop modern manufacturing to those that have already made some marked progress. The latter are sometimes referred to as the NICs (newly industrialized countries). Three of the most successful NICs--Hong Kong, Taiwan, and South Korea--are in East Asia and one--Singapore--is in Southeast Asia. Malaysia has also achieved considerable progress. Overall, East Asia ranks as the most heavily industrialized of the five subregions of Asia, followed in order by Russian Asia, Southeast Asia, Southwest Asia, and lastly South Asia.
\par \tab Throughout Asia there is a strong movement to change traditional agrarian societies into modern industrial societies. Various economic plans have been used to accomplish industrialization in socialist and nonsocialist countries. Some countries have used features of both socialist and nonsocialist programs.
\par \tab In Communist lands--notably China, North Korea, Vietnam, most of the rest of Indochina, and the Soviet Union before its dissolution--largely socialist programs of industrial development have been followed. Generally in this approach there is no private ownership of industry. Everything is owned by the state, and workers are employed by the state. The system is highly centralized, with decisions made by the central government. Orders are then sent out to the various regions and factories to produce specific products in specific quantities. The emphasis tends to be on heavy industry rather than consumer goods or light industry, though this trend has shifted somewhat. These countries have made progress in manufacturing, especially China. One of the main problems in socialized industry is the difficulty of balancing supply and demand. It is difficult to avoid frequent critical shifts in shortages of some goods and surpluses of others. This, of course, is a problem to some degree in any industrialized society. Some economists also feel that the lack of an incentive system, like those in capitalist countries, also affects production. Some socialist countries have begun to introduce incentive systems as a result. Since the late 1970s, for instance, China has experimented with economic reforms. It is decentralizing management and using wage bonuses to encourage production. China is also stressing production of consumer goods to meet the needs of its huge population. Some small private enterprise is also being permitted. Since 1991 Russia and the other former Soviet republics have been in transition between socialism and capitalism.
\par \tab Various forms of the free enterprise, or capitalist, system are being used to develop manufacturing in much of Asia. Private ownership of businesses and factories is encouraged. Governments primarily are involved in regulating and planning and sometimes investment in expensive manufacturing, such as iron and steel or transportation.
\par \tab Some of the manufacturing developed since the early 1950s followed that first established by the former colonial rulers. In India, for example, the British established the still important modern textile industry. The Japanese began much of the industrialization in Taiwan, South Korea, and northeastern China (Manchuria) when they ruled those territories. For the most part, however, colonial rulers in Asia were interested in extracting the mineral resources and agricultural products of Asia. Manufactured products were mostly imported from the colonial mother countries. Today the former colonial countries are developing industries that will turn out products for their own needs and, perhaps, for export.
\par \tab By the 1980s Japan was by far the most successful Asian country in industrialization. It was also the first Asian nation to industrialize, starting in the late 19th century. By World War I Japan was already a highly developed nation. However, its greatest growth as an industrial power has been since World War II. Japan has been so successful that it now has the second largest industrial production in the world, even greater than that of much larger Russia, and it is rapidly gaining on the United States. Japan is one of the leading world producers of many important manufactured products, such as automobiles and electronics. Unlike most other Asian countries it is a major exporter of manufactured goods.
\par \tab China has the potential to become a great industrial power, if it can solve its vast problems of overpopulation and develop more-productive economic policies. In the late 1980s its value added to the economy by manufacturing was at the level of Canada. Perhaps the greatest potential for industrial development is in some of the oil-rich nations of the Middle East. Many of them, such as Saudi Arabia, are using their vast earnings from oil exports to undertake industrialization programs. However, money alone is not enough. These countries are critically short of skilled labor, managers, and technology. Environmental limitations, such as the shortage of fresh water, and political problems have also hampered their progress. India has made considerable progress in industrialization, but is also beset with severe problems of overpopulation and political and social instability. Indeed, these problems afflict many nations of Asia.
\par {\b Transportation and Communications}
\par \tab Efficient networks of transportation and communications are a key requirement for industrial development. Goods, people, and ideas must move quickly and efficiently. The pattern throughout Asia is still uneven and closely parallels the level of industrial development. Thus, at one extreme there is Japan, with its highly sophisticated railway, superhighway, and airline systems plus the latest in telecommunications, equal to the best found in the Western world. At the other extreme there are parts of Asia that are still virtually as isolated and cut off from the modern world as they were centuries ago. In most Asian countries most people spend their entire lives without ever traveling more than a few miles from their village or farm. Their extremely limited knowledge of the outside world is learned primarily from word of mouth or occasional radio broadcasts. Extensive transportation and broadcast facilities are being developed throughout the Asian continent as a means of improving this condition.
\par \tab Asia's vast space and enormous physical barriers have hindered progress in transportation. Traditionally travel and trade have moved largely around the edges of the continent rather than inland. Until the 19th century, caravans on land routes, supplemented by oceangoing vessels, were the chief means of transportation. After the mid-19th century oceangoing vessels continued to be important and rail transport significantly improved overland travel.
\par \tab Road and rail systems continue to improve, but slowly. One of the more notable advances was the completion in 1915 of the Trans-Siberian Railroad in Russian Asia. A massive highway network begun in the 1960s was designed to link Istanbul, Turkey, with Singapore in Southeast Asia. China joined the system in 1989. The development of air transport in the 20th century has played a key role, especially in such landlocked countries as Afghanistan, Nepal, and Laos. In some of the less advanced countries, however, animal transport remains the main method for moving goods from farm to market.
\par \tab Inland waterways provide transportation routes in some countries and are especially important in South, Southeast, and East Asia. Bangladesh, the Indochinese countries, and China all have well-developed inland water transport systems.
{\b INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS}
\par \tab Since ancient times, Asia has had contact with the rest of the world. This began with caravans carrying the silks, spices, and other exotic products of Asia westward to Europe. This trade benefited Asian economies, and it also brought knowledge about Asia to Europe. Unfortunately, that knowledge led eventually to the colonial takeover of much of Asia by the 19th century. Colonialism is now virtually gone, but the economic and political linkages established by colonialism remain strong. Since World War II Eastern and Western powers have competed to be the dominant influence in Asia.
\par \tab Many of Asia's trade links are with former colonial rulers, because those tend to be industrialized nations that still need the mineral resources and agricultural products of Asia. Although most Asian nations are trying to industrialize, the industry that has developed produces goods primarily for the domestic market, not for export. Thus, in order to buy abroad what they need, Asian nations must still rely upon exports of their traditional primary products.
\par \tab Since the 1950s important trade relations have developed between Japan and the rest of Asia, and between the United States and Asia. Those two nations account for the major share of exports and imports in most of Asia's world trade. They are also the major source of foreign-investment capital that has flowed into Asia. In 1967 the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) was formed by Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand. Brunei joined in 1984. In 1991 ASEAN signed an agreeement to start a regional common market within the next 15 years. The policies of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) created a series of energy crises that seriously affected economic development in the region during the 1970s.
\par \tab The political ties of the past have also been maintained in many parts of Asia. One important development since World War II was the expansion of United States political and military influence in Asia. This influence resulted from the defeat of Japan in World War II and the emergence of the United States as a chief world military power. With the outbreak of the Cold War in the late 1940s, followed by the Communist victory in China and the Korean War, the United States assumed a policy of combating Communist influence in Asia. The growing dependence of the Western world, especially the United States, on petroleum supplies from the Middle East has made that area highly valued, especially since the world energy shortages that developed in the 1970s.
\par \tab After its failure in the mid-1970s to prevent Communist control of Indochina, the United States changed the emphasis of its role in Asia. One of the most significant developments has been the dramatic change in relations with China that ended in United States recognition of the Beijing government in 1979. Because of its difficulties in relations with the Soviet Union and a desire to modernize more rapidly, China became a major economic and political partner with the United States. Not wanting to jeopardize that relationship with the United States, China agreed to a summit with the Soviet Union in 1989 as the first step in normalizing relations, which had been suspended in 1960. In 1989 Vietnam announced the final withdrawal of troops from Cambodia that had been deployed there since 1979. Some 160 nations were represented in a gathering of world unity at the funeral of Japanese Emperor Hirohito in Tokyo in 1989.
{\b HISTORY}
\par \tab Humans have lived in Asia since prehistoric times, when they roamed large stretches of the continent in quest of food and shelter. As they began to organize together into societies, three of the earliest civilizations for which there are historic records emerged in parts of Asia. These were the ancient cultures of Mesopotamia in the Tigris-Euphrates River valley, beginning in about 10,000 BC; the early cultures in the Indus River valley, beginning in about 3500 BC; and the early Chinese civilization in the Huang He valley, beginning in about 2000 BC.
\par \tab Asia's long history can be divided into three major periods. The first and longest period was from earliest times until around AD 1500, when the Europeans began to arrive. During this long period, many empires and kingdoms rose and fell, and distinctive cultures evolved in certain regions. Those cultures came to dominate Asia in spite of periodic political upheavals and wars through the centuries.
\par \tab The development of those cultures provides a basis for dividing Asia into three subregions. In East Asia the Chinese civilization emerged first, and from it the Korean and Japanese cultures evolved. China is renowned for the splendor and extraordinary continuity of its civilization. In South Asia the Indian civilization, with its complex mix of Hindu, Muslim, and other influences, came to dominate. In Southwest Asia, the Arabic-Muslim culture spread widely beginning in the 7th century AD.
\par \tab These three cultures achieved high levels of development within the traditional agricultural economies on which they depended. As already noted, there were brilliant achievements in art, architecture, language and literature, as well as early science and technology. Many of the devices that Europeans later came to depend on originated in Asia, such as gunpowder, paper, the wheel, and the compass.
\par \tab While European civilization was slow developing during the Middle Ages, Asia's great civilizations flowered in unmatched brilliance and prosperity. When Marco Polo traveled to China in the 13th century, he marveled at the magnificence of China's great civilization, already 3,000 years old. Less famous Europeans were to echo him later.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was written by Jack F. Williams, Professor of Geography, Michigan State University, and author of numerous publications on China and other Asian subjects.
\par \tab {\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR ASIA}
\par \tab Chapman, William. Inventing Japan (Prentice, 1991).
\par \tab Fairbank, John K. China: A New History (Belknap, 1992).
\par \tab Horsley, W., and Buckley, R. Nippon: New Superpower (BBC Books, l990).
\par \tab Mansfield, Peter. A History of the Middle East (Viking, 1991).
\par \tab Naipaul, V.S. An Area of Darkness (Viking-Penguin, 1992).
\par \tab Rees, David. A Short History of Modern Korea (Hippocrene, 1988).
\par \tab Salisbury, H.E. The New Emperors: China in the Era of Mao and Deng (Little, Brown, 1992).
\par \tab Stewart, Gail B. India (Crestwood House, 1992).
\par \tab Tweddell, C.E. Introduction to the Peoples and Cultures of Asia (Prentice, 1985).
\par \tab Ulam, Adam B. The Communists: The Story of Power and Lost Illusions 1948-1991 (Scribner's, 1992).
\par \tab Vogel, Ezra F. The Four Little Dragons (Harvard, 1991).
\par \tab Williams, L.E. Southeast Asia: A History (Oxford, 1987).
\par \tab Winchester, Simon. Pacific Rising (Prentice, 1991).\par \tab The vast body of water that separates Europe and Africa from North and South America is the Atlantic Ocean. Its name, which comes from the Greek, may refer to Atlantis, the legendary island continent said to have been the site of a great, lost civilization before the island sank.
\par \tab Extending from the Arctic Ocean in the north to Antarctica in the south, the Atlantic Ocean is divided by the equator into two parts, the North Atlantic and the South Atlantic. Its area is about 31,831,000 square miles (82,442,000 square kilometers), which is about one sixth of the Earth's total area.
\par \tab Although the South Atlantic is bigger than the North Atlantic, the North Atlantic has a much longer coastline, and large marginal seas and bays adjoin it. On the American side the largest bodies of water are the Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean Sea, and Hudson Bay. On the European side the largest are the Mediterranean, North, and Baltic seas. More than half of the total land area of the world is drained by rivers that flow into the Atlantic Ocean and its adjoining seas. The large quantities of dissolved minerals carried from this huge area make the Atlantic the saltiest of the world's oceans.
\par \tab The Atlantic is also the youngest ocean. Its origin and development can be accounted for by the theory of continental drift
\par \tab The outstanding feature of the Atlantic's floor, the Mid-Atlantic Ridge is an immense, volcanic mountain range that stretches its entire length. It covers the central third of the ocean bed and is up to 1,000 miles (1,600 kilometers) wide. On either side of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge are broad mud- and clay-covered abyssal plains and basins. An underwater extension of a continental landmass is called a continental shelf.
\par \tab In some places the Mid-Atlantic Ridge protrudes to create islands such as the Azores and Iceland. Most islands, however, are isolated portions of the continental shelf, such as Great Britain, Newfoundland, and the Falkland Islands. The deepest point on the Atlantic's ocean floor--27,498 feet (8,381 meters)--is in the Puerto Rico Trench located about 90 miles (145 kilometers) northwest of Puerto Rico.
\par {\b Climate and Currents}
\par \tab Weather over the ocean is largely determined by the prevailing winds and ocean currents. In the North Atlantic, especially during winter, frequent storms occur along fronts, or zones of great temperature contrast. The prevailing westerly winds of the middle latitudes carry cold air masses from Canada over the ocean, where they are met by warm air masses originating over the Gulf of Mexico or associated with a current known as the Gulf Stream. An area of low atmospheric pressure develops where the warm air is forced to rise over the cold air. Storms quickly develop around such a frontal zone.
\par \tab Hurricanes originate in the tropical latitudes of the North Atlantic. During the hottest part of the year large amounts of water vapor enter the atmosphere from the ocean. When the vapor condenses as rain, heat energy is released. Massive hurricanes can develop around large concentrations of such heat.
\par \tab In the South Atlantic the weather patterns are more regular than in the North Atlantic because there are no adjacent, large land areas in the middle latitudes over which cold or hot air masses can form. However, the prevailing westerly winds frequently carry storms across the South Atlantic creating dangerous gales and heavy winds that are a notorious shipping hazard.
\par \tab Circulation of the main water currents of the Atlantic Ocean is clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and counterclockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. In the tropical latitudes the currents of both hemispheres flow generally from east to west, and their temperature becomes relatively warm.
\par \tab In the North Atlantic the warm current known as the Gulf Stream flows northward along the coast of North America. It continues northward and eastward across the ocean as the somewhat cooler North Atlantic Current and warms the climate of northwestern Europe. After turning southward along the coast of Europe and northwestern Africa, it becomes the relatively cold Canary Current. In the South Atlantic the southward flowing warm current along the east coast of South America is called the Brazil Current, and the northward flowing cold current along the west coast of southern Africa is the Benguela Current.
\par {\b Marine Life}
\par \tab The Atlantic Ocean can be divided into five water layers, or zones, each of which supports a different type of marine life. From top to bottom these zones are the littoral, euphotic, mesopelagic, bathypelagic, and benthic.
\par \tab The littoral, or tidal, zone is the area along the shore between the high-tide and low-tide levels. It is the habitat for such sea life as clams, oysters, mussels, seaweed, sea moss, and brown algae.
\par \tab The euphotic zone is the ocean's surface layer into which sunlight can penetrate in sufficient amounts to support photosynthesis. It extends to a depth of about 600 feet (180 meters) and contains most of the sea's organisms. These range from microscopic sea animals (zooplankton) and plants (phytoplankton) to the largest fishes and whales.
\par \tab The mesopelagic, or midocean, zone extends from about 600 feet to 3,000 feet (180 meters to 900 meters). It contains organic debris from the euphotic zone above and supports such animals as the sperm whale and giant squid.
\par \tab The bathypelagic, or deep-ocean, zone extends from 3,000 feet (900 meters) to the bottom. About two thirds of the fishes that inhabit this zone are bioluminescent, or capable of producing their own light.
\par \tab The benthic zone occurs at the bottom of the ocean--from shallow waters to deep-sea trenches--and supports the greatest range of animal and plant life. At depths of 12,000 feet (3,700 meters) or more, fishes are not common on the bottom, but less developed life forms such as tube worms, crinoids (sea lilies), and glass sponges can exist. They feed on the organic matter that settles from the upper zones and, in very specialized deep-sea communities, on minerals that well up with hot water from midocean vents in the seafloor.
\par {\b Economic Resources--Future Prospects}
\par \tab Approximately 40 percent of the world's fish catch comes from the Atlantic Ocean. In the northwestern Atlantic off Newfoundland is the Grand Banks, where herring, cod, and menhaden are plentiful. Traditional fishing areas in the northeastern Atlantic and the North Sea yield flounder, ocean perch, cod, hake, and herring, but they have been overfished. The warm waters of the Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico abound with shrimp and sponges. Since the 1950s fishing has greatly increased in the South Atlantic, where large quantities of tuna, hake, and herring are caught. Clams, oysters, crabs, and octopuses can be harvested along the coast of much of the Atlantic. The Sargasso Sea, in the center of the North Atlantic, is the breeding ground for the American and European species of migratory eels.
\par \tab The most important mineral resources derived from the Atlantic are petroleum and natural gas. Offshore fields lie in the North Sea, the Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean, and along the coasts of Nigeria, Brazil, Canada, Argentina, and the United States. Other minerals being exploited include tin and coal from mines under the ocean floor off Great Britain. Large diamond deposits are found along the southwestern coast of Africa. Salt and bromine are extracted from sea water. Manganese nodules have been found on the deep ocean floor, but technology still needs to be developed to make them economically retrievable.
\par {\b History and Trade}
\par \tab Though human beings have sailed on the waters of the Atlantic from ancient times, the Vikings were the first Europeans to document these voyages. During the 11th century they explored and charted the waters around Iceland, Greenland, and northeastern North America.
\par \tab In the 15th century the Portuguese discovered the Azores and Madeira and sailed along the entire western coast of Africa. Under the Spanish flag, in 1492, Christopher Columbus made the first of his trans-Atlantic crossings. Europeans explored and settled most of the Atlantic coast of the Americas during the 16th and 17th centuries.
\par \tab In the mid-1800s Lieut. Matthew Maury of the United States Navy made the first oceanographic study of the Atlantic. He compiled charts on winds and currents that established the first sea lanes, prepared a treatise on the Gulf Stream, and collected other data. The British Challenger expedition, made between 1872 and 1876, discovered the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. In more recent times, Jacques Piccard, the Swiss scientist, explored Atlantic waters in Trieste I, a deep-sea bathyscaphe. A wide range of other submarine devices have also been used to record new information about the depths of the Atlantic and other oceans. The submersible Alvin explored the wreck of the Titanic in 1986.
\par \tab Deep-sea drilling ships, such as the Glomar Challenger, have surveyed the bed of the Atlantic and discovered oil fields. The United States Navy established Sealab, an underwater habitat that was set up near Bermuda where aquanauts lived beneath the ocean and studied marine life for extended periods of time.
\par \tab The North Atlantic, with its hazardous icebergs and winter storms, is the most heavily used and congested ocean trade route in the world. Shipping lanes were established and regulated to ensure the safety of all who sailed the Atlantic. Ice patrols maintain surveillance of icebergs and report on their locations to all ships and oil drilling platforms that could be in danger. Satellites are used to observe iceberg movements throughout the entire Atlantic.
\par \tab Among the Atlantic's many deep, natural harbors are those at New York City and Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Other busy ports, such as Amsterdam, The Netherlands, are accessible to oceangoing vessels through dredged channels. Punta Arenas, Chile, is the southernmost port in the South Atlantic, and the northernmost port in the North Atlantic is in Russia, at Archangel.\par \tab Wedged between the Indian and Pacific oceans, Australia lies south of the Eurasian landmass. It is an island continent and, like the island continent of Antarctica, it is located entirely in the Southern Hemisphere. Australia is also the only continent occupied entirely by a single nation. Tasmania, a much smaller island off the southeast coast, is also considered to be a part of the continent of Australia. Australia is the smallest, flattest, most arid, and least populated of the inhabited continents. Its southern coasts are washed by the cold Antarctic Ocean--those portions of the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian oceans encircling Antarctica--while Australia's northern coasts are separated from the archipelagoes of Southeast Asia by warm, shallow, tropical seas. Although Australia is a small continent, it is a large country: only Russia, Canada, the United States, China, and Brazil have larger areas. Of Australia's 17.7 million inhabitants, about 23 percent were born elsewhere, and 1.5 percent are of aboriginal descent. Over 86 percent of Australia's people live in cities, yet only 10 percent of its area is cultivated. Two thirds of the continent is desert or semidesert.
\par \tab Australia has a diverse, technologically advanced industrial economy, very productive primary industries, and abundant mineral and other resources. It leads the world in wool production and coal exports, and its iron ore and bauxite mines also make significant contributions to world production. With a gross national product per capita of 17,070 dollars in 1992, Australia enjoys one of the world's highest standards of living, ranking sixteenth among the industrialized nations.
\par \tab Australia began its political independence in 1901 as a remote European country near Asia. Since 1945, it has become increasingly an Asian country with European origins and culture. Politically, Australia may be variously described as an independent Western democracy, a liberal welfare state, a federal parliamentary democracy, or a constitutional monarchy. England's reigning monarch remains the head of state. Australia contains six states (New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, South Australia, Western Australia, and Tasmania) and two internal territories (the Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory). Australia also administers seven external territories: Norfolk Island, the Coral Sea Islands Territory, the Cocos (Keeling) Islands, Christmas Island, Ashmore and Cartier Islands Territory, Heard and McDonald Islands, and the Australian Antarctic Territory--the latter covering 42 percent of that landmass.
\par \tab Australia claims sovereignty over three maritime zones around its coasts. Its territorial seas extend 3 nautical miles beyond the line of lowest tide. The Australian Fishing Zone extends 200 nautical miles beyond the coastal base line. Australia also claims its entire continental margin--approximating the shallow continental shelf--extending farther than 200 nautical miles in some northwestern coastal sections. Maritime delimitation agreements have been formalized with Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, and France (regarding New Caledonia). Australia was one of the twelve original signatories to the Antarctic Treaty in 1959. This reserved the area south of 60░ S. latitude for peaceful purposes and placed it under international management, while preserving the status quo with regard to territorial rights and claims.
\par \tab Australia was a founding member of the United Nations and served four terms on its Security Council. It was also one of four founding members of the (formerly British) Commonwealth. It has been a partner in the ANZUS (Australia, New Zealand, and United States) Treaty since its inception in 1952, in the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) since 1971, and in the Colombo Plan, the South Pacific Commission, and the South Pacific Forum. Australia ratified the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty in 1973, and the Convention on the Law of the Sea in 1982. The Australian flag incorporates the Union Jack in the top left quarter, representing British colonial origins; the large seven-pointed Commonwealth Star below it, representing the federation of six states and other territories; and the Southern Cross constellation of five stars in the fly. The Blue Ensign places these symbols on a dark blue background, whereas the Red Ensign is reserved for merchant ships registered in Australia. The Australian coat of arms consists of a shield containing the badges of all six states. The coat of arms is supported on either side by a kangaroo and emu, the national fauna; swathed in golden wattle, the national flower; and surmounted by the Commonwealth Star. The national colors are green and gold. 'Advance Australia Fair' was adopted as the National Anthem in 1984, replacing 'God Save the Queen', which was designated as the Royal Anthem and played only during the monarch's presence. 'Waltzing Matilda', Australia's best-known song, was written in about 1895 by A.B. Paterson. Australia Day is celebrated on January 26, commemorating the arrival of the First Fleet at Sydney Cove in 1788. Other public holidays observed throughout Australia include Anzac Day, April 25, to honor war veterans; Good Friday; Easter Monday; Queen's Birthday; Christmas Day; and Boxing Day (December 26). Different States observe Labour Day, or Eight-Hour Day; Bank Holiday; Proclamation Day, in South Australia; Foundation Day, in Western Australia; Remembrance Day (November 11); and Melbourne Cup Day, in Victoria, to permit attendance at Australia's richest and most popular horse race.
\par \tab The school year extends from late January or early February into mid-December. Students attend class for about 120 days per year. Literacy stands at 99.5 percent of the population. The summer months are December through February. Australia has three standard time zones. The eastern states are ten hours ahead of Greenwich (15 hours ahead of New York). South Australia, the Northern Territory, and the city of Broken Hill are 30 minutes behind the eastern states, which are two hours ahead of Western Australia. Conversion to the metric system was completed by 1981, and decimal currency--dollars and cents--replaced pounds, shillings, and pence in 1966. The language of Australia is English, by common usage rather than law. There are an Australian accent and a vivid Australian slang. Western Australians are 'sand gropers', cattle duffers are 'poddy-dodgers', and a home run in cricket is a 'bewdy bottler.' There is no national costume, except the slouch hat, and no national motto, though "Advance Australia" is widely used.
{\b LAND}
\par \tab Australia is sometimes called "the land down under," because it lies in the Southern Hemisphere. It is almost halfway around the world from England, its mother country. The continent extends between 113░ 9 and 153░ 39' E. longitude and between 10░ 41' and 43░ 39' S. latitude. It is crossed by the Tropic of Capricorn, and a little more than one third of the continent is in the tropics.
\par {\b Geology and Landforms}
\par \tab Australia is the least mountainous and most level of the world's continents. Two thirds of its surface forms a plateau only 1,000 to 2,000 feet (300 to 600 meters) in elevation. The few peaks that exceed 6,500 feet (2,000 meters) would be considered foothills in any other continent. One may drive to the summit of Mount Kosciusko, at 7,310 feet (2,228 meters) the continent's highest point. Unlike North America and Europe, where spectacular tectonic and glacial activity created most landforms within the last 20,000 years, Australia's geological history dates back to the Precambrian, the oldest era of all, over 600 million years ago. The dominant geological processes have been sedimentation in shallow seas that once inundated parts of the present continent, interspersed with long periods of erosion.
\par \tab Australian fossils are among the oldest on Earth, revealing some algae and soft-bodied invertebrates dating from 3 billion years ago. These indicate that Australia was once joined to South America, Africa, India, and Antarctica to form the southern part of a supercontinent called Gondwanaland. This great landmass began to split and drift apart some 85 to 100 million years ago. The plate carrying Australia is still drifting northward by about 2 3/4 inches (7 centimeters) per year, having shifted the continent from subpolar latitudes where rain forest was almost universal to tropical and arid latitudes where dry eucalyptus forests and Asian vegetation, better adapted to the changing climate, could invade and displace much of the rain forest.
\par \tab The Australian continent has remained separate for the past 40 million years, during which its distinctive flora and fauna evolved in isolation. Fossils of mammals are scarce but reveal giant wombats; goannas, a type of lizard; kangaroos; and mihirungs, flightless birds standing 10 feet (3 meters) high, the largest that ever lived on Earth. Rich sources of Australian fossils include the Gogo formation of Western Australia, where the internal anatomy of ancient fish can be studied; and the Riversleigh deposit in North Queensland, where giant pythons, carniverous kangaroos, and horned turtles have been discovered.
\par \tab Australia has three major physiographic, or landform, areas: the Western Plateau, containing two thirds of the continent; the Eastern Highlands, extending from Cape York Peninsula (Queensland) to Victoria and Tasmania; and, between them, the Central Lowlands from the Gulf of Carpentaria to the Murray-Darling drainage basin. The first consists mainly of Precambrian rocks, with such uplifted blocks as the central Macdonnell Ranges. Desert dunefields cover its parched surface. The wetter, usually forest-covered highlands are a succession of separate tablelands, or plateaus, escarpments, and low ranges. Some were glaciated during the Pleistocene period--the Snowy Mountains and central Tasmania, for instance. Others are of volcanic origin--for example, the border ranges between Queensland and New South Wales.
\par \tab Parts of the Central Lowlands drain sluggishly into the ocean along the Murray River and its tributaries. Most of the water dissipates and evaporates in such dry saline depressions as Lakes Eyre, Torrens, and Gairdner. Underlying these lowlands are the largest artesian basins in the world, from which bore water is pumped to sustain grazing animals in the arid zone. Representative caves include the intricate dripstone at Jenolan, New South Wales; the fossil bones at Mammoth Cave, Western Australia; and the flint quarrying and aboriginal rock paintings, 20,000 years old, at Koonalda Cave, 250 feet (75 meters) below the Nullarbor Plain. The highest waterfall in Australia is Wollomombi, at 1,100 feet (335 meters), in northern New South Wales.
\par \tab The Australian coastline extends for 22,826 miles (36,734 kilometers), including Tasmania, which has 1,990 miles (3,200 kilometers) of coastline. Warm, shallow tropical seas connect the northern coasts with Indonesia. More typical of the southern coasts are drowned river valleys (where rising sea levels followed the melting of polar ice) and alternations of cliffed headlands and sandy beaches. Huge sea stacksjagged rocks--called the Twelve Apostles line the Victoria coast near Port Campbell.
\par \tab The Great Barrier Reef is a spectacular ribbon of reefs and islands extending for 1,240 miles (2,000 kilometers) along the Queensland coast. Its pools, lagoons, and grottoes display the most complex diversity of marine life in the world. It teems with 10,000 species of sponge, 350 species of coral, 4,000 species of mollusk, and 1,200 species of fish. The reef originated about 18 million years ago when coral polyps began to colonize the subsiding continental shelf. As the lowermost polyps die, their skeletons fuse into a massive limestone foundation on which new coral grows. Coral survives only in shallow, moving water where sunlight can reach the algae on which it feeds, in seas never colder than 64░F (18░ C). As the sea level rose, so did the coral reefs, until there were 2,100 reefs forming the outer barrier. Another 540 continental islands (fragments of the coast) have their own fringing reefs. Only four shipping passages connect the mainland to the Coral Sea. The Hydrographers Passage alone is navigable by large vessels. Near Cairns, the reef has been degenerating since the 1960s, when the voracious crown of thorns starfish destroyed as much as 80 percent of the living coral. Since 1976, the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority has had responsibility for reef management.
\par {\b Climate}
\par \tab For so large an area, Australia experiences a relatively small variation in climate. The landmass extends over only 33░ of latitude, one third of which lies within the tropics. Its generally low, flat topography lacks the mountain ranges that diversify climatic regimes elsewhere. Summer temperatures hover around 84░ F (29░ C) in the north and 64░ F (18░ C) in the south, compared with winter temperatures of 75░ F (24░ C) and 50░ F (10░ C). Cloncurry, Queensland, claims the highest temperature ever recorded, 127░ F (52.7░ C) in 1889, but Marble Bar, Western Australia, set the heat wave record by surpassing 100░ F (37.8░ C) on 170 consecutive days in 1923-24. The lowest temperature, -3░ F (-23░ C) was recorded at Charlotte Pass near Mount Kosciusko.
\par \tab As an island continent, Australia displays major contrasts between its interior continental climates (with large temperature ranges and erratic rainfall) and its coastal maritime climates (with small temperature ranges and more reliable rainfall). Of all the continents, only Antarctica receives less precipitation than Australia--an annual average of 16 1/2 inches (42 centimeters). Periodic droughts, flooding, heat, and aridity are constant threats. Dry conditions create the potential for disastrous fires, such as those that charred thousands of acres and destroyed many homes in the vicinity of Sydney early in 1994. Almost all of northern Australia endures heat discomfort for over 150 days a year. The tropical seas along the coast offer little relief from the heat.
\par \tab Very different wind belts cross northern, central, and southern Australia. Humid easterlies blow off the Pacific Ocean across the tropical north, making the coastal rain forests of Tully, Queensland, the wettest place in Australia; they receive an average of 159 inches (405 centimeters) per year. These summer winds are augmented by monsoonal westerlies which blow out of Indonesia into Arnhem Land, Northern Territory, and the Kimberleys, Western Australia, and by destructive tropical cyclones (or hurricanes) off the Coral Sea and Gulf of Carpentaria. Northern Australians refer to summer as "the wet" and to winter as "the dry."
\par \tab Across the center of Australia move the subtropical anticyclones, from west to east. These cells of high pressure bring clear skies, summer heat, and almost no rain to the desert core of the continent. Southern Australia extends into the belt of westerlies that encircle the Earth around 40░ S. latitude: the "roaring forties." These bring cloudy cold fronts (cyclones) twice weekly to Tasmania and Victoria during the winter, when rainfall is concentrated. Perth enjoys a classic mild Mediterranean-like climate, with its cool, moist winter and warm, rainless summer. Australia's erratic weather has been attributed to the El Ni±o Southern Oscillation effect. Because of this effect, when unusually warm water gathers off the Pacific coast of South America, it disrupts the usual climatic rhythms of atmospheric pressure on the opposite side of the Pacific. Thus, every five years or so, rainfall due in Australia falls instead in the central Pacific, to be followed a few years later by an equally perturbing inundation of usually dry areas.
\par \tab Climate does change. The last Ice Age ended only 10,000 years ago. Today, despite scientific skepticism, many Australians are concerned that rapid global warming caused by the 'greenhouse effect' may ruin agriculture and flood coastal cities.
\par \tab A recurrent summer hazard is the bushfire--a forest fire, or wildfire--especially after seasons of intense heat which dry out plant litter. Fanned by hot winds, the leaves of oil-bearing eucalyptus trees burn explosively. Careless campers and arsonists are often responsible. Killer fires that damaged many towns occurred in 1851, in 1983, and during the January 1994 conflagration.
\par \tab Conservationists advocate the reintroduction of trees and deep-rooted perennials, the preservation of bushland, the use of more native predators instead of pesticides (and biological control by fungi and insects rather than herbicides), the diversification and scaling down of the farming-forestry system, and a more self-sufficient, less urban population.
\par {\b Plant Life}
\par \tab Although only a dozen plant families are unique to Australia, there are 530 unique genera and many unique species within these genera. As the Australian fragment of prehistoric Gondwanaland drifted north, its ancient flora became the basis for the present plant systems. Increasing aridity modified this vegetation, giving much of it hardened, pointed leaves of reduced size--a condition called scleromorphy.
\par \tab Australia's native vegetation is divisible into seven types. The first type of vegetation consists of remnants of Gondwanan rain forests, with primitive flowering plants, palms, and laurels. These occur where high rainfall and high temperatures coincide with fertile, often volcanic soils, mainly in coastal north Queensland. In climax rain forests, three layers of trees appear, entangled with shrubs, lianas, and epiphytes. Closest to original Gondwanan conditions are the temperate rain forests of Tasmania, dominated by the myrtle beech and swathed in tree-ferns and mosses--called moss forests.
\par \tab The second type of vegetation, communities dominated by the tall, straggly eucalyptus trees, is the most ubiquitous, forming a wide, concentric band around the desert core. Of the 500 species, two or three typically form a mosaic in one locality and intermingle with other plant associations. Eucalyptus trees are classified according to their bark types--hence the names stringybark, ironbark, bloodwood, and smoothbark (the gums that shed their outer bark annually). The most widespread is the river red gum. Mallee eucalypts survive in semiarid regions by growing multiple stems (lignotubers) from a common rootstock. The world's tallest flowering plant is a southern eucalyptus, the mountain ash. Its height can exceed 325 feet (100 meters). Building timbers are obtained in Victoria from alpine ash and mountain ash, in New South Wales and Queensland from blackbutt, spotted gum, bluegum, and ironbark, and in Western Australia from jarrah and karri, another type of eucalypt.
\par \tab A third type of plant community is dominated by wattles (the genus Acacia of the Mimosa family) and advances beyond the last eucalyptus trees into the desert. Although more than 900 species are known, vast regions are dominated by just a few, including brigalow, mulga, and gidgee. Their tannin-rich bark is used in tanning leather. One of the less attractive of the varieties of acacia is the mulga. This small tree grows on thousands of square miles of arid inland Australia. The slang term "out in the mulga" refers to the distant outback areas. Aborigines had a number of uses for this tree. Its wood provided a slow-burning fuel for cooking fires, and it was also used to make spear blades.
\par \tab The golden wattle is the acacia most familiar to natives. It is the floral symbol of Australia. There is even a Wattle Day, which may be celebrated on August 1 or September 1. Eucalyptus or acacia trees are dominant over 75 percent of the continent.
\par \tab Three other types of vegetation are found over smaller areas. Communities dominated by casuarinas (and Allocasuarina species, including she-oaks) occupy semiarid niches between eucalyptus and acacia woodlands. Native conifers command no large areas as they do in the Northern Hemisphere, although white cypress pine grows widely on infertile soils. Pioneer builders were gratified to discover that it withstands drought, fire, and termites. Salt-tolerant shrublands devoid of trees are found mainly along the southern edges of the arid core. Mallee, saltbush, and bluebush are common, and Banksia and Grevillea are of local importance. Finally, grasslands occur where rainfall is insufficient for larger plants. Summer-growing species tend to be more northerly and winter-growing species more southerly. Hummock grasslands (including spinifex) spread across the dunes, sandy plains, and rocky ranges of the Western Plateau.
\par \tab Minor coastal plant communities include salt marsh, seagrass, and mangroves. Alpine herb fields, often flattened by the wind, are dotted with sphagnum moss bogs. Weeds introduced from outside Australia, such as wild turnip and hoary cress, compete with crops. Lantana, blackberries, bracken fern, and Paterson's curse overrun pastures. Cape tulip and Saint-John's-wort can poison livestock or taint food. Algae block drainage and smother plants. Only 5.3 percent of Australia's 2,966,200 square miles (7,682,300 square kilometers) is covered in forest. Of that, 75 percent is in public domain. Forest plantations account for another 3,759 square miles (9,737 square kilometers), 69 percent of them under California radiata pine. Fine specimens of Australian flora can be seen in the National Botanic Gardens in Canberra, the Royal Botanic Gardens of Sydney and Melbourne, and Kings Park in Perth.
\par {\b Animal Life}
\par \tab Native to Australia are 250 species of mammals (half of them pouched marsupials); 750 species of birds; more than 500 species of reptiles and amphibians, including 150 species of snakes; 22,000 species of fish, but only 150 of them freshwater; 65,000 known insect species; and 1,500 species of spiders. The continent is world-famous for these zoological curiosities. It became a veritable Noah's ark for monotremes, which include the platypus, and marsupials, saved from competition with carnivores and herbivores and free to evolve uniquely, when Australia split from Gondwanaland between 45 and 70 million years ago. By contrast, other animals drifted free with South America and Africa but became extinct when those continents encountered Northern Hemisphere landmasses that were home to predators.
\par \tab When Australia drifted closer to Asia 20 million years ago, Asian animal immigrants reached northern Australia across shallow continental shelves. Bats and rodents island-hopped. The dingo, a type of wild dog, came with migrating aborigines or Asian fishermen 5,000 years ago. Other creatures used the broad land bridges which surfaced when the expansion of the ice caps resulted in lowered sea levels, linking the Australian mainland with New Guinea and Tasmania. Marine animals dispersed easily across the entire tropical and subtropical Indian and Pacific oceans. Wallace's line, drawn in 1868 between the Indonesian islands of Bali and Lombok, marked the proximal separation of Australasian and Oriental faunas.
\par \tab The present Australian fauna thus contains three main elements--those uniquely Australian (like the monotremes and lyrebirds), those of Gondwanan origin with affinities to other continents (some marsupials, the emu and cassawary, geckos, side-necked tortoises, most frogs, lungfish, and barramundis), and those which flew or floated on drifting vegetation from Asia within the last 30 million years (rodents, lizards, insects, birds, bats, and snakes), still comfortably acclimatized in tropical northern Australia.
\par \tab The monotremes, an egg-laying order of mammals, include only the platypus and two species of echidnas, or spiny anteaters. Platypuses are found nowhere else in the world, not even in fossil form. Echidnas are found also in New Guinea. The platypus uses its webbed feet and broad, sensitive bill to nuzzle food from the bottoms of coastal creeks from northern Queensland to South Australia. The bill has a unique sensing device that detects changes in electrical fields. The platypus is a skilled swimmer and can remain underwater for up to five minutes at a time. It spends only a few hours of each day in the water. The males have a poisonous spur on each hind leg. Although the poison is not fatal to humans, it can cause agonizing pain.
\par \tab The shy echidna uses its snout to probe for termites and insects, which adhere to the saliva on its tongue. It settles into the ground, spikes erect, when disturbed. The heavily armored echidna has small spines on the back of its head and long spines on the upper surface and sides of its body. Its clawed limbs are short and powerful. The male has a retractable spur on each hind limb that releases a weak poison. It is from this that the animal gets its name--echidna is derived from a Greek word for viper. The echidna is toothless but has a tongue up to 12 inches (30 centimeters) long, the sticky surface of which is used for catching ants.
\par \tab For a study in sheer animal cunning it would be difficult to surpass the dingo, also known by the aboriginal name warrigal. It is an animal very similar in appearance to the domestic dog. It probably arrived from mainland Asia about 5,000 years ago, along with an immigration of aborigines. The dingo is a fairly large canine, growing to about 4 feet (1.2 meters) long, including its 12-inch tail. The dingo has long been the killer of the outback. It hunts kangaroos, wallabies, rabbits, and ground birds--with a special fondness for the echidna. It also runs down and kills sheep and cattle. Like wolves, these animals hunt alone or in packs. Its ferocity resulted in the elimination of the Tasmanian devil and the Tasmanian wolf from mainland Australia. The dingo carries a bounty on its head, and Queensland once erected a 3,000-mile (4,800-kilometer) fence to keep the animal out.
\par \tab {\b Marsupials.}
\par \tab Of the world's 19 marsupial families, 16 are native to Australia. They include opossums, koalas, wombats, kangaroos, and wallabies. Whereas placental mammals connect the unborn baby to the mother's uterus, the marsupials give birth to their young at a very early stage of development, retaining, carrying, and suckling them in an abdominal pouch. A vivid example is the joey, or baby kangaroo, scrambling into the mother kangaroo's pouch.
\par \tab There are 50 species of kangaroos in Australia. These macropods have large hind legs for hopping. Their heavy tails serve as a counterbalance during locomotion and as a prop when standing upright.
\par \tab Kangaroo sizes and characteristics vary widely. There are burrowing rat kangaroos, tree kangaroos with shortened hind legs and exceedingly long tails, rock wallabies with granulated footpads for gripping, pademelons, and quokkas. The largest species are the grey (or forester) kangaroo and the red kangaroo. Males of both species may exceed 8 feet (2.4 meters) from nose to tail.
\par \tab Many ranchers regard kangaroos as vermin, especially during plagues. Conservationists deplore their slaughter for skins, for pet food, or simply to cut down the size of a herd.
\par \tab Koala is an aboriginal word meaning "it does not drink," though these animals do drink when ill. Koalas are tree-dwelling marsupials with a home range of 14 to 15 eucalyptus trees. One tree will be an animal's favorite. They feed exclusively on specific eucalyptus leaves which provide sufficient moisture. An exceptionally long intestine and special liver mechanism cope with the harsh oils and tannin in the leaves. Lacking the tails typical of most arboreal animals, and with pouches that open inconveniently backwards (like their closest relative, the wombat), koalas may have originated as ground-dwelling, burrowing animals.
\par \tab Koalas were abundant in coastal forests from northern Queensland to southeastern South Australia. Hunters exported their pelts in large numbers (two million in 1924 alone) until public revulsion and an American ban on imports led to total protection by law. Continuing problems include habitat fragmentation--especially in their southern Queensland stronghold--serious fires, and a virulent form of the disease trachoma.
\par \tab Australian opossums, or phalangers, are also arboreal marsupials. They include the cuscus, a monkeylike marsupial; the ringtail opossum, which has a prehensile tail; and the gliders, which are also called flying phalangers.
\par \tab Another tree-dwelling marsupial is the tiny pygmy gliding opossum, an acrobatic, mouselike animal and the smallest marsupial adapted for gliding. One of the numerous kinds of Australian possums, it is found in eastern regions of the country. However, it is rarely seen because it is active at night and extremely furtive. It glides from tree to tree in flights that are really prolonged leaps. Membranes between its limbs have a parachute effect, and its fringed tail provides an additional airplanelike surface.
\par \tab The doglike Tasmanian devil is also a marsupial. It is a slow-moving, clumsy animal that lives in open forest areas. It takes shelter in any available cover by day and scavenges for food by night. Although widely regarded as a fierce killer of animals, the Tasmanian devil is actually a poor hunter and usually feeds on carrion, much like a vulture. The animal is usually about 28 inches (71 centimeters) long with a 10-inch (25-centimeter) tail. It is mostly black, with white bands across its chest and rump. The forefeet have five toes and the rear feet have four. All of its toes are strongly clawed.
\par \tab {\b Reptiles.}
\par \tab All three orders of reptiles--crocodiles, lizards and snakes, turtles and tortoises--are well represented in Australia. The seagoing estuarine crocodile ranges from India to China and the western Pacific. It is found along the northern coasts of Australia between Broome and Maryborough, in saltwater estuaries and river mouths. Males average 16 feet (5 meters) in length but do reach 23 feet (7 meters). Crocodiles feed on fish, crabs, water rats, and occasionally on larger prey--including horses, cattle, and humans--which they first drown and then dismember. The smaller freshwater crocodile, found in the billabongs (streambeds) and lagoons of monsoonal rivers, is harmless to humans.
\par \tab Besides estuarine crocodiles, the only Australian animals that will feed on humans are sharks and, of course, mosquitos and fleas. Crocodile-skin handbags and shoes were once highly prized luxury items, but crocodile hunting has been completely banned in Western Australia and the Northern Territory since 1971 and in Queensland since 1974. Crocodile farms, several of them run by aborigines, now market meat.
\par \tab Australia's 450 species of lizard probably originated in tropical Asia. Today they are the dominant predators in desert ecosystems. The largest of them is the desert perenty, averaging 5.2 feet (1.6 meters) but known to reach 8.2 feet (2.5 meters). Fossil monitor lizards, called goannas, at 20 feet (6 meters) and 1,300 pounds (600 kilograms), were twice as big as today's record-holder, the Komodo dragon. Curiosities include the gecko, whose padded, adhesive digits enable it to move and rest on ceilings. Geckoes are able to snap off their still-wriggling tails to distract predators while making their escape. Among the dragon lizards are the thorny devil, the water dragon, and the spectacular frill-necked lizard, which unfolds its ruff like an umbrella when alarmed. Skinks with smooth, silky scales are common sights in suburban gardens.
\par \tab Of Australia's marine turtles, the largest is the leathey, or luth, turtle, up to 10 feet (3 meters) in length and 1,100 pounds (500 kilograms) in weight. Among reptiles, only the estuarine crocodile exceeds it in size. Marine turtles thrive in the warm tropical seas, coming ashorevulnerable to human predators--to lay scores of eggs in chambers dug into beach sand. An extraordinary navigational sense permits turtles to return to the very beach where they were hatched.
\par \tab Australia is the only continent where venomous snakes outnumber the nonvenomous, though only 20 or so of the 160 species (including 32 of sea snakes) are fatal to humans. Among the nonvenomous are blind or worm snakes, tree snakes, file snakes, and 13 species of pythons that suffocate their prey by constriction. The longest is the amethystine, or rock, python, which averages 11 1/2 feet (3.5 meters), and whose maximum length is 28 feet (8.5 meters). The most widespread is the common carpet snake.
\par \tab All 65 species of venomous snakes are front-fanged elapids. Venom is secreted from modified saliva glands at the base of grooved, hollow fangs. It kills either by destroying the linings of blood vessels, causing blood to clot, destroying the red blood cells, or, in the case of neurotoxins, paralyzing nerves that control the heart and lungs. Australia's most dangerous snakes are the tiger snake, the Eastern brown snake, the mulga or king brown snake, death adders, the red-bellied black snake, the taipan, and its look-alike, the fierce or giant brown snake. The latter's neurotoxic venom can kill 100,000 mice, making it the most deadly of all the world's land snakes. Antivenins developed in the Commonwealth Serum Laboratories, if administered promptly, can now counteract most of these venoms.
\par \tab {\b Insects.}
\par \tab Other poisonous animals include the Sydney funnelweb spider, which spins a silken tube at the entrance to its burrow and has killed unsuspecting gardeners; the trapdoor spider, which seals its burrow with a plug of earth; and the red-back spider; which lurks in outhouses under toilet lids. Many of Australia's 80,000 known insect species also sting.
\par \tab The largest insect nests are the towering termites' nests, or termitaria, some of which surpass 23 feet (7 meters) in height, connected to food sources by 110 yards (100 meters) of tunnels and galleries. Those built in the Northern Territory by the compass, or magnetic, termite are aligned north-south to minimize exposure to the tropical sun.
\par \tab {\b Birds.}
\par \tab Of the world's more than 8,000 species of birds, about 750 are found in Australia. Of these, 368 are peculiar to Australia, 125 are nonbreeding visitors, and 20 or so were introduced, usually by human migrants longing for the birdsongs of their homelands. Acclimatized birds include the house sparrow, starling, song thrush, blackbird, pigeon, and, from India, the mynah and red-whiskered bulbul. Although Australia has 19 of the 25 orders of living birds, it lacks woodpeckers, vultures, true finches, and flamingos. Many of the indigenous birds originated in Asia or Gondwanaland. Many still live in New Guinea, among them the birds of paradise, bowerbirds, and spangled drongo.
\par \tab The flightless, nomadic emu is the largest native bird and the second largest in the world. It accelerates in short bursts to 30 miles (48 kilometers) per hour and may surpass 6 1/2 feet (2 meters) in height. It is found almost anywhere in inland Australia. Having laid from 7 to 20 green eggs on the ground, the larger female emu wanders off, leaving the male with nest duties of hatching and tending the chicks.
\par \tab The lyrebird is unique to Australia and is one of the largest songbirds in the world. It can reproduce the sounds of more than 20 other songbirds. Similar in appearance to the peacock, the lyrebid can grow to more than 3 feet (0.9 meter) in length. Rarely seen by humans, it is native to eastern Australia. It is famous for its tail-twirling courtship display, as well as for its incomparable mimicry.
\par \tab Other native species are mound-building birds, nesting in hot anthills, and the black swan, the symbol of Western Australia. Also peculiar to the continent are honeyeaters, bowerbirds, nocturnal frogmouths, and kingfishers. Singularly Australian birdcalls come from the kookaburra, or laughing jackass--a raucous, throaty, mocking peal of laughter--and the bellbird, which has ringing, tinkling tones. A survey by the Royal Australasian Ornithologists Union, founded in 1901, reported that the ten most commonly sighted Australian birds were the Australian magpie, willie wagtail, Australian magpie-lark, welcome swallow, black-faced cuckoo-shrike, galah, white-faced heron, laughing kookaburra, Australian kestrel, and common starling.
\par \tab The drab, brown plains of inland Australia are brightened by the brilliant plumage of 55 species of parrots, one sixth of the world total. The gaudily colored rosellas take their name from Rose Hill, the Sydney locality where they were first observed. There are small grass-eating parakeets, tree-dwelling lorikeets, and budgerigars, but the aristocracy must be the cockatoos--among them the galahs (sometimes in flocks of a thousand), the screeching sulphur-crested white cockatoos, gang-gangs, and the glossy black cockatoo. The illegal smuggling of parrots out of Australia remains a problem.
\par \tab Many seabirds and waders are migratory, even reaching Asia and New Zealand. The muttonbird, or short-tailed shearwater, follows a 19,000-mile (31,000-kilometer) figure-eight loop between Japan and Bass Strait, managing to summer in both the northern and southern hemispheres.
\par \tab {\b Sea animals.}
\par \tab Australia's tropical coral reefs teem with fish, but the scarcity of rivers in an arid continent limits its freshwater fishes to only 150 species, including the carnivorous barramundi (giant perch). Commercial trawlers fish for barricuda, gemfish, or hake, tuna, and Australian salmon in the deeper, colder waters off the southern coasts, nominally inside the 200-nautical-mile Australian Fishing Zone adopted in 1979. Australia's last whaling station, at Albany, Western Australia, was closed in 1978. The Whale Protection Act of 1980 outlawed whaling in all Australian waters.
\par \tab Whales still migrate along the Australian coast, where they are sometimes stranded, between Antarctica and their tropical breeding grounds. Two suborders are seen in these waters--the baleen whales, which filter water and plankton through a whalebone screen, and toothed whales, which chew their food. The baleen species are the southern right whale, formerly the prime target of whalers; the blue whale, largest of known mammals, averaging 95 feet (29 meters) but reaching 130 feet (40 meters); and the humpback whale. Toothed species include killer whales, which hunt in packs of 40 or more, preying on dolphins, seals, penguins, and other whales; and sperm whales, which in the 19th century were hunted almost to extinction for their oil and spermaceti.
\par \tab Thirteen species of dolphins frolic off the Australian coast. The spinner dolphin leaps almost vertically above the waves while rotating at high speed. From 1790 to 1850, an industry that hunted fur seals for their oil and skins operated from the islands of Bass Strait.
\par \tab The major scavengers in Australian waters today are sharks. They shred and swallow marine carrion indiscriminately and voraciously, but they also attack living creatures. Sharks differ from most other marine species in that their skeletons are cartilage, not bone. Lacking a swim bladder, they must swim ceaselessly to circulate water through the gills and maintain their height above the bottom. That is why sharks quickly drown if snared in nets strung across swimming beaches, just below the surface. Since the installation of such nets in Sydney Harbour in 1937, there has not been a single fatality from shark attacks. An average of less than one shark fatality per year has been reported in all Australian waters over the past 150 years. Attacks occur almost only in summer where water temperatures exceed 72░ F (22░ C).
\par \tab Of Australia's 90 species of shark, the only dangerous man-eaters are the bronze whaler and grey whaler--with which the grey nurse shark is often confusedthe tiger shark, the blue pointer (which prefers surfboards and small craft to swimmers), and the most dangerous of them all, variously known as the white pointer, great white shark, or white death. It may be 40 feet (12 meters) long and displays up to 200 replaceable teeth. Other common sharks are the thresher, hammerhead, checkerboard, and paisley-patterned wobbegong. The Australian coast is also plagued by the blue-ringed octopus, which delivers a fatal bite, the box jellyfish, whose trailing tentacles carry venomous cells, the poisonous geographer cone, the well-camouflaged stonefish, and assorted stingrays.
\par \tab {\b Nature parks.}
\par \tab Representative slices of Australia's natural environment can be seen in more 2,000 national parks and other conservation reserves. These protected areas contain over 154,400 square miles (399,000 square kilometers) and cover 5 percent of the total land area, compared with 8.6 percent of total land area in the United States going to parks, and about 4 percent worldwide. Except in federal territories, they were established and remain controlled by state governments. Australia was one of the first countries to create national parks and nature reserves. Kings Park in Perth dates from 1872 and Sydney's Royal National Park from 1879. Yet most of the significant natural and cultural sites have been identified, inventoried, and protected systematically only since 1970. National parks are intended primarily for public recreation.
\par \tab Other reserves are dedicated to protecting such significant or endangered features as prehistoric rock art, sacred or ceremonial aboriginal sites, wilderness areas, marine and terrestrial habitats, and sites of historic or scientific interest. Australia has five major zoos: Taronga Park, Sydney; Royal Melbourne Zoological Gardens; Adelaide Zoo; Perth Zoo; and the Western Plains Zoo, an open-range park at Dubbo, New South Wales. Native fauna parks include the Cleland National Park, South Australia; Sir Colin Mackenzie Zoological Park, Victoria; and the Currumbin Sanctuary, Queensland, where friendly perching parrots almost envelop visitors.
\par {\b Environmental Concerns}
\par \tab Australian aborigines lived for millennia in respectful harmony with the land. Only during the time of European settlement have mechanized farming, deforestation, and the dispersal of exotic species of flora and fauna created environmental degradation. Extinction has been the fate of 18 species of native birds and mammals. Among them are the Tasmanian tiger, certain bandicoots and wallabies, and the hopping mouse. At least 97 vascular plant species have disappeared. Another 3,300 species (17 percent of the total) are considered rare or threatened, and another 1,000 are considered endangered or vulnerable.
\par \tab Sixty percent of all soils now require treatment for erosion, compaction, acidification, or salinity. The Australian Conservation Foundation, created in 1966, became a powerful lobby by bringing nature conservation into the public arena. During the 1970s, called the decade of the environment, the federal government began requiring environmental effects statements before resource exploitation could be approved. The government passed the Australian Heritage Commission Act in 1975. This created a register of the National Estate for the protection of both the natural and cultural heritage.
\par \tab Previously conservation in Australia was a matter left mostly to the states. Belated federal involvement had to fall back on constitutional prerogatives in external affairs, mainly by nominating crucial environments for World heritage designation by UNESCO.
{\b PEOPLE}
\par \tab In 1788, when the first permanent European settlers arrived in Australia, the population of the continent consisted of these 1,030 Europeans and an estimated 750,000 aborigines. Two hundred years later, by the census of 1991, that population had grown to 17.3 million, of whom only 250,000 (1.5 percent) were indigenous, either aboriginals or Torres Strait Islanders of Melanesian origin.
\par \tab With 63.6 percent of the total population concentrated in just eight capital cities, and 86 percent in all cities, Australia now lays claim to being the most urbanized nation on Earth. This population is largely concentrated within 220 miles (350 kilometers) of the eastern and southeastern coasts, including Tasmania. The only other center of dense population is in the southwestern corner of Western Australia. Another entire third of the continent is sparsely settled semiarid rangeland. The remaining third is virtually empty desert.
\par {\b Migrants and Population}
\par \tab Throughout the 19th century, North America was the main destination for migrants from Europe. Luring them to Australia required strong incentives and financial assistance.
\par \tab Immigration policy was aimed at occupying--and then defending--a seemingly empty continent and developing its resources, preferably through family migration. Edward Gibbon Wakefield, a British official who spearheaded colonization of the continent, realized that sole reliance on the transportation of convicts could not produce a stable, civil society. He tried using the proceeds of land sales to finance the migration of free settlers, notably in the founding of South Australia in 1836. The Australian colonies eventually paid the fares of some 700,000 British migrants between 1831 and 1900. Since then, federal programs have controlled the types, numbers, and skills of subsidized migrants, as economic conditions permitted.
\par \tab The continuous influx of largely male immigrants during the past two centuries has distorted the Australian population. The ratio of males to females stood at 121 to 100 in 1881 and remained at 102 to 100 during the 1950s and 1960s, while postwar immigration policies were in full force. Before 1870, the majority of residents were British-born; since 1870, the majority have been Australian-born. Average life expectancy now stands at 80 years for females and 74 years for males. For aborigines, it is 64 for females and 56 years for males. Seventy-two percent of all Australian householders now own or are purchasing their own dwellings, compared with 40 percent in 1947. Three fourths of all homes are separate houses. Entrenched government policies favoring home ownership have kept welfare, or public, housing at 5 percent of the total. During the 1980s, new policies to encourage urban consolidation saw many inner-city single-family residences replaced by townhouses and row houses.
\par \tab To exclude cheap Asian labor and to avert racial conflict, the "white Australia" policy was embodied officially in the Immigration Restriction Act of 1901. It applied until 1973. Immigration in Australia today is no longer restricted by race or nationality, but only by employability and skills. The only refugees who have received financial assistance since 1947 have been Jews fleeing from Nazi Germany, Eastern Europeans and Asians fleeing from Communist regimes, and persons displaced by war. During the 1950s and 1960s, migration from Britain was eclipsed by migration from Southern Europe, especially from Italy, Greece, Croatia, and Malta. During the 1970s and 1980s, migrants from Asia, notably Chinese and Vietnamese, accounted for up to 35 percent of the total. The restriction of government assistance to only British migrants ended in the 1950s. Australians abandoned the old ideal of perpetuating an exclusively British heritage by establishing a federal Office of Multicultural Affairs in 1987. Social cohesion was to be attained, not through the previous policy of assimilation, but by tolerating ethnic differences within an accepted legal code. Now only New Zealanders are granted unrestricted entry.
\par \tab Of the 17.5 million Australians, four million identify themselves in some way with an ethnic group, though the other 75 percent of the population do not. Two million were born in a non-English-speaking country and speak its language. Official sources no longer categorize people by race or ethnicity, but refer simply to NESB, or non-English-speaking background, Australians. These form 100 distinctive groups with 4,000 ethnic organizations.
\par \tab Despite the background diversity of five million postwar immigrants, surprisingly few social conflicts have erupted on the continent. Only the Jewish and Greek Orthodox communities have established their own school systems. Such government initiatives as a telephone interpreting service (operating since 1973) and the multilingual Special Broadcasting Service (since 1977) made migrants welcome in Australia. Public debate continues on the issues of Asian migration, sustainable levels of development, and zero population growth.
\par {\b Aborigines}
\par \tab Of the 250,000 indigenous people, only a fourth are pure aborigines still pursuing the traditional seminomadic life of hunter-gatherers and following a seasonal, cyclical calendar. Another fourth live in big cities. The remainder live in rural areas. Many are still devoted to notions of kinship and walkabout--the desire to revisit the sacred sites.
\par \tab Aborigines hold inalienable freehold title to 34 percent of the Northern Territory, including the great Arnhem Land Reserve created in 1931. They comprise 22 percent of the Northern Territory population. Other aboriginal concentrations are found in the Kimberleys in Western Australia and Cape York Peninsula in Queensland. Since 1988, when the European bicentenary of Australia was celebrated, many aborigines have rejected the anthropological term aborigine. Instead, they refer to themselves in their own languages: Koorie (Our People) in the southern and eastern states, Yolngu in Northern Territory, Arangu in central Australia, Nyunga in Western Australia, and Nungga in South Australia.
\par \tab Aboriginal oral history traces their origins to ancestral beings such as the Rainbow Serpent. These spirits moved across the land before the Pleistocene ice ages, two million years ago, leaving "dreaming tracks" along which nomads still travel to distant ceremonial gatherings. By contrast, scientists using radiocarbon and thermoluminescence dating techniques believe that the aborigines canoed to Australia in successive waves from Southeast Asia some 30,000 to 50,000 years before the present, when sea levels were lower and when Homo sapiens was replacing the Neanderthals in Europe. A female skull, 30,000 years old, was found in Lake Mungo, New South Wales. Aboriginal religion is deeply involved with the land, the mother of all living things to which the spirit returns for rebirth following death. Aborigines do not own the land: it owns them. They are its custodians, believing that the ancestral beings of the Dreamtime, or Dreaming, created plants, animals, people, and places. Some of these are sacred to men, others sacred to women--who have religious autonomy in aboriginal society--still others sacred to both. The exact place of birth determines a person's position within a clan or kinship group and provides a secret personal name.
\par \tab Traditionally, aboriginal education required separate ceremonies, or rites of passage, at each stage of the life cycle for males and females. A group's history was passed on through song cycles recounting the creation myths and the cautionary tales. At the physically painful initiation into adulthood, sacred secrets were passed down. Only initiates could inherit land, sing certain songs, or paint certain images. Group territorial boundaries were known and respected without recourse to fences or permanent housing. Wars over property were therefore unnecessary. There were 230 distinct aboriginal languages and 500 dialects, half of them now extinct. Nomads had few material possessions and built temporary shelters from bark and brush (gunyahs or mia mias). They wore little clothing in hot areas but used marsupial-skin cloaks in colder areas. In thick forests, their hunting weapons were killer sticks and specialized spears. On the open plains, they hunted with woomeras (hooked spear-throwers) and boomerangs, firing the grasslands to drive game animals in their direction. Fishing required string nets, stone traps, and tined spears. When game was scarce during droughts, tribal aborigines depended on the women's work with digging sticks to supply yams, witchetty grubs, and honey ants. Edible native plants included epacrids (a family of small trees and shrubs), geebungs, and lillypilly. Traditional aborigines may have had a sparse material culture, but they gloried in a richly imaginative spiritual life. Their art, their dancesincluding the festive corroboree--and their music were intimately linked with this spiritual life and the land which embodied it. "Songlines" of communication carried ideas and images across the continent. Their art was both symbolic and educational, from tree-bark paintings of animals and fish--with depictions of the placement of vital organs to illustrate spear targets--to rock engravings, hard sand sculptures, and petroglyphs (rock paintings) of Mimi, a clan of spirit beings. The oldest petroglyphs in the world were created 43,000 years ago in the Olary region of South Australia.
\par \tab The forms and content of this art persisted for thousands of years. Its ceremonial association with the ancestral past is seen in the Pukimani burial poles, mortuary figures, and hollow log coffins. The earth tones of clays and ochres conveyed specific meanings: white for mourning and grief; yellow for anger and belligerence; red for love and joy; black (from charcoal) for death and revenge. Some convergence of aboriginal and Western art was achieved by Albert Namatjira, whose embrace of watercolors enchanted many Euro-Australians; and Geoffrey Bardon of Papunya, whose acrylic, mosaic-like, abstract dot paintings incorporated layers of aboriginal symbolism.
\par \tab European contact with the aborigines, until quite recently, has been a painful and tragic tale of incomprehension and rapacity. The earliest British settlers did not recognize aboriginal rights to the land, but regarded it as a terra nullius--a land unoccupied and unclaimed by prior inhabitants. They saw aborigines as uncivilized relics of the Stone Age, lacking agriculture, permanent habitations, written languages, or the use of metal. Many groups were physically or culturally exterminated, uprooted from land which held for them sacred, ceremonial, or hunting significance. Massacres, food poisoning, rape, and punitive expeditions were employed.
\par \tab By 1930, only 67,000 aborigines remained in Australia, and there was fear of complete genocide. Christian missions were largely unsuccessful except in furthering segregation. Protection acts were passed in all states between 1860 and 1911, and many reserves were set aside for the "use and benefit" of aborigines, typically in remote, isolated, arid areas. Aborigines were eventually granted Australian citizenship by the government in 1967, and they were granted the right to vote in 1984.
\par \tab In 1976, the Aboriginal Land Rights Act of the Northern Territory gave ownership of its reserves to the aborigines, and permitted them, as traditional owners, to claim other vacant public land--up to 30 percent of the entire territory. Aboriginal groups or communities now own 11 percent of Australia's land, despite fierce opposition from the governments of Queensland and Western Australia, and from the mining companies.
\par {\b Women}
\par \tab Australian society was long characterized by the concerns of dominant patriarchy, and the rights of women were often subject to discrimination. Feminist reforms have almost as long a history as this discrimination. In 1902, Australia granted women the right to vote in national elections and the right to stand for Parliament--just a decade after New Zealand passed similar legislation and 18 years before women in the United States could vote. Women could vote in all state elections by 1909. One setback was depression-era legislation that resulted in the dismissal of 220 married female teachers in New South Wales in 1932. The law was repealed in 1947.
\par \tab The Country Women's Association, founded in 1922 as a nonsectarian, nonpolitical organization to alleviate the hardships of rural life for women and children, brought rest rooms, rest homes, and baby health centers to hundreds of country towns. Equal-opportunity legislation was promoted by two parliamentary watchdog groups, the Australian Federation of Women Voters, from 1921, and the Women's Electoral Lobby, from 1972. Equal pay for women was legislated in 1974, but immigrant women who spoke no English remained an exploited group. The 1975 Family Law Act resulted in raising the divorce rate to one in every three marriages.
\par {\b Welfare}
\par \tab Australia has 40,000 welfare organizations which complement the government's formal provision of social services. They include the Red Cross Society, the Smith Family (established in Sydney in 1922 for the needy), the Salvation Army (1881), the St. Vincent de Paul Society (Roman Catholic), and the Brotherhood of St. Lawrence (Anglican). Underprivileged children have enjoyed free seaside holidays with Barnardo Australia since 1921. St. John Ambulance teaches first aid and provides voluntary paramedic services at sporting and other public events. LifeLine is a telephone emergency service, founded in Sydney in 1963. It is now international in scope. Another 3,000 organizations provide social, recreational, and spiritual programs for the youth of Australia. In 1908, just one year after Robert Baden-Powell founded the Boy Scouts in England, they were established in Australia. Of the international networks, the largest are the YMCA, the YWCA, and the Youth Hostels Association, with some 100 hostels throughout the nation and no age limit on membership.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by Dr. Bruce Ryan, Professor of Geography at the University of Cincinnati.
\par \tab {\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR AUSTRALIA}
\par \tab A Day in the Life of Australia. (Collins, 1982).
\par \tab Brewster, B.M. Down Under All Over (Four Winds, 1991).
\par \tab Cobb, Vicki. This Place is Lonely (Walker, 1991).
\par \tab Cowen. Elements of the Aborigine Tradition (Element, 1992).
\par \tab Crump, D.J., ed. Surprising Lands Down Under (National Geographic, 1989).
\par \tab Dolce, Laura. Australia (Chelsea House, 1990).
\par \tab Evans, Gareth, and Grant, Bruce. Australian Foreign Relations (International Spec Books, 1991).
\par \tab Hughes, Robert. The Fatal Shore: The Epic of Australia's Founding (Random, 1988).
\par \tab Jackomos, Alick, and Fowell, Derk. Aboriginal Living Histories: Stories in the Oral Tradition (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1992).
\par \tab Kurian, G.T. Australia and New Zealand (Facts on File, 1990).
\par \tab Lewis, Brian. The Naked Australian: Australia, Her People, and the Way They Live (AA Publications, 1987).
\par \tab Shaw, John, ed. Australian Encyclopedia (Macmillan, 1989).
\par \tab Smolan, Rick. From Alice to Ocean (Viking, 1992).\par \tab In the early 19th century the region now known as Oceania was called Oceanica by French geographers. For the French it was one of the five great divisions of the world. Because it consisted of islands, they included Indonesia. The name Oceania is now generally applied to Pacific islands having similar cultures but not to those that are mostly Asian such as Indonesia. It consists of four large culture areas--Australasia, Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia.
\par \tab The name Australasia was given to Australia and its adjoining islands. Austral means "south," and Australia lies south of Asia. The name Polynesia was coined at the same time to mean "many islands" and applies only to islands with similar cultures that lie east of the other three divisions of Oceania. The names Micronesia and Melanesia were coined later and mean, respectively, "small islands" and "islands inhabited by blacks."
\par \tab Most of the islands and peoples of Oceania are clustered in the west-central Pacific Ocean. There are very few islands in the eastern Pacific. About 2,000 miles (3,200 kilometers) of empty ocean lie between San Francisco and Hawaii, and more than 4,000 miles (6,400 kilometers) of open sea separate Lima, Peru, from the Marquesas.
\par \tab In contrast to the huge area of the ocean, the land area of Oceania is very small. Apart from New Guinea, New Zealand, and Australia, most of the islands appear simply as specks on maps of the Pacific. Their total land area is only about 42,000 square miles (109,000 square kilometers). It is a place where people are conscious of great distances, of isolation, and of the smallness of their land in the immense sea.
\par \tab Because of the great scatter and the different kinds of islands with separate histories, there is great diversity in Oceania. Some islands are crowded with people, some empty; some are very large, others mere rocks; some, like Hawaii, are well known, while others are hardly ever visited by humans. There is not even general agreement on the number of islands--though it is huge--nor are the locations of all known exactly. Their surrounding reefs are also unplotted.
\par {\b Land}
\par \tab Most of the islands of Oceania are on, or near the edge of, the Pacific tectonic plate. Because the plate is moving toward the northwest, its motion causes earthquakes and tremors. The edges of the Pacific plate are the sites of most of the world's earthquakes. There are also many active volcanoes along its boundary, so it is often called the Ring of Fire. The most dramatic eruptions occurred near the city of Rabaul at the eastern end of New Britain, which was covered by volcanic ash in 1937 when two nearby volcanoes erupted. More eruptions are predicted.
\par \tab Earthquakes that occur underwater in the ring may also cause hazards in the form of tsunamis, or giant sea waves, that cause much destruction when they reach shore. A tsunami that struck Hilo, Hawaii, on April 1, 1946, caused the loss of 159 lives, the worst natural disaster in Hawaii's history.
\par \tab Hawaiian volcanism is different from the explosive kind. But it too is caused by movement of the Pacific plate, which has produced an enormous ridge of lava hundreds of miles long. The Hawaiian Islands are the tops of this ridge. The plate is temporarily stationed over a hot spot, or plume, under the island of Hawaii. From it molten lava streams upward and out of the volcanoes Mauna Loa and Kilauea, which produce more lava than any other volcanoes on Earth.
\par \tab A shield volcano is built up of relatively thin sheets of lava, which results in the shield shape. The island of Savai'i in Western Samoa is the largest (703 square miles, 1,821 square kilometers) and highest (6,094 feet, 1,857 meters) shield volcano of the South Pacific. The island of Hawaii is the largest (4,038 square miles, 10,458 square kilometers) and highest (13,796 feet, 4,205 meters at Mauna Kea) shield volcano of Oceania. It is also the largest pile of young volcanic material on Earth.
\par \tab The islands of Polynesia and Micronesia have been built either by volcanoes or by coral. The differences between volcanic and coral limestone islands provide the main classification. Most volcanic islands are referred to as high even if they are not very high, and most coral islands are called low. Low coral islands are called atolls if they consist of a ring of land or islets surrounding a shallow lagoon. Their land consists of broken pieces of coral and white sand formed by the breakup of coral and shells by waves. Some are only a few feet above sea level.
\par \tab Kwajalein in the Marshall Islands is the largest atoll in the world. It consists of 90 islets on the rim of a lagoon of about 650 square miles (1,683 square kilometers). The lagoon is so large that one side cannot be seen from the other.
\par \tab The continental islands of Melanesia, especially the larger ones, are more complex than the oceanic islands of the open sea such as Hawaii. They are called continental islands because their rocks are andesitic in contrast to islands formed on the Pacific plate, which have basaltic rocks and are called oceanic. The term andesitic comes from the Andes Mountains, which have similar rocks. The Andes, like the islands of Melanesia, are at the edge of the Pacific crustal plate and are also part of the Ring of Fire.
\par \tab A feature common to many of the continental islands of Melanesia is that of very steep slopes. These occur because of the very heavy rainfall, which causes the rocks to erode and decay quickly, producing soil rapidly. But the soil is so wet that it slides easily, exposing more rock, and thus steep slopes are maintained. Not even the heavy growth of forest that covers these steep slopes can keep the soil in place. Many parts of Melanesia, and especially New Guinea, have slopes so steep and terrain so rugged that they are empty of people, who cluster where life is easier. In New Guinea very large numbers of people live in highland basins in the interior of the island. Here is flat land surrounded by rugged mountains, and people live in very dense clusters.
\par \tab A fourth type of island in Oceania consists of reef limestone that has been raised by vertical movement of the Earth's crust or exposed by a drop in sea level. Most of the islands of the kingdom of Tonga are of this raised type, and most of the people of the kingdom live on Tongatapu, the largest of them (100 square miles, 259 square kilometers). Equally large is the raised island of Niue, which lies about 300 miles (483 kilometers) east of Tonga. The two islands are similar in having rather flat surfaces on which lies a reddish-brown soil, deep in some places and shallow in others. Because the rock is very porous, there is little or no surface water, and people depend on cisterns, tanks, and springs.
\par \tab Nearly all of the inhabited high islands of Oceania are surrounded by coral reefs except where the water is too cold, as at Easter Island and the few other islands of the southeastern Pacific. The water is also too cool in Hawaii for luxuriant growth of coral.
\par \tab Coral reefs are of enormous benefit to people who live along tropical coasts because the biomass, or marine life, growing in these warm, clear, shallow waters is so great and so diverse. Much of it is easy to gather--by children as well as adults. Much of it is also good to eat, and some does not even need to be cooked. Some of the fishes and snakes, however, are deadly poisonous.
\par \tab It is more dangerous to fish in the open ocean beyond the reef, and this is generally done by men in larger canoes. There is great contrast in the amount and kind of life found in the open sea and that of the coral reef. Fishermen are grateful if there is an opening in the reef that takes them easily and safely from one to the other.
\par \tab The coral reef also protects the volcanic rocks from erosion by the waves. These break instead against the edge of the reef, where species of coral build massive skeletons that resist the pounding of the waves. If a reef is not present, waves attack the volcanic materials. Some of these are not very resistant and collapse easily. This has happened on the windward side of Molokai in Hawaii, resulting in spectacular sea cliffs and waterfalls.
\par {\b Climate}
\par \tab Most of the people of Oceania live in the part of the western Pacific that has the largest amount of high rainfall found on the Earth--more than 80 inches (200 centimeters) per year. The eastern parts of the ocean are dominated by high-pressure systems and are dry, but a principal physical fact of islands is that they may greatly modify the climates found over the adjacent ocean. The best example of this is the island of Kauai in Hawaii. Its summit of 5,145 feet (1,568 meters) is perhaps the wettest place on Earth with 485 inches (1,232 centimeters) of rain per year. But over the nearby sea the annual rainfall is only about 20 inches (50 centimeters). This effect is called orographic and is caused by the fact that Kauai, like other islands, disturbs the flow of air over it. It makes the air rise and thus cools it, which causes clouds to form and rain to fall.
\par \tab The highest orographic precipitation is received in Hawaii below 6,000 feet (1,830 meters). Higher elevations are dry, barren, and cold, as on Mauna Kea. Because its air is so dry and clear, it is considered the best astronomical site on Earth.
\par \tab Temperature falls with height, and these two features of island precipitation and temperature mean that high islands may have many very different climates on their slopes. Most of the islands of Oceania are in the trade-wind zone and are subject to the strongest and most persistent winds on Earth. High islands therefore have especially marked windward and leeward effects of precipitation in which the side facing the wind receives more rain than the lee, or rain shadow. Near Hilo on the windward side of Hawaii, for example, precipitation is more than 300 inches (760 centimeters) a year, but in the northwest corner of the island, at Mauna Kea Beach, it is only 7 inches (18 centimeters).
\par \tab The leeward and windward effects, combined with different elevations, give even small islands many different environments. The wetter parts may have more streams as well as faster formation of soil and more erosion. This can lead to steeper slopes and many landslides. People living on the lee side may have difficulty finding water supplies and so spend much time carrying water to their homes.
\par \tab Other climatic features of tropical coasts and islands are the land and sea breezes. In the morning the sun heats the land, and the land heats the air above, making it lighter and causing it to rise. Cooler air flows in from the sea to replace it, while the air above moves out to sea and sinks, setting up a circulation that brings pleasantly cool air to the land. At night the circulation is reversed, and air moves from land to sea. Sometimes on high, large islands the land breeze may be very strong and even uncomfortably cool. These two circulations are separated by periods of little or no wind that produce hot and muggy conditions. A benefit of the sea breeze is that cumulus clouds often form over the land, bringing relief from the intense solar radiation of the tropics.
\par \tab A major resource of many islands is their freshwater lens. This forms on islands of porous rock, such as limestone and volcanic rock, as a lens-shaped body of fresh water that rests on heavier salt water. The bigger the island, the thicker and larger the lens. Small islets perched on atoll rims have lenses that are very small, thin, and fragile--easy to break and slow to reform. Many islets have dry climates, and the lens may be the major source of water for both humans and plants, so care must be taken when removing water from it. On larger islands water may flow from the lens to form springs along the shore.
\par {\b Peoples and Cultures}
\par \tab In all the vast area of Oceania there are only 25 million people, or 0.5 percent of the world's population. Most of them (some 16 million)--live in Australasia and are European by descent.
\par \tab Of the rest of Oceania, Polynesia has the most people--4,800,000. Most of them live in New Zealand and Hawaii, but they are not Polynesian. Outside these two places there are only a half million Polynesians. Half of these live in Western Samoa (160,000) and Tonga (100,000), and most of the rest (160,000) are scattered throughout French Polynesia. Polynesians have migrated more than other people in Oceania--about 140,000 born in Polynesia live elsewhere. New Zealand has the most--about 75,000, the United States 56,000, and Australia only 8,000. More people born in Niue and the Cook Islands live in New Zealand than in their homelands.
\par \tab By far the largest native population is found in Melanesia--4,100,000. Most of these (3,100,000) live in Papua New Guinea. Fiji has most (650,000) of the rest, but more than half of all Fijians are descendants of people imported from India to work on sugarcane plantations.
\par \tab Micronesia has the smallest population--310,000. As in Polynesia most of its population is widely dispersed in small groups on many islands. The largest cluster is on Guam (106,000), but many of these are non-Micronesian.
\par \tab Rates of population change differ widely in Oceania. In most of the large population groups, the rate of increase is fairly high--between 2.5 and 3 percent per year. The Solomon Islands are highest at 3.2 percent. Some small groups are declining in population, mainly through migration.
\par \tab {\b Settlement.}
\par \tab Nearly all the peoples of Oceania live in clusters--whether hamlets, villages, or cities. This is true in spite of the fact that perhaps two thirds of the native people are in agriculture. In general the larger towns are growing faster than the traditional villages, partly because people migrate to them from the villages.
\par \tab On most islands of Oceania the primary settlement form is the village, which traditionally is also the primary landholding unit. Many villages are along the coast, and on islands that are not very large a village may own land in a long strip from reef to summit.
\par \tab Many villages occupy places along the coast where water is available--at springs or where streams enter the sea or lagoon. A site with this feature is more valuable if there is easy access across the reef to the open sea by means of a deep channel. These are features of Apia, the capital of Western Samoa, that attracted European settlers and traders.
\par \tab A village may contain only a few people or as many as hundreds and even thousands. Some have grown into small cities that have also become capitals, but the only large city is Honolulu, Hawaii, with about 365,000 people. It has a well-developed city government, unlike some of the rest, which are collections of villages merged into one large urban area of self-governing units.
\par \tab In Polynesia many villages have a formal plan of two rows of houses facing each other across an open space resembling a village green, where ceremonies take place. Behind each house in these two rows, which are the dwellings of chiefs, may be another, smaller house in which other family members sleep and keep their clothes. Behind this there is yet a smaller structure, the kitchen. At one end of the green is the village church. A village may also contain a primary school and a clinic that serves a number of villages. Usually there is a store that sells such basic items as kerosene, matches, flour, canned goods, thread and cloth, and simple remedies--mainly for relief of cold symptoms. These stores also receive copra in exchange for goods. Cash is usually in short supply in the village.
\par \tab The household supplies the daily needs of the people living in it. It is the place where people eat and sleep and where the daily tasks of gardening and household chores are assigned by the chief or his wife. In Oceania people also belong to a much larger network of relatives to whom they owe obligations and on whom they may call in time of need--for example, when a child is sent away to school and cash is needed for tuition, books, and clothing.
\par \tab Households may differ greatly in size--from just a few people to a dozen or more. In places where migration from the village is easy, as from American Samoa to Hawaii or California, many households consist mostly of grandparents and their young grandchildren.
\par \tab {\b Traditional social life.}
\par \tab Most village households raise chickens for food and also pigs, which are the most common domesticated animal of Oceania. Pigs are raised to be used in ceremonies in which goods are exchanged and speeches are made to acknowledge and recognize the social relations of the people attending the ceremony. These ceremonies are central to the social life of most of Oceania.
\par \tab A typical ceremony might be a party given by a chief for perhaps 300 people that lasts for two or three days. The purpose of the gathering might be a wedding, and guests come from many other villages and even from other islands and countries. Relatives in the village and elsewhere, as well as villagers, are asked to help with the party. They do so because they have been helped in some way in the past and because their honor and reputation, as well as those of the village and its families, are at stake.
\par \tab Most of the food for the wedding must be raised and gathered by the people of the village. They plant extra taro, collect extra coconuts, raise extra pigs, and begin to make such gifts as barkcloth and mats. Houses are improved, thatched roofs repaired, the church painted, and the village made neat. Some food and other materials may come from elsewhere, but for the most part the villagers must rely on themselves.
\par \tab The preparation of food must be planned to ensure that it does not spoil in the high temperatures of the tropics. Large quantities of food are cooked in a pit dug into the ground. The pit is lined with rocks heated to high temperatures. Layers of food are put into the pit and covered with leaves and a layer of earth or wet jute or burlap sacks.
\par \tab When the ceremonies begin, there are speeches, singing, dancing, and feasting. There are personal exchanges. Old obligations are met and new ones made. The festivities end, and the guests leave. The lives of the villagers return to normal but with the expectation that another such occasion will come.
\par \tab This is the traditional way throughout most of Oceania based on the resources of the islands. On the high islands these are more abundant and varied than on the low islands. There are also more people to add life and variety to the ceremonies that affirm the social relationships of people from different places.
\par {\b Traditional Economy}
\par \tab Traditional households support themselves mainly by agriculture and fishing. Along the coasts of Oceania villages contain many coconut trees, and groves of coconuts surround them. From these nuts are extracted coconut cream, used in cooking, and copra, the dried meat of the nut from which coconut oil is extracted. What is left is fed to livestock. There are also breadfruit trees in many villages and other useful trees scattered through the coconut groves.
\par \tab Beyond the groves lie the gardens where crops are grown in shifting cultivation. In this kind of agriculture rainforests or scrub trees are cut down and burned, leaving ashes to nourish the crops without other fertilizer being applied. After harvesting, another part of the forest is cleared and another garden planted, the crop having exhausted the nourishment. The cycle, called shifting cultivation, or slash-and-burn agriculture, continues.
\par \tab This kind of agriculture is widely practiced in the tropics, but it is not the only kind found in Oceania. In the wet highlands of New Guinea, for example, the sweet potato is a major subsistence crop. It is grown in permanent beds raised above the surrounding swampy area for better drainage.
\par \tab In many of the larger islands there are plantations of coconut trees owned by European and native settlers and companies. Their principal crop is copra, and in some of them cattle graze on the vegetation that grows under the trees. The copra is produced for sale in other countries, making plantation agriculture very different from traditional subsistence agriculture, whose crops are not sold abroad but are consumed at home.
\par \tab Most subsistence crops produce edible roots or tubers. The best known of these are taro and its relatives, grown in warm places, and the sweet potato, found at higher altitudes or where it is colder, as in New Zealand. Bananas are part of the native diet, as is the sago palm in Melanesia. Breadfruit is very common, an attractive tree that requires little care. Like many plants of Oceania, it produces useful materials besides the fruit: the wood is good for building houses, its latex is used to caulk boats, and its leaf can be used as a plate.
\par \tab The edible parts of these plants are mostly starches, and little protein is produced by any plants of the rainforest. To fill the need for protein, the people of coastal Oceania turn to the reefs and open sea, catching and gathering fish, shellfish, and a host of other edible marine species.
\par {\b Changes in Traditional Life}
\par \tab With the arrival of the Europeans in the 19th century and their takeover of government and religion, traditional ways of life changed forever. On the negative side, new diseases and weapons caused the loss of many lives. However, the Europeans eventually ended local warfare, stopped the movement of people, fixed the locations of villages, and introduced money. New crops and jobs, new opportunities, and even a new language appeared. The pidgin of Melanesia made it possible for millions of people who spoke hundreds of very different languages to communicate.
\par \tab The end of warfare had a major effect on many island societies because warfare had occupied so much of their time and energy. Social organization and the roles of men and women had been closely related to it. Changes continued into the 20th century with the discovery of a large group of inhabitants of the New Guinea highlands. Warfare had been a major part of their societies, and they were shaken when it ended. War still threatens to break out between enemy tribes there, and tribal enmity remains a strong force in local politics.
\par \tab In pre-European times tribal groups moved a great deal as they fled from or pursued their enemies. When warfare was banned, there was the opportunity and the need to settle in one place. Villages were established and the boundaries of their lands fixed. Life became more stable and predictable.
\par \tab Europeans introduced money and the need for it where none existed before. Although all of the changes had enormous social effects, the need for money was the most dramatic. The people of Oceania could no longer escape changing economic conditions in the outside world.
\par \tab The people were required to pay taxes to support at least part of the expenses of colonial government. This required them to produce something for sale abroad in order to get money to pay the taxes. Copra was the first major product to fill this role, and for many places it remains the largest export. Atoll people have little else to sell. More coconut trees were planted, and coconut groves are the single most noticeable feature of many Pacific islands.
\par \tab Cash was also needed to pay for the new schools and churches. Parents wanted their children to be educated so they could adjust more easily to the new ways introduced by Europeans. The adults of the villages built village schools but had to raise money to buy the concrete, tin roofs, and other materials. Books, supplies, and uniforms also had to be bought and teachers paid.
\par {\b Modern Economies}
\par \tab These developments occurred especially rapidly after World War II. Many villagers found the agriculture they knew and their limited resources inadequate for modern life. They left their villages for places of greater opportunity--cities in the islands as well as overseas.
\par \tab {\b MIRAB societies.}
\par \tab So many workers in the villages left that traditional agriculture and social life declined. Some writers call the new societies that have emerged MIRAB societies. This term was coined from the words migration, remittance, aid, and bureaucracy--the four major sources of income for many islands and new microstates.
\par \tab Most migrants go to New Zealand and the United States, particularly to Hawaii and California. Many send remittances back home after finding jobs. This money enables their relatives to buy necessities.
\par \tab Aid is a significant source of income to governments in Oceania. Much of this money consists of gifts, not loans, from developed countries. Australia and New Zealand are the primary sources of regional aid, while France and the United States also contribute some aid. Aid is quite easily obtained, and the amounts requested are not large. The expense of running the bureaucracy is included because in most of these societies, which lack industries and large businesses, the government is the largest employer.
\par \tab Mining has long been an activity in certain parts of Oceania. In the 19th century guano, a natural fertilizer consisting of the manure of seabirds, was extensively mined on low islands in the Central Pacific. Today it is no longer mined, but phosphate rock is taken from raised limestone islands for use in making superphosphate fertilizer. The most plentiful source of phosphate rock is the island of Nauru. In addition, gold deposits have been found from New Guinea to Fiji.
\par \tab The only major mining industry in Oceania is in New Caledonia, whose mines make it the world's second largest producer of nickel. This industry has spurred other investment, making New Caledonia's economy the largest in the area.
\par \tab Because opportunities and natural resources are few on most islands, many islanders see tourism as their greatest potential source of income. Others object that jobs in tourism are menial, and high fares in the Pacific make visits expensive and tourists few. Nevertheless, Oceania has attracted travelers for many decades, and its image is among the most alluring in the world. Increasing numbers of visitors have brought many economic benefits to some places, especially Guam, the Northern Marianas, Fiji, and French Polynesia.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by Ward Barrett, Professor of Geography, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, and author of 'Mission in the Marianas' and 'The Sugar Hacienda of the Marqueses del Valle'.
\par \tab Daws, A.G. A Dream of Islands (Mutual, 1991).
\par \tab Margolis, Susanna. Adventuring in the Pacific (Sierra Club Books, 1988).
\par \tab Oliver, D.L. Oceania: The Native Cultures of Australia and the Pacific Islands, 2 vols. (Univ. of Hawaii Press, 1989).
\par \tab Theroux, Paul. The Happy Isles of Oceania (Putnam, 1992).
\par \tab Withey, Lynne. Voyages of Discovery (Univ. of Calif., 1988).\par \tab A small, mountainous country in Central Europe, Austria was once at the center of a great empire and one of the great powers of Europe. Its position at the middle of Europe made it a center of trade, transportation, and culture.
\par {\b Land and Climate}
\par \tab The Republic of Austria occupies the eastern end of the great mountain ranges of the Alps. The highest peaks are in the western and central parts of Austria. A number of ranges extend west to east with several major river valleys between them. The highest peak is the Grossglockner (12,457 feet; 3,797 meters), located in the Hohe Tauern range. The high ranges of the Austrian Alps are glaciated.
\par \tab The major lowland areas lie in the northern and eastern parts of the country. The northern lowland is the wide valley of the Danube River, which flows across northern Austria. At the eastern end of this lowland, where the Danube emerges from the mountains into the drier plains, lies the capital city of Vienna. South of Vienna a second area of plains extends to the Slovenian border. These lowlands occupy about 20 percent of the country's total area. North of the Danube is an area of hills that is an extension of a mountain area in the southern part of the Czech Republic.
\par \tab A number of rivers, such as the Enns, Inn, Drava, Ill, Salzach, and Mur, flow through the interior valleys of the Alps. These valleys provide conditions suitable for farming as well as for the development of cities and towns. Among a number of Alpine passes, the most important is the Brenner Pass, which connects Austria with Italy. The city of Innsbruck, located in the valley of the Inn, owes its importance to its location at the approaches to the Brenner Pass. The Semmering Pass south of Vienna leads to the northern end of the Adriatic Sea. The largest lake is Neusiedler Lake, south of Vienna. The western tip of Austria lies on the shores of Lake Constance (Bodensee), which borders Austria, Switzerland, and Germany.
\par \tab The climate of Austria is not uniform throughout its whole territory. The western mountainous region receives considerable moisture from the Atlantic Ocean and thus tends to have higher rainfall and snowfall totals than the east. The difference between summer and winter temperatures is greater in the east than in the west. The interior valleys and the eastern lowlands have the warmest summer temperatures. In the latter area summers have average temperatures of about 68░ F (20░ C) and winter temperatures of about 29░ F (-2░ C). In the mountains temperatures decrease with altitude, and the permanent snow line averages between 8,000 and 9,000 feet (2,400 and 2,700 meters). Alpine weather is affected by winds. The most important is the foehn, a warm, dry wind that occurs on the leeward slopes of the mountain ranges.
\par {\b Plant and Animal Life}
\par \tab The original vegetation of the Austrian Alps consisted of deciduous trees, such as beech, birch, and oak, on the lower slopes, and coniferous trees, such as spruce, pine, fir, and larch, on the upper slopes. Much of the forest on the lower slopes and on the lowlands has been removed to allow crop farming. A large number of the native species--bears, wolves, and wild swine--have vanished, but there are still marmots, deer, foxes, martens, badgers, squirrels, hares, partridges, pheasants, and a number of other birds. In the high parts of the Alps chamois and a few ibex are found. Above the timberline grow numerous species of berries and flowers, including the rare edelweiss.
\par {\b The People}
\par \tab About 96 percent of the inhabitants of Austria are German-speaking. The small minority groups include Czechs, Croats, Slovenes, and Hungarians. Dominant in Austrian society, along with German language and culture, is the Roman Catholic religion. The few Protestants and Jews reside mainly in Vienna.
\par \tab Austrian culture has made many contributions to the world. In particular, several great composers--such as Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Ludwig van Beethoven, Franz Schubert, Johannes Brahms, Johann Strauss, and Gustav Mahler--have lived or worked in Austria. Austrian writers such as Hugo von Hofmannsthal and Arthur Schnitzler have made important contributions to German literature. Austrian folk culture is rich in music, dance, arts, and crafts.
\par \tab Since the 1970s the growth rate of the population has decreased to near zero, due to a balancing out of the birthrate and the death rate. About 65 percent of the population lives in cities. The largest city by far is the capital, Vienna, with a little more than 1.5 million inhabitants. The second city, Graz, is much smaller, with only about 237,000 inhabitants. Other important cities include Linz, Salzburg, and Innsbruck.
\par {\b The Economy}
\par \tab Because of its large region of mountains only about half of Austria's total area is suitable for farming or pasture. More than one third of its area is forest and woodland, and more than 15 percent is unproductive. More than half of the farmland consists of natural meadows and pastures where cattle, goats, and sheep are grazed. Of the country's agricultural output more than two thirds consists of animal products, especially milk, butter, and cheese. The major grain crops are corn (maize), barley, wheat, and rye. Other important crops include potatoes and sugar beets. Orchards and vineyards are found mainly in the eastern part of the country. The main tree orchard fruits are apples, pears, plums, apricots, and peaches. Wine is produced both for home consumption and for export. A typical farm is small and is usually owned by the family that lives and works on it.
\par \tab The forest-products industry is important, and about one eighth of Austria's exports consists of timber, timber products, and paper. The country is one of the world's leading producers of coniferous sawn timber. Much of the forest land has been severely overcut, but extensive reforestation and other forest management techniques such as controlled thinning are being encouraged by the government. About one third of the forest land is in small, private holdings, and many of the owners have formed efficient forest-utilization cooperatives.
\par \tab The lack of energy resources is the weakest aspect of Austria's economy. Austria must import more than 70 percent of its bituminous coal and lignite. It also imports more than 80 percent of its oil and natural gas. Some petroleum and natural gas come from wells east of Vienna. There is a refinery at Schwechat, a suburb of Vienna. Oil from the Middle East is brought by pipeline from Trieste in Italy. Natural gas is imported from Russia by pipeline. Lignite is mined locally in small quantities and is burned to generate electricity. About half of the electricity produced comes from hydroelectric power stations on Alpine rivers and on the Danube. A nuclear power station built near Vienna was protested, and, after a national referendum in 1978, it was not used.
\par \tab Production of metallic minerals is significant, and Austria mines iron ore, lead, zinc, copper, and magnesite. Iron ore is mined in the southern area of the country. Magnesite is an important export.
\par \tab Austrian industry is in general characterized by a number of small specialized enterprises, many of them state-owned. The iron and steel industry is important and produces enough for the country's needs and for export. The major plants are at Linz and in the south near the iron ore deposits. The Austrian iron and steel industry expanded rapidly after World War II. There is also a sizable aluminum industry that processes primarily imported aluminum, which is economically feasible because of the abundance of inexpensive hydroelectric power. One of the largest plants in Western Europe is located near Braunau. The chemical industry produces fertilizer, plastics, and synthetic fibers, mainly for use in Austria. The paper industry is important, and cellulose, paper, and cardboard are exported. Other industries include construction, machinery, transportation equipment, electrical equipment, and cotton and wool textiles.
\par \tab The development of the tourist trade also contributes much to the Austrian economy. The main attractions are the alpine scenery and the skiing resorts in the mountains. Many art and music enthusiasts and historians are attracted to the galleries, concert halls, and museums of Vienna. Salzburg, with its annual music festival, also brings many visitors.
\par {\b Transportation, Communication, and Education}
\par \tab Austria is located at the meeting place of several important transportation routes. In the west is the Brenner Pass to Italy, and in the east is the Danube River, which flows through southeastern Europe. Austria also lies on the land route between the head of the Adriatic Sea and the Danube Plain.
\par \tab Austria has a good railroad network, half of which is electrified. There are several mountain railroads and many cableways and chair lifts that provide access to the high slopes for skiers and hikers. Austria also has several four-lane highways that are connected to the German and Italian road networks and permit easy access to the country for tourists. The two most important river ports are Vienna and Linz. The national airline links Vienna with many cities of the world.
\par \tab Austria has a well-organized postal and telegraph network, as well as a state radio and television service. All of these services are controlled and operated by the Post and Telegraph Administration.
\par \tab The Austrian educational system is based on compulsory, free education for all children between the ages of 6 and 15 in a variety of primary and secondary schools. There are six universities, located at Vienna, Graz, Innsbruck, Salzburg, and Krems. They are particularly noted for their technical and medical schools and clinics. Austria has produced Nobel prizewinners in the fields of medicine, physics, chemistry, peace, and economics. Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, was an Austrian.
\par {\b Government}
\par \tab Austria is a federal republic, consisting of nine democratic states, known as BundeslΣnder. The states of Lower Austria, Upper Austria, Styria, Tirol (Tyrol), Carinthia, Salzburg, Vorarlberg, and Burgenland have their own capitals and legislative assemblies. The federal capital, Vienna, is also a state.
\par \tab The country is governed under the constitution of 1920, as amended in 1929, which gives the federal government considerable political and economic power. The residual powers are left to the provincial governments. The federal president is elected by popular vote for a term of six years. He is the head of state, but his power is largely limited to appointing the chancellor (head of government) and the Cabinet ministers. The legislature consists of a lower house, the National Council (Nationalrat), and an upper house, the Federal Council (Bundesrat). There are two major political parties, the People's party and the Social Democratic party. The former is, in general, a conservative party representing businessmen and farmers, and it has the unofficial support of the Roman Catholic church. The Social Democrats count on the support of industrial workers.
\par {\b History}
\par \tab The present nation of Austria is the remnant of a once-powerful empire that controlled a large area of central and eastern Europe. With the breakdown of the empire of Austria-Hungary after World War I, Austria found itself only one eighth of its former size.
\par \tab This sudden reduction from world power to a small and relatively weak country was a major blow to the Austrian people. In 1918 the German members of the imperial parliament declared the formation of an Austrian nation consisting of the German-speaking areas of former Austria-Hungary. This new republic, however, was threatened by Communist attempts at a takeover along with the attempts by several of the provinces to break away and form independent states.
\par \tab The republic in its early days wished to be united with Germany, but this was expressly forbidden in the World War I peace treaty signed with the Allies in 1919. The main task of the government was the restoration of the economy, which was in chaos. Although economic conditions improved considerably in the 1920s, the internal political situation did not, due to a continuous confrontation between the Socialists and right-wing groups. Many people turned to the Nazi party after a financial crisis in 1931 discredited the major parties. The Christian Socialist party under Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss was attacked by both the left and right, and in 1934 the conflict led to a brief civil war. In the same year the Nazis attempted to take over the government by force and murdered Dollfuss. The leaders of this attempt were arrested, and the new chancellor tried to resist Nazi Germany. In 1938 the Germans marched into Austria and declared a union, or Anschluss. Renamed Ostmark by the Nazis, Austria fought World War II as part of the Axis powers.
\par \tab In 1945 Austria was divided into zones of occupation by the United States, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and France. Economic problems retarded the recovery of the country, but by the early 1950s considerable prosperity had been restored. In 1955 the four countries signed a treaty with the Austrian government and removed their troops. Austria was prohibited from union with Germany and undertook to maintain a democratic political system. The constitution was amended to make the nation neutral. Austria was admitted to the United Nations in 1955.
\par \tab Controversy erupted during Austria's 1986 presidential election when candidate Kurt Waldheim, former secretary-general of the United Nations (UN), was accused of participating in war crimes while serving in the German army during World War II. Despite this, Waldheim won the election.
\par \tab Austria's neutrality had prevented it from joining the European Communities (EU; formerly the European Communities) or any major European military organization. With the end of the Cold War, this situation changed. Austria was a member of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA). In 1991 the EFTA signed a free-trade agreement with the EU, and in June 1994 Austrians voted overwhelmingly to join the EU in 1995.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab Ian Matley
{\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR AUSTRIA}
\par \tab Austria: A Country Study (U.S. Govt. Printing Office, 1994).
\par \tab Jelavich, Barbara. Modern Austria: Empire, and Republic 1815-1986 (Columbia, 1987).
\par \tab Robertson, Ian. The Blue Guide to Austria, 3rd ed. (Norton, 1992).
\par \tab Sully, M.A. A Contemporary History of Austria (Routledge, 1990).
\par \tab Sweeny, J., and Weidenholzer, J. Austria: A Study in Contemporary Achievement (Ashgate, 1988).\par \tab On the Caspian Sea at the eastern end of the Caucasus mountains is Azerbaijan, one of the 15 republics that made up the Soviet Union until that country was dissolved and the republics gained their independence in December 1991. Azerbaijan is bordered by Russia and Georgia to the north, the Caspian Sea to the east, Armenia to the west, and Iran to the south.
\par {\b The Land and Climate}
\par \tab The republic has an area of 33,400 square miles (86,600 square kilometers), about the size of Portugal. Much of the north and south is mountainous, the highest peak being Bazardyuze (14,698 feet; 4,480 meters). The central area consists of a large lowland through which flows the Kura River.
\par \tab The climate is dry and subtropical, with hot summers and mild winters. Much of the plains has a dry and even semidesert type of climate, while more rain falls in the mountains and on the narrow Lenkoran coastal plain in the southeast. Cactus, scrub growth, and steppe grass grow in the lowlands and foothills, and there are hardwood forests and alpine grazing meadows at higher elevations.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab The Azerbaijanis are traditionally farmers and herders, though more than half of the people now live in urban areas. The largest city and the republic's capital is Baku. The petroleum industry in particular has attracted many people to Baku. Some three quarters of the republic's more than 7 million people are Turkic Azerbaijanis. They speak Azeri-Turkish, which differs somewhat from the language of Turkey. They are Muslims of the Shi'ah sect, the predominant sect of Iran. There are some 9 million Azerbaijanis living across the border in Iran. Azerbaijan administers Nakhichevan, an ethnically Azerbaijani territory located within Armenia.
\par \tab Armenians make up more than 80 percent of the population living in the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast, a district in the south of the republic. There have been violent ethnic riots since 1988 between Azerbaijanis and Armenians after Armenian demands that Nagorno-Karabakh be united with the Armenian republic. The Soviet government intervened to stop the violence, but the fighting escalated when the Soviet troops were withdrawn after the dissolution of the Soviet Union.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab Raw cotton and tobacco are the leading crops. Wheat, barley, and corn are the major grain crops. Rice is grown through irrigation. Potatoes, fruits, grapes, and vegetables are other crops. Tea and citrus fruits are specialties of the humid Lenkoran lowland. Cattle, sheep, and goats graze the lowlands and the mountains and are the basis of wool and meat production. Silk is a major product.
\par \tab The Baku area is the site of extensive petroleum and natural gas fields. Most of the republic's industry is in the Baku-Sumgait area, where petroleum refining and the manufacture of steel, oil equipment, and chemicals are significant. A petroleum pipeline extends from Baku to Batumi in Georgia, and gas pipelines also extend to the nearby republics.
\par {\b Government and History}
\par \tab Before the 19th century the territory of the present republic consisted of a number of khanates, which were conquered by the Russians by the 1820s. At the time of the Russian Revolution in 1918, an independent Azerbaijan republic was declared with the help of the Turks and, later, the British. In 1920 the Soviets invaded the republic, and in 1936 it was declared a republic of the Soviet Union. Azerbaijan declared its independence in August 1991. When the Soviet Union was dissolved in December, Azerbaijan tentatively joined ten other republics in forming the Commonwealth of Independent States. It did not become a member, however, because its parliament failed to ratify the agreement. Population (1992 estimate), 7,237,000.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab Ian Matley\par \tab One of the Bahama islands--San Salvador, also called Watling Island--is probably the site where Christopher Columbus first landed in the New World in 1492. The islands got their name from the Spanish word bajamar, meaning "shallow water."
\par \tab The independent Commonwealth of the Bahamas is an archipelago consisting of about 700 islands and cays (keys) and almost 2,400 low, barren rock formations. Only 22 of the islands and cays are inhabited. The archipelago extends about 750 miles (1,200 kilometers), reaching from a point off the east coast of Florida almost to the island of Hispaniola. Through this island barrier there are only three channels for large vessels, for the islands are merely the exposed portions of the Great Bahama Bank, an extension of the North American continental shelf.
\par \tab The islands are generally low and flat, and the highest point in the entire archipelago, on Cat Island, is only 206 feet (63 meters) above sea level. There are no running streams, except on Andros, the largest island. Fresh water is procured from wells dug in underlying rocks. On New Providence Island is the capital, Nassau, a popular winter resort. Other Bahama islands include Great Abaco, Eleuthera, Grand Bahama, and Long Island.
\par \tab The climate is mild, with an average winter temperature of about 70░ F (21░ C). Lacking natural resources other than their magnificent climate and dazzling beaches, the islands are economically dependent on tourism. About two thirds of the islands' workers are involved in tourist-related businesses. The many attractions, including gambling casinos that have opened in several areas, have brought a relatively high standard of living for the mostly native population. The economy is also dependent on banking.
\par \tab In the southeastern islands, the traditional pattern of small farming and fishing still prevails in many villages. Fruits and vegetables are grown. Pigs, sheep, goats, and turkeys thrive. Crayfish, lumber, and pulpwood are shipped chiefly to the United States.
\par \tab Englishmen came to the Bahamas in the 1600s, and the island group later became a British colony. However, the society and culture that have developed in the Bahamas are an unusual blend of both the European settlement and the African heritage that are a legacy of the islands' former slave trade.
\par \tab The islands had their first government assembly in 1729. They were given internal self-government in 1964. Following a 1972 electoral mandate for independence from Britain, they achieved full independence as the Commonwealth of the Bahamas in July 1973. Britain raised no objections. Under the 1973 constitution, a governor-general is appointed by the British Crown. The land area of the Bahamas is 5,382 square miles (13,939 square kilometers). Population (1990 census), 255,095.\par \tab A small Arab monarchy in the Persian Gulf, Bahrain consists of a group of islands between the Qatar peninsula and the northeastern coast of Saudi Arabia. Named for the main island in the archipelago, the country includes some 30 smaller islands. Bahrain covers an area of about 270 square miles (692 square kilometers).
\par \tab There are only two major towns. The capital and chief port is Manama, in the northeastern part of Bahrain Island. It contains several large hotels, schools, Western-style shops, and an Arab suq, or bazaar. Al Muharraq, to the north of Manama, is a traditional Arab town with narrow, winding streets and a dense settlement. These two towns contain about half of Bahrain's total population.
\par \tab The Arab villages consist mainly of substantial houses of local stone or of concrete with flat roofs. Some of the temporary settlements of the fishermen and the very poor are made of barasti (sticks or canes from date palms). On the southern half of the main island there is little settlement.
\par \tab Bahrain remains essentially Arab in its culture and life-style. The state radio station broadcasts mostly in Arabic, the official language, and television transmissions are received from Saudi Arabia. Several weekly and daily papers are published in Arabic and a few in English. The British Council in Manama is the main foreign cultural institution. In 1981 Bahrain was chosen as the site for a Gulf University.
\par \tab Bahrain Island has an excellent paved road system, and buses and taxis serve its major areas. The busy international airport on Al Muharraq Island has flights to most countries in the Middle East.
\par \tab The climate of Bahrain is very humid. Average monthly temperatures from May to October exceed 83░ F (28░ C). Winter temperatures from December to March average below 70░ F (21░ C). Agriculture is of minimal economic importance and produces only a fraction of Bahrain's food requirements, mainly in fruits and vegetables. There are a few thousand sheep, cattle, and goats.
\par \tab Bahrain owes its commercial success as a business and communications center to its location in the prosperous Persian Gulf region. It is an offshore banking center for more than 60 foreign banks, and there is a free zone in which many foreign business concerns have their headquarters.
\par \tab Major industries include natural gas and petroleum products--the principal exports. In 1978 the government took over ownership of the petroleum industry. Bahrain moved closer to the other Persian Gulf monarchies--Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Qatar, Oman, and the United Arab Emirates--through the establishment of the Gulf Cooperation Council in March 1981.
\par \tab Bahrain was ruled by Portugal and then by Persia (Iran) before coming under British influence in the 19th century. From 1916 until 1971 it was a British Protected State, and the United Kingdom was responsible for the conduct of its foreign affairs and defense. Bahrain then declared itself independent of Britain and became a member of the United Nations. Population (1990 estimate), 503,000.\par \tab One of the world's most densely populated nations, Bangladesh is also one of the poorest. More than 108 million people live within this South Asian country's total area of 55,598 square miles (143,998 square kilometers). This amounts to an average of almost 2,000 persons per square mile (about 755 persons per square kilometer). Most of the people depend upon agriculture for a living. Their average annual income in 1990 amounted to less than 200 dollars per person.
\par \tab Bangladesh is surrounded by India on the west, north, and northeast; Myanmar (Burma) on the southeast; and the Bay of Bengal on the south. The country is inhabited almost entirely by people who speak the Bengali language, and it has a distinctive Bengali culture shared by adjacent West Bengal, a state of India. Bangladesh and West Bengal constituted the former Bengal Province of British India, and the region is still referred to informally as Bengal.
\par {\b Land and Climate}
\par \tab Bangladesh, most of which is at low elevations, is divided into five physical regions: the Ganges Delta proper to the southwest, the Paradelta to the northwest, the East-Central plains, the Sylhet Hills in the northeast, and the southeast Chittagong region.
\par \tab The Ganges Delta is geologically the most recently formed of the regions. Mangrove forests thrive in the active lower delta, which is flooded by fresh and tidal waters. The soil base is new alluvium.
\par \tab The Paradelta, like the delta proper, is a plain, but its elevations are higher--100 to 300 feet (30 to 90 meters) above sea level. Its soils are varied: silt and sandy clays and old alluvium. It lies between the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers.
\par \tab The East-Central plains, with the Meghna River almost at its center, consists of plains and active floodplains in which the main rivers, including the Brahmaputra, have altered their channels in the past. At the center of this plain lies Madhupur Jungle, formerly a site for tiger hunting. To the northeast is the Meghna depression, part of which is only 10 feet (3 meters) above sea level; during the rainy season it turns into a huge lake, covering most of its 2,800-square-mile (7,250-square-kilometer) basin.
\par \tab The Sylhet Hills and ranges are a small extension of the foothills of India's Meghalaya Plateau. Its highest peak (Harargaj) reaches 1,103 feet (336 meters).
\par \tab The Chittagong region primarily consists of coastal plains and islands. It also includes the Matamori River delta and parts of the Karnaphuli River valley to the west and ridges and valleys to the east.
\par \tab {\b River systems.}
\par \tab The extensive river systems of Bangladesh are fundamental to the nation's economy and way of life. The rivers flow into the Bay of Bengal. About three fourths of the water emptied into the bay is carried during the rainy season, especially June through September. The foremost river is the Ganges, known in Bangladesh as the Padma. A sacred river to the Hindus, it originates in the snow-clad Himalayas in India and flows for most of its 1,557 miles (2,506 kilometers) in India. Forming part of the Bangladesh-India border in the west, the Ganges turns southeast into the channel of the Meghna. The Meghna breaks into branches that form part of a vast delta adjoining the Bay of Bengal.
\par \tab The Brahmaputra-Tista system joins the Ganges almost at the center of the country. The Brahmaputra originates in the Kailas range of the Himalayas in Tibet and enters Bangladesh from the north; its total length is about 1,800 miles (2,900 kilometers). In Bangladesh its main stream is known as the Jamuna. The Tista changed its course in 1787, and the two rivers joined and now flow on the course of the Brahmaputra. The Tista also originates in the Himalayas and enters Bangladesh from the north.
\par \tab The rain-fed Meghna-Surma system consists of the Meghna and its tributary, the Surma. Together they run a course of about 130 miles (210 kilometers) before joining the Ganges-Padma southeast of Dhaka. During the rainy season the water from the system flows back into the Meghna depression, creating a vast sheet of water. The lower Meghna is formed after the Ganges-Padma joins it, following a course of 95 miles (155 kilometers) to the Bay of Bengal. The foremost river in Asia in average annual discharge (which totals about 875 million acre-feet), the Ganges-Padma is surpassed only by the Amazon and the Congo rivers.
\par \tab The Chittagong region river system consists of three main rivers: the Karnaphuli, the Sangu, and the Matamori. All are swift-flowing, relatively small rivers of the hill country that frequently cause flash floods. The harbor of the Chittagong is located at the mouth of the Karnaphuli.
\par \tab {\b Climate.}
\par \tab Bangladesh has a tropical monsoon type of climate, with heavy summer rain and high summer temperatures. Winters are dry and cool. South and southwest winds dominate the six-month period of mid-April to mid-October and bring enormous amounts of moisture from the Indian Ocean and Bay of Bengal; 95 percent of the total annual rainfall, which averages about 80 inches (203 centimeters), occurs during that period. The temperatures range from an average of about 68░ F (20░ C) in January to about 86░ F (30░ C) in April.
\par \tab Bengalis subdivide the year into six seasons: Grissho (summer), Barsha (rainy), Sarat (autumn), Hemanto (cool), Sheet (winter), and Basanta (spring). For practical purposes, however, three seasons are distinguished: summer, rainy, and winter. Rain begins to fall in April, the hottest month. Farmers then begin to plow their fields for the main crop planting. With the break of monsoon in the first week of June, the extremely heavy monsoon rains start suddenly, and average temperatures fall into the low 80s F. These heavy rains prevail for two to three months and continue more moderately into November.
\par \tab Destructive floods every two or three years are common in Bangladesh. Between 1960 and 1970, nine cyclones accompanied with floods hit Bangladesh during the October through December period. Floods devastate summer crops, destroy homes, and drown people and livestock. In 1988 monsoon rains left 2,000 people dead and 30 million homeless. Later that year a cyclone killed 1,700 people. As many as 131,000 people were killed by a May 1991 cyclone that caused 2.7 billion dollars in damages.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab With more than 107 million people, Bangladesh ranks as the world's 10th most populous country. According to projections, the population will reach 140 million by the year 2000. This rapid growth places a great and growing strain on the heavily agricultural economy of Bangladesh, which is already one of the world's most crowded countries. Like most developing countries, Bangladesh has a young population; nearly half of the people are under the age of 15. The population is 51.5 percent male and 48.5 percent female. Although infant mortality has declined recently, it still stands at a high level of about 110 per 1,000.
\par \tab Muslims constitute about 85 percent of the population of Bangladesh, but the Hindus form a sizable minority of about 12 percent. Most of the remainder are Buddhists and Christians. Racially, Bangladesh is a mixture of three groups: Australoids, Mongoloids, and Caucasoids. The latter group, which is divided into dark-skinned Dravidians and the lighter Aryans, dominates most parts of the country. Bengali is the state language and mother tongue of 98 percent of the people in Bangladesh.
\par \tab The staple food of the Bengalis is rice, which is generally eaten three times a day. Boiled rice and fish curry is the common diet. Most women in Bangladesh wear a sari, a cloth about 15 feet (4.6 meters) long that is wrapped around the body. The Muslim males wear a lungi, a cloth wrapped below the waist, and Hindu men wear a dhoti, a white cloth almost as long as a sari, wrapped around the waist with one end tucked in the back and the other draped in front. Shirts are worn with both the lungi and the dhoti, and blouses are worn with the sari. In urban areas Western dress is more popular with men than it is with women.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab The backbone of the Bangladesh economy, agriculture contributes about 45 percent of the gross domestic product. Approximately two thirds of the land area is cultivated. Rice and jute are the principal agricultural crops, and others include wheat, barley, corn (maize), millet, lentils, beans, potatoes, sweet potatoes, vegetables, spices, oil seeds, cotton, and sugarcane. Tea is grown in the northeastern areas.
\par \tab The growing season lasts throughout the year, which permits Bangladesh to devote about half of the cultivated land to multiple-cropping. Traditionally three rice crops are grown each year. The summer-rainy season rice crop is called kharif, the rainy season crop haimantik, and the winter crop rabi. The three principal categories of rice--aman, aus, and boro--are associated with kharif, haimantik, and rabi crops, respectively. About half of the rice acreage is in aman, though boro provides higher yields.
\par \tab The major industry in Bangladesh is based on the jute crop. Jute fiber, mainly used for the manufacture of sacks, is a specialty of Bangladesh. About two fifths of the world's jute is produced in Bangladesh, which is also the world's leading exporter. Jute is Bangladesh's principal foreign-exchange earner. More than 30 percent of the laborers engaged in large industries in Bangladesh are employed by more than 70 jute mills, which manufacture about half a million tons of products annually. Other products come from rice and cotton mills; forest-based industry (match factories and paper mills); mineral-based industry (cement, glass, chemicals, petroleum, and fertilizers); and engineering and steel industries.
\par \tab Dhaka, the national capital, is located almost at the center of the country. As early as medieval times it was a flourishing city; it has a population of about 4.5 million. Other large cities include Chittagong, Khulna, and Rajshahi.
\par {\b Transportation, Communication, and Education}
\par \tab Water transportation is vital in Bangladesh because of the country's extensive river network. During the rainy season boats weighing 10 tons and more can ply 4,000 miles (6,500 kilometers) of its waterways and smaller craft can use an additional 11,000 miles (17,700 kilometers). During the drier seasons the number of navigable miles shrinks considerably. The total number of passenger and cargo boats amounts to more than 350,000.
\par \tab Other means of transportation are not well developed. The Bangladesh Railways is owned by the government and operates only about 2,000 miles (3,200 kilometers) of track. Nevertheless it carries some 90 million passengers and 3.2 million tons of cargo annually. There are about 100,000 miles (160,000 kilometers) of roads. About 12 percent are paved.
\par \tab The official airline, the Bangladesh Biman, operates mainly from the international airport at Dhaka with connections to Chittagong, Cox's Bazar, Comilla, Jessore, Thakurgaon, Ishurdi, and Sylhet. It carries about half a million passengers annually.
\par \tab The communications network is also rather limited. The telephone system has few connections outside of Dhaka. Radio and television transmission is government-owned, and transmission centers include Dhaka and Chittagong. Daily newspapers are printed both in Bengali and English. Because English is taught beginning in the third grade in elementary schools, it is a second language for many people. Dhaka University is the nation's most prestigious.
\par {\b History and Government}
\par \tab Bangladesh has a long history that is divided into four phases: Hindu or Buddhist kingdoms to the 12th century AD; Muslim domination from the 13th century through 1757; British rule from 1757 through 1947; and the recent era, which includes the Pakistan period from 1947 to 1971 and the period of an independent Bangladesh from 1971.
\par \tab Although historical accounts of Bengal, referred to as Gangaridi, occur from the 4th century BC, the political domination of the region was well defined during the reign of Bengal-based dynasties of the Palas (750-1160), who were Buddhists, and the Senas (1095-1205), who were Hindus. The Pala capital was in northwestern Bengal, while the Senas operated from Bikrampur, a few miles south of Dhaka.
\par \tab Islamic domination of Bengal began in 1204. The region remained largely independent of the Delhi sovereigns of India until 1576, when generals of the Mughal emperor Akbar converted Bengal into a province of the Indian Empire. Dhaka became the capital of the province. When the Delhi-based Mughal Empire began disintegrating in 1707, Bengal again became independent and was ruled by Muslims. The last of these rulers was defeated in 1757 by the British. During this period a large number of Muslims migrated to Bengal from both western India and the Middle East.
\par \tab British rule of Bengal (1757-1947) was headquartered in Calcutta. Bengal province was partitioned into the Hindu West and Muslim East in 1905, but a powerful protest forced the British to reunite it in 1912. During this period Dhaka was the capital of East Bengal.
\par \tab After the British left India in 1947, the subcontinent was divided into India and Pakistan. The latter consisted of two geographically separate divisions, East Pakistan (present-day Bangladesh) and West Pakistan (present-day Pakistan). When the East Pakistan-based Awami League candidates won a majority in the Pakistan National Assembly in the 1970 elections, a power struggle within the country was the result. The West Pakistan-based government began cracking down on East Pakistan, unleashing one of the most severe repressions in history upon the Bengali people. Almost 10 million refugees fled to neighboring India. Late in 1971 East Pakistan was liberated from West Pakistan, and on Dec. 16, 1971, it declared its independence and gave itself a new name, Bangladesh.
\par \tab Bangladesh held its first national election in 1973, and the Awami League party, led by Mujibur Rahman (known as Sheikh Mujib), won almost all 300 seats of the Parliament. A parliamentary democracy was introduced with Abu Sayeed Choudhury as president and Mujib as prime minister. However, the nation was so strained by internal chaos that by December 1974 the constitution was amended, making Mujib president with power to rule by personal decree.
\par \tab In August 1975 a coup was staged by the military, and Mujib was assassinated. The army chief, Ziaur Rahman, seized power in November 1975, and Abu Sadat Mohammed Sayem, a civilian, was named president. After Sayem's resignation in 1977, Ziaur became the president. By the end of 1977 democracy was partially reinstated, and Ziaur, who led in the formation of a new Jatiya (Nationalist) party, became the elected president in 1978. In 1979 martial law, which had been in effect since 1975, was lifted, and a democratic form of government was restored.
\par \tab On an official visit to Chittagong in November 1981, Ziaur was assassinated. Abdus Sattar, the vice-president, succeeded to the presidency. In March 1982 the army chief Hussain Mohammed Ershad staged a bloodless coup. Martial law was then proclaimed, and Ershad became the nation's chief administrator. Ershad lifted martial law in November 1986. In 1987-88 he declared a state of emergency after violent antigovernment protests over the poor state of the economy. Ershad dissolved Parliament in December 1987. In parliamentary elections held in March 1988, the ruling Jatiya party won a majority of seats. In June 1988 Ershad amended the country's constitution and made Islam the state religion. He resigned amid protests in 1990, and the following year was sentenced to ten years in prison for possessing illegal firearms. Khaleda Zia, Ziaur's widow, was elected prime minister in early 1991. In August her plan to reduce the powers of the presidency by changing the form of government to a parliamentary democracy was ratified by Parliament.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab Ashok K. Dutt\par \tab The easternmost island of the West Indies is the small nation of Barbados. A former British colony, it lies in the Atlantic Ocean, 100 miles (160 kilometers) east of the Windward Islands.
\par \tab Barbados has a total area of 166 square miles (430 square kilometers). Its coasts are fringed with coral reefs. The north-central portion is elevated, and Mount Hillaby at 1,115 feet (340 meters) is the island's highest point. Although the climate is ordinarily mild, the island has had several devastating hurricanes during the past two centuries.
\par \tab Most of Barbados is under cultivation. Sugarcane is the chief industrial crop, but fruits and vegetables are raised for local consumption. Flying fish are the most important catch of the Barbadian fisheries and are frozen and exported to England. The leading exports are sugar, molasses, and rum. Tourism is the major source of income, and some light industry has developed, including food processing, textiles, furniture, and local handicrafts.
\par \tab Barbados is one of the world's most densely populated countries. The vast majority of its people are descendants of African slaves who were freed in 1834. The rest are of British or British-African descent.
\par \tab The largest city and only seaport is the capital, Bridgetown (population, 1980 census, 7,552). A shipping center, it has a deepwater harbor, completed in 1961. Its colonial-style government buildings have an Old World charm. The Cave Hill Campus of the University of the West Indies is in Bridgetown. The island has a museum and a library.
\par \tab Barbados (the Portuguese word for "bearded") probably takes its name from the bearded fig trees that grow there. When British colonization began, in 1627, the island was uninhabited because the Spanish had earlier deported the native Arawak Indians to Hispa±ola to work in the mines there. Its first parliamentary body was established in 1639. Under British rule, attempts were made to administer Barbados jointly with other islands. From 1958 to 1962 it was part of the short-lived West Indies Federation. Barbados was granted internal self-government in 1961. It became an independent state within the Commonwealth of Nations on Nov. 30, 1966.
\par \tab The government is headed by a prime minister. A governor-general represents the British Crown. Parliament consists of the Senate and the House of Assembly. Barbados is a member of the United Nations and a member of the Caribbean Community (Caricom). Population (1988 estimate), 254,000.\par \tab The Eastern European nation of Belarus lies nestled between Russia to the east, Poland to the west, Ukraine to the south and Lithuania to the north. From 1939 until December 1991 Belarus was a republic within the Soviet Union, after being annexed by Soviet military forces early in World War II. Its name was the Belorussian Soviet Socialist Republic. When the Soviet Union dissolved in late 1991, Belarus became an independent republic. Its capital and largest city is Minsk, which was also named capital of the new Commonwealth of Independent States.
\par \tab Through the centuries, Belarus has been claimed by Russia and Poland, and many invading forces have marched across it. The country is chiefly a farming region but has been increasingly industrialized since World War II.
\par \tab Belarus covers 80,200 square miles (207,700 square kilometers) and has a population of more than 10 million people. It forms part of the great East European Plain, which stretches from Poland to the Ural Mountains. Most of the region is flat, but a chain of low hills runs across the center of Belarus from southeast to northwest. Much of the lowland area is swampy. Forests cover about one quarter of the land. Belarus has generally fertile soil for farming. Summers in Belarus are cool and the winters mild with frequent thaws. The rainfall, though more than adequate for farming, occurs mainly during the summer and often causes problems with the harvest.
\par \tab The predominant ethnic group of the republic is Belorussian, also known as White Russian. They are a Slavic people, closely related in culture and language to the Russians and Ukrainians. Many Belorussians were at one time under Polish rule, but they resisted conversion to Roman Catholicism and remained members of the Russian Orthodox church. Since the late 19th century the Belorussian language has been recognized as different from Russian, and a modern Belorussian literature has appeared. A rich folk culture can be seen in their distinctive regional costumes, cooking, and decorative arts.
\par \tab Belarus ranks as a flourishing agricultural region despite its cool climate and the areas of swampy or sandy soil. Livestock production, especially cattle and hogs, and dairy production are based in areas with good pastures and large amounts of land planted with fodder crops such as hay. The main commodity crops grown for food are rye, oats, potatoes, and sugar beets. Flax and tobacco are also cultivated to some extent.
\par \tab Belarus lacks major deposits of industrial raw materials. It has, however, huge deposits of peat. The most useful mineral deposit is potash, which goes into the production of potassium fertilizer. The southern part of the republic produces some petroleum, but most of Belarus' petroleum is imported by pipeline from the east. Two large refineries process this oil.
\par \tab Chemical plants operate near the potash deposits and the oil refineries. There are major truck and tractor plants, and tractors, motor vehicles, and farm products are exported to other countries. Other economic activities include lumbering and woodworking. Minsk, the capital, produces about one third of the republic's industrial output. Several railroad lines cross Belarus, and Minsk is linked by air with many cities in the western part of Russia.
\par {\b History and Government}
\par \tab For centuries the area that is now Belarus was divided between Russia and Poland. Because it lay on a major east-west invasion route, it suffered great destruction at various times, including during World War II.
\par \tab After annexation by the Soviet Union the present boundaries were set. Belarus had its own government and Communist party, which were directed by the Soviet government in Moscow until 1990. Then, with the Soviet Union already showing signs of coming apart, Belarus declared its sovereignty. An attempted coup in Moscow in August 1991, meant to stop the reform movement in the Soviet Union, led instead to the unraveling of central controls. In September Belarus took its present name and joined nine other republics and Mikhail Gorbachev in an accord to establish a transitional government and transfer power to the republics from the central government. This agreement came to nothing. Belarus instead became part of the Commonwealth of Independent States. Population (1991 estimate), 10,260,400.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab Ian Matley\par \tab Spreading out from the southern shore of the North Sea is the small kingdom of Belgium, a historic buffer zone between Europe's Latin and Germanic civilizations. Occupying the southern rim of the Rhine-Meuse-Schelde delta, it shares with The Netherlands a strategic location on Western European trade routes. This has helped Belgium become one of the world's most advanced and prosperous commercial and industrial nations.
\par \tab Belgium has an area of 11,784 square miles (30,520 square kilometers). It is bounded by the North Sea on the northwest, The Netherlands on the north and northeast, Germany on the east, Luxembourg on the southeast, and France on the south and southwest. The country's greatest extent, from the North Sea to the Germany-Luxembourg border, is about 180 miles (290 kilometers). Its width ranges between about 35 miles (56 kilometers) in the west and 140 miles (225 kilometers) in the east.
\par {\b Physical Regions and Climate}
\par \tab Belgium is divided by the valley of the Meuse and Sambre rivers into two major regions. To the northwest is the generally level coastal lowland, a continuation of the continental shelf lying under the shallow waters of the North Sea. The shore is lined with low sand dunes. Fringing them is a narrow belt of polders, land reclaimed from peat bogs and shallow lakes.
\par \tab For some 40 miles (60 kilometers) in from the North Sea and the Dutch border is the sandy, partially wooded outwash plain of Flanders and the Kempenland. Ribbons of alluvial clay carpet the river valleys. The rest of northwestern Belgium is crossed by a low, rolling, loam-covered plateau.
\par \tab Almost all of southeastern Belgium beyond the Meuse-Sambre Valley is occupied by the Ardennes, a forested, deeply dissected plateau. It lies generally at 1,200 to 1,500 feet (370 to 460 meters) above sea level. In the extreme southeast are the plains of Lorraine, a region shared with France.
\par \tab Belgium has a temperate climate, characterized by alternating high- and low-pressure weather systems moved in from the Atlantic Ocean by the prevailing westerly winds. Summers usually are warm but not hot. Winters are cold but not severe. In the interior lowlands, average daily temperature extremes range between 31░ F (-1░ C) and 42░ F (6░ C) in midwinter and between 54░ F (12░ C) and 73░ F (23░ C) in midsummer. Along the coast, average daytime temperatures in the summer are somewhat lower. Winters and summers are cooler in the forests of the Ardennes plateau.
\par \tab During the winter, dry, frigid air occasionally surges over Belgium from the Eurasian interior. Moist, warm air frequently moves in from the North Sea. The shifting fronts between the contrasting air masses produce cyclonic storms, with frequent rain and snow. During the summer, there is considerable fog and drizzle. Air masses flowing out of Central Asia bring occasional spells of hot weather.
\par \tab Precipitation is fairly evenly distributed throughout the year, with spring usually the driest season. The annual average precipitation ranges from less than 30 inches (76 centimeters) in some lowland areas nearer to the sea to more than 40 inches (100 centimeters) in the Ardennes plateau.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab Belgium has a population of 9,978,000 (1991 estimate). With 847 persons per square mile (327 persons per square kilometer), it is one of the most densely populated nations. The density is greatest in a belt that crosses northern Belgium from Antwerp and Brussels through Flanders, and along the Meuse-Sambre Valley. The Ardennes is sparsely populated.
\par \tab Belgium is highly urbanized. Brussels, the capital, is the largest city. Its metropolitan area has 964,385 (1990 estimate) inhabitants. Other large metropolitan centers are Antwerp, Ghent, Charleroi, and LiΦge.
\par \tab Daily commuting between homes on the farm and jobs in the city is a common practice in Belgium. Many industrial workers are part-time farmers who have strong family ties in the country. A large number of Belgian workers, called frontaliers, travel each day to jobs in France.
\par \tab Belgium is a nation of two peoples--the Germanic, Flemish-speaking (Dutch-speaking) Flemings of the north and the Celtic, French-speaking Walloons of the south. The provinces of West Flanders, East Flanders, Brabant, Antwerp, and Limburg are predominantly Flemish. Hainaut, Namur, LiΦge, and Luxembourg provinces are mainly Walloon. People of both groups live in the Brussels area, which is bilingual. Some Belgians in the Eupen-MalmΘdy area are German-speaking. Most Belgian people are Roman Catholics.
\par \tab In earlier times Walloons made up the majority of the population. French was the dominant language in Belgium until the 20th century, at which time the Walloons became outnumbered by the Flemings. Today French, Flemish, and German are all official languages. The Walloons, however, still hold positions of greater economic and political power--a situation that is a cause of continuing political unrest.
\par {\b Industry}
\par \tab Belgium is a workshop and key commercial outlet for a heavily populated and industrialized region that extends far beyond its own borders. The economy is highly productive. It is restricted, however, by a chronic shortage of unskilled labor and a limited domestic market. Belgium's great dependence on export markets also makes the economy vulnerable to fluctuating foreign trade barriers.
\par \tab The nation's main industrial resources are large deposits of good coking coal, rich markets among its neighbors, and excellent transportation facilities. Another advantage is a labor force skilled in the use of modern machinery and techniques.
\par \tab The per capita gross national product is among the highest in the world. Manufacturing accounts for a large portion of the gross domestic product. Almost all Belgium's factories are privately owned. They employ almost 1.5 million workers, mostly engaged in the processing of imported raw materials for reexport as finished or semifinished goods.
\par \tab Belgium is a major steel-producing nation. Annual production is about 11 million tons, more per capita than any other nation except neighboring Luxembourg. Most of the steel mills are near the southern coalfields, along the Meuse-Sambre Valley. They use iron ore that is imported mainly from the Lorraine region of France. The principal steel industrial centers are LiΦge and Charleroi.
\par \tab Belgian steel is used in the large domestic metalworking and machine-building industry. Among the principal products are structural steel, electrical machinery, machine tools, railway cars, and ships. Antwerp, Brussels, and LiΦge and other cities of the Meuse-Sambre Valley are the main centers.
\par \tab The chemical industry is concentrated both in an arc from Ghent through Antwerp to LiΦge and in the Mons-Charleroi-Namur area. Products include photographic materials, fertilizers, explosives, drugs, plastics, paints, and industrial chemicals.
\par \tab Cloth weaving was Belgium's first major industry. Textile manufacturing (both with natural and synthetic materials) today is dispersed through much of the country in dozens of modern mills in Brussels, Mechelen, and Verviers, as well as in Ghent, Brugge, Ypres, Kortrijk, and other older cities of Flanders.
\par \tab Large amounts of imported copper, lead, tin, and other nonferrous ores are refined in Belgium. Other leading industries of the country are automobile, television, and radio assembly, diamond cutting, and the manufacture of food, cement, synthetic rubber, plastics, chemicals, tobacco, paper, clay, glass, leather, and petroleum products.
\par {\b Coal and Power}
\par \tab Coal is Belgium's only major mineral resource. The main coal-producing district is in Kempenland, with more than 90 percent of the total. Other coalfields are at Charleroi, LiΦge, and in the Borinage, extending from Mons into France.
\par \tab Belgian coal output reached a record total of 33 million tons in 1953. As new tariff barriers and higher mining costs cut exports, coal production sagged. By the early 1990s it was averaging only 3.9 million tons per year. Meanwhile, there was extensive modernization of the mines, and many old, unprofitable ones, especially in the Borinage region, were closed.
\par \tab Domestic coal has been replaced by both imported petroleum and natural gas as fuels for the generation of heat and electric power. Natural gas, from fields in The Netherlands, was piped to Belgium beginning in the mid-1960s. Petroleum and natural gas terminals have been installed at the ports of Antwerp, Brugge, Brussels, Ghent, and Zeebrugge. Nuclear power provides 62 percent of Belgium's electric power. A nuclear power station at Chooz, France, is jointly operated by Belgium and France.
\par {\b Agriculture}
\par \tab Belgium also is highly productive agriculturally. Full-time farmers comprise only about 2 percent of the total Belgian work force, yet they supply all but a fifth of the nation's total food needs.
\par \tab Farmlands cover almost half of Belgium's total area. Wheat occupies the most cereal crop acreage. Other leading cereal grains are barley, oats, and corn (maize). In harvested tonnage, sugar beets and potatoes lead. Much of the harvest is used for livestock feed. Cattle raising, for both beef and dairy products, is a mainstay of the Belgian farm economy.
\par \tab Belgium's most productive farmland lies north of the Meuse and Sambre rivers. Centered in Hainaut and Brabant provinces, it has been developed by centuries of intensive cultivation and heavy fertilizing and by the recent introduction of modern methods and machinery. Crop yields are among the world's highest. From the generally small, prosperous farms of this region comes the bulk of Belgium's agricultural produce. Here, and in the adjoining areas of the Kempenland and Flanders, such specialty crops as fruits, vegetables, hops, flax, chicory, tobacco, and flower bulbs are raised. Large sections of the Brussels-Mechelen-Antwerp-Ghent area are devoted to vegetable raising, much of it in greenhouses.
\par \tab Fishing and forestry are of minor economic importance. The fishing catch is worth about 60 million dollars per year. Ostend and Zeebrugge are the chief fishing ports. There has been extensive reforestation, and the lumber industry has increased its output, aided by modern mechanization.
\par {\b Commerce and Transportation}
\par \tab Fully three fifths of Belgium's industrial output is exported. Except for coal, most raw materials for industry must be imported. The principal exports are iron and steel, textiles, machinery, motor vehicles, nonferrous metals, and chemicals. The principal imports are machinery, motor vehicles, food products, chemicals, petroleum products, textiles, and metal ores. The value of Belgium's foreign trade totals 116 billion dollars per year. The other nations of Western Europe, especially Germany, The Netherlands, and France, are Belgium's main trading partners.
\par \tab The nation's inland waterways are a vital link in its transportation system. They extend about 1,200 miles (1,900 kilometers) and serve most of the industrial areas. Among the main ship channels are those linking Ghent, Brussels, and Brugge with the sea, and the Albert Canal, between LiΦge and Antwerp. Most of Belgium's waterborne traffic is routed through Antwerp, one of Europe's largest ports.
\par \tab Belgium has one of the world's densest railway networks, totaling about 2,200 miles (3,500 kilometers). A large part is electrified. The main lines are operated by a government-controlled company. The national airline, Sabena Belgian World Airlines, operates both domestic and international routes. The main air terminals are at Brussels and at Deurne, near Antwerp. The telephone, telegraph, postal, radio, and television services are government-operated.
\par {\b Welfare, Education, Culture, and Tourism}
\par \tab The Belgian government operates a comprehensive social welfare program through its National Social Security Office. The program is financed by employee, employer, and government contributions. It provides citizens with accident, sickness, maternity, and unemployment benefits; veterans' and old-age pensions; survivors' insurance; family allowances; and paid vacations.
\par \tab There is virtually no illiteracy in Belgium. Schooling is free and compulsory from ages 6 to 14. The nation's primary and secondary school systems are divided between private denominational (usually Roman Catholic) schools and nonsectarian government schools. The subsidized private schools educate more than one half of the pupils.
\par \tab There are three official state universities--at Ghent, LiΦge, and Mons. The language of instruction at Ghent is Dutch, and at LiΦge and Mons it is French. The Catholic University of Leuven (Louvain), Belgium's oldest university, and the Free University of Brussels are large, private universities receiving financial support from the government. In 1970 each of these universities was divided into separate French- and Dutch-speaking campuses. There are also a number of specialized institutes, professional schools, and colleges and hundreds of libraries. The government subsidizes several national theaters.
\par \tab Belgian painters have been among the greatest in Europe. Outstanding in the 15th century were Hubert and Jan van Eyck, Hans Memling, Quentin Matsys, and Rogier van der Weyden; and, in the 16th century, Pieter Brueghel the Elder, Jan Brueghel, Hieronymus Bosch, and Jan Gossaert (Mabuse). Peter Paul Rubens and Anthony Van Dyck were the most renowned painters of the 17th century, while James Ensor was the most famous modern Belgian painter. Leading writers included Nobel prizewinner Maurice Maeterlinck and ╔mile Verhaeren.
\par \tab Belgium draws many tourists. Among the main attractions are the theaters, museums, churches, historic dwellings, and medieval palaces, the resorts along the North Sea and in the Ardennes woods, and the historic battlefields such as those at Bastogne, Ypres, and Waterloo. Traditional festive events include the carnivals at Binche and Aalst. A Rubens quarter-centenary exhibition at Antwerp in 1977 drew enormous crowds.
\par {\b Government}
\par \tab The government, as set forth in the constitution of 1831, is a constitutional monarchy. The king is the head of state. He is commander in chief of the armed forces, nominates government officials, and can dissolve the parliament. The king actually acts mainly as a mediator and shares executive authority with his ministers, including a prime minister. The king issues royal decrees, but they must be countersigned by a minister. In June 1991 the parliament approved changes to the constitution that would allow women to accede to the throne.
\par \tab Parliament exercises the primary authority. It consists of a senate and a house of representatives. Laws must be passed by both houses and then promulgated by the king. All 212 representatives and about two thirds of the 184 senators are elected by popular vote on a proportional basis. Of the remaining senators, some are appointed by the provincial councils, the others by the senate. The councils, popularly elected, govern the nine provinces. Representatives and senators serve for four years unless parliament is dissolved earlier for new elections. Voting is compulsory; the minimum age is 18. Representatives must be at least 25 years old, senators at least 40. Sons of the king, however, become senators at the age of 18.
\par \tab The nation's higher courts consist of a court of assizes in each province and courts of appeal in Brussels, Ghent, and LiΦge. A supreme court of appeal, in Brussels, is the highest tribunal.
\par {\b Early History}
\par \tab Belgium takes its name from the Belgae, the early Celtic tribes who had settled in the area of the Low Countries during prehistoric times. A Roman army led by Julius Caesar conquered them in 52 BC. With the later decline of the Roman Empire, the Germanic Franks began moving into Belgium from the east. They settled mainly in the north and west, thus creating a language frontier--with the Romanized Belgic tribes--that persists to this day.
\par \tab The Franks consolidated their rule over Belgium in AD 496 when their king, Clovis, adopted the new Christian faith of the Belgo-Roman aristocracy. The area later was ruled by the Frankish Pepin family. The son of Pepin II, Charles Martel, led the Christian army that defeated the Moorish invasion of France near Poitiers in 732. Belgium was the heart of the Holy Roman Empire, headed by Charlemagne, grandson of Charles Martel. Frankish control collapsed after Charlemagne's death in 814. In 843, under terms of the Partition of Verdun, Belgium was divided between France and the Germanic kingdom of Lotharingia. By the end of the 9th century Belgium was split into several self-ruling feudal principalities roughly corresponding to the nation's modern provinces.
\par \tab During the next centuries several great leaders emerged. RΘgnier au Long Col led the Belgians to victory over Viking invaders at Louvain in 891. Godfrey of Bouillon was a leader of the First Crusade in the 1090s. Baudouin (Baldwin) of Flanders and Hainaut was named the first Latin emperor of Constantinople in 1204.
\par \tab With the Crusades came the opening of trade with the Orient and the rise of Belgium's first great centers of commerce and industry. It was a period of rapid commercial growth and the flowering of Flemish art. The urban merchants and artisans banded together in communes and used their growing wealth to bargain for political rights from the governing rural aristocracy. Thus, in 1066 the citizens of the commune of LiΦge were granted one of the world's first charters of civil liberties.
\par \tab The communes, or free cities, also led the struggle against foreign intervention. In 1288 Belgian forces under Jean de Brabant defeated troops of the archbishop of Cologne. At Kortrijk in 1302 Flemish knights crushed an invading French army.
\par \tab Nearby Burgundy spread its rule over all of present-day Belgium and The Netherlands late in the 14th century. Spanish rule was imposed on Belgium in 1519 when Charles V, a descendant of the Burgundian dukes, was crowned Holy Roman emperor and king of Spain.
\par \tab For much of the 15th and 16th centuries the area that makes up present-day Belgium and The Netherlands was the scene of religious conflicts between the Protestant Dutch provinces in the north and the Roman Catholic Belgian provinces in the south. The two areas were separated in 1579, and their frontier was set by the Treaty of Mⁿnster, or Peace of Westphalia, in 1648.
\par \tab During this period, discontent with Spanish rule also repeatedly erupted into violence. The Bourbon and Hapsburg royal families fought out many territorial disputes on Belgian battlefields. Belgium was awarded to the Austrian Hapsburgs by the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713.
\par {\b Belgian Independence and Modern Growth}
\par \tab Meanwhile, the modern movement for Belgian independence was developing. The Confederation of the United States of Belgium was formed in 1790, but the Austrians quickly suppressed it. Then French revolutionary troops invaded, and in 1795 Belgium was annexed by France.
\par \tab After the defeat of the French armies under Napoleon at Waterloo in 1815, William of Orange was recognized by the Congress of Vienna as the head of the new United Kingdom of The Netherlands. His rule was resented by the Belgians, however, and in 1830 they revolted. On October 4 Belgian independence was declared. Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, uncle of Britain's Queen Victoria, was chosen to reign as Leopold I. He ascended the throne on July 21, 1831, now recognized as Independence Day.
\par \tab Guaranteed its independence and neutrality by the leading European powers, Belgium enjoyed a long period of peace and rapid economic growth. Late in the 19th century a vast colonial empire was acquired in Africa's Congo basin by Leopold II, who became king in 1865. Under his nephew, Albert I, who succeeded him in 1909, significant social progress was made. Albert I also was hailed for leading resistance to German occupation during World War I.
\par \tab Despite widespread devastation, the nation recovered quickly after the war. The Belgians then tried building military alliances and a modern army as their best defense. They were drawn into World War II, however, when in 1940 German armies again marched in. The Belgian cabinet set up a government-in-exile in London, but Leopold III, who had become king in 1934, was made a prisoner of war. Hundreds of thousands of Belgians were deported to Nazi Germany as forced laborers. Belgian resistance forces helped to oust the Germans from the country in 1944. Accused of failing to resist the Nazis, Leopold III was forced into exile.
\par {\b Post-World War II Developments}
\par \tab Leopold III returned in 1950 after receiving a favorable majority in a nationwide referendum. The threat of civil war, however, soon forced him to abdicate in favor of his son, Baudouin, who was crowned king on July 17, 1951.
\par \tab Belgium participated in many ventures for Western European cooperation after the war. Among them were the formation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949, the European Coal and Steel Community in 1952, and the European Economic Community (Common Market) in 1957. The Belgian Congo (now Zaire) was granted independence in 1960.
\par \tab The historic antagonism between the Flemings and the Walloons became a burning issue early in the 1960s. A language frontier was drawn in 1963, dividing the country into two cultural regions. The continuing controversy figured in the downfall of cabinets and the election of parliaments. Belgium's 150th anniversary celebrations in 1980 were marked by a major step toward regionalization. Two bills approved in the parliament reorganized the country's structure on the basis of three regions: Flanders, Wallonia, and Brussels. King Baudouin died on July 31, 1993. Because he and Queen Fabiola were childless, next in line to the throne was his brother, Prince Albert, who reigned as Albert II.
{\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR BELGIUM}
\par \tab Belgium in Pictures. (Lerner, 1991).
\par \tab Files, Yvonne. The Quest for Freedom: The Life of a Belgian Resistance Fighter in World War Two (Fithian Press, 1991).
\par \tab Lye, Keith. Take a Trip to Belgium (Watts, 1985).
\par \tab McDonagh, Bernard. Belgium and Luxembourg, 8th ed. (Norton, 1993).\par \tab A constitutional monarchy on the Caribbean coast of Central America, Belize was once known as British Honduras. The name Belize, officially adopted in 1973, comes from a Mayan word that means "muddy water." The former British colony has an area of 8,867 square miles (22,965 square kilometers) and is only about 68 miles (109 kilometers) across at its greatest width. Belize is bordered by Mexico on the north and by Guatemala on the south and west.
\par \tab Belize is a land of mountains, swampy lowlands, and tropical jungle. The Maya Mountains form a plateau in the south. Victoria Peak, which rises to 3,681 feet (1,122 meters) in a spur of the Maya range, is the highest point. Lowlands lie along the coast, and jungle covers most of the interior. The climate is subtropical with a dry season from February to May and a rainy season from June to November. Hurricanes occasionally cause extensive damage.
\par \tab The chief cities are Belize City, the main port and commercial center, Orange Walk, San Ignacio/Santa Elena, Corozal, and the capital, Belmopan, which is located about 50 miles (80 kilometers) inland. After Belize City, the former capital, was devastated by a 1961 hurricane, construction of Belmopan began in 1966, financed by a British grant. Government operations moved there in 1970.
\par \tab The population of Belize includes mestizos (descendants of Spaniards and Carib Indians), Creoles (persons of mixed racial background), black Caribs (descendants of blacks and Carib Indians), Mayan Indians, and a small percentage of whites and Asian Indians. Although English is the official language, the Creole dialect, Spanish, and several Indian dialects are also spoken.
\par \tab A majority of the people of Belize earn their living from agriculture. Fishing and forestry are other important sources of income. Furniture, boats, and wood products are manufactured from the high quality native wood. Chief exports include sugar, citrus fruits and products, bananas, fish and lobster, and clothing. Sugarcane, oranges, and grapefruits are the main food crops. Farmers also raise pigs and cattle.
\par \tab The earliest European settlements in Belize were established by British loggers in the 1600s. Because Spain claimed sovereignty over the region, Spanish settlers repeatedly attacked the British. The dispute continued until a decisive British naval victory in 1798. In 1862 the settlement was declared a British crown colony. It was Britain's last colony on the American mainland when self-government was finally granted in 1964.
\par \tab Belize achieved independence in September 1981, but the negotiations were complicated by Guatemala's claim to the land, based upon an unfulfilled provision of an 1859 treaty. A few weeks before the independence ceremonies were to take place, Guatemala broke off diplomatic relations with Britain. To forestall an invasion, Britain guaranteed that its military force would remain after independence. Guatemala recognized Belize as a full sovereign nation in September 1991, and the two countries established diplomatic relations.
\par \tab Belize's parliamentary government consists of a cabinet and a National Assembly that is composed of an 8-seat appointed Senate and a 29-seat elected House of Representatives. National elections are held every five years. George Price, who had served as head of government for 23 years before his party lost the 1984 election, regained the office of prime minister in 1989. Population (1993 estimate), 204,000.\par \tab The ancient and powerful West African kingdom of Dahomey made the transition from a colony of France and a self-governing republic to a Marxist-Leninist state and then a free democracy--all within less than a century. Now called the Republic of Benin, it occupies a strategic political and commercial position on the Gulf of Guinea. Porto-Novo is the official capital, but the port city of Cotonou serves as the nation's political capital and commercial center.
\par \tab {\b Land and climate.}
\par \tab Benin consists of five natural regions. The coastal area is low, flat, and sandy and is backed by lagoons. North of the coast is the barre country, a fertile clay plateau. North and west of the barre are the Benin plateaus, ranging in height from 300 to 750 feet (90 to 230 meters). The Atakora Mountains in the northwest are a continuation of the Togo mountain chain and reach an altitude of 2,100 feet (640 meters) at their highest point. In the northeast are the plains of the Niger River valley. Temperatures in the south range from 72░ to 93░ F (22░ to 34░ C). In the drier north they average 80░ F (27░ C).
\par \tab {\b People.}
\par \tab A small country, Benin occupies an area of 43,475 square miles (112,600 square kilometers). It is one of West Africa's most densely populated states, however, with more than 109 persons per square mile (42 per square kilometer). More than 40 ethnic groups live here, but the Fon, Bariba, Yoruba, and Somba peoples make up most of the population. A majority follow traditional religious beliefs, and about 25 percent are Christians and 15 percent Muslims. French is the official language, but the people use Fon, Adja, Bariba, Yoruba, Fulani, and other languages in their everyday life and in the elementary schools.
\par \tab {\b Economy.}
\par \tab Benin's economy is based almost entirely on small family farms that produce little more than is needed by each family. They grow corn (maize), yams, cassava, rice, fruits, sorghum, and beans. Palm oil products have long been the major export; other exports include cotton, coffee, and cacao beans. Livestock is raised for milk and meat, and fishing plays a large part in domestic trade. The offshore SemΘ oil field has the capacity to produce roughly twice the country's needs for petroleum.
\par \tab {\b History and government.}
\par \tab Between the 12th or 13th century and the 19th century, five kingdoms--Allada, Abomey, Ouida, Nikki, and Porto-Novo--occupied the area that is now Benin. The people who settled in Abomey called their nation Dahomey. In the 1600s Dahomey came under attack by Allada and strengthened its defenses. The 30-foot (9-meter) walls that protected the palace of King Ouegbadja, Dahomey's first monarch, are still standing.
\par \tab Dahomey gradually consolidated its power and conquered neighboring states. The Dahomey kingdom, one of the best-organized states in West Africa, was divided into six provinces, each ruled by a governor. Its army included a women's corps. The kingdom eventually expanded to the coast, where there were European slave traders. The demand for slaves led to war in the region, with kingdoms competing for profits by selling one another's captives.
\par \tab Dahomey signed a commercial treaty with France in 1851, but French interest in the area extended beyond trade. When the neighboring kingdom of Porto-Novo requested protection from rival powers, the French willingly helped. France also conquered vast inland territories to the north, realizing that control of Dahomey and the nearby kingdoms would link the interior lands with the sea. Dahomey became a French colony in 1902, but the African population violently resisted this action. The resistance continued through both World War I and World War II, when West Africans were drafted to fight for the French--many against their will. Meanwhile, France had combined all of its West African colonies into a vast administrative unit called French West Africa.
\par \tab In 1958 Dahomey became an autonomous republic in the French Community. It achieved independence on Aug. 1, 1960, but kept the colonial borders that divided its various ethnic groups. This division of the people separated communities that had long lived together, and the government had difficulty building a sense of national unity. As a result, the government became weak and unstable.
\par \tab A group of army officers led by Mathieu KΘrΘkou seized control of Dahomey in 1972, claiming that the government was corrupt and did not meet the people's needs. President KΘrΘkou proclaimed a policy of "Marxist-Leninist scientific socialism" in 1974. A year later he changed the nation's name to the People's Republic of Benin and took control of major foreign companies. In 1979, under a new constitution, a National Revolutionary Assembly was elected. It continued to reelect KΘrΘkou to five-year terms.
\par \tab Benin's only commercial bank collapsed at the end of 1988. Student protests and widespread strikes, coupled with the downfall of Communism in Eastern Europe, forced KΘrΘkou to renounce his orthodox Marxist policies by the end of 1989. In 1990 his power was reduced as Benin tried to become a multiparty democracy under a new constitution. Prime Minister Nicephore Soglo defeated him on March 24, 1991, in the nation's first free presidential election in nearly 30 years. Population (1990 estimate), 4,471,000.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab Katherine Thuermer and David S. Wiley\par \tab One of the most isolated places in the world, and yet one of the most popular as a tourist resort, is the group of British islands known as Bermuda, the Bermudas, or Bermuda Islands. On a map Bermuda looks somewhat like a fishhook, with the curve at the southwest and the shaft extending northeast. There are some 200 islands in Bermuda but a total area of only about 21 square miles (54 square kilometers). Great Bermuda, called the Main Island, is larger than all the rest combined. The nearest land is Cape Hatteras, N.C., about 570 miles (900 kilometers) to the west. The islands' delightful climate and their beauty attract thousands of visitors each year.
\par \tab Only about 20 of the islands are inhabited. The population, excluding tourists and British and American defense forces, is about 59,800 (1991 estimate). About 60 percent of the population is black. There is also a large Portuguese population. The official language is English, but some Portuguese is also spoken. Despite both a cost of living and a population density that are among the world's highest, Bermuda has almost no poverty or unemployment. No income tax is levied, nor does the government receive any foreign aid. More than 95 percent of the population is literate, and education is free and compulsory between the ages of 5 and 16. There is one college.
\par \tab The capital and chief port is Hamilton, on Great Bermuda. Hamilton is one of the world's smallest cities, with an area of about 180 acres (70 hectares). On St. George's Island, at the east end of the group, is the picturesque old port of St. George. Nearby is the United States naval air station.
\par \tab The average temperature is about 70░ F (21░ C). In winter it is seldom cooler than 55░ F (13░ C); in summer, rarely hotter than 87░ F (31░ C). The heavy rainfall of nearly 60 inches (152 centimeters) a year and brilliant sunshine encourage vegetation.
\par \tab Palm, casuarina, and swamp mangrove are among the common trees. Hibiscus, oleander, poinsettia, and many other flowering plants and trees bloom lavishly. Acres of Easter lilies are cultivated for export and for making perfumes. About 200 species of birds have been noted, but most of these are migratory birds blown off their regular routes. The waters teem with fishes. Many are remarkable for their striking colors and markings.
\par \tab Bermuda is believed to rest on the peaks of a volcanic mountain rising steeply from the ocean bottom to about 200 feet (60 meters) below the surface. Above this level the islands consist mainly of limestone formed by seashells and corals. Along the shore rise huge rocks, sculptured by wind and water into fantastic pinnacles, pillars, and grottoes. The reefs surrounding the islands are built up by corals--the northernmost point on Earth at which this type of growth occurs.
\par \tab Coral stone gives Bermuda excellent road and building material. The white, smooth roads are simply the stone laid bare by stripping away surface soil or small hills. The stone is so soft that it is cut with handsaws, but it hardens with exposure to air. Even the roofs of the houses are built of stone, for they are used to catch rainwater, the chief water supply.
\par \tab In an average year about 600,000 tourists, largely from the United States and Canada, visit the main islands. The money they spend gives the colony about 40 percent of its total income. International insurance and investment companies also contribute significantly to the economy through their foreign exchange earnings. Vegetables are exported for winter sale, but housing and industrial construction has reduced farm acreage. Pharmaceuticals and extracted scents for perfumes are major exports. Industry is confined to boat building, ship repairing, and furniture making. There is a little commercial fishing. Meat, flour, and most other foods are imported.
\par \tab Early in World War II Bermuda became important as an outpost commanding Atlantic sea-lanes. In 1940 United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt gave Great Britain 50 overage destroyers in exchange for advanced bases. In 1941 the United States took over, on a 99-year lease, 526 acres (213 hectares) for a base on the Great Sound at the western end of the islands.
\par \tab One of the special charms of Bermuda before World War II was the absence of motor traffic. Automobiles were banned, and everyone traveled by bicycle, horse-drawn carriage, or boat, or on the motor-powered railway. In 1946 the ban on private cars, buses, taxicabs, and motorcycles was lifted, though cars are restricted to one per family, and car rentals are not allowed.
\par \tab On Sept. 25, 1987, Bermuda was hit by the worst hurricane in many years. Hurricane Emily caused an estimated 35 million dollars in damage.
\par {\b History and Government}
\par \tab Bermuda is named for the Spaniard Juan de Berm·dez, who is credited with discovering the islands in about 1515. They were once called the Somers Islands, after Sir George Somers, who first settled them early in the 17th century.
\par \tab Since 1684 Bermuda has been a self-governing British colony. Movements for independence have surfaced repeatedly over the years, but in 1968 Bermudans ratified a new constitution, under which the British monarch, represented by a governor, is the head of state. The governor controls defense, internal security, external affairs, and the police. The cabinet, headed by the premier, and including at least six other members of the majority party in the legislature, advises the governor on other matters. The 11 members of the Senate are appointed. The 40 members of the House of Assembly are elected, two from each of the islands' constituencies. Racial and political tensions increased in 1973 when Bermuda's governor, Richard Sharples, was assassinated. Rioting in the late 1970s led to the Human Rights Act of 1981 that prohibits racial discrimination.\par \tab The once-isolated kingdom of Bhutan lies along the lofty ridges of the eastern Himalayas. Its landlocked location--between India, on the east, south, and west, and the Chinese region of Tibet, to the north--gives the country its political significance..
\par \tab Bhutan may be divided into three regions--the Great Himalayas, the Lesser Himalayas, and the Duars plain. Alpine pastures on the high ranges of the snowcapped Great Himalayas are used for grazing yaks in the summer months. In the Lesser Himalayas the fertile valleys of central Bhutan are relatively flat and broad and are fairly well cultivated and populated. Along the southern border of Bhutan lies the Duars, which forms a strip 8 to 10 miles (13 to 16 kilometers) wide. With extremely heavy rainfall of from 200 to 300 inches (500 to 760 centimeters) a year, the entire Duars tract is unhealthful, hot, and steamy and is covered with dense semitropical forest and undergrowth.
\par \tab The northern part of the Duars immediately bordering the mountains consists of a rugged, irregular, and sloping surface. At the foot of the mountains small villages are found in forest clearings, but most of the area is covered with dense vegetation inhabited by elephants, deer, tigers, and other wild animals. The southern part of the Duars bordering India is mostly covered with grassy parkland and bamboo jungle. A wildlife sanctuary has been established in the area. It contains many valued species of animals, including the golden langur, a slender long-tailed monkey that is rare elsewhere in the world.
\par \tab Most of the Bhutanese people are of Tibetan ancestry. Known as Bhote or Bhutia, they share a common heritage of Tibetan culture and religion. Their language is Dzongkha, a Tibetan dialect. Dzongkha is also the official language of Bhutan. The Bhutia live mainly in northern and central Bhutan, and their religion is a form of Buddhism. In the southern part of the kingdom there is an ethnically mixed population of mostly Nepalese settlers whose religion is Hinduism. Their chief language is Nepali.
\par \tab Farming is the principal occupation. There are many livestock and sheep-breeding farms. The chief crops are rice, corn (maize), oranges, and potatoes. Four government orchards in the temperate zone specialize in apples, pears, peaches, plums, apricots, and walnuts. A major force in Bhutan's agriculture has been the development of irrigation schemes.
\par \tab A variety of industries has developed, including woodworking, timber, and small-scale distilleries, food canneries, and a nut and bolt factory. There is a silkworm farm in eastern Bhutan that produces raw silk for the local weaving industry, and there are several privately run sawmills operating throughout the country. Several Bhutanese cottage industries include making matches, soap, textiles, carpets, and candles.
\par \tab Although paved highways connect various parts of the kingdom, yaks, mules, and ponies are still used as a mode of transportation on rough mountain roads. Bhutan has two airports--at Paro and Yangphulla. Trekking tours became popular after the country was opened for tourism in 1974. There is a telephone system that operates between main towns, but Thimphu, the capital, has the only service to places outside of the country.
\par \tab Little is known of Bhutan's early history. For much of the 19th century the country was plagued by a series of civil wars. The king who came to power in 1972 was the fourth in a line of hereditary rulers, which began with the election of his great grandfather as maharaja of Bhutan in 1907. The absolute monarchy was changed to a form of democratic monarchy in 1969. Two thirds of the members of Bhutan's National Assembly are elected.
\par \tab Once isolated from the mainstream of world affairs by steaming jungles in the south and snow-covered mountain ranges in the north, Bhutan now finds itself caught between the old and the new. It is a country that has tried to adapt to 20th-century opportunities and alternatives. At the same time, it has maintained pride in traditional culture.
\par \tab The first two five-year plans (1961-66 and 1966-71) for economic growth stressed the development of transportation and communication. In 1968 the first 18 students completed the 11-year course of free government-sponsored education. A fifth five-year plan (1981-86), worked out in consultation with Indian planning experts, promoted self-sufficiency. The sixth plan (1987-91) encouraged participation in the government's development programs. The area of Bhutan is 18,150 square miles (47,000 square kilometers). Population (1991 estimate), 1,476,000.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab Pradyumna P. Karan\par \tab The South American republic of Bolivia has great natural wealth. Its riches, however, are hard to obtain and harder still to get to world markets. Mountains and tropical forests make transportation difficult, and the country has no seacoast for ships. The mountains hold rich deposits of minerals, but they must be mined at altitudes of 13,000 to 15,000 feet (4,000 to 4,550 meters) where physical labor is extremely difficult. Mahogany, rubber, cinchona, and other valuable trees are abundant, but they grow in highly inaccessible tropical rain forests.
\par \tab Bolivia looks small on a map of South America, but it has an area of 424,165 square miles (1,098,582 square kilometers). It has a population of 5,718,000 (1981 estimate), with the majority of its people living at an altitude of 12,000 feet (3,700 meters) or more.
\par {\b The Land}
\par \tab About 80 percent of the people of Bolivia live in the western two fifths of the country. Here the Andes Mountains extend from north to south in two lofty parallel ranges, the Cordillera Occidental to the west and the Cordillera Real (Oriental) to the east. Snow-clad peaks rise more than 21,000 feet (6,350 meters) in the western range blocking easy access to the Pacific Ocean, and several volcanoes are still active. The eastern range is more broken, providing access to the monta±a, or eastern foothills, and to the lowlands.
\par \tab Between the cordilleras stretches the altiplano, or high plain, with an average altitude of about 13,000 feet (4,000 meters). It is about 500 miles (800 kilometers) long and 40 to 60 miles (65 to 100 kilometers) wide and is the largest plateau in the Andes system. Across the northwestern boundary of Bolivia and Peru lies Lake Titicaca. At 12,500 feet (3,810 meters), it is the highest large body of navigable water in the world with regular steamer service. Its fresh water drains through the Rφo Desaguadero to Lake Poop≤, where much of it evaporates, causing that lake to be salty. The northern and eastern Andean slopes (monta±a region) are cut with broad, fertile, cultivated valleys known as the yungas.
\par \tab The country's tropical and semitropical lowlands (Oriente), which make up about 60 percent of its area, form a broad crescent around the Andes. The northeastern plains are drained through branches of the Amazon River, while the southern plains, part of the Gran Chaco, drain southeasterly toward the Atlantic through the Paraguay-Paranß River system.
\par {\b Climate and Vegetation}
\par \tab Bolivia lies wholly within the tropics, but its climate varies considerably with altitude. The high peaks are cold enough to remain covered with snow and ice the year around, and the altiplano and adjoining slopes--from 10,000 to 14,000 feet (3,000 to 4,200 meters)--are cool, with an average annual temperature of 50░ F (10░ C). The western half of the altiplano has a dry climate, while its eastern half, influenced by Lake Titicaca, is more humid. The yungas grow warmer as they slope toward the plain, and the lowlands have tropical heat with a mean annual temperature of 77░ F (25░ C).
\par \tab The tropical northeastern plains, like the rest of the Amazon Basin, receive abundant rains and are covered with dense rain forest. Not many people live in this area because of insect pests, tropical diseases, and the generally poor soils. However, a few Indians do exist there by hunting and raising cassava and other plants in small clearings. These natives also gather wild rubber, Brazil nuts, and cinchona bark.
\par \tab To the southeast is the Gran Chaco, a lowland region that receives seasonal rain. Its grasslands, called savannas, offer abundant pasture for cattle in the wet season. However, the livestock may suffer in the dry season when pastures wither and streams and water holes disappear. Although underground water is available for irrigation, there are only limited transportation facilities to take crops to market.
\par \tab The yunga region, on the other hand, is well watered, and its cloud-filled valleys yield a variety of crops. The lowest, hottest levels produce sugarcane, vanilla, and bananas and other tropical fruit. Slightly higher up the slopes farmers raise coffee, cacao, and coca. Between 4,000 and 8,000 feet (1,200 and 2,400 meters), corn (maize), alfalfa, and temperate-climate fruits flourish, while still higher valleys and basins produce mainly wheat, rye, and oats. To be profitable, products must earn enough money to cover the cost of their transportation--sometimes by packtrain--to markets in the mining camps or cities. These products include chocolate, coffee, brandy made from sugarcane, coca leaves, and chicha, a beer usually made from corn (maize) and other grain.
\par \tab The high ridges of the Cordillera Real block the rain-bearing winds from the east, and so the altiplano and the Cordillera Occidental receive little moisture. Moreover, they are drier in the south than in the north, and due to drought and cold temperatures have no trees. Natural growth is mainly the tough bunchgrass called ichu, the tola bush, llareta moss, and reeds from the shallow waters of lakes.
\par {\b The People}
\par \tab More than half of the Bolivians are Indians, mainly of Quechua and Aymara language stocks. There are also about 50 tribes of forest Indians. The mestizos, of mixed Indian and white heritage, make up almost two fifths, while the remainder are of European descent, mainly Spanish. The vast majority of the population is Roman Catholic.
\par \tab Most of the Indians live on the bleak altiplano and on the brown, rocky slopes and eastern valley pockets above it. Others toil in the mines or do manual labor in the cities. Almost 50 percent of the work force makes a living by farming. This is difficult to do since there are few places on Earth where people farm in so high, cold, and dry a region. Yet, centuries ago the highland Indians of Peru and Bolivia learned how to make a living there. They domesticated a highland animal--the llama--to supply meat, milk, hides, fuel, and wool. They also developed hardy food plants such as the potato, a staple in their diet, and the highland grain crops, quinoa and canagua. Irrigation canals brought water to their fields.
\par \tab Many Indian farmers still employ traditional agricultural methods. Often they use a foot plow to break up the soil, or they may drive oxen hitched to a wooden plow tipped with steel. During the planting of crops the farmer is followed by his wife, who drops the seed. Children bring up the rear, adding fertilizer and covering the seed.
\par \tab At harvesttime, in May or June, the family cuts the tough quinoa stalks with a sickle, flails the plant to thresh out the seeds, and tosses the seeds in the air to winnow out the husks. The women grind the seeds and make bread or gruel from the resulting flour.
\par \tab Another popular food is chu±o, made from the potato. Spread on the grass in the early winter, the potatoes freeze at night and thaw in the daytime until they become soggy. Then members of the family tramp them to squeeze out moisture and remove part of the peel. Again, the potatoes lie in the sun and dry. They become small, hard pellets that will keep without spoiling for months--even years. The Indians use them in a stew with llama meat or mutton. In the spring quinoa leaves are added to the stew.
\par \tab In this treeless land the Indians make small, windowless huts of stone and adobe clay with thatched grass or reed roofs. For fuel they use tola sticks, llareta, and llama dung. The hut is cold and gloomy, and at night the people wrap themselves in a llama skin and may sleep on the earthen floor.
\par \tab Colorful clothing brightens the drab landscape. The men wear handwoven striped ponchos over shirt and pants and a knitted wool helmet, called a lluchu, which has flaps to keep their ears warm. Sometimes they set a felt hat over the helmet. The women also wear felt hats, and their full skirts are dyed in brilliant shades of orange, purple, red, and blue. Frequently, they wear a shawl for warmth and for carrying their babies on their backs. Many go barefoot.
\par \tab About three fifths of Bolivians are illiterate. In recent years special efforts have been made to bring schools to the Indians and to other rural people. Bolivia has universities in Cochabamba, La Paz, Oruro, Potosφ, Santa Cruz, Sucre, Tarija, and Trinidad. Although Spanish is the official language, many Indians speak only Quechua or Aymara.
\par {\b Population Growth and Cities}
\par \tab As in many countries of Latin America, population is growing rapidly, more than 2.5 percent a year. If this growth continues, the population will double in less than 30 years. It is projected that there will be almost 9 million Bolivians by the year 2000. Bolivia faces another population problem: It has the highest infant death rate in Latin America--about 170 children die out of every 1,000 born.
\par \tab Although Bolivia's population is growing rapidly, not all places within the country are growing at the same rate. Again as is true in most of Latin America, the population of the cities is increasing much faster than that of the rural areas. For example, La Paz's population is increasing at a yearly rate of 3 percent; if this continues, the city will have almost one million people within the next 20 years. A large part of this increase is due to people leaving their farms for large towns and cities.
\par \tab High rates of growth create many problems in the cities. La Paz is a good example. There are not enough jobs in the city. Housing is inadequate. The drinking water is poor as are public transportation and utilities. There is no sewage disposal system, and automobile exhaust fumes pollute the air.
\par \tab La Paz is the country's largest city and administrative capital, with a population of 719,780 (1980 estimate). Most government functions are carried out there. Sucre, the official capital, is the seat of the judiciary.
\par \tab La Paz is on the altiplano, as is Oruro, a tin center. Most other cities and the high, bleak mining camps are in the Cordillera Real. Cochabamba and Sucre lie in fertile basins. Potosφ, one of the highest towns in the world, is famous for its mineral wealth.
\par \tab Transportation has been one of Bolivia's greatest problems. There are rail links with Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and Peru. The Santa Cruz-Cochabamba highway, finished in 1954, closed the last gap in a Pacific-to-Atlantic rail-and-highway route. But, although international airlines connect La Paz with cities in North and South America and in Europe, there are many parts of Bolivia that still lack easy access to the rest of the nation.
\par {\b Industries}
\par \tab Mining is Bolivia's leading industry, and tin is by far its chief mineral. The main mining area is in the Cordillera Real from Oruro to Potosφ. About 90 percent of the nation's export income normally comes from minerals, with tin accounting for some 70 percent of the mineral revenue. Other minerals include lead, silver, tungsten, copper, zinc, antimony, bismuth, and gold. There are oil and natural gas fields in the Camiri-Santa Cruz area. Production meets domestic needs, and some oil is exported. A natural gas pipeline extends from Santa Cruz to Buenos Aires, Argentina, and an oil pipeline extends from Sica Sica to the Chilean port of Arica. Another natural gas pipeline is being constructed.
\par \tab Bolivia has few factories. Supplies of raw materials, fuel, and trained workers and the capacity of the transportation system are inadequate for industrial development. The factories that there are, however, produce such goods as textiles, cement, dairy products, ceramics and plastics, and refined sugar.
\par {\b History and Government}
\par \tab The richly carved monuments and stone walls of a ruined city at Tiahuanaco in the Titicaca Basin indicate that an advanced people lived in Bolivia perhaps 1,000 years ago. When the Spaniards invaded the area in the early 16th century, it was part of the powerful Inca Empire. After conquering the Indians in 1538 the Spaniards governed the region, first under the viceroyalty of Peru and later under that of Buenos Aires.
\par \tab Led by Gen. Antonio JosΘ de Sucre, the Bolivians won their independence in 1825 and named the new republic after Sim≤n Bolφvar, who drafted its first constitution. In the War of the Pacific, which lasted from 1879 to 1884, Bolivia lost its Pacific coast. In the final Chaco War, from 1932 to 1935, Bolivia lost most of the disputed Chaco region.
\par \tab A social-reform party seized power by revolution in 1952 and nationalized the country's largest tin mines and the railroads, initiated land reforms, and gave all adults the right to vote. During the 1950s Bolivia's economy suffered severely. National and international sources provided financial aid.
\par \tab In 1964 a military junta ousted the social-reform government, introduced new economic reforms, and welcomed foreign investors. However, it and a subsequent government were overthrown by coups in September 1969 and in October 1970, respectively. A leftist regime fell during a coup in August 1971, and Col. Hugo Banzer Sußrez assumed the presidency. He ruled until July 1978, when elections were held. When the results of these elections were voided, the leading candidate took control under a state of siege; a junta overthrew him in November.
\par \tab Because no candidate won a majority in the 1979 election, an interim president was named. In November a military coup overthrew the civilian government. The next interim president, Lydia Gueiler Tejada, was ousted in July 1980 by a rightist junta headed by Gen. Luis Garcφa Meza. Garcφa Meza resigned in August 1981. Strikes and economic crises continued throughout the decade.
\par \tab The National Congress, which had been suspended in the 1980 coup, was recalled in October 1982. It confirmed the 1980 presidential victory of Hernßn Siles Zuazo. Victor Paz Estenssoro became president in 1985 for the fourth time. It was the first democratic transfer of power in 25 years. In the May 1989 presidential election, none of the nine candidates won a majority. The Congress chose Jaime Paz Zamora as president. Another indecisive election occurred in June 1993. Of the three candidates with a plurality, Congress selected Gonzalo Sanchez de Lozada as president.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab Robert N. Thomas
{\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR BOLIVIA}
\par \tab Klein, Herbert S. Bolivia: The Evolution of a Multi-Ethnic Society, 2nd ed. (Oxford Univ. Press, 1992).
\par \tab St. John, Jetty. A Family in Bolivia (Lerner, 1987).
\par \tab Swaney, D., and Strauss, R. Bolivia (Lonely Planet, 1993).\par \tab The country of Bosnia and Herzegovina is located on the western side of the Balkan Peninsula, an area of land that extends southward from Central Europe toward the Mediterranean Sea. Bosnia and Herzegovina is bounded on the north, west, and south by Croatia, on the southwest by the Adriatic Sea, and on the east by the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, which consists of Serbia and Montenegro. Bosnia and Herzegovina has a total area of 19,741 square miles (51,129 square kilometers). The largest city and national capital is Sarajevo.
\par \tab Bosnia and Herzegovina is largely mountainous. The Dinaric Alps are to the west, the Bjelanica Moutains are in the south, and the Majevica Mountains are to the east. Major rivers include the Sava, which forms the northern border with Croatia, and the Bosna, from which the country takes its name.
\par \tab Bosnia and Herzegovina was settled by Slavs in the early 7th century. For several hundered years, rule of the region shifted between the Byzantine Empire, Croatia, and Serbia before Hungary solidified its control over Bosnia in the 12th century.
\par \tab The Ottoman Turks first invaded Bosnia in 1386 and completed their conquest in 1463. Many Bosnians, including a large majority of the landowners, converted to Islam after the Turkish conquest, since under Ottoman law only Muslims were allowed to own property. The Serbs and Croats who remained Christian were relegated to peasantry, possessing few rights except religious freedom. The decline of the Ottoman Empire in the 18th and 19th centuries brought hardship to Bosnia, heightening ethnic tensions between the prosperous Muslim landowning class and the Serbian and Croatian Christian peasants.
\par \tab In 1875, Bosnian Christians rose in revolt against Turkish rule with the support of Serbia, which hoped to gain control of the region. With the approval of European leaders, Austria-Hungary took temporary control of Bosnia in 1878 and formally annexed the area in 1908. Bosnia's new rulers did little to address the exploitation of the Christian Serb and Croatian underclass by the Muslim landowners, and their favoritism towards the Catholic Croats at the expense of the Orthodox Serb population served to exacerbate ethnic tensions even more. Bosnian Serbs began to agitate against Austro-Hungarian rule, and in June 1914 a young Bosnian Serb assassinated Austrian Archduke Francis Ferdinand in Sarajevo, triggering a war between Serbia and Austria-Hungary that quickly escalated into World War I.
\par \tab In the aftermath of the war, Bosnia and Herzegovina was incorporated into the new Serbian-controlled Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes, which became Yugoslavia in 1929. Muslim landowners faced violence and the expropriation of their lands to the Serb and Croat peasantry. When Yugoslavia was divided by the Axis powers in World War II, Bosnia and Herzegovina became part of the Nazi-controlled Independent State of Croatia. A bitter civil war broke out between the three ethnic populations in Bosnia, a conflict that ceased only when Bosnia and Herzegovina became one of the six republics of Communist Yugoslavia in 1946.
\par \tab Yugoslavia's dictatorship succeeded in controlling the region's bitter ethnic conflicts for nearly a half-century, but the tensions between Serbs, Croats, and Muslims soon emerged when Bosnia seceded from Yugoslavia in March 1992. An exceptionally brutal civil war was started by the Serbs on March 3. The Serbs carried out a policy called ethnic cleansing against Muslim civilians. This included forced expulsions, rapes, and mass murders. United Nations (UN) sanctions prevented the Muslims from getting weapons, while the Serbs were aided by the Yugoslav government until August 1994. After more than three years of inaction and failed peace efforts, the warring parties agreed on a peace settlement in November 1995. The fighting uprooted more than 2 million people from their homes and killed more than 200,000 people. Population (1994 estimate), 4,447,000.
{\b The Former Federated Republic of Yugoslavia}
\par \tab One of the youngest nations of Europe, Yugoslavia was created after World War I as a homeland for several different rival ethnic groups. The country was put together largely from remnants of the collapsed Ottoman Empire and Austria-Hungary. Demands for self-determination by Slovenes, Croats, Serbs, and others went unrecognized, and thus Yugoslavia became an uneasy association of peoples conditioned by centuries of ethnic and religious hatreds. World War II aggravated these rivalries, but a Communist dictatorship took power after the war and kept them restrained for 45 years. When the Communist system failed, the old rivalries reasserted themselves; in 1991-92 the provinces of Slovenia, Croatia, Macedonia, and Bosnia and Herzegovina seceded from the union, leaving the republics of Serbia and Montenegro as the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. Serbia includes the formerly independent provinces of Vojvodina in the north and Kosovo in the south.
\par \tab Yugoslavia is bounded on the north by Hungary, on the northeast by Romania, on the east by Bulgaria, on the south by Macedonia and Albania, on the southwest by the Adriatic Sea, and on the west by Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. At its widest point, the country measures more than 290 miles (465 kilometers) from northwest to southeast and 250 miles (400 kilometers) from northeast to southwest. Yugoslavia's total area is 39,449 square miles (102,172 square kilometers).
\par \tab Yugoslavia has a mountainous terrain. In eastern Serbia, the Balkan Mountains form the republic's border with Bulgaria and Romania, reaching an elevation of 6,000 feet (1,800 meters). The Sar and Kopaonik Mountains, located in southwestern Yugoslavia, feature the country's highest peak, Daravica, at 8,712 feet (2,655 meters). The Dinaric Alps occupy much of Montenegro and contain peaks reaching more than 8,000 feet (2,400 meters), including Montenegro's highest mountain, Durmitor, at 8,274 feet (2,522 meters). The major area of flatland lies in the north and is part of the Mid-Danube, or Pannonian, Plain. Stretching from Croatia and Hungary across northern Serbia, the plain is Yugoslavia's most fertile land.
\par \tab The major river in Yugoslavia is the Danube, which flows southeastward from the Hungarian border, through Belgrade, to the border with Romania. Its primary tributaries are the Sava, Drava, Tisa, and Morava. Other rivers include the Piva, Tara, Lim, and Vardar. Lake Scutari, on the border between Montenegro and Albania, is the largest lake on the Balkan Peninsula.
\par \tab The mountainous nature of Yugoslavia causes considerable climatic differences from one place to another. The Mid-Danube Plain has a continental climate with cold winters, hot summers, and moderate precipitation. The mountain regions have, on the whole, colder and shorter summers and more severe winters compared with other regions.
\par {\b Natural Resources and Plant and Animal Life}
\par \tab Yugoslavia has numerous deposits of lignite, or brown coal, but there is little good-grade black coal. There are some small petroleum and natural gas fields, located primarily in the Vojvodina region. The country has no nuclear power stations. Waterpower is a major source of energy, providing about one third of Yugoslavia's electricity. Yugoslavia is a major European producer of lead and copper. Other minerals include iron ore, zinc, bauxite, mercury, and antimony. About 37 percent of the country is forested. The predominant species are oak, beech, and other deciduous trees, with such evergreens as pine and fir growing in the mountains. Yugoslavia has a wide range of animals, including deer, foxes, wolves, wild pigs, bears, and martens. Birds include grouse, partridge, swans, buzzards, woodpeckers, and pelicans. The Adriatic Sea contains anchovies, sardines, mackerel, tuna, and other fishes.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab The inhabitants of Yugoslavia are of varied ethnic origins. According to the 1991 census the largest group is the Serbs, who number 6.5 million, or 62 percent of the population. They speak Serbo-Croatian, a Slavic language, and belong to the Eastern Orthodox church.
\par \tab A non-Slavic people, the Albanians, live in the southern part of the country. They number 1.7 million (17 percent of the population) and are the fastest growing ethnic group. Montenegrins total about 600,000 and are concentrated within the borders of their republic in southern Yugoslavia. They are Eastern Orthodox and speak Serbo-Croatian. Other ethnic groups present in Yugoslavia include Bosnian Muslims (300,000) and the Hungarians (300,000), Romanians, Bulgarians, Slovaks, Czechs, and others who live mostly in the northern province of Vojvodina.
\par \tab The largest city is Belgrade, the federal capital, with about 1.1 million inhabitants. Novi Sad, the capital of Vojvodina, is the second largest, with more than 170,000. Other important cities include Nis, with 160,000 people; Pristina, the capital of Kosovo, with 108,000; and Podgorica (formerly Titograd), the capital of Montenegro, with about 96,000 inhabitants.
\par \tab Yugoslav culture has been influenced by the Slavs, Turks, Italians, and Austrians. The influence of the long Turkish occupation can be seen in the food, folk costumes, and architecture of the nation.
\par \tab The earliest Yugoslav literature was religious in nature. The first popular literature appeared in medieval Serbia, mainly in the form of epic poems describing the struggle of the Serbs against the Turks. These poems were chanted by minstrels who traveled from village to village.
\par \tab In the 19th century Serbian writers laid the foundations of a modern literature. Vuk Karadic reformed the language and collected folk poetry, while Petar Petrovi Njegos produced epic poetry on the theme of liberty. Among modern writers are the Serbs Branimir Cosic, Branko Copic, and Ivo Andric, the winner of the 1961 Nobel prize for Literature, whose novel 'The Bridge on the Drina' has been translated into many languages.
\par \tab Yugoslav folklore is very colorful. Each ethnic group has its own costumes, songs, and dances. The most popular folk dance is the kolo, a circle dance performed to lively music.
\par \tab Soccer is the most popular sport, and Yugoslavia has produced some star players. Yugoslav basketball teams have also had success in international competitions, including a gold medal victory in the 1980 Summer Olympics. Outdoor sports such as hunting and fishing are also popular.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab Farming is a major occupation, employing about 34 percent of the labor force and utilizing more than half of the nation's land. Most farms are owned privately and are small. The major crops are corn (maize), wheat, barley, oats, potatoes, sugar beets, sunflowers, tobacco, and alfalfa. About one third of the agricultural area consists of pastures for grazing pigs, sheep, and cattle. Much of this is in the mountains. The growing of fruit includes plums, apples, pears, peaches, raspberries, strawberries, and apricots. Grapes are widely grown and wine produced, some for export.
\par \tab Fishing is carried out along the Adriatic coast and on the Danube River. Forestry is concentrated mainly in the mountain forests of northern Yugoslavia. It supports the pulp and paper and furniture industries.
\par \tab Much of Yugoslavia's industry is located in the north, primarily in the area surrounding Belgrade. Major exports include iron, steel, electronics, machinery, textiles, automobiles, and trucks. The processing and refining of metallic minerals also gives considerable employment.
\par \tab In the late 1980s, Yugoslavia began the shift from a centrally planned economy to a market economy. By 1993, only 4 percent of the nation's businesses were owned by the state, though nearly 70 percent of the labor force was employed in the state sector. The combined effects of the civil war in Bosnia and Herzegovina and United Nations (UN) economic sanctions against Yugoslavia served to devastate the Yugoslavian economy in the early 1990s. The country was plagued by a fall in output in almost every sector of the economy, and hyperinflation raged from early 1993 until January 1994, when the government introduced a new currency, called the new dinar, that is pegged to the German deutsche mark.
\par {\b Transportation, Communication, and Education}
\par \tab The problems of rail construction over the mountainous terrain of Yugoslavia have favored the development of a highway network. In the early 1990s, there were nearly 30,000 miles (48,300 kilometers) of roads in the country, compared to almost 2,500 miles (4,025 kilometers) of rail. More than 1.4 million passenger cars and 120,000 trucks were registered for use in 1993.
\par \tab With the secession of Croatia and Slovenia in 1991, Yugoslavia lost all of its major ports except the Montenegrin town of Bar. Yugoslav Airlines (JAT) is state owned and flies to many foreign destinations. The country has five airports, including international terminals at Belgrade and Podgorica.
\par \tab Postal and telephone services are run by the state. In 1993, there were 11 daily newspapers, including the notable Politika and Borba, published in Belgrade, and Pobjeda, printed in Podgorica. More than 2,500 books are published annually in Yugoslavia.
\par \tab In addition to the state-run Serbian Radio and Television and Montenegrin Radio and Television networks, there were three independent radio and television networks operating in the mid-1990s. An estimated 1.7 million televisions and 1.8 million radio receivers were in use in 1993.
\par \tab Education is compulsory between the ages of 7 and 15, after which students may choose to attend either a vocational or general secondary school. Students attending vocational school have the option of continuing their education at a two-year postsecondary school, while those attending general secondary school may continue at one of the country's six four-year universities. All education is free in Yugoslavia, including that at the university level.
\par {\b Government}
\par \tab Under a constitution drafted in April 1992, the government of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia is a federal multiparty republic with a bicameral legislature. The parliament, called the Federal Assembly, is divided into the Chamber of Citizens, which has 138 members elected by universal suffrage, and the 40-member Chamber of Republics, composed of representatives elected in equal numbers from the assemblies of both Serbia and Montenegro. The head of state is the president, who is elected by the federal parliament. The president is responsible for appointing a prime minister to head the government, a choice subject to approval by the legislature.
\par \tab The federal government handles matters of national defense, foreign policy, monetary policy, social welfare, and human rights. A large amount of administrative power is delegated to the separate republican governments of Serbia and Montenegro, which are organized on the federal model.
\par {\b History}
\par \tab After World War I the breakup of Austria-Hungary made possible the creation of a new state for the South Slavs, who include the Serbs, Croats, Slovenes, Bosnian Muslims, Montenegrins, and Macedonians. In 1918, an uneasy coalition of mutually hostile ethnic groups, each with a distinct 1,400-year history, became the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes; the new nation was renamed the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in 1929.
\par \tab Yugoslavia's first ruler was King Alexander, a Serb, who declared a personal dictatorship in 1929. He was assassinated by Croatian terrorists while on a state visit to France in 1934, and the throne passed to his young son Peter II. The resolution of the country's ethnic troubles appeared closer when an agreement was reached in 1939 to give Croatia autonomy, but in 1941 Yugoslavia was invaded by Germany, Italy, Hungary, and Bulgaria. Serbs resisted the occupation forces, and the Communist Partisans under the leadership of Josip Broz, known as Tito, became the dominant group. The Croats and Slovenes, however, sided openly with Germany and Italy.
\par \tab In the aftermath of World War II, Yugoslavia was devastated, with much of the country in ruins and more than 10 percent of its prewar population dead. Peter II was deposed in 1944, and Tito--who now bore the title of marshal--and the Communists came to sole power after an election in November 1945.
\par \tab A new constitution adopted in January 1946 abolished the monarchy and established the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia, a federation of six republics: Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia, and Slovenia. The Serbian provinces of Kosovo, with its Muslim Albanian majority, and Vojvodina, with a large Hungarian population, were given autonomous status within the people's republic in an effort to protect the interests of those two populations.
\par \tab In June 1948 Yugoslavia was expelled from the Soviet bloc for refusing to submit to Soviet orders. Despite Soviet efforts to depose him by isolating Yugoslavia, Tito became the country's first president in 1953. He managed successfully to steer a nonaligned path between the two superpowers, the Soviet Union and the United States, criticizing Western colonialism while also denouncing Soviet aggressions, such as the 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia. When Tito died in 1980, the fragile federation he had held together began to unravel.
\par \tab The League of Communists relinquished their constitutionally guaranteed monopoly on power, and in 1990 the first multiparty elections were held since Tito took power. In May 1991 Serbia and its allies blocked the election of a Croat to the federal presidency, leaving the country without a president. A new Serbian leader emerged--Slobodan Milosevic, who renewed the age-old promise of a Greater Serbia. This goal entailed taking parts of other republics where Serbian minorities lived and uniting them with Serbia.
\par \tab On June 25, 1991, Croatia and Slovenia declared their independence from Yugoslavia. Serbian leaders denounced this action, fearing for the safety of the more than half a million Serbs living in the other Yugoslav republics. Federal troops made up mostly of Serbs poured into Slovenia, resisted by Slovenian militia. The Serbs invaded Croatia.
\par \tab At the end of 1991 Germany, followed by the European Community (EC; now the European Union) and the United States, recognized the independence of Croatia and Slovenia. In January 1992, a cease-fire was negotiated that left Serbia with about one third of Croatia's territory. (A shaky peace between Serbia and Croatia lingered for more than three years until Croatia regained the captured territory in a military offensive during May-August 1995.)
\par \tab The violence spread next to Bosnia and Herzegovina. In an early 1992 referendum boycotted by the large Serb minority, the republic's Croats and Muslims voted for independence. International recognition came on April 6, 1992, and soon after, a bitter civil war erupted throughout the republic as the artillery of Serb militias shelled cities and towns.
\par \tab The situation in Bosnia was complicated by religious differences. Many of its residents were Muslims. Serbs tended mostly to be Serbian Orthodox, while Croats were mostly Roman Catholic. These rivalries added to the ethnic hatreds. Croat and Serb Christians also turned their weapons on the Muslim minority.
\par \tab A campaign of terrorism and genocide, which they termed ethnic cleansing, was started by the Serbs against the Muslims. Many Muslims were killed outright. Muslim women were raped, and men and boys were put into concentration camps. At least two million people became refugees, and about 140,000 were missing and presumed dead.
\par \tab In May 1992 the UN imposed sanctions on the newly formed Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. The UN accused the country of fueling the conflict in Bosnia and Herzegovina by supplying weapons and material support. The sanctions devastated the Serbian economy, causing hyperinflation and massive unemployment. Serbian President Milosevic closed his country's borders with Bosnia and broke off contacts between Serbia and the Bosnian Serbs in an effort to have the sanctions lifted.
\par \tab By late 1995, Muslim and Croat forces had made substantial gains against Serb forces and were in control of more than half the country. Many of Bosnia's cities were in ruins, among them Sarajevo, the capital. A breakthrough peace agreement was signed by the presidents of Serbia, Croatia, and Bosnia on November 21. The deal called for Bosnia and Herzegovina to be split 51 percent to a Croat-Muslim federation and 49 percent to a Bosnian Serb republic, both of which will share power in a central government. As a reward for Yugoslavia's role in bringing the peace treaty to fruition, the UN lifted its economic and military sanctions, signaling that the nation's long international isolation had finally come to an end.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by Ian M. Matley, Professor of Geography, Michigan State University.
\par \tab {\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR YUGOSLAVIA}
\par \tab Cohn, Lenard. Broken Bonds: The Disintegration of Yugoslavia, 2nd ed. (Westview, 1995).
\par \tab Crnobinja, Mihailo. The Yugoslav Drama (Univ. of Toronto Press, 1994).
\par \tab Dragnich, Alex. Serbs and Croats: The Struggle in Yugoslavia (Harcourt Brace, 1992).
\par \tab Pavlowitch, Stevan. Tito--Yugoslavia's Great Dictator: A Reassessment (Ohio State Univ. Press, 1992).
\par \tab Silber, Laura, and Little, Allan. Yugoslavia: Death of a Nation (TV Books/Penguin, 1996).
\par \tab Singleton, Fred. A Short History of the Yugoslav Peoples (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1985).\par \tab The landlocked Republic of Botswana is bounded on the northeast by Zimbabwe, on the south and southeast by South Africa, and on the west and north by Namibia (formerly called South-West Africa). In the north Botswana also shares a short border with Zambia.
\par \tab Botswana is sparsely populated. With an area of about 224,600 square miles (581,700 square kilometers) and a population of 1,406,000 (1994 estimate), it has about 6 persons per square mile (2 persons per square kilometer). Much of both the south and the west is covered by the Kalahari Desert, inhabited only by aboriginal San (Bushmen). In the north-central portion lie the swampland of the Okovango Basin and the salt pans of the Makgadikgadi area.
\par \tab Herds of wild game inhabit Botswana's plains, and the national parks and game reserves are well stocked. Besides many species of large and small antelopes, there are lions, elephants, leopards, hippopotamuses, giraffes, buffalo, and crocodiles. Poisonous snakes abound, among them the cobra and puff adder. There are also many varieties of scorpions, tarantulas, spiders, and termites. Birds are also abundant and include ostriches, pelicans, and bustards, which are a type of game bird.
\par \tab The climate of Botswana is generally a subtropical one. Rainfall is light, ranging from about 27 inches (69 centimeters) a year in the northern areas to less than 9 inches (23 centimeters) in the southwest; droughts are frequent. The country is geologically a vast tableland and has an average elevation of about 3,300 feet (1,000 meters).
\par \tab Most of the population is made up of the Tswana, or Bechuana, a people of Bantu heritage. The official language is English, and Setswana is the most widely spoken African language. There are eight major Tswana tribes, each of which occupies its own separate territory with its own traditional chiefs. Each tribe maintains communal ownership over its lands. Only the nomadic San and the few thousand Europeans who reside in Botswana are not included in this tribal village system. The Tswana have a rich tradition of folklore, music, and dancing, and their lives are still strongly influenced by tribal institutions.
\par \tab Stock raising is the occupation of most Tswana. Cattle, hides, meat, and other by-products are among the country's chief exports and are sold primarily to neighboring South Africa. Thousands of Tswana are miners in South Africa. Botswana's rich mineral resources include copper, nickel, semiprecious stones, and coal. Diamonds are a valuable export.
\par \tab Industry in Botswana is confined to a few factories. The largest towns are Gabronne, which is the capital, Francistown, Selebi-Pikwe, and Molepolole. Gabronne, in the southeast, has a population (1991 estimate) of 133,791.
\par \tab The San are the native inhabitants of Botswana, the Tswana having immigrated to the country from farther north. In 1885, after repeated clashes between the Bechuana and the Boers, Great Britain extended its protection over the land. The territory became the Bechuanaland Protectorate, administered by Britain.
\par \tab Self-rule advanced when advisory councils of African and European residents were set up in 1920. A parliamentary government consisting of the National Assembly and the advisory House of Chiefs and headed by a president was instituted in 1965. Complete independence as a republic came on Sept. 30, 1966. Botswana established its own currency in 1977. The National Development Plan of the early 1980s concentrated on creating employment in agriculture, industry, and commerce. Drought-relief programs were vital to the economy in the late 1980s.\par \tab Stretching 2,500 miles (4,000 kilometers) from east to west and 2,700 miles (4,300 kilometers) from north to south in South America, Brazil is the world's largest tropical country. The only nations that are larger are the Temperate Zone lands of Russia, Canada, China, and the United States. Brazil has more than 140 million people spread unevenly over its huge land area, making it the sixth most populous country in the world.
\par \tab More than two thirds of Brazil's people live in cities and towns, and more than 29 percent of them are in its ten cities with more than a million inhabitants. These include the metropolitan areas of Sπo Paulo with more than 10 million people and Rio de Janeiro with more than 5 million people. The rural population is concentrated either on the ribbon of fertile lowland along the east coast or in the highlands of the more southerly states. Elsewhere, settlement is sparse. There are widely scattered small subsistence farms that feed the miners of the eastern highlands, the cowboys of the western savannas, and those who gather forest products in the northern jungles.
\par \tab Since 1960 when Brasφlia, the new national capital in the interior, was inaugurated, great changes have taken place in Brazilian society and in its economy. Schools and medical care have come to distant villages; a network of highways has been built across the interior; new industries have grown up; and television has made countless communities feel less isolated. Modernization has also introduced its less enviable by-products: urban blight, pollution, and an increasing crime rate. But, because of its vast size and low overall population density, Brazil remains a hospitable land of great beauty.
\par {\b The Land}
\par \tab Most of Brazil's 4,500-mile (7,200-kilometer) Atlantic coastline is rimmed with sandy beaches and narrow but fertile coastal plains interspersed with low hills. In the south, however, these are broken up by spurs of the Serra do Mar. This range of coastal mountains is actually the rim of the Brazilian Plateau. In the south, from Sπo Paulo almost to P⌠rto Alegre, the gently rolling plateau is underlain mostly by lava flows that dip gradually westward to the plains of the Paraguay (Paraguai) River.
\par \tab To the north, stretching from the headwaters of the Paraguay to the mountains of Minas Gerais, Brazil's Central Plateau is a peneplain, an ancient land surface that was eroded down to sea level and then thrust upward. Much of it is flat even though it reaches up to 4,000 feet (1,200 meters) above sea level, as in the Brasφlia area.
\par \tab About halfway between Brasφlia and the coast, the landscape changes to one of low but rugged mountain ranges. The most prominent of these is the Serra do Espinhaτo, on the western flank of Brazil's extremely productive mining region. This area not only supplies iron, manganese, lead, zinc, and aluminum ores, but also quartz crystal, mica, diamonds, 90 percent of the world's semiprecious stones, and gold. Twenty miles (32 kilometers) east of Belo Horizonte more than $250 million in gold has been extracted from the Morro Velho mine since it began operations in 1834. By the early 1980s it comprised a maze of tunnels opening off a shaft that is nearly 9,000 feet (2,700 meters) deep, one of the deepest such shafts in the world.
\par \tab Mining extends even to the beaches of Espφrito Santo and southern Bahia with their deposits of zirconium, titanium, and monazite sands that are a source of cerium and thorium. These have been washed out of the ancient rocks of the Serra do Mar. That range is at its most imposing in this region. One of the highest Serra do Mar peaks is the 9,144-foot (2,787-meter) Pico do Itatiaia, site of a scenic national park, on the border between the states of Rio de Janeiro and Minas Gerais.
\par \tab In central Bahia the Serra do Mar decreases in elevation until it reaches Salvador where it is only a low bluff separating the two levels of that city. From this point toward the interior and northeastward along the coast, a jumble of low granite mountain blocks and sedimentary ridges and mesas contrast sharply with gently sloping basins.
\par \tab Along Brazil's northern border with the Guianas and Venezuela is another uplifted peneplain landscape similar to that of the Central Plateau. The two were once a single surface but became separated when a block of the Earth's crust slipped downward to form a trench, or graben. It is through this gap that the Amazon River now flows into the Atlantic Ocean. A thousand miles (1,600 kilometers) upstream, near Manaus, the Amazon lowland broadens out into a vast basin that once held an inland lake that drained southward along the Paraguay River. The ancient lake bottom was covered with sediments into which the Amazon River and its tributaries have cut their present courses. The soils of the parts of the Amazon plain above the river valleys are not fertile because the organic and chemical nutrients are leached (removed) by the continuously heavy tropical rains. The land in the valleys next to the rivers floods each year when heavy rains on the Central Plateau and in the Andes Mountains raise the water level. Fresh deposits of silt then renew the fertility of these floodplains (vßrzeas), which have been farmed for thousands of years.
\par {\b Climate, Vegetation, and Animal Life}
\par \tab The Amazon rain forest has the most varied plant life on Earth, consisting of about 50,000 different species. Only about half of them have been named and classified. Individual plants of each species are widely scattered throughout the forest, which helps to ensure their survival against blight, disease, and pests. Where an acre of woodland in the northeastern United States might include a dozen different kinds of trees, a typical acre of rain forest may have as many as 300. Because of this it is difficult and time-consuming to harvest the forest products, such as rubber, Brazil nuts, and hardwoods.
\par \tab The diversity of animal life along the Amazon and its tributaries is equally abundant. Most of it is concentrated in the treetops about 150 feet (45 meters) above the ground where food and sunlight are plentiful. Animals living there include tree frogs and salamanders, monkeys, swarms of insects, and a great variety of birds. About 1,400 species of birds have been identified compared to only 195 in New York State and 81 in the Canadian region of Labrador. Brazil has more kinds of butterflies than anyplace in the world, many of them in the Amazon Basin. There are, however, few large animals in the forest, and these live mostly along the riverbanks. They include the world's largest rodent, the capybara, as well as alligators, boa constrictors, and turtles. Turtles, once abundant, are becoming an endangered species because the eggs they lay in the sands along the riverbanks have been heavily plundered.
\par \tab Because the Amazon straddles the equator, average temperatures hover at around 80░ F (27░ C) throughout the year. They rarely reach 100░ F (38░ C) during the day or drop below the mid-70s at night. Humidity is high the year around, and it rains, on average, every other day. The heaviest and most continuous rainfall comes between December and April, with 8 to 10 inches (20 to 25 centimeters) per month. This drops to about two inches (five centimeters) a month during the brief dry season in July, August, and September.
\par \tab South of the Amazon lowland the climate becomes more varied. There are increasing distinctions between the rainy and dry seasons, between winter and summer. These variations are most pronounced in the interior, especially on the highlands, and are more gradual along the Atlantic coast. Warmed by moist trade winds, the coastal lowlands have a climate similar to that of the Amazon for much of the year; rainfall is heavy, and temperatures average about 80░ F. In June, July, and August, however, cold air sweeping up from Antarctica--although warmed as it moves over the ocean--can affect temperatures as far north as Recife. In Rio de Janeiro the temperature during those three months averages 69░ F (21░ C), while in P⌠rto Alegre the temperature drops down to 57░ F (14░ C).
\par \tab In northern Brazil the coastal vegetation and animal life are an extension of those in the Amazon. Toward the south, however, the gradually increasing coolness eliminates or modifies many species. The trees do not attain the enormous height of those near the equator, and some shed their leaves during the cool months. Today only a few patches of the natural coastal habitat remain as a result of centuries of destruction caused by settlers and their ancestors who sought farmland and timber.
\par \tab The same fate overtook the belt of tropical forest on the plateau in Sπo Paulo, southern Minas Gerais, and northern and western Paranß, although at a somewhat later date. This area proved to be ideal for coffee growing. On the plateau south of the forest belt is Brazil's only subtropical climate. The city of Curitiba at an elevation of 3,000 feet (900 meters) averages only 70░ F (21░ C) during February, its warmest month, while its coldest, June, averages 54░ F (12░ C). Frosts occur with some regularity during winter, and there are occasional light snowfalls. Many Temperate Zone crops that do poorly in the tropics are grown in this area by Brazilians of Italian and central European descent. These crops include rye, oats, barley, potatoes, pears, and grapes. The land was once covered by forests of Paranß pines, but they have been largely destroyed to create farmland and to supply lumber, plywood, and paper mills.
\par \tab Beyond the fringe of regular, plentiful rainfall that extends from the South, along the coast, and into the Amazon, the Brazilian interior suffers from drought during much of the year. Yearly totals range from 65 inches (165 centimeters) on the Central Plateau down to 33 inches (84 centimeters) in northeastern Brazil. However, 80 percent of the rain falls during a five-month period--between November and March on the plateau, where the dry season extends from May through August, and from January to May in the Northeast, where the four driest months are August through November. The dry months in these regions produce only about one inch of winter precipitation. Not only is rainfall low in the Northeast, but it is unreliable, causing droughts that drive farmers from their land and into overcrowded cities.
\par \tab The long and severe dry season of the Brazilian interior is reflected in its vegetation of bunch grasses and scrub trees. In the arid Northeast stands of cactus are scattered about, and the scrub is covered with thorns instead of leaves. Cattle ranching occupies most of the Northeast, although small farms, often densely packed, are located in the valley bottoms where there is an adequate water supply. In their natural state the valleys support tropical woods or palm groves. They are also the home of the onτa, a type of leopard that preys on the deer and cattle that graze in the scrub. Other animals of the scrub include roadrunners; ostrich-like rheas, and various game birds; and armadillos, iguanas, and rattlesnakes.
\par {\b The People}
\par \tab Before the Portuguese discovered Brazil, it was the home of 4 million or more native peoples. They were divided into two fairly distinct racial and cultural groups. The thinly scattered Paleo-Americans, who were similar in many respects to the North American Plains Indians, occupied the colder and drier lands. They lived mostly by hunting and gathering. The tropical forest tribes were located in the jungles of the Amazon and along the Atlantic coast. Living in villages of as many as 3,000 people, they were expert fishermen and farmers who also manufactured hammocks, canoes and balsa rafts, blowguns for hunting and warfare, and exquisite pottery. Their staple food was cassava, or manioc, which is still an important part of the Brazilian diet.
\par \tab Because they occupied the most accessible and fertile lands, the tropical forest Indians bore the brunt of early European settlement. They were soon exterminated by war, disease, and enslavement. The more isolated and warlike Paleo-Americans survived for several more centuries, and today a few bands still live near remote parts of the Amazon. Although Indians have almost disappeared from Brazil, many of its inhabitants, especially those in the interior, have some Indian heritage.
\par \tab It did not take the Portuguese long to find out that Indians made poor and unwilling slaves. Therefore, beginning in 1538, they imported Africans to work on the coastal sugar plantations. Later, these slaves were taken to the gold and diamond mines in Minas Gerais and to the coffee plantations in the highlands of Rio de Janeiro. By 1822, when the slave trade was abolished, there were about 4 million Africans in Brazil, by coincidence about the same total as the number of Indians that once inhabited the country. Today the majority of Brazil's population consists of blacks and mulattoes.
\par \tab There was a trickle of non-Portuguese European immigration into Brazil throughout the 1800s, but only after the emancipation of the slaves in 1858 did the country attract large numbers of European settlers. From that time until World War I as many as 200,000 arrived each year. About half were from southern Italy, and they went mostly to the newly opening coffee lands of Sπo Paulo. After the war, immigration rose again, dominated by people from Germany, eastern Europe, and Japan. Then the depression of the 1930s, World War II, and a quota system reduced the numbers of immigrating people once more. After a brief resurgence following World War II, immigration declined again.
\par {\b Culture and Religion}
\par \tab The customs and practices of Portugal are clearly reflected in Brazil's architecture, language, and Roman Catholic religion. Modern Brazilian culture, however, developed from the contributions of many peoples. The Indians contributed foods, farming methods, and many words from their languages; the Africans added their music, cooking, and religious practices; the northern Europeans and Japanese brought their technical and commercial know-how, adding new cultural values in the process. The diverse roots of Brazilian culture can be traced through the evolution of the people's religious beliefs.
\par \tab A large number of Jesuit priests went to Brazil with the early Portuguese colonists. Their main function was to set up missions to educate and convert the Indians. Many were not converted, and in northeastern Brazil, where slaves were in contact with the Indians, the Indian beliefs crept into the Africans' religion and developed into a unique, altogether Brazilian cult, the catimb⌠.
\par \tab Although the Africans brought their own religion and rituals with them, these were prohibited and Roman Catholic practices were enforced. But a strange mix of the two faiths developed, each saint masking an African deity. Thus, while they seemed to be praying to Catholic saints, slaves were secretly continuing the practices of their own religion. Numerous Brazilians, both white and black and representing all social classes, continue to endorse both faiths without any feelings of conflict.
\par \tab Roman Catholicism, however, ceased to be the official religion after the proclamation of the republic in 1889. Finally, over the next century Protestant missionaries, largely of fundamentalist denominations, had considerable success in spreading their religion. The crente, as the Brazilian Protestant is called, is often devout and has usually renounced all other worship to embrace this new faith. So Brazil, although nominally the world's largest Roman Catholic country, has many other beliefs that run through its cultural fabric.
\par {\b Literature and Art}
\par \tab Through translations, readers in many countries are becoming aware of the excellence of Brazilian literature, which is as varied as the origins and individuality of the people of the nation. The earliest writings, from the days of colonization, are mostly documentations of life in the new settlements.
\par \tab An awakening of nationalism in the mid-1700s established a new literary trend that carried into the Romantic period of the 19th century. The beauty of the land, the native Indians, and the injustice of slavery were themes that appeared repeatedly in both poetry and prose of the time.
\par \tab As Naturalism replaced Romanticism, new themes were discovered: life in the city, social conditions, developments in science and industry, and man's struggle to cope with a rapidly changing environment. Out of this naturalistic movement came Joaquim Maria Machado de Assis, who is considered by many critics to be Brazil's greatest literary figure. His best works were his novels and short stories; but his cr⌠nicas--collections of often satirical anecdotes, reflections, and observations--are still very widely read and appreciated.
\par \tab Brazilian literature of the 20th century is an amalgamation of earlier trends. Romantic themes have been rediscovered, but they are generally treated in a realistic way. Regionalism flourishes, and the literary language is more relaxed and colloquial. The two best known authors of the "New Novel" are ╔rico Verφssimo and Jorge Amado. Verφssimo writes about life in the South, and his polished literary style reflects the Europeanized culture of that region. Amado's less refined language characterizes the highly mixed origins of the people of his native state of Bahia.
\par \tab The art and architecture of Brazil's colonial period was a continuation of the baroque style of Spain and Portugal, reflected mainly in the construction and artwork of the churches. The best known Brazilian artist of this style was the sculptor Ant⌠nio Francisco Lisboa. Better known as Aleijadinho, the Little Cripple, he worked in wood and the soft bluish soapstone of his native Minas Gerais. His most famous works are 12 larger-than-life statues of the Biblical prophets and six life-size scenes of the Crucifixion of Jesus Christ, all in the small town of Congonhas do Campo, Minas Gerais.
\par \tab In 1815 the king of Portugal, who was then in exile in Brazil, became patron of the School of Fine Arts in Rio de Janeiro. From that time through the years of the Brazilian Empire, from 1822 to 1889, painters, sculptors, and architects were enthusiastically supported by the court.
\par \tab Brazil's greatest painter was, however, Cßndido Portinari, a product of the 20th century. He went to study in Europe at the age of 25 and was deeply influenced by the French modernists, but his subject matter was usually Brazilian.
\par \tab Contemporary Brazilian architecture, often considered to be among the most innovative in the world, also reflects this blend of modernism with native themes. Oscar Niemeyer, who was already well-known for his public and private buildings, headed a group of architects who in the late 1950s created the new capital, Brasφlia. A monument to modern design and planning, the city was entirely preplanned, from its inspiring public buildings and imaginative housing developments to its parks, artificial lake, and streets without intersections.
\par {\b Education and Health}
\par \tab Until about 1960 the Brazilian education system was deficient at every level, from primary school through university. Higher education was available only to upper income level families. About one half of the population was illiterate. In 1964, although about three fourths of the city dwellers could read and write, only about one third of the rural population could do so. To remedy this the government launched a two-pronged attack on illiteracy. First, it started a teacher-training program, which eventually led to a doubling of the number of primary students. In 1970 the government began a second program to teach adults to read, write, and do simple arithmetic. The objective was to eliminate illiteracy in Brazil by the mid-1980s. Although a few isolated areas will probably remain backward for some years, great progress was made in most of the country.
\par \tab At the university level competitive entrance examinations and the building of branch campuses in small communities increased enrollments fivefold during the 1960s. In 1972 substantial pay raises were given to professors, whose salaries had been so meager that most had had to take outside jobs. By the 1980s Brazilian university graduates were especially well-trained in scientific and technical skills, and for the first time many of them came from families with lesser incomes.
\par \tab Health care has followed a pattern which is similar to that of education. The health of Brazil's lower income families was long neglected, even though highly skilled medical care was available to the wealthy. As a result of malnutrition, tropical diseases, and a high rate of infant mortality, the life expectancy of the average Brazilian in the 1940s was only 43 years.
\par \tab Since that time the government has set a high priority on solving the nation's health problems. Medical services have been expanded, and they now include mobile clinics and hospital ships that reach the more isolated areas. University students have, since 1967, been volunteers in a program that provides medical assistance and teaches hygiene in the rural areas. As a result of these measures and of building modern sewage and water treatment plants in the small towns, life expectancy in Brazil has now risen to about 60 years.
\par \tab Brazil's high infant mortality remains a critical problem. Of every 1,000 children born, 105 will die before reaching the age of five. This compares to a rate of 7.5 per 1,000 for the same age group in The Netherlands. Even so, because the large family is traditional in rural areas, Brazil's population is increasing at a rate of about 2.8 percent a year. If this continues to be the case, the population will double its early 1980s' total by about the year 2007. Also, because more than half of all Brazilians are under 20 years old, this high growth rate should continue well into the 21st century.
\par {\b The Economy}
\par \tab During the 1960s and 1970s Brazil was not only able to absorb its high population increase but also to raise its people's standard of living. This happened because its economy was growing by about 7 percent a year, one of the highest growth rates in the world. Industrialization, the mechanization of agriculture, and the building of highways, power plants, and cities were all taking place simultaneously. The worldwide recession and the high price of oil slowed this growth during the late 1970s and early 1980s.
\par \tab {\b Farming.}
\par \tab The mechanized family farm of North America is little known in Brazil. Instead, family-operated farms are usually small, under about 25 acres (10 hectares), and have few modern tools or conveniences. They make up 51 percent of all Brazilian farm properties, yet they occupy less than 4 percent of the total farmland. Most of the land belongs to large landowners. Those with the biggest farm properties, more than 2,500 acres (1,000 hectares), number fewer than one percent of all owners, yet they hold 39 percent of the country's farmland. The owners of these vast estates usually live lavishly in the cities, visiting their properties by private airplane and leaving their day-to-day operation to managers.
\par \tab Such medium-sized farms as there are in Brazil are located mainly in Sπo Paulo state and especially in the states of the southern region. This is because these cooler lands did not appear to be worth claiming until northern Europeans began settling them in the late 19th century. On what is now the frontier, along the southern rim of the Amazon Basin, the situation is different. This land has been deeded for decades, even for centuries, to absentee landlords. With the opening of new roads into the interior these properties are being cleared and planted to crops or pasture grass. A great deal of labor is needed to begin this work, but once it is done the services of most of those who opened up the land are no longer needed. After three or four years they must move on. Unlike North American homesteaders, Brazilian pioneers seldom have a stake in the land they have cleared.
\par \tab Wealthy landowners have been a fixture of Brazilian society since colonial times, although their slaves have been replaced by tenant farmers. The average farmer still labors on someone else's land and lives simply in an adobe-and-thatch cottage on a small plot of land which is provided by the landowner. There he is able to grow some of his own food--most likely corn, bananas, cassava, and papaya--and raise a few chickens. In exchange for this privilege, the tenant must put in many hours of work on the plantation for little pay.
\par \tab There are variations in this system. If the land belongs to the government, as it does in official colonization projects along a few of the new highways or at irrigation projects in the Northeast region, the tenant has a larger plot of land to work and pays rent for its use. The tenant on a mechanized farm may be paid more and live a little better. Mechanization usually means, however, that many tenants lose both their land and their means of earning a living. Some plantations, especially those with crops such as coffee that require year-round attention, prefer to operate on the basis of sharecropping. In this case the farmer is loaned a portion of the land to tend and receives a share of the proceeds from the sale of the crop. The larger an individual family, the more land it can care for and the more it can earn. This, naturally, helps to perpetuate the country's high birth rate.
\par \tab The sheer magnitude of farming, which employs nearly one third of Brazil's labor force, along with the mechanization of certain croplands results in an impressive amount of production. Brazil is first in the world in the production of coffee, sugarcane, cassava, bananas, and sisal; in the Western Hemisphere it is the leading producer of rice and pulses (beans, peas, and lentils). It ranks second in the world in the production of oranges, cocoa, and soybeans, and third in the production of black pepper and corn (maize) and in the size of its herds of cattle and hogs. Although a large amount of this is consumed within the country, almost half of the value of Brazil's exports comes from agricultural products, particularly coffee, cocoa, soybeans, black pepper, oranges, and canned beef. A variety of oils, waxes, and fibers are also exported from the palm groves of northeastern Brazil, as are cashew nuts from that area and Brazil nuts which come from the Amazon. Some wine is also sent abroad from the vineyards of the South.
\par \tab {\b Industry.}
\par \tab Since World War II Brazil has been turning from an agricultural country into an industrial one. In 1958 it passed Argentina to become the leading industrial nation of Latin America. In 1967 the value of its industrial production was greater than that from agriculture for the first time. Finally, in 1972, the export value of Brazilian-manufactured goods passed that of coffee. Before that time, going back to the 1800s, coffee had been the country's leading earner of foreign currency. Coffee, however, continues to be the leading export crop.
\par \tab Some of Brazil's industries are well established. These include iron mills, textiles and clothing manufacture, food processing, furniture making, tanning, and leather goods. Begun on a small scale to supply the country's internal needs, many of these industries now export their products throughout the Americas and to other parts of the world.
\par \tab Brazil's iron and steel industry began in colonial times. The Western Hemisphere's first ironworks began production there in 1597. The country's steel industry was founded in 1815 in Minas Gerais, based on a plentiful supply of local iron ore and limestone and fueled by charcoal from nearby forests. Brazil became a major steel producer during World War II when its first large, integrated mill was built at Volta Redonda in the Paraφba Valley halfway between Rio de Janeiro and Sπo Paulo. By 1980 Brazil was producing about 12 million tons of steel a year. Most of its production is used within the country, but many of the end products, such as hardware and automobiles, are exported.
\par \tab Two of Brazil's most successful industries, motor vehicles and petrochemicals, were established relatively recently. Until 1956 Brazil merely assembled foreign-built cars and manufactured some spare parts for them. In that year the government placed high taxes on imported vehicles and gave incentives to manufacturers who would build them in Brazil. By 1960 Brazil was making all its own cars, trucks, buses, jeeps, and tractors, although a few components for these vehicles still had to be imported. The country now exports vehicles and parts. Almost all the plants are located in Sπo Paulo and are subsidiaries of major foreign companies.
\par \tab The petrochemical industry in Brazil began in the late 1950s as a subsidiary of Petrobrßs, Brazil's national petroleum company that was set up in 1952 to give the government a monopoly on oil and gas production. In 1965 the government opened up the petrochemical by-products industry to private (including foreign) investors.
\par \tab Approximately $750 million was put into it over the next six years, and the industry grew rapidly. In 1972 Brazil became the largest petrochemical-producing nation of Latin America. Its principal products are plastics, fertilizers, and synthetic textiles.
\par \tab {\b Power.}
\par \tab The growth of the automotive and petrochemicals industries, along with other sectors of the Brazilian economy, slowed down during the late 1970s and early 1980s because of the high cost of imported oil. About two thirds of the nation's needs are met by imported oil, the other one third coming from oil fields in the Northeast. Petrobrßs increased its production from 2 million barrels in 1954 to about 75 million in 1981. To maintain a high rate of production Brazil has had to shift from the gradually depleting onshore fields to new, offshore ones.
\par \tab Because it wishes to be less dependent on imported oil and because it has vast acreages that are, or could be, planted with sugarcane, Brazil leads the world on research into gasohol. This is an alcohol fuel that can be made from sugarcane. It has gradually lowered the country's gasoline consumption and its use is being strongly encouraged.
\par \tab Supplies of coal and natural gas are also limited in Brazil, and the country has turned to developing hydroelectricity. In 1980 this form of power provided 16 percent of Brazil's energy output. The two largest projects are at Urubupungß and Itaipu, both on the Paranß River not far from Brazil's largest cities and major manufacturing centers.
\par \tab Many Brazilians do not have access to, or cannot afford, either electricity or petroleum-derived power. About one third of the energy used in the country, whether in homes or by small manufacturing enterprises, comes from wood, charcoal, and bagasse, the fibers that are left over after the juice has been squeezed out of sugarcane. In the Northeast the energy problem is particularly acute because incomes are low and there are few rivers suitable for hydroelectric development other than the Sπo Francisco.
\par \tab Brazil has an enormous reservoir of untapped hydroelectric potential in the Amazon River basin, more than that remaining to any country in the world. Until recently the population has been too sparse and hydroelectricity required transmission distances too great to make such development of even the tributaries of the Amazon feasible. However, as settlement of this frontier grows and as techniques for long-distance transmission improve, development of the Amazon Basin for hydroelectricity appears to be more and more likely to become a part of Brazil's future.
\par \tab {\b Transportation.}
\par \tab Brazil is as unevenly served by land transportation as it is by hydroelectricity. Because of the vast distances to be covered, excellent air services are maintained to all parts of the country. The railroads at one time were the chief means of transportation. However, they had a number of disadvantages. First, they were built to move agricultural and mining products to the seaports and not for connecting different parts of the country. Also they could not be linked because they had been built by private companies using different track gauges. Brazil's roads at the time were no better.
\par \tab When Brasφlia was inaugurated in 1960, the nation's attention was focused on the critical lack of surface transport. It took three days to reach the new capital by jeep from Rio de Janeiro or Sπo Paulo. The government began a crash program to build new roads and to improve those already in existence. The military government made this its top priority when it came to power in 1964. By 1970 the number of miles of paved road had doubled and new roads were being extended to the most distant parts of the country. The most ambitious of these was the Trans-Amazon Highway, begun in the 1970s.
\par {\b Government and History}
\par \tab The government of Brazil, like those of many other Latin American countries, has been replaced many times. Nevertheless, the basic system for organizing the country has been retained. Brazil is a federal republic divided into 26 states and the federal district of Brasφlia. There is an elected National Congress divided into a Senate, with three members from each state elected for eight-year terms, and a Chamber of Deputies, elected for four-year terms on the basis of population. Power is divided among Congress, the judiciary, and the president. The president is elected for a five-year term and cannot immediately succeed himself.
\par \tab Brazil's discovery is officially attributed to the Portuguese navigator Pedro ┴lvares Cabral on April 22, 1500, but other Portuguese explorers had reached the Amazon by 1498. Portugal gained the rights to present-day Brazil under its 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas with Spain. The country's name comes from brazilwood, a red dyewood found along the coast.
\par \tab Brazil was long neglected by the Portuguese, whose attention was focused on their wealthier colonies in Asia and Africa. As a result the French established settlements at Sπo Luφs and Rio de Janeiro, and in 1624 the Dutch occupied the entire northeastern coast. By then sugar from that area had become important to the Portuguese economy, and the Portuguese cleared the settlers out by 1654. In 1808 the Portuguese royal family took refuge in Brazil when Portugal was occupied by Napoleon. King John VI made many changes in the colony before he returned to Portugal in 1821. A central administration was established and, with it, a postal service. Brazil's ports were opened to non-Portuguese ships, and industry was encouraged.
\par \tab King John's son remained behind as regent, but in 1822 he declared Brazil independent with himself as its emperor, Pedro I. He abdicated in 1831 and was succeeded by his 5-year-old son, Pedro II. Regents ruled in Pedro II's place until 1840. In 1889 he was overthrown and exiled. By then Brazil was a stable, unified country, a situation that contrasted sharply with the former Spanish colonies in Latin America, which were in political turmoil. Brazil became a federal republic, and a constitution modeled after that of the United States was adopted in 1891.
\par \tab The orderly succession of Brazil's presidents was interrupted three times between 1930 and 1964. Get·lio Vargas, governor of the state of Rio Grande do Sul, seized power in 1930 after the economy had fallen into chaos because of the worldwide economic depression. His dictatorship never completely abolished the democratic process, however. After World War II the military forced Vargas to resign. General Eurico Gaspar Dutra was elected president, but Vargas returned to power in 1951 after a free election. His second government was chaotic, and the military made him resign again in 1954. The government was then returned to civilian control. The military seized power again in 1964, allegedly because Joπo Goulart, who had taken office in 1961, was ruining the economy. Under a new 1967 constitution and the amended constitution of 1969, the government continued to be led by the military. Some semblance of democracy was retained even though the political parties were abolished and the powers of Congress curtailed.
\par \tab Unlike many other military regimes in Latin America, Brazil's had not attempted to take over every aspect of the day-to-day running of the country. In the late 1970s the government began policies that would gradually return Brazil to a more democratic system. Political rights were restored to some who had lost them, provision was made for new political parties, and press censorship was relaxed.
\par \tab The two decades of military rule ended in 1985. Tancredo Neves, a moderate, was elected president in an indirect election, but he was hospitalized on the eve of the March inaugural. Vice-President JosΘ Sarney became constitutional president when Neves died in April. A new constitution took effect on Oct. 5, 1988. It guaranteed basic social and labor rights. On March 15, 1990, Fernando Collor de Mello of the National Reconstruction party took office, the first freely elected president in 29 years. On Sept. 29, 1992, the Chamber of Deputies voted to impeach President Collor on charges of corruption. Facing probable conviction, Collor resigned on December 29, a few minutes after the Senate had started his trial. Vice-President Itamar Franco was sworn in as president that same day.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by Richard P. Momsen, Ph.D., Professor, Geography Department, University of Calgary, and Senior Photo-interpreter, Inter-American Institute of Agricultural Sciences.
\par \tab {\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR BRAZIL}
\par \tab Ashford, Moyra. Brazil (Steck, 1991).
\par \tab Barman, R.J. Brazil: The Forging of a Nation, 1798-1852 (Stanford Univ. Press, 1988).
\par \tab Carpenter, M.L. Brazil: An Awakening Giant (Dillon, 1987).
\par \tab Cross, Wilbur, and Cross, Susanna. Brazil (Childrens, 1984).
\par \tab Dos Santos, T. The Political Economy of Brazil (Westview, 1993).
\par \tab Haverstock, N.A. Brazil in Pictures, rev. and updated ed. (Lerner, 1991).
\par \tab Krich, John. Why Is This Country Dancing? (Simon & Schuster, 1993).
\par \tab Shoumatoff, Alex. The Capital of Hope: Brasφlia and Its People (Vintage, 1990).\par \tab Located about 50 miles (80 kilometers) east of Puerto Rico in the eastern Caribbean Sea, the British Virgin Islands consist of 36 picturesque islands and islets. They are part of an island chain that is continued by the Virgin Islands of the United States to the west. The major islands are Tortola, Anegada, Virgin Gorda, and Jost Van Dyke. The chief town and port is Road Town on Tortola, the largest island. The total area is 59 square miles (153 square kilometers). The pleasant subtropical climate has year-round temperatures between 70░ and 90░ F (21░ and 32░ C). The variety of scenic physical features includes steep hills, lagoons with coral reefs, and landlocked harbors.
\par \tab The majority of the population is of black African descent. About 80 percent of the total population lives on Tortola. The official language is English.
\par \tab Tourism is the economic mainstay. Cottage industries produce handmade items. Manufactured goods are rum, paint, and building materials. Fishing is a growing export industry. Agriculture focuses on livestock, though some tropical fruits and vegetables are exported.
\par \tab A colony of the United Kingdom with a representative government, the islands are administered under a constitution dating from 1977. The governor is appointed by the British monarch.
\par \tab Arawak and Carib peoples inhabited the area before Christopher Columbus landed there in 1493, and Spain sent an invasion force to claim the islands in 1555. The islands were an early haunt of pirates.
\par \tab Dutch buccaneers held Tortola until English planters took control in 1666. In 1872 the islands became part of the Colony of the Leeward Islands. In 1956 they were made a separate colony. Population (1988 estimate), 12,400.\par \tab A small Islamic sultanate, Brunei is one of the few remaining countries in the world without personal income tax. Located on the northwestern coast of the island of Borneo, it was a powerful state in the 16th century, with authority over the whole island.
\par \tab Brunei has an area of 2,226 square miles (5,765 square kilometers). The sultanate is bounded on the north by the South China Sea and on its landlocked sides by the Malaysian state of Sarawak. The geographic position of Sarawak also divides Brunei into two separate portions.
\par \tab The climate in this hilly and rugged country is determined by the equatorial monsoons, or rain-bearing winds. Rainfall is heavy and is distributed throughout the year. Annual precipitation varies from 100 inches (250 centimeters) in the coastal areas to more than 200 inches (500 centimeters) in parts of the interior. Temperatures average between 76░ and 86░ F (24░ and 30░ C). Dense tropical rain forests cover three fourths of the country and are characterized by a variety of hardwood species. Brunei's animal life includes lions, tigers, monkeys, birds, insects, snakes, and lizards.
\par \tab The principal language is Malay, but Chinese and English are widely spoken. Most of the people live near the petroleum fields at Seria and Kuala Belait. Brunei is a major petroleum producer and enjoys one of the highest standards of living in Southeast Asia. The state's economy depends almost entirely on its petroleum production.
\par \tab The largest concentration of urban population is in Brunei's capital, Bandar Seri Begawan (population, 1985 estimate, 55,000). Whereas wooden houses are found in the rural areas, Bandar Seri Begawan has modern apartment buildings, hotels, a shopping center, a commercial center, and port facilities. Alongside the modern section of the capital is the older section known as Kampong Ayer, where people live in small houses on stilts along the inlets of a broad, winding river. These houses are interconnected by footbridges, and small boats provide transport. Since roads are poorly developed, rivers are the main means of transportation in Brunei. At Bandar Seri Begawan is an international airport.
\par \tab Brunei's economy is based on the exploitation of petroleum and natural gas. Agricultural and forestry products include rubber, pepper, wood, and cork and account for about 1 percent of the export earnings. Other agricultural products, including rice, sago (a starch), and local fruits, are grown on a small scale.
\par \tab Brunei became a British protectorate under treaties made with its sultan in the 19th century, when the state was troubled by piracy. The sultan signed a new treaty in 1979, making Brunei a fully sovereign and independent state on Jan. 1, 1984. Population (1988 estimate), 250,000.\par \tab The Republic of Bulgaria occupies the eastern portion of the Balkan Peninsula. In 1946, some 1,200 years after it was founded as a kingdom, it came under Communist control, which lasted until the great political upheaval in Eastern Europe in late 1989 and 1990 and the demand for greater freedom. Its neighbors are Yugoslavia on the west, Romania on the north, and Greece and Turkey on the south. The Black Sea forms its eastern boundary.
\par {\b Land and Climate}
\par \tab Bulgaria, with an area of 42,855 square miles (110,994 square kilometers), is a little smaller than Greece. The country is divided into two parts by the east-west chain of the Balkan Mountains, called by the Bulgarians Stara Planina (Old Mountains). Although they rise in places to more than 7,000 feet (2,100 meters), the mountains have rounded tops and so do not have a rugged appearance. They are crossed by several passes. To the north of the range lies an area of lowland along the Danube River. To the south of the mountains and running parallel to them is the range of the Sredna Gora (Central Forest). The two ranges are separated by the valley of the Tundzha River. To the south of the Sredna Gora is the Thracian Plain, which is the broad valley of the Maritsa River and one of the best areas in Bulgaria for farming. The southwest contains a large rugged area consisting of the Rila, Pirin, and Rhodope mountains. The highest peak in Bulgaria, Mount Musala (9,596 feet [2,925 meters]), is in the Rila Mountains. The Rhodope Mountains form the boundary with Greece. Apart from the Danube lowland and the Thracian Plain, the only other lowlands are along the Black Sea coast and in the west, around the capital city of Sofia.
\par \tab Bulgaria's major river is the 1,750-mile (2,800-kilometer) Danube, which forms much of the border with Romania. The longest river originating in Bulgaria is the Maritsa. Other major rivers include the Iskur, Tundzha, and Struma. The flow of many Bulgarian rivers varies with the season. Some of the rivers become dry by the end of the summer.
\par \tab The climate of Bulgaria is continental, with warm summers and cold winters. In the southern portion of the country, which is tempered by Mediterranean influences, and along Bulgaria's Black Sea coast the winters are comparatively mild. The climate is on the whole favorable for agriculture, but it is too cold for the growing of citrus fruits and olives. A major problem for farmers is summer drought.
\par {\b Plant and Animal Life}
\par \tab About one third of the country is covered by forest, much of it beech and oak. Coniferous trees, such as pine, fir, and spruce, grow mainly on the slopes of the Rhodope and Rila mountains. The lowland areas had a mixed vegetation of trees and grass but are now cleared for farming. There are about 20 soil types and subtypes. The soils of the Danube lowlands and the Thracian Plain are of good quality for farming.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab The Bulgarians descend from the Bulgars, who settled in the area in the 7th century. They were assimilated into the Slavic culture and adopted its language. The Communist regime that controlled the country for most of the second half of the 20th century discouraged religion, and most of the population is atheistic. The majority of Bulgarians who profess a faith belong to the Eastern Orthodox church.
\par \tab The population of over 9 million people, mostly Bulgarians, includes some Turks and Gypsies among its minority members. Because of a long period of Turkish control, many aspects of Bulgarian folk culture show Turkish influence, especially music, clothing, and architecture. In recent times Western influences have appeared in Bulgarian literature and art. Much of Bulgarian culture after World War II was ordained by Communist ideology.
\par \tab For almost 20 years ethnic Turks and Muslims were forced to adopt Bulgarian names in an attempt to assimilate the groups into the culture of the country. In early 1990 a new law was passed granting them the right to use their own Muslim names.
\par \tab About two thirds of the population lives in cities. The largest city is Sofia, the capital, with more than 1 million inhabitants. Other cities include Plovdiv, Varna, Burgas, Ruse, and Pleven.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab In 1990, with former Communists in control of the new parliament, the country opted for a slow transition to a market economy. Farming plays a major role in the Bulgarian economy. About half of the cultivated land is devoted to the production of cereals, of which the principal crops are wheat, corn (maize), and barley. Tobacco, cotton, sugar beets, and sunflowers for vegetable oil are also produced. The principal livestock are sheep, cattle, and pigs.
\par \tab Bulgaria is not overly rich in energy resources, though it does have relatively large reserves of lignite. Other energy sources are brown coal and hydroelectric power. Reserves of soft coal and of petroleum and natural gas are meager. There is a large oil refinery at Burgas on the Black Sea coast. Important hydroelectric power projects are located in the Rhodope and Rila mountains. The largest power station in Bulgaria is a nuclear plant located on the Danube.
\par \tab Bulgaria's supplies of metals and minerals are relatively good. Iron ore, lead, copper, zinc, and manganese are produced. Before World War II Bulgaria had little industry. An iron and steel industry was developed. However, the production of metal is insufficient to support extensive manufacturing. Manufactured products include cement, semifinished rolled-steel products, pig iron, fertilizers, and small automobiles and trucks. There are many chemical and textile plants. Sofia is the largest industrial center of the country, producing processed foods, chemicals, electrical equipment, textiles, and clothing.
\par \tab The railway network in Bulgaria is sparse, but it is the main means of transport. It is partially electrified. Road mileage throughout the country has more than doubled since World War II, and improvements on the system are continuing. The national airline, Balkan, uses the international airport at Sofia as its base. Varna and Burgas are the main Black Sea ports. The major Danube River port is Ruse.
\par \tab Bulgaria has compulsory education for children between the ages of 7 and 16. There are universities at Sofia, Veliko Turnovo, and Plovdiv. Radio and television are under state control.
\par {\b Government and History}
\par \tab In 1947 Bulgaria adopted a constitution based on that of the Soviet Union. Until 1990, when free elections were held and the Communist party lost its constitutionally guaranteed exclusive power, the party controlled the government and all aspects of national life. The 240-member Parliament is elected by popular vote. On July 13, 1991, Bulgaria's Communist past was swept aside, when a new constitution went into effect declaring the country a "democratic, constitutional, and welfare state." The Communist party was renamed the Bulgarian Socialist party.
\par \tab The area occupied by present-day Bulgaria was a territory of the Roman Empire for more than 300 years. In the 6th century AD it was invaded by the Slavs and in the 7th century by the Bulgars. Though the original Bulgars were eventually absorbed by the Slavs, the name Bulgar came to be applied to both. In 864 Czar Boris I converted to Christianity. Under Czar Simeon, Bulgaria became a major Slavic empire, with control over Macedonia and Serbia. The rulers of the Byzantine Empire broke up the Bulgarian rule. In 1185 a revolt against the Byzantines was successful, and a second Bulgarian empire was established. In 1396 Bulgaria was conquered by the Ottoman Turks, and the country ceased to exist for 500 years.
\par \tab In the 19th century a revolutionary movement for national independence grew in Bulgaria, resulting in an uprising in 1876 that was put down by the Turks. The Russians then came to Bulgaria's aid, and in 1878 the Turks were defeated in several battles. The other great powers supported the Ottoman rulers, however, and the Congress of Berlin in 1878 returned to the Ottoman Empire much territory freed by the Russians. Part of the Bulgarian territory was declared a self-governing state, and Alexander of Battenberg was made prince. In 1887 Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha replaced the unpopular Alexander, and in 1908 all of Bulgaria was proclaimed independent from the Ottoman Empire with Ferdinand as its king.
\par \tab Bulgaria participated in 1912 in the First Balkan War against the Ottoman Empire. The Turks were quickly defeated, and in the 1913 peace treaty Bulgaria was awarded the largest share of the territory under dispute. The Second Balkan War then broke out. Bulgaria was defeated and lost much of its claim but did retain a part of eastern Macedonia. During World War I Bulgaria sided with Germany. With Germany's defeat in 1918 Ferdinand abdicated, and Bulgaria lost territory to Greece and Romania.
\par \tab During the rule of Czar Boris III, Ferdinand's son, there was much internal strife between the political parties. In 1934 Boris suspended the constitution and banned all parties. After the outbreak of World War II Boris followed his father's example and supported the Germans. Boris died in 1943, and his son, Simeon II, became king. The war ended with an invasion of Bulgaria by Soviet troops, and a Communist government was set up in 1946 under Georgi Dimitrov.
\par \tab The heady atmosphere in Eastern Europe at the end of 1989 reached Bulgaria. The president and chairman of the Communist party, Todor Zhivkov, resigned. The new party chief, Petar Mladenov, called for free elections, and in June 1990 Bulgaria became the first Eastern European country to freely elect a parliament dominated by former Communists. The next year, however, brought the country its first non-Communist cabinet in half a century. Zhelyu Zhelev, leader of the opposition Union of Democratic Forces, succeeded Mladenov as president. He was reelected in 1992, when Blaga Dimitrova became the first woman vice-president in post-Communist Eastern Europe.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab Ian Matley\par \tab One of the poorest of the African nations, Burkina Faso is a landlocked country in the southern part of Africa's great bulge. Formerly known as Upper Volta, it was affiliated economically with France, which ruled it for more than 60 years. The country's capital and largest city is Ouagadougou.
\par \tab The country was originally named for the three upper branches of the Volta River that flow through it. These are the Black Volta, the White Volta, and the Red Volta. A tributary, the Sourou, joins them in the north as they flow southward toward Ghana and converge to form the Volta River. With an area of 105,946 square miles (274,378 square kilometers), Burkina Faso occupies a low plateau that slopes downward to the south.
\par \tab It is bounded on the north and west by Mali; on the south by C⌠te d'Ivoire, Ghana, and Togo; and on the east by Benin and Niger. Much of the country's surface is covered in wild grassland or desert. Most of the woodlands have been cleared for farming, though only about 10 percent of Burkina Faso's land is under cultivation. Some of the few remaining forests have been set aside as wildlife preserves. Animals include antelope, lions, elephants, buffalo, hippopotamuses, monkeys, and crocodiles. The disease-causing tsetse and simulium flies are widespread.
\par \tab The climate is generally sunny, hot, and dry, since the southern part of the country is only about 10 degrees north of the equator, and the northern part is just south of the Sahara. Rainfall ranges from less than 10 inches (25 centimeters) a year in the northern parts to about 40 inches (100 centimeters) in the southern parts.
\par {\b People and Economy}
\par \tab Almost one half of the population is younger than 15, and most people live in rural areas. French is the official language, but MorΘ is spoken by a majority of the population and Dyula and Hausa are the languages of commerce. Almost one half of the population practices tribal religions, and many of the rest are Muslims. About 12 percent are Christians.
\par \tab The largest ethnic group is the Mossi, who make up about half the population. Folklore reflects the country's ethnic diversity. Malnutrition and such diseases as malaria, tetanus, measles, and leprosy are common. Health and sanitary conditions are poor. The infant mortality rate is very high, and life expectancy is only about 48 years for men and 51 years for women. School enrollment is among the lowest in Africa. Less than 19 percent of the population above the age of 15 is literate. The only institution of higher learning in Burkina Faso is the University of Ouagadougou.
\par \tab Agriculture is the chief industry, with most people engaged in subsistence farming or stock raising. Crops include sorghum, millet, sugarcane, corn (maize), and pulses. Goats, sheep, and cattle are raised in large numbers, and live animals are exported. Cotton, meat, hides, and skins are also exported. Severe drought conditions have made the economy suffer, resulting in substantial migration to C⌠te d'Ivoire and Ghana each year. Small quantities of gold are mined, and large deposits of manganese and bauxite are known to exist. Manufacturing plants include cotton gins, rice and flour mills, a sugar refinery, and a textile mill. Service industries account for a small portion of the work force. Communications are mostly inadequate.
\par \tab Burkina Faso has one of the most poorly developed transportation networks in West Africa. It has one railroad, which connects Ouagadougou with the C⌠te d'Ivoire port of Abidjan. There are about 7,000 miles (11,300 kilometers) of roads, of which about 800 miles (1,300 kilometers) are paved. Ouagadougou and Bobo Dioulasso have international airports.
\par {\b History and Government}
\par \tab The Bobo, Gurunsi, and Lobi peoples were the earliest known inhabitants of the region. In the 15th century the Mossi and Gurma tribes established themselves in the central and eastern areas of the region. The Mossi kingdoms of Yatenga and Ouagadougou were still in existence in the early 20th century. In 1897 a French military force persuaded the Mossi ruler to place his country under a protectorate. The French also annexed the lands of the Bobo and Lobi peoples. Upper Volta was made a district of French West Africa in 1919. In 1958 it became an autonomous republic in the French community.
\par \tab Upper Volta achieved full independence in 1960 and joined the United Nations. Maurice YamΘogo was the first president and helped establish a new constitution. In 1966 the military seized power, and the country was under military and civilian control. Civilian governments were overthrown in 1974 and again in 1980. Another coup, in 1982, was headed by Maj. Jean-Baptiste Ouedraogo, who promised a return to civilian rule. He was overthrown by his former prime minister, Capt. Thomas Sankara, in August 1983. Sankara became president of the National Revolutionary Council (NRC).
\par \tab In 1984 Upper Volta was renamed Burkina Faso (which means "Country of Honesty," or "Country of Honest Men"). Sankara, who served as president of the NRC, chief of the army, and head of state, was overthrown in October 1987 by his former chief adviser, Capt. Blaise CompaorΘ. Sankara and 12 of his aides were executed during the coup, and the NRC was dissolved. CompaorΘ consolidated power with two others--Capt. Henri Zongo and Maj. Jean-Baptiste Boukari Lingani--and called the new government the Popular Front.
\par \tab The Popular Front established a new government structure of a legislature, a coordinating committee, and an executive committee. Zongo and Ligani were executed in September 1989 for plotting to overthrow CompaorΘ, and a December 1989 coup attempt by "foreign mercenaries" was foiled. In June 1991 voters approved a new constitution that provided for separate legislative, executive, and judicial branches of government. Population (1989 estimate), 8,714,000.\par \tab The Union of Myanmar, known as Burma until mid-1989, is the land of the great Irrawaddy, or Ayeyarwady, River. Most of the country's people live in the fertile lowlands drained by the river. Foreign products and travelers come through Rangoon (Yangon), Myanmar's capital. Myanmar is bordered by China, Laos, Thailand, the Andaman Sea and the Bay of Bengal, Bangladesh, and India.
\par \tab Myanmar is mountainous. Its parallel ranges are separated by the north-south valleys of the Irrawaddy, the Salween, and the Sittang rivers. The Irrawaddy and the Salween rise high in the Tibetan Highlands of China. The Irrawaddy Valley may be divided into three parts. The narrow, thinly populated upper valley reaches to about 50 miles (80 kilometers) north of Mandalay and receives other swift mountain streams. Much of the broader middle valley is known as the dry zone because its rainfall is low. The lower valley, which is the delta region, extends 180 miles (290 kilometers) upstream from the sea. A range of low mountains, the Pegu Yoma, runs east of the Irrawaddy.
\par \tab At the south end of the Irrawaddy Valley is the Arakan Yoma. Here the highest elevations rise to almost 13,000 feet (4,000 meters). West of the Arakan Yoma lies the state of Arakan, along the Bay of Bengal.
\par \tab The highlands to the northeast and east include the Shan Plateau, which averages about 3,000 feet (900 meters). The Salween River flows through in a deep, narrow valley. Myanmar's southern panhandle is the Tenasserim (Tanintharyi) division. It is on the Isthmus of Kra, which links Malaysia to continental Asia.
\par \tab Most of Myanmar receives heavy rainfall, almost all in summer. The Arakan and Tenasserim regions receive up to 200 inches (500 centimeters) a year. From 60 to 100 inches (150 to 250 centimeters) fall in the Irrawaddy Delta and between 40 and 80 inches (100 and 200 centimeters) in the eastern highlands and in the north. Parts of the dry zone, in the middle Irrawaddy Basin, get less than 40 inches each year.
\par \tab Almost 50 percent of Myanmar is forested. Where the rainfall is greatest, broad-leaved evergreen rain forests are common. Where there is less rainfall, the forests have trees that lose their leaves in the dry season. Teak is the best known of these trees. In prehistoric times the dry zone was a savanna, with mixed grass and trees. Most of the delta, formerly a swamp forest, has been cleared for farms. Mangrove forests rim the delta and portions of the coasts.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab The population of Myanmar is more than 40 million. Most of the ancestors of the present population came originally from southwestern China about 2,000 years ago. The various groups spoke different languages and had different customs, but the people were predominantly of Mongoloid background.
\par \tab The country's name change from Burma to Myanmar in 1989 was made to make clear the fact that the country was composed of various ethnic groups, not just the majority Burmans. The Burmans make up almost three quarters of the population and live chiefly in the central lowlands and the delta. The Shans, of the Shan Plateau region, the Karens, who live in the eastern hills and the eastern delta, and the Rakhines make up about a fifth of the population. The Talaings, or Mons, and the Chins and Kachins make up most of the rest of the population. In addition, there are many hill tribes, each speaking a different language. After the mid-19th century, thousands of Indians migrated to the country. People of Chinese origin live chiefly in the cities.
\par {\b Religion, Education, and Health}
\par \tab Buddhism, the country's dominant religion, was brought from India and Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) many centuries ago. The Buddhism of Myanmar is called Theravada or Hinayana (Little Raft) to differentiate it from the Mahayana (Great Raft) Buddhism most common in Tibet, Mongolia, China, Japan, and Korea. Each village has its Buddhist temple, or pagoda. The monks live in monasteries, which also serve as centers of traditional education.
\par \tab The society, in keeping with its religion, is quite democratic and fluid. There is no caste system nor is there a true nobility. The hill tribes are under the rule of chiefs, and most of the tribesmen practice traditional beliefs. The Shans are Buddhist. Many of the Karens have been converted to Christianity.
\par \tab Only a small number of the people receive more than a primary education. Rangoon and Mandalay have universities and state schools. The educational focus has been on vocational and technical training.
\par \tab Health facilities are fairly well developed for a tropical country. Infectious diseases such as typhoid fever, cholera, plague, and tuberculosis still occur, however, and malaria takes a heavy toll.
\par {\b Farming, Industry, Trade, and Transportation}
\par \tab About two thirds of the labor force tills the soil for a living, though only about 15 percent of the area is under cultivation. Rice is by far the chief crop, planted on about three quarters of the cropland. Other crops are sesame seeds, peanuts (groundnuts), and pulses (peas, beans, and lentils). Cereals, sugarcane, tobacco, and cotton are also grown. Northern Myanmar is the center of the Golden Triangle, the world's major grower of opium for the illegal heroin trade.
\par \tab Rice makes up more than 30 percent of the exports. High-quality hardwoods come from Myanmar and are its largest export. Teak from the Shan Plateau accounts for about a third of the hardwood timber output. Rubber trees are grown in the Tenasserim division. Tin and tungsten ores are mined there. Lead and zinc are found in the Shan Plateau. Precious metals, rubies, and jade have long been mined. Petroleum has long been a major product. Transportation is mostly by water or rail, with air service available between the larger cities. The Irrawaddy is navigable for some 900 miles (1,450 kilometers), and the Chindwin for 520 miles (840 kilometers) more.
\par {\b Government and History}
\par \tab Myanmar was first united as a single kingdom in 1044 under the ruler Anawrahta, who made it the center of Theravada Buddhism. After a series of wars in the 19th century, the country came under British control. The British took Tenasserim and Arakan in 1826; most of the delta region, including Rangoon, in 1852; and a large part of the rest of the country in 1885. From 1886 to 1937 they governed it as a province of India.
\par \tab The Japanese occupied the country in 1942 and created a puppet state that lasted until 1945, when British rule was restored. Burma was granted independence from the British in 1948. Burma's policy of neutrality and isolation in international relations was strained by Chinese pressures in the northeast. A boundary treaty between Burma and China, signed in 1960, helped ease tensions.
\par \tab In 1958 a caretaker government was set up under the army chief of staff, Gen. Ne Win, who prepared the country for elections. U Nu was elected prime minister of the government, which ruled from 1960 until 1962, when Ne Win staged a coup. He dissolved the parliament, abandoned the constitution, and began nationalizing industry. Under the 1974 constitution, Burma became a one-party socialist republic, with Ne Win as president. He dissolved the Revolutionary Council that was set up after the coup of 1962 and inaugurated a one-chamber assembly. Ne Win stepped down in 1981 but retained his leading role as chairman of the Burma Socialist Program party (BSPP).
\par \tab In July 1988 Ne Win resigned as chairman of the BSPP after antigovernment demonstrations led to violent protests. Sein Lwin, a former military officer, became president but resigned two weeks later. Maung Maung became president in August, as the first civilian leader in 26 years, but failed to end the street violence. On September 18 Saw Maung, a four-star general and close associate of Ne Win, toppled the civilian government. Street violence and military actions resulted in the deaths of 10,000 people. On September 10 Article 11 of the constitution, making the country a one-party state, was dropped. On September 26 the name of the BSPP was changed to the National Unity party. In an attempt to quiet protests by ethnic minorities, the country's name and many cities' names were changed in 1989.
\par \tab Despite the arrest and disqualification of most of its leadership, the National League for Democracy won about 82 percent of parliamentary seats in 1990 elections. The military government, however, never permitted the elected government to take power. Opposition leader Aung San Suu Kyi, under house arrest since 1989, was awarded the 1991 Nobel prize for peace. The United Nations Human Rights Commission condemned the military regime for human rights abuses, but economic sanctions failed to bring about changes.\par \tab A landlocked country of Central Africa, the Republic of Burundi has an area of 10,740 square miles (27,816 square kilometers). It is bordered by Rwanda on the north, Zaire on the west, and Tanzania on the south and east.
\par \tab The heart of Burundi is mountainous. The mountain slopes, which are wetter and cooler than the rest of the country, are forested. A north-south range, rising to more than 8,500 feet (2,590 meters), is the divide between the drainage systems of the Congo and Nile rivers. The mountains slope gently toward the Tanzanian frontier on the east but they drop abruptly toward the west. Here lie the lowlands along the Ruzizi River and Lake Tanganyika. These plains are part of Africa's Great Rift Valley. The varied animal life includes elephants, lions, leopards, hippopotamuses, crocodiles, buffalo, warthogs, baboons, and antelopes.
\par \tab The heat of the tropics is moderated by the high altitude. The average temperature is 73░ F (23░ C) on the Ruzizi River plain and 63░ F (17░ C) on the crest of the divide. The divide's rainfall measures an annual average of 60 to 70 inches (150 to 180 centimeters), while that on the plain is only about 30 inches (80 centimeters). The dry season lasts from June to August and the rainy season from February through May.
\par \tab Burundi is a rugged land where people live by subsistence farming or by grazing cattle. There are 527 persons per square mile (203 per square kilometer), making Burundi (like its neighbor Rwanda) one of the most densely populated countries in Africa. About 80 percent of the people are Hutu, about 15 percent are Tutsi, and most of the remainder are Twa, or Batwa, a Pygmy group. The Tutsi have traditionally controlled the military and the government. Rundi and French are the official languages, though Swahili is also spoken. More than half of the people are Roman Catholics.
\par \tab Coffee is the chief commercial crop and export. Tea and cotton are also grown for trade. Subsistence crops include beans, cassavas, corn (maize), rice, sweet potatoes, peanuts, peas, and sorghum. Soybeans, oil palms, and sugarcane are also grown. There are reserves of metallic ores. The few industrial plants process cotton and coffee or manufacture consumer products.
\par \tab Trade is hampered by poor transportation facilities. A road network connects Burundi with its neighbors. Exports move to market through Bujumbura and Kigoma-Ujiji, a Tanzanian port on Lake Tanganyika, then by rail to Dar es Salaam, Tanzania's main seaport. There is an international airport at Bujumbura, Burundi's capital and chief city (population, 1990 estimate, 226,628).
\par \tab Burundi's national culture is traditional rather than written. There is a good deal of oral literature that consists of stories, legends, and fables, as well as poetry and songs. Burundi folk dancing is internationally famous.
\par {\b History and Government}
\par \tab The Twa were probably the land's first inhabitants. Centuries ago the land was overrun--first by the Hutu, then by the Tutsi. Germany made Burundi part of German East Africa in the late 19th century. After World War I Ruanda-Urundi was made a League of Nations mandate, administered by Belgium, and in 1946 it became a United Nations trust territory. On July 1, 1962, the two parts of the trust territory became separate independent countries. The northern part became the Republic of Rwanda, and the southern part, Burundi, became a constitutional monarchy under its hereditary ruler, the mwami. The mwami was deposed by his son on July 8, 1966, and the constitution was suspended. The new mwami was enthroned on September 1, but on November 28, while he was out of the country, he was overthrown. The bloodless military coup was led by Burundi's prime minister, who assumed the new title of president and declared the country a republic.
\par \tab The exiled mwami, who had been promised amnesty, returned to Burundi in March 1972 and was arrested. A month later the president dissolved the Council of Ministers and took full control of the country; the mwami was killed during the bloody rebellion that followed. The president reinstated a government with a prime minister in July 1972 but suspended the constitution in 1974. In November 1976 the president was deposed by army officers, who set up a Supreme Revolutionary Council. The office of prime minister was again abolished in 1978.
\par \tab In September 1987 President Jean-Baptiste Bagaza was overthrown, and the 1981 constitution was suspended. Bagaza was replaced by Maj. Pierre Buyoya, who improved human rights, curbed repression, and stopped the anti-Roman Catholic policies of Bagaza. In August 1988 battles between the rival Hutu and Tutsi peoples broke out. About 20,000 people were killed and tens of thousands of Hutu fled to Rwanda. Each group accused the other of starting the warfare. A new government was formed in October 1988. Buyoya reshuffled the cabinet and appointed a Hutu prime minister, and for the first time the Hutu held a majority of the ministries.
\par \tab By mid-1989 almost all of the Hutu who had fled in 1988 had returned. In the June 1993 elections, Melchior Ndadaye, a Hutu, unexpectedly won the presidency. This represented a major shift in power from the minority Tutsi to the Hutu majority. This change was short-lived, however, as Ndadaye was killed in a Tutsi-led coup attempt in October. Waves of ethnic violence then swept the country, killing thousands. Economic problems continued to beset the nation, and Burundi continued to rely on foreign financial and technical aid. Population (1993 estimate), 5,665,000.\par \tab In the southwestern part of the Indochinese Peninsula of Southeast Asia is the country of Cambodia. The names Cambodia and Kampuchea are transliterations of the country's traditional name in the Khmer language, and both have been used for the name of the country. In 1970 the government abolished the colonial name Cambodia but retained the name Kampuchea. Nineteen years later the name Cambodia was readopted. The country is a remnant of the Khmer Empire, which ruled much of Southeast Asia from the 9th to the 15th century. Cambodia was a part of French Indochina from 1887 to 1953, when it gained independence. During the 1970s rival factions engaged in a bloody struggle for control of the country. One faction, supported by China, took over the government in 1975. Another, backed by Vietnam, overthrew the government in 1979 and controlled the country for the next decade.
\par \tab Cambodia has an area of 69,898 square miles (181,035 square kilometers). It centers on a basinlike lowland that rises gently from the Gulf of Thailand in the south to the Dangrek Mountains in the north. In the Cardamom Mountains in the southwest rises the country's highest peak, Phnum Aoral, at 5,948 feet (1,813 meters). To the west a low divide separates Cambodia from Thailand. The Mekong River flows southward from Laos through eastern Cambodia.
\par \tab Approximately in the center of the lowland lies Tonle Sap, meaning "Great Lake," which serves as a natural flood reservoir for the Mekong River. From November to late April, the lake shrinks to an area of about 1,000 square miles (2,600 square kilometers) and to a depth of no more than 5 feet (1.5 meters). From July to late October, when the Mekong floodwaters flow up the Tonle Sap River into the lake, the area of the lake expands and may cover almost 10,000 square miles (26,000 square kilometers) and the depth may reach 45 feet (14 meters).
\par \tab Cambodia has a tropical climate. It is always warm to hot in the lowlands, with temperatures seldom below 80░ F (27░ C). The rainy season comes with the summer monsoon, which lasts from May through October. The monsoon normally brings 50 to 80 inches (130 to 200 centimeters) of rain in the lowlands and about twice as much in the southwestern mountains.
\par \tab Three quarters of Cambodia consists of tropical evergreen forests, and about a fifth of the country is used for meadow, pasture, and agriculture. Away from the streams are sandy soils and course, eroded and infertile yellow or red earth. Along the many floodplains are narrow strips of good alluvial soil. The annually flooded banks of the Tonle Sap and Mekong rivers have fertile soils that are renewed by the silt of the flood season. Animals of Cambodia include monkeys, buffalo, elephants, tigers, panthers, leopards, civets, crocodiles, pheasants, and jungle fowl.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab Most of the people are Khmer, a racially diverse group that arrived in Southeast Asia in about 2000 BC. They speak Khmer, a language that is a member of the Mon-Khmer group of Austroasiatic languages spoken in northeast India and Indochina. Men and women both generally wear an upper jacket and a saronglike lower garment called a sampot.
\par \tab Almost 4 million people lived in the Khmer Empire at its height from the 11th to the 13th century AD. Conquest by Thai forces in the 14th and 15th centuries reduced the population by about half. Wars during the 17th to the 19th century reduced the Khmer to about 1 million people by the mid-19th century. By 1960, however, the number of Khmer had again increased to almost 5 million, and by 1991 the number of Khmer had reached more than 8 million.
\par \tab Aboriginal groups occupy the upland area around the borders of Cambodia. Muslim Chams live in villages in the eastern part of the country. For centuries colonies of southern Chinese have made their homes in Cambodian cities, and some have intermarried with the Khmer. Approximately one third of the Chinese live in Phnom Penh, the capital and largest city. Vietnamese settlers began arriving in southeastern Cambodia in the late 17th century. Thai live along the western fringes of Cambodia, near the border with Thailand.
\par \tab The Khmer are primarily an agricultural people. Most of the Chinese live in cities and work in nonagricultural occupations. Some of the ethnic Vietnamese of Cambodia are farmers or fishermen, and others are artisans or merchants in the cities. In the rural lowlands, the Khmer live in villages.
\par \tab The Khmer have long been practitioners of Buddhism, though many rural people follow ancient folk religions. During the 14th century the Khmer shifted from the Mahayana to the Theravada, or Hinayana, tradition, of Buddhism. Young Khmer men normally spend a period as priests associated with a temple.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab The Cambodian economy is based on agriculture, chiefly rice growing. Rice is primarily a wet-field crop, grown with the aid of irrigation or floodwaters during the rainy season. A number of farmers grow "floating rice" on the deep water next to the natural levees of the Mekong River. Sugarcane ranks second in importance, and roots and tubers rank third, of which cassavas and sweet potatoes are the main products. Bananas and corn (maize) rank next in importance. Other crops include beans, rubber and soybeans. Other fruits, grown for local consumption, include pineapples and oranges.
\par \tab Cotton, kapok, ramie, and raw silk are produced chiefly along the Mekong River. These products are used primarily by domestic artisans. The French began to establish rubber plantations east of the Mekong in the 1920s, and Cambodia is one of the chief rubber producers of the Far East.
\par \tab Livestock raising has a role in the economy, supplying draft animals for use in agriculture and local transportation and small amounts of meat for the urban population. Fishes are a more commonly consumed product. They are dried, salted, or made into sauces and pastes. The supply exceeds domestic needs, and the surplus is exported to Vietnam.
\par \tab A few types of light manufacturing had developed in Cambodia prior to 1965, but political unrest from then until 1979 stopped almost all production. Handicrafts also declined during this period of political turmoil. The economy began to recover in 1980, with operations in textiles, paper, cigarettes, glass, and soft drinks. The private economy began to thrive with the lessening of tensions in the 1990s.
\par \tab Transportation in Cambodia is largely by water during the rainy season and by ox cart in the dry months. Phnom Penh is a Mekong River port accessible to small seagoing ships. Small boats also operate on the Mekong River and on Tonle Sap. A railroad connects Phnom Penh and Thailand. Another line runs between the capital and the port of Kampong Cham, the country's only seaport for oceangoing vessels, on the Gulf of Thailand.
\par \tab Cambodia has about 2,000 miles (3,200 kilometers) of paved, all-weather roads, including a four-lane highway between Phnom Penh and Kampong Saom, but a lack of maintenance since 1960 has made them barely usable. A network of improved dirt roads serves the nation during the dry season. Cambodia's communications system was heavily damaged between 1975 and 1979.
\par \tab Political conflict also disrupted the educational system. The number of literate people in Cambodia was increasing slowly before 1970 but was below that of other Southeast Asian nations except Laos. In 1970 elementary, high school, and university education was regularly available, but after the Khmer Rouge took over in 1975 only elementary classes were available.
\par {\b History and Government}
\par \tab From the 15th century on the Khmer state lost both people and territory to Thailand on the west, Laos on the north, and Vietnam on the east. The country was almost divided between Thailand and Vietnam in the 19th century before the French made Cambodia a protectorate in 1863. The country formed part of French Indochina from 1887 until it became independent in 1953 under King Norodom Sihanouk. The next year at the Geneva Conference, Sihanouk's government was recognized as the sole legitimate authority in the country. Sihanouk abdicated in favor of his father in 1955, reorganized the government, and was elected chief of state in 1960, after his father died. Cambodia tried to remain politically neutral in the fight for power between Communist and non-Communist nations during the 1960s. By 1965, however, Communist factions were competing in promoting revolution there.
\par \tab In March 1970 Gen. Lon Nol, an anti-Communist, seized control of Cambodia. The Cambodian legislature abolished the monarchy and changed the name of the nation to the Khmer Republic. Sihanouk had been out of the country when Lon Nol took over the government. In late 1972, in Beijing, Sihanouk organized a revolutionary government-in-exile. It was backed by China and opposed the Communist faction that was backed by the Soviet Union and Vietnam.
\par \tab In January 1975 the Khmer Rouge, as the China-backed revolutionaries came to be called, launched a major offensive against the Vietnamese faction and the Lon Nol government. The Khmer Rouge, led by Pol Pot, occupied Phnom Penh in April. A new constitution legalized the Communist government and program and renamed the country Democratic Kampuchea. The Khmer Rouge turned all cultivated land into cooperatives and sent city people to rural areas to clear cropland; Phnom Penh became a ghost town. More than 1 million people died or were killed during brutal purges of opposing factions, former government officials, and the educated and middle classes. Thousands of people fled the country seeking refuge in neighboring countries, such as Thailand.
\par \tab In December 1978 Vietnam invaded Kampuchea. The Vietnamese government said it wanted to save Kampuchea from further harshness and purges by the Khmer Rouge; its support went to the Soviet-Vietnamese Communist faction. By April 1979 the Vietnamese had taken Phnom Penh, installed a new government under Heng Samrin, and changed the name of the country to the People's Democratic Republic of Kampuchea. The Vietnamese army occupied the country and waged anti-Khmer Rouge campaigns in the western border areas.
\par \tab The Vietnamese set up a People's Revolutionary Council to govern Kampuchea. In 1981 a 117-member National Assembly was elected to a five-year term, and it approved a new constitution. The Assembly that year appointed a seven-member Council of State and a 16-member Council of Ministers to replace the Revolutionary Council.
\par \tab Many nations were concerned about Vietnam's long-term intentions toward Kampuchea because of its long-standing aggressiveness toward the Khmer. Thailand continued its indirect support of the Khmer Rouge. China bitterly opposed the new regime and briefly invaded Vietnam in 1979. In 1982 the principal anti-Vietnamese Khmer forces formed a coalition to combat Vietnam's continued military occupation of their homeland. Sihanouk resigned as head of the coalition and went into exile in July 1988. Peace talks were held later that month between all of the warring Kampuchean factions.
\par \tab In 1989 Vietnam announced that it would withdraw its remaining troops by the end of September. The constitution drawn up that year renamed the country the State of Cambodia. In March 1990, however, Sihanouk claimed that Vietnam continued to control Cambodia after the pullout and that thousands of troops had never left.
\par \tab The four factions involved in the civil war--the Vietnamese-installed Phnom Penh government, the ousted Khmer Rouge, the anti-Communists, and the nationalists loyal to Sihanouk--agreed in May 1991 to a cease-fire. In an effort to prevent a return to power of the Khmer Rouge, the United States in July scheduled diplomatic talks with the Vietnamese-backed government. During these talks, held in September and overseen by the United Nations (UN), all the warring Cambodian factions agreed to form a 12-member Supreme National Council (SNC) to work toward a peace settlement. Under the terms of the peace plan, the UN would be in charge, running parts of the government and preparing for elections in 1993. Sihanouk was made head of the SNC to lead Cambodia through the transition.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by J.E. Spencer, Professor Emeritus, Department of Geography, University of California, Los Angeles, and author of 'Asia, East by South'.\par \tab A triangle-shaped country facing the Atlantic Ocean's Gulf of Guinea, Cameroon was one of 17 African nations that became independent in 1960, the "Year of Freedom." Cameroon has an area of 179,714 square miles (465,457 square kilometers). It is bordered by Nigeria, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea, Chad, the Central African Republic, and Congo.
\par \tab Only about 15 percent of Cameroon's total land area is arable, or fit for farming; more than half of its land is forested. Cameroon has important mineral deposits of iron, aluminum, bauxite, limestone, uranium, and gold. There are two main rivers: the Sanaga, draining southwestward into the Atlantic Ocean, and the Benue, flowing westward into the Niger River basin in Nigeria. The Benue is navigable during several months of the year.
\par \tab Cameroon has four topographical regions. The southern region, extending southward from the Sanaga River, consists of coastal plains and a densely forested plateau, or raised flatland. The central region, which covers the area between the Sanaga and Benue rivers, rises progressively in elevation toward the north. In the west the land is mountainous, while in the north the savanna plain, or grassland, slopes downward toward the Lake Chad basin.
\par \tab The country is hot throughout the year. The average annual temperatures range between 70░ and 82░ F (21░ and 28░ C). Rainfall is greatest in the south, averaging about 150 inches (380 centimeters) per year. The capital is YaoundΘ.
\par \tab The hot, humid south supports dense tropical rain forests that include mahogany, ebony, and obeche trees. The central region has a mixed forest of evergreens and deciduous trees. Northern vegetation is wooded savanna. Cameroon has varied animal life that includes buffalo, elephant, hippopotamus, antelope, and many kinds of birds.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab Cameroon has been described as a racial crossroads because of its more than 200 ethnic groups. The major groups are Fang, Bamileke and Bamum, and Douala. Pygmies live in the southern forests.
\par \tab The official languages are French and English, but local languages are also spoken. More than half the population continues its traditional religious beliefs. Christianity was introduced by Europeans during the colonial period, and the people of the north are predominantly Muslim.
\par \tab Every major ethnic group of the country has developed its own culture based on traditional arts and customs. The country's rich musical diversity is represented by drum rhythms in the southern forest and flute music in the north. Many crafts are also produced, including worked leather goods and pottery.
\par \tab Education in public schools is free, and the government subsidizes private education. Health conditions are poor, especially in rural areas.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab Since its independence in 1960 Cameroon has experienced a steady economic growth based largely on agriculture. Agriculture totals about one third of the gross national product and employs more than 80 percent of the work force. Crops include corn, beans, peanuts, millet, sorghum, rubber, and palm oil. Timber production is growing, with more than half the output exported as logs. Processed-wood products for export increased with the establishment of a pulp factory in 1980.
\par \tab Cameroon's industry is dominated by raw-materials processing. Factories include an aluminum manufacturing complex, a pulp and paper mill, a tire factory, a fertilizer plant, a tannery, and a petroleum refinery. Exports include petroleum, coffee, cacao and cocoa products, timber, and aluminum. Chief trading partners include France, the United States, The Netherlands, and Germany. Cameroon is heavily dependent on foreign trade, and the majority of its manufactured goods are imported, as are many raw materials for industry. Railroads and highways in addition to the rivers provide transportation. The main airport is at Douala.
\par {\b History and Government}
\par \tab The earliest inhabitants of Cameroon were probably the pygmies. The first Europeans to arrive were the Portuguese in the early 1470s. By 1520 they had established sugar plantations and also a prosperous slave trade. Dutch settlers followed in the early 1600s, and the Dutch took over the slave trade. British and German settlers arrived in the 1800s. In 1807 the British declared the slave trade illegal, and it was phased out by the 1840s. Both the British and the Germans wanted to establish a protectorate. The Germans succeeded in 1884 and retained control until World War I, when British and French troops forced them out.
\par \tab In 1919 Cameroon was divided by the London Declaration into French and British administrative zones. In 1960 the French trust territory became an independent republic and a member of the United Nations. The southern part of the British trust territory voted for union in 1961 with the new Federal Republic of Cameroon and the northern part for union with Nigeria.
\par \tab A unitary government was established in 1972. Its constitution places executive power in the president, who is directly elected to a five-year term. He is assisted by a cabinet headed by the prime minister. Legislative power is in the unicameral, or single-chamber, National Assembly, consisting of 180 members who are also elected to five-year terms. The judicial system is headed by the Supreme Court.
\par \tab In 1984, shortly after Paul Biya was elected to his first full term as president, members of the presidential guard mutinied. The mutiny was put down by forces loyal to the president. In 1986 about 1,700 people in the remote northwest were killed by suffocating gases emitted by a crater lake. Population (1991 estimate), 12,239,000.\par \tab Stretching westward from the Atlantic Ocean to the shores of the Pacific Ocean, and northward from its border with the United States to the icy waters of the Arctic Ocean, Canada is a huge and fascinating land of contrasts. Although its area of nearly 4 million square miles (10 million square kilometers) makes it the second largest nation on Earth, after Russia, it has a population of only 6.9 persons per square mile (2.7 persons per square kilometer). By contrast, the population of China, a nation slightly smaller than Canada in area, is 40 times greater. Although from north to south Canada measures nearly 3,000 miles (4,800 kilometers), more than two thirds of its nearly 27,300,000 residents live within 190 miles (300 kilometers) of its southern border with 12 states of the United States.
{\b NATURAL ENVIRONMENT}
\par \tab A massive dome of Precambrian rock dominates the Canadian landscape. Called the Canadian Shield, it lies at or near the surface of the Earth. Shaped somewhat like a giant inverted saucer, it sweeps from the Amundsen Gulf southward and eastward across the top of the Prairie Provinces, around Hudson Bay to the Atlantic Ocean, encompassing most of Ontario and Quebec and all of Labrador. The sedimentary rocks that make up the remainder of the country's surface and near surface rest on this ancient base, though it may be necessary to penetrate deeply into the Earth to find it.
\par \tab In the Paleozoic era (570 million to 225 million years ago) and later in the Mesozoic era (225 million to 65 million years ago), ancient seas invaded the depressed areas of the Canadian Shield and gradually formed layer upon layer of sediment. In the course of millions of years, these layers were solidified, then uplifted and broken by tremendous geologic forces. Tiny marine life trapped in the sediment formed oil and natural gas deposits that gathered in the folds of the rock. Giant dinosaurs also were covered, and they too became part of the rock layers.
\par \tab Some rock was melted and re-formed, and some molten rock invaded the massive cracks in the Earth's crust, where slowly it cooled and formed massive deposits of minerals. Wind and water and glacial ice wore away the rock, laying down the particles in valleys and depressions, where over the centuries living organisms have turned it into soil.
\par {\b Land Regions}
\par \tab Canada may be divided into several natural regions based upon geologic history. The easternmost is the Appalachian Region, which includes the Atlantic Provinces and the GaspΘ Peninsula in Quebec. This region is a northern extension of the Appalachian Mountains of the United States and, like them, is an area of lakes, rivers, and tree-clad hills. Deposits of coal, gypsum, and other nonmetallic minerals as well as metallic ores may be found in the region. Offshore in the Atlantic Ocean the frigid waters of the Labrador Current, rich in the tiny organisms upon which larger ocean life feeds, meet the warmer waters of the Gulf Stream. The resulting conditions and the presence of the continental shelf have led to the formation of one of the world's most bountiful fishing areas, the Grand Banks.
\par \tab In the Arctic archipelago, the frozen islands of the Canadian north, mountains similar to the Appalachians are found. Named the Innuitian Mountains after the northern indigenous people, they are largely unexplored because of the hostile climate. Thus little is known of their economic potential.
\par \tab Westward from the Atlantic, sandwiched between the Canadian Shield and the Appalachians, lies the region known as the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Lowlands. Here the Mesozoic limestones, sandstones, and shales are overlain by glacial drift, the sediments left when glacial lakes drained away 11,000 years ago. This region's Point Pelee on the Ontario shore of Lake Erie, the most southerly part of Canada, is farther south than the northern boundary of California. The richness of its soils and the presence of abundant building materials have helped make this region the most populated in Canada and the center of the country's economic activity.
\par \tab The projection of the Canadian Shield known as the Frontenac Axis slices the St. Lawrence Lowlands in two to form the Thousand Islands in the St. Lawrence River and the Adirondack Mountains in the United States. Here the ancient granites of Precambrian rock rise above the surrounding sedimentary materials and mark the beginning of the vast expanse of barren rock, forest, muskeg swamps (grassy bogs), and beautiful lakes that are characteristic of the shield. Covering nearly 2 million square miles (5 million square kilometers), this region accounts for almost half of Canada's land area. Here are found most of the major mining activities and the evergreen forests that provide for Canada's huge forest products industry. The flow of water in numerous rivers is the source of hydroelectric power for the cities of the lowlands and for export to the United States.
\par \tab In a wide belt between the Canadian Shield and the western mountains, stretching from the border with the United States to the shores of the Arctic Ocean, is the region known as the Interior Plains and Lowlands. Thick, almost horizontal layers of sedimentary rock form a low, rolling landscape that rises gradually to the west. Cereal-growing areas of the eastern and central part of the region give way, as the land rises, to the cattle ranches of the west and the forests of the north. The sedimentary rock layers in Alberta yield petroleum, natural gas, and coal; in Saskatchewan they yield potash.
\par \tab Two other lowland areas border the shield: the Hudson Bay Lowlands and the Arctic Lowlands of the archipelago. In both the underlying sedimentary rocks are similar to those found bordering the lower Great Lakes in southern Ontario. As is also the case in the south, deposits of salt and hydrocarbons have been found, but the inhospitable climate has kept Canadians from exploiting them.
\par \tab A huge section of the mountainous spine of the Western Hemisphere forms the Cordillera, or Canadian Rocky Mountains, the last natural region of Canada. Monstrous geologic forces buckled and folded ancient sediments to form these chains of mountains that run roughly parallel to the Pacific shore. Rising from the interior plains and forming the Continental Divide, the Rockies were a formidable barrier to the westward expansion of the nation and continue to present problems. Only three natural passes exist--Yellowhead, Kicking Horse, and Crowsnest--and it is through these that the produce of the prairies must pass to reach the markets of the Pacific rim. Further west, the Columbia and Skeena mountains, the interior plateaus, and the deep gorges of the Fraser and Thompson rivers also have made travel difficult through the years. Finally, the massive Coast Mountains plunge into the Pacific, forming sheer walls and a deeply indented, fjordlike coast. Vancouver Island and the Queen Charlotte Islands, projections of another fold of the Earth's crust, form the Island Mountains. In the St. Elias Mountains in the Yukon Territory to the north, Canada's highest point--Mount Logan--soars nearly 20,000 feet (6,000 meters) above sea level. It is almost on the border of Alaska. The Cordillera contains Canada's wettest place--Estevan Point on Vancouver Island--with more than 120 inches (300 centimeters) of precipitation each year, and one of its driest regions--the plateau in south-central British Columbia near Kamloops. Minerals and forest products and the abundant harvests of farms, rivers, and ocean make this region important to Canada.
\par {\b Rivers and Lakes}
\par \tab More than 8 percent of Canada's area is covered by water, and this is still the key to the prosperity of the nation. All its major cities and towns are located on a main river or lake.
\par \tab Two main watersheds, or ridges that account for differences in the direction of water drainage, divide Canada. The first and most significant of these is the barrier formed by the Rocky Mountains, which separates the westward flow of water from the eastward flow. A less noticeable but important watershed is a ridge of high land that more or less follows the 49th parallel of latitude from the Rockies to the head of the Great Lakes; it separates the waters flowing northward to the Arctic Ocean or Hudson Bay from those flowing eastward toward the Atlantic Ocean or southward to the Gulf of Mexico.
\par \tab In the west the Fraser and Thompson rivers drain the southern half of British Columbia and pour their waters into the Strait of Georgia (between Vancouver Island and the mainland) and the Pacific Ocean. On the other side of the Continental Divide the Mackenzie River, Canada's longest, drains the waters from the Peace and Slave rivers, Lake Athabasca, and Great Slave Lake, emptying them into the Beaufort Sea and the Arctic Ocean.
\par \tab The North and South Saskatchewan rivers carry water from the Rockies to Manitoba's Lake Winnipeg. Together with the flow from the Red and Assiniboine rivers in southern Manitoba, these waters flow northeastward through the Nelson River to Hudson Bay. Numerous rivers from Manitoba, northern Ontario, and northwestern Quebec also flow into Hudson Bay and James Bay. Almost all other rivers in Canada flow into the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence River system and then into the Atlantic Ocean.
\par \tab In all the world there is no collection of fresh water to equal the Great Lakes. From Duluth, Minn., in the United States, they stretch in unbroken line through the St. Lawrence to Belle Isle, Newfoundland, a distance of more than 2,300 miles (3,700 kilometers). Canada shares all of the lakes with the United States except Lake Michigan, which lies entirely within the United States. These huge lakes have long played a major role in westward expansion and economic growth. They have eased the flow of raw materials, agricultural products, and finished goods to and from markets all over the world and have greatly enriched the two nations that share them.
\par {\b Climate}
\par \tab In a land as vast as Canada, it is natural to find a great variety of climate. Although overall the country is cool, there are some remarkable differences from region to region. The Atlantic provinces and the lowland region of Ontario and Quebec have a cool continental climate characterized by hot summers and bitter cold winters. But the closeness of the ocean noticeably moderates the climate in the provinces of Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, and Newfoundland so that summers are cooler and winters not so severe.
\par \tab Throughout the whole region precipitation is even and moderate all year. In the region roughly corresponding to the Canadian Shield, there is a cold continental climate, with long, severely cold winters and short, hot summers. The southern parts of the three Prairie Provinces have significantly less rain and snow than their northern sections, and this controls what can be done with the land. In the Rockies there are a number of climates, depending on elevation and position on the slopes.
\par \tab The Pacific coastal areas get great amounts of rain and snow, particularly in the winter when the winds blow mostly directly onshore and are forced upward by the mountain wall. Yet the provincial capital of British Columbia, Victoria, is attractive to many people because of its dry climate and mild winters. Summers on the Pacific coast are mild.
\par \tab Finally, the frigid Arctic archipelago and the shores of the Arctic Ocean make up the Arctic climatic zone. Since this region lies entirely within the Arctic Circle, periods of daylight and darkness last six months, the ground is permanently frozen, and summers are brief and cool.
\par {\b Plants}
\par \tab Plant life varies with land type and climate. By far the most abundant form is boreal, or northern, forest, which accounts for four fifths of the nation's forested area. Indeed, this band of tree growth, which covers the southern portion of the Canadian Shield and which stretches uninterrupted from the border with Alaska to the Atlantic coast, is second in size only to the boreal forests of Russia. Since deciduous trees, or those that shed their leaves, cannot survive in a climate where the average January temperature is below -0.4░ F (-18░ C), the boreal forest is made up almost entirely of coniferous, or evergreen, trees. These forests are the mainstay of Canada's pulp and paper and forest products industries.
\par \tab South of the boreal forest in northwestern Ontario, and again from central Ontario to the Maritime, or Atlantic, Provinces, lies a belt of mixed coniferousand deciduous forest. In southern Ontario are small wooded areas that are the remains of what was the only completely deciduous forest in Canada.
\par \tab To the south of the boreal forest in the Prairie Provinces is an area generally too dry to support the growth of dense forest. Gradually the landscape changes from a parkland with scattered tree stands to an area of long grass and then to the dry short grass region of Alberta and Saskatchewan just north of the United States border. This region of deep rich soils and short hot summers accounts for three quarters of Canada's agricultural land. Westward the Rockies' jumble of mountains and plateaus and complex climatic mixture yields Canada's greatest variety of vegetation. Cacti and sagebrush, grasslands and coniferous forest, and the majestic stands of Douglas fir trees on the Coast Mountains are all part of British Columbia's natural heritage.
\par \tab Northward from the boreal forests lies a transitional zone of scattered stunted coniferous forest and muskeg swamp. This subarctic region, called taiga, yields to the tundra, where it is too cold for trees of any kind to survive. This is the land of lichens and mosses, plants that, like those in warm deserts, must follow a cycle of a short period of growth, followed by a long period of dormancy. This is Canada's most fragile environment and one that has engaged the attention and energies of a number of groups concerned that commercial exploitation of the Arctic resources may cause serious and irreparable damage.
\par {\b Animal Life}
\par \tab Canada has always had a great variety of wild animals. Most of the world's woodland caribou, grizzly bears, mountain sheep, wolves, and wolverines live in Canada. But many native species were severely reduced by uncontrolled hunting and the destruction of animal habitats by human settlement. Wood bison, once on the prairies in vast numbers, now can only be found in protected parklands. Passenger pigeons, which once darkened the skies of the St. Lawrence Lowlands, became extinct early in the 20th century. Harp seals, inhabitants of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, are not endangered but have become the focus of worldwide attention. This is because of the manner in which day-old pups are clubbed to death in great numbers by hunters.
\par \tab The waters of Canada's continental shelf teem with fishes. In the Pacific the cold waters of the California Current mix with the warmer Alaska Current, resulting in perfect conditions for feeding grounds for fishes and, therefore, for an active fishing industry. Particularly valuable are the salmon that spawn in the many rivers and streams of the Coast Mountains and later migrate to the open sea to feed and to mature. Herring as well are attracted to the area and account for a large portion of the fishes caught. In the Atlantic cod is by far the most important species caught in the open sea, while lobsters and shellfish are the main catch of fishermen closer to shore.
{\b PEOPLE}
\par \tab In Canada today the Indian, Inuit, and mΘtis (mixed Indian and French ancestry) peoples are referred to as native peoples. When the first Europeans reached North America, there probably were not more than 200,000 Indians and Inuit in what is now Canada. The population of native peoples in the early 1980s was almost double that number.
\par \tab The Indian peoples are organized into tribal bands, each governed by a band council. Most bands control a tract of land called a reserve that was defined by treaties made in the past with Great Britain. In the 1960s, '70s, and '80s, some bands extended their landholdings or were paid for lands by taking the government of Canada to court.
\par \tab The Vikings from Northern Europe arrived on the continent in about AD 1000, but they made no long-lasting settlement. It was not until the beginning of the 17th century that the French established permanent settlements in what are now the Maritime Provinces and Quebec. The British, who had established themselves in their New England colonies, moved into the interior of the continent through Hudson Bay. The fortunes of war brought almost the whole of the continent under the control of Great Britain in 1763. The American Revolution separated it again and brought about the first of many migrations of people to the nation that was to become Canada. Most of these people were of British origin.
\par \tab Unemployment and other problems caused by industrialization in Great Britain, potato famines in Ireland, offers of free land, and simple adventuresome spirit brought thousands of new settlers pouring into British North America. By the time Canada became an independent nation in 1867, the Maritime Provinces, Quebec along the St. Lawrence River, and southern Ontario were well settled, with extensive farmland and burgeoning towns and cities linked by an expanding road and railway network. Population growth from this time until the beginning of the 20th century, however, averaged only 1 percent per year. The flow from Britain and the rest of Europe was offset to a large extent by a flow out to the United States, where the settlement of the West was in full swing. In the years before the beginning of World War I, a new flood of immigrants, many fleeing the unrest in Germany and Russia, came pouring into Canada and took up cheap land offered by the railroad companies on the prairies. Often the isolated communities that were formed were of people from the same country so that many European cultures were transplanted to the new land.
\par \tab During a very rapid expansion of Canadian industry and a massive movement of people from rural to urban centers following World War II, there was another great influx of immigrants--particularly from Italy--to meet the demand for workers in the building trades. As a result, Italian is now the third most important first language spoken in Canada, next to English and French, the two official languages according to Canada's constitution.
\par \tab Upheavals in Africa and Asia, and the changing of restrictive regulations concerning immigration to Canada from the Far East, have caused an inflow of people of Asian origin. These included Indian and Pakistani refugees from East Africa, Vietnamese "boat people," Chinese from Hong Kong, and many more.
\par \tab In the early 1980s there were about 15 million people in the nation whose mother tongue was English and more than 6 million whose mother tongue was French. But the federal government and most provincial governments have recognized through legislation the multicultural nature of today's Canadian society. Individual ethnic communities are encouraged through various funding arrangements to keep alive their language and culture. In the early 1990s there were in Canada about 485,000 Italian-speaking citizens, 466,000 who spoke German, 221,000 speakers of Ukrainian, 283,000 Chinese-speaking people, and 194,000 who spoke either Inuktitut--the language of the Inuit--or another native Indian language. This cultural diversity is looked upon as a national asset. The Constitution Act prohibits discrimination against individual citizens on the basis of race, color, religion, or sex.
\par {\b Education and Health}
\par \tab In 1867 the British North America Act gave responsibility for public education to the provinces--where there were provincial governments--and to the federal government in the territories. Although educational systems vary from province to province, all children between the ages of 6 and 16 must attend school or they must receive approved instruction at home or in another institution. The usual school divisions are elementary, secondary, and post secondary: a system of grades 1 to 12 or 13 in the first two divisions, years one to four in the undergraduate section of post secondary education.
\par \tab The religious dichotomy has been preserved and recognized in the educational systems of some provinces. Tax support is given in Ontario, Saskatchewan, and Alberta to both public and separate--usually Roman Catholic--schools. In Quebec and Newfoundland the terms Protestant and Roman Catholic are used to distinguish the two types of elementary and secondary schools. In all other provinces schools are nonsectarian.
\par \tab In some provinces schooling for children may begin at age 5 in a kindergarten or age 4 in a junior kindergarten. The needs of children with severe physical or mental disabilities are met in schools for the deaf, blind, or trainable retarded. Private schools in Canada are not supported with tax money. Total enrollment in elementary and secondary schools has been in steady decline since 1970 from 5.9 million to about 5 million in the 1980s.
\par \tab Students in Canada may pursue post secondary education either in a community college, which offers technical, business, or occupational programs; or in a university, which offers studies leading to degrees in the arts and sciences. In 1960 there were 29 community colleges in Canada with 9,000 students. In the 1980s there were about 200 such institutions with students numbering about 300,000. In this same period the university system expanded from 44 to 65 degree-granting institutions, and the number of students from 114,000 to more than 400,000. Usually universities are organized into faculties of arts, or social sciences and humanities, and of sciences. Half of the universities also have a faculty of education.
\par \tab There is a universal health care system for Canadians. It is funded by the federal government and administered by the provincial governments. Some provinces prohibit physicians from billing more than the federal government will pay. Others permit extra billing and pay for it out of tax revenues.
\par {\b Cities}
\par \tab Even though agriculture, forestry, and mining account for much of the wealth of Canada, it is in fact an urban nation with almost 80 percent of its population living in cities, towns, and villages. Many people who are classified as rural residents do not work in agriculture but commute to an urban center to work. Toronto, Ont., with 3,893,046 people is the largest city in Canada, followed by Montreal, Que., its French-language rival, with 3,127,242 and Vancouver, B.C., with 1,602,502 inhabitants.
\par \tab The major cities in Canada are distinctively, even fiercely, different from one another; yet the three largest share many similarities. Montreal, the largest French city outside France, is situated at the meeting point of the Ottawa and St. Lawrence rivers. It and Quebec city, founded at the same time in the 17th century, are the nation's oldest cities.
\par \tab Montreal is a financial and manufacturing centerand seaport. Outside the high-rise towers of thecentral business district, the influence of French architecture and culture are evident. The 19th-century buildings of Old Montreal provide a view of the city's vibrant past.
\par \tab Although it lies some 930 miles (1,500 kilometers) from the Atlantic Ocean, Montreal, at the eastern end of the St. Lawrence Seaway, is the most important seaport in eastern Canada. Farther down the St. Lawrence, Sept-╬les handles more tonnage, but Montreal receives more than 4,000 ships annually, and the majority of Canada's European exports and imports pass through its harbor. Powerful icebreakers keep a channel clear so that the port is open to shipping all year.
\par \tab When the St. Lawrence Seaway was opened in 1959 under joint operation by the governments of Canada and the United States, it was hoped that the large cities bordering the Great Lakes would enjoy a substantial economic benefit. High user fees and the fact that much of the seaway is frozen shut during the winter months, however, have led to a continued heavy reliance on the rail and road transportation networks in both countries. Since 1971 Toronto in particular has had the volume of goods passing through its harbor decrease by 30 percent.
\par \tab Unlike Montreal, there is no concentration of historic buildings in downtown Toronto. Huge office towers bear witness instead to the financial vigor of the city. Toronto is one of the few large North American cities with great numbers of people living in and around the central business district, in the area's many apartment buildings and houses. Soaring above the Toronto skyline is the world's tallest freestanding structure, the CN Tower, which is a reinforced concrete communications pylon.
\par \tab In British Columbia, Vancouver is the focus of the financial, commercial, agricultural, and industrial life of all of western Canada. Towered over by the Coast Mountains, Vancouver's harbor is Canada's largest, busiest, and most picturesque. West Vancouver is the most densely populated urban area and has the highest income per person of any municipality in Canada.
\par \tab Other cities in Canada with a population of more than 500,000 include Ottawa, Ont., the nation's capital; Edmonton and Calgary, Alta.; Winnipeg, Man.; Hamilton, Ont.; and Quebec city, Que. With the restorations carried out in 17th- and 18th-century Basse Ville, Quebec city has retained an Old World character and is arguably the most charming metropolis in Canada.
{\b ECONOMY}
\par {\b Agriculture}
\par \tab Because Canada has such a small population in relation to its landmass, it is the second leading exporter of grain in the world even though it is not the second largest producer. Only approximately 5 percent, or 180,000 square miles (466,000 square kilometers), of the nation's land surface is cultivated, and fewer than 1 million Canadians actually are employed on farms. Nevertheless, agriculture is the country's most important economic activity.
\par \tab In spite of the fact that the total number of farms and farmers has been in steady decline since World War II, the average size of farms has increased, and the total area in production has changed little. More and better farm machinery, better use of fertilizers, and more efficient farming methods combined to more than double agricultural production between 1941 and 1981. Farm implement manufacturing, food processing, and transportation industries are important related economic activities.
\par \tab Principally because of climate, almost all of Canada's cultivated land lies within 300 miles (500 kilometers) of its southern border with the United States. Unseasonal frosts or snowfalls, spring flooding, and summer drought are the principal hazards faced by the agricultural community.
\par \tab There are four main types of farming in Canada--grain farms that produce wheat, oats, flax, and canola (rapeseed); livestock farms that produce cattle, poultry and eggs, pork, and lamb; specialized farms that produce potatoes, tree fruits, tobacco, or vegetables; and mixed farms that usually combine livestock and grain cultivation. The trend is to greater farm specialization. There are several distinct agricultural regions in Canada with regional specialties, but none is limited to a single kind of farming.
\par \tab {\b Atlantic Canada.}
\par \tab Atlantic Canada, which includes the provinces of Prince Edward Island, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland, is generally an area of mixed farming. Most of the agricultural land is found in the coastal areas and up the river valleys. Uneven ground makes some types of agriculture impractical. Farms tend to be small and have poor soils, and many farmers increase their incomes by fishing or working in the lumber industry.
\par \tab In Prince Edward Island agriculture is the main occupation and potatoes the main crop, though there is some grain and livestock farming. New Brunswick is also a major supplier of potatoes for sale fresh or for processing, and more than a third of its farms are in dairying. The Annapolis Valley of Nova Scotia is one of Canada's oldest and most productive fruit-growing areas, and poultry farming and dairying are common in the fertile lands surrounding the Bay of Fundy.
\par \tab The cold weather of Newfoundland makes agriculture on a large scale impossible, though poultry and livestock raising and vegetable farming are of some local significance. Generally the population is sparse and widely scattered throughout the Atlantic provinces, making difficult the marketing of produce other than potatoes and apples, which travel well and find a market in central Canada.
\par \tab {\b St. Lawrence Valley and Great Lakes.}
\par \tab The low land areas of the St. Lawrence Valley and lower Great Lakes, with soils developed from glacial deposits and relatively dense population, form one of Canada's most significant farming areas. The southernmost portions of the country are in this region so that the growing season is relatively long and the climate is generally moderate. The region may be described as mixed farming, but specialty farming is practiced in the areas near the large cities.
\par \tab {\b Quebec.}
\par \tab The traditional mixed farms in Quebec, lying in long ribbons inland from their borders on rivers or roads, are being converted in increasing numbers into larger dairy operations. More than half of the commercial farms in the province are now dairy, and a significant butter and cheese processing industry has developed there.
\par \tab Crops upon which animals feed account for the major part of the cultivated land and are partly responsible for the area's thriving livestock and poultry industries. Apples and other fruits, vegetables, tobacco, and sugar beets make up most of the rest of Quebec's agricultural economy. A small but traditional activity is the annual springtime production of maple syrup and sugar. Stands of maple trees are tapped and the sap collected and boiled down to produce this uniquely North American confection.
\par \tab In the Lac St-Jean region of the Canadian Shield is a large flat deposit of clay. It is not rich or well drained, and the growing season is short, but in most years it can produce good crops of hay and other forage and sustain dairy and other livestock operations to supply the nearby mining and forest industries.
\par \tab {\b Ontario.}
\par \tab The soils of south-central and southwestern Ontario are particularly suited to intensive mixed and specialty farming. Dairy farming in particular is important in the western counties, though the thinner soils along the north shore of Lake Ontario support many livestock and dairying operations. Provincial government quota systems that in essence ration the supply of milk, however, have caused drastic reductions in the number of cheese factories, as many producers cannot market enough cheese to sustain a profitable operation.
\par \tab The largest tobacco growing area in Canada is found on the north shore of Lake Erie, and most of the country's production of soft tree fruits and table and wine grapes is grown in the narrow strip of lake-level land in the Niagara peninsula. Deep rich soils in the Holland Marsh, north of Toronto near Lake Simcoe, constitute Ontario's most productive market-gardening area. The sheltered lowlands south of Georgian Bay are noted for apple production and the nearby stands of maples for springtime syrup and sugar production.
\par \tab The counties of the extreme southwest of Ontario produce crops for the canning industries in the region. As in Quebec, there is an extensive deposit of clay in the shield area known as the Clay Belt. It too has marginal farm operations that help meet some of the food requirements of the people working in surrounding mining and forest industries.
\par \tab {\b Prairie provinces.}
\par \tab The provinces of Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta make up the Prairie Region. The prairies are gently rolling plains, deeply cut by the river valleys that transect them. Centuries of relatively stable weather patterns have produced several distinct soil types. Agricultural activity conforms fairly closely to these climatic and soil zones.
\par \tab The central area of light brown soils, the driest at less than 13 inches (33 centimeters) of annual precipitation, is termed short grassland and is used primarily for beef cattle ranching. Higher precipitation and dark brown soils permit wheat farming, using strains of grain developed in Canada to withstand cold and to grow to maturity in a short period of time. Farther north and east, in the zone of black soils, rainfall may reach 20 inches (50 centimeters) or more per year. Conditions there are favorable for mixed farming.
\par \tab Seventy-five percent of the cultivated land in Canada lies within the Prairie Provinces. Although the yield of grain is low, and few cattle can be supported on the grazing, the vastness of the area makes it extremely productive. A zone lying along the edge of the boreal forest has been the site of modern-day pioneering. Land has been cleared and marginal mixed farm operations begun. The rigors of climate and long distances from markets have doomed most of these operations to failure, and an increasing number of farmers have abandoned their land to move south.
\par \tab The road and rail transportation network is extremely important to prairie farmers. Grain must travel enormous distances to Vancouver for shipment to China, Japan, and other countries of the Far East and to Churchill, Man., on Hudson Bay or Thunder Bay, Ont., on Lake Superior for shipment to the markets of central and eastern Canada, Europe, and Russia. A major debate raged in the country for several years prior to the introduction in 1983 of a change in rail rates for trains that travel through Crowsnest Pass, the first such change in almost a century.
\par \tab South of Winnipeg, Man., stretching into North and South Dakota in the United States, is a bed of an ancient glacial lake, Lake Agassiz. The bed sediments are laid down in what is the flattest part of the prairies, and it is this area that has given rise to the popular misconception that the entire western plains area is as flat as a tabletop. Rainfall here permits mixed farming and dairying closer to Winnipeg, but the tradition among the predominantly French and mΘtis (mixed French and Indian) population to own relatively small farms has resulted in low incomes for many farmers. Nevertheless, wheat and other grains, canola, sugar beets, and substantial livestock production are features of the region.
\par \tab Saskatchewan produces nearly two thirds of the wheat grown in Canada and significant quantities of other grains. Gardiner Dam and Lake Diefenbaker south of Saskatoon provide a massive water storage area for power generation and irrigation. Although many farmers refuse to change to farming based on irrigation, preferring the more traditional wheat and livestock production, more crops are grown under irrigation than ever before. In the wetter regions to the north, chicken and turkey raising is common.
\par \tab The rolling foothills of Alberta's Rockies are too rugged for wheat farming, even though climatic conditions are favorable. The land is used for large-scale cattle and sheep ranching. Southeastern Alberta is the most significant beef production area of Canada. As a result of the irrigation of wide, flat stretches of land near Lethbridge, the province has become noted for sugar beets, vegetables, and forage crops that support feedlots, where cattle are fattened for market. The Peace River district in the north of the province is noted for the purity of its seed grains. Growing conditions are marginal because of the cold, but the cold also limits insects and weeds. Bees, imported to pollinate the seed crops, provide a thriving secondary industry in honey production.
\par \tab {\b British Columbia.}
\par \tab Only about 2 percent of the land area of British Columbia can be farmed. Tremendous variation in temperature and rainfall from one district to another makes it difficult to generalize about its agriculture.
\par \tab There is cattle and pig farming in the interior of the province of British Columbia. The Okanagan valley is the province's most important fruit-growing area. The vast, flat region of rich sedimentary deposits in the Fraser River delta has Canada's longest growing season and forms its most complex agricultural area. Most of the food needs of Vancouver and the other cities of the delta are met from its production. Rapid urban expansion, however, is posing a threat to this limited resource. The southeastern corner of Vancouver Island has good soils and conditions favorable enough to supply most of the milk and vegetables needed by Victoria, the province's capital.
\par \tab Although there are some farms in the northern part of British Columbia, in the Yukon, and in the Mackenzie River basin, the possibility of frost in any month of the year places severe limitations on what can be grown. Few Canadians are willing to attempt to farm in such a hostile environment.
\par \tab The marketing of wheat, eggs, turkey, milk, tobacco, and soybeans is controlled by government marketing boards. Producers' associations and cooperatives are common throughout the country.
\par {\b Forestry}
\par \tab Canada's forests supply the country's building and paper products industries and contribute one fifth of all the nation's exports. In the 1980s the national forest inventory recorded a total of 1.3 million square miles (3.4 million square kilometers) of forest land, of which 83 percent had been surveyed and almost 60 percent was in production. Not all of the forest is suitable for commercial exploitation. Some is located too far from a market to make it economical to cut. Along the northern edges of the boreal forest zone, the trees are too few and too stunted to be of commercial value, and some areas in the more accessible forests have such poor soils that the trees of their forests are not worth exploiting. In parts of the interior of British Columbia, the forests cannot be reached easily, though their timber is highly desirable. About two thirds of all trees cut in Canada are used for lumber, plywood, and wood products and the other third for pulp and paper.
\par \tab The boreal forests account for four fifths of Canada's forestland. The Great Lakes provide inexpensive and easy transportation of logs from the Shield to the sawmills and pulpmills on their shores. Good supplies of hydroelectricity, large bodies of water to carry off waste materials, and nearness to markets in the densely populated industrial regions of Canada and the United States are the major factors contributing to the profitability of this industry. Much of the hardwood used in furniture making in the southern parts of the provinces is cut from forests along the southern edge of the Shield. The St. Lawrence River provides a passage to the supply in the heart of the continent. Inexpensive newsprint from Canada has become the material used to print almost half the newspapers in the Western world.
\par \tab Even though the forests of British Columbia make up only about 15 percent of the nation's wooded area, they account for almost half the total volume of wood cut. This is because of the tremendous size of the Douglas firs and Sitka spruces that grow on the Coast Mountains and the moist slopes of the Columbian Range. In the 1970s and 1980s the development of new techniques for using waste materials from sawmills led the provincial government to assist in establishing pulp mills in the interior. This has revitalized the industry in the province.
\par {\b Mining}
\par \tab More than one third of the total value of Canadian exports is in minerals. The search for mineral deposits to mine has always been a major driving force in the nation's development. When commercially significant deposits are found, towns spring up at the sites.
\par \tab The products of the mineral industry in Canada may be divided into four main groups: mineral fuels, metallic minerals, nonmetallic minerals, and structural materials. Petroleum and natural gas account for more than half of the dollar value of mineral production in Canada, though their share of the export value has declined from 52 percent in 1975 to about 40 percent in the 1980s, chiefly as a result of the rapid drop in the world demand for petroleum products. The first free-flowing oil well in North America came into production at Oil Springs, Ont., in 1857--two years before the first well in the United States. But it was not until 1914, in Turner Valley, near Calgary, Alta., that a sizable petroleum and natural-gas field was discovered in Canada. The threat to oil supplies posed by World War II added urgency to the search for more deposits. The search was rewarded in 1947 when the first well of the huge Leduc field in central Alberta became operational. Later discoveries of oil and gas deposits have led to extensive development. Pipelines carry gas and oil as far east as Toronto and Montreal and gas to markets in the United States.
\par \tab Thick oil seeps through to the surface of the Earth in the Athabasca Tar Sands in northeastern Alberta. Huge machines scoop up the sands, and an elaborate steam-extraction process separates the oil. This is an expensive process, however, and the project has only been barely worthwhile since the early 1980s, when world oil prices began to drop in response to declining demand. Commercially valuable deposits of oil and gas have been discovered in the Beaufort Sea, in the Arctic archipelago, and off the Ungava coast of Labrador, but the cost of transporting the product to market is prohibitive. Because of the fragile nature of the Arctic environment and the danger posed by icebergs to shipping, an oil spill could become a monumental disaster. Therefore it is unlikely that extensive development of these resources will take place soon. Drilling is proceeding in the Hibernia fields in the Atlantic Ocean off the coast of Newfoundland, however, and in the gas fields near Sable Island, offshore from Nova Scotia.
\par \tab The provinces control natural resources found on land, but the federal government has claimed control over all offshore deposits within the 200-mile limit of Canadian sovereignty. This has led to disputes with the governments of British Columbia, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland. In each case--the most recent with Newfoundland in 1985--the federal government has worked out a revenue-sharing arrangement with the provinces so that their citizens may benefit from the probable profits. This is significant in Canada's Atlantic region, which is considered to consist of poor "have-not" provinces. Corporations based in the United States or in Europe own most of the oil and natural gas industry in Canada. Since Canadians want to control their national energy resources, they have bought several foreign-owned petroleum companies since 1980 and have formed Petro Canada, a federally controlled corporation.
\par \tab Igneous rock, material once so hot that it was liquid, that flowed into the granitic rock of the Canadian Shield and the sedimentary rock of the other geological areas of Canada is the major source of the great variety and quantity of metallic minerals found across the country. Because of the vastness of the northern region, not all deposits are known; and, because of the great distances from potential markets, not all the known significant deposits are mined. Yet prospecting for metals is pursued with vigor in the Canadian hinterland.
\par \tab Metallic minerals are of great significance in the Canadian economy. Even though world demand for iron, nickel, and other metals is down and the processing of these metals in areas of the world where labor costs are lower than in Canada has caused a falloff in production since 1980, almost 30 percent of the value of the nation's total mineral production comes from metallic minerals. Iron ore--mined in Quebec, Ontario, and to a lesser extent in British Columbia and Newfoundland--is the most important. Copper from all provinces except Alberta and Prince Edward Island and nickel, for which Canada is the world's leading producer, rank next in dollar value of production. Zinc, gold, uranium, silver, and other metals also are mined in quantity. One of the most important gold deposits in Canada was found in 1981 at Hemlo on the north shore of Lake Superior.
\par \tab Although the nonmetallic minerals mined in Canada do not constitute a huge share of the dollar value of annual production, they are highly significant to the economy. Coal is required for electrical generation. Cement, sand, gravel, and gypsum are essential to the construction industry. Potash from the world's largest deposits in Saskatchewan is the basis for fertilizer manufacture. Although world demand has declined, production of asbestos from the mines in Quebec is an important industry.
\par {\b Fishing}
\par \tab Fishing, whether coastal or inland, is controlled by the federal government. Management of fishing, however, has been delegated in different ways to the provinces. Quebec has assumed management of its marine and freshwater fisheries. Ontario and the three Prairie provinces manage all the fisheries within their jurisdiction, and British Columbia manages all freshwater fisheries except those dealing with migratory fishes such as salmon. The federal Department of Fisheries manages all fisheries in the Atlantic provinces and the northern territories.
\par \tab International agreements have given the country some control over some fishing areas beyond 200 miles from shore, the 200-mile limit. Fisheries in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the Bay of Fundy in the east and in the Georgia Straits, Hecate Strait, and Queen Charlotte Sound in the west are reserved exclusively for fishing by Canadian fishermen. Beyond these limits the Canadian government has granted fishing rights to other nations as well but regulates the amounts of fishes that may be taken.
\par \tab A historic decision in 1984 was made by the International Court of Justice in The Hague, The Netherlands, granting Canada 1,336 square nautical miles of fishing rights near Georges Bank in the Gulf of Maine between Nova Scotia and New England. Fishing in the Atlantic, however, is economically troubled. Competition from other countries and the high cost of modernizing both fishing and processing equipment are major obstacles. Even so, Atlantic fisheries count for three quarters of the nation's annual production of 1.8 billion dollars. Inland fishing is not nearly as important on a commercial level.
\par {\b Energy}
\par \tab Canada has been a world leader in the development of energy from nuclear reactors. Completion by CANDU of installations in Argentina and Korea in 1982, however, marked the end of foreign installations. Worldwide economic recession and growing fears of nuclear accidents and of the possible use of fissionable materials to make nuclear weapons have caused a drastic drop in the demand for uranium and reactors.
\par \tab Electrical energy from hydroelectric, coal, and nuclear generating stations has long been an economic plus for Canada. Production has consistently been higher than domestic demand so that huge amounts have been available for export to the United States. Economic problems in the early 1980s, however, caused a reduction in both Canadian and foreign demand. Provincial governments in Quebec, Ontario, and British Columbia postponed or trimmed development projects to wait for better economic conditions. A hopeful sign was the strengthening of the United States economy and a modest increase in demand for Canadian electricity. In 1984 Canada exported more than one billion dollars in electricity.
\par {\b Manufacturing}
\par \tab Canada is known throughout the world for its natural resources and for the great amount of grain its farms produce, but more people are employed in manufacturing in Canada than in agriculture, mining, forestry, and fishing combined. Canadian manufactured goods as well as raw materials and agricultural products are sold all over the world. In 1981, for the first time in eight years, Canada returned to exporting more than it imported. In that year the surplus was more than 18 billion dollars.
\par \tab The lowlands of Ontario and Quebec are the most important of Canada's industrial regions. There the concentration of population and the nearness of resources, water, electricity, transportation, and food supplies have made it possible for Canadians to build a huge integrated industrial complex in the middle of the continent.
\par \tab The cities of Toronto and Montreal together account for more than a third of all of the nation's manufacturing. Although they both are locations for an immense variety of industrial applications, including cereal processing, breweries, and electrical appliance production, they have some specialties. Montreal is the focus of Canadian clothing manufacture and Toronto of publishing and aircraft production.
\par \tab Oshawa, Oakville, Brampton, and Windsor in Ontario and Ste-ThΘrΦse in Quebec are automobile and truck centers; Hamilton is known as "Steel City," Contrecoeur, Que., is an iron and steel town; and Sarnia, Ont., is a petrochemical and salt processing city. Leamington, Ont., is noted for vegetable canneries and the Niagara peninsula for wineries. Timmins and Sudbury in Ontario and Sept-╬les in Quebec are major ore processing centers. The almost limitless hydroelectric resources of the Shield in Quebec and the easy access to oceangoing ships have made the Lac St-Jean area a major aluminum smelting center. Smelters at Arvida, Alma, and Grande Baie produce a half million tons of aluminum annually. The materials from these primary industries support the tremendous output of the secondary manufacturing of the central region.
\par \tab Nothing is of greater significance to the economy of British Columbia than the forest industry. Pulp and paper, lumber, plywood, and particle board manufacture account for 40 percent of the province's industrial output. Smelting of lead and zinc at Trail, the huge aluminum smelter at Kitimat on the northern coast, and the Vancouver refineries for Peace River oil are the principal mineral resource processing industries. Food and fish processing in Vancouver meets much of the province's requirements.
\par \tab Petroleum refining, meat-packing, flour milling, and dairy products manufacture are the principal activities in the Prairie provinces. Petrochemical production is of growing importance in Alberta, and most of the major cities have numerous light-manufacturing plants to meet the demands of local markets.
\par \tab In the Atlantic region fish processing, pulp and paper, lumber, and iron and steel production are the major activities. Lucrative inducements offered by the federal and provincial governments have caused foreign firms to establish car assembly and tire manufacturing plants in the region, but there is not a sufficient market to support other kinds of secondary manufacture. The Atlantic provinces together form a region of continuously high unemployment.
\par \tab A key part of the whole Canadian economy is the financial community. Canadians per person save more money and have more life insurance than any other people in the world. Banking and insurance firms, therefore, have massive amounts of capital for investment in Canadian and foreign industries. Head offices of financial institutions and of petroleum and other multinational manufacturing corporations located in Montreal, Toronto, Edmonton, Calgary, and Vancouver employ thousands of workers. Federal, provincial, and municipal governments also employ great numbers of Canadians.
\par \tab Cheaper labor in parts of Europe and Asia and the productive capacity of the United States has led the federal government to create tariffs, or extra charges on foreign products, to protect Canadian manufacturers. Telecommunications, microprocessor development, and short-take-off-and-landing aircraft and space equipment are some of the newer technological growth areas in Canada.
\par \tab In 1989 a free-trade agreement went into effect between Canada and the United States that began a ten-year period of phasing out protectionist trade and investment barriers. Proponents of the pact believed it would expand the trading relationship between the two countries and create new prosperity for Canada. Opponents argued that weak Canadian businesses would be destroyed by stronger competitors in the United States and that Canada would be forced to merge its economy with that of the United States, thus losing its cultural identity.
\par {\b Transportation}
\par \tab Fear of United States expansionism, real or imagined, was one of the driving forces in the development of Canada's railway system in the 19th century. In 1885 the Canadian Pacific Railway spanned Canada by railroad from the Atlantic to the Pacific. When the railway company sold or granted lands along its right-of-way to the immigrants pouring into the country, the nation's future was assured. In the 20th century the development of the Trans-Canada Highway and related road networks caused a retrenchment of both the privately owned Canadian Pacific and the publicly owned Canadian National railway systems. Most passenger service and many infrequently used subsidiary lines were abandoned in favor of more economical mainline service. Even so, railway lines in Canada continue to lose money and require subsidies from tax dollars. Most passenger travel between cities is by air on public or privately owned air systems, by bus, or by private car. A great deal of freight moves on truck or in containers through a truck-rail system. The St. Lawrence Seaway has particular economic significance both to Canada and to the Great Lakes states of the United States. The seaway itself through the upper part of the St. Lawrence River; the Welland Canal, which takes traffic around Niagara Falls; and the lock system at Sault Ste. Marie, Ont., allow oceangoing vessels to sail to Chicago, Duluth, Minn., and Thunder Bay, Ont., in the heart of the continent--more than 1,900 miles (3,000 kilometers) from the Atlantic.
{\b GOVERNMENT}
\par \tab Canada is an independent parliamentary democracy. Once a colony of Great Britain, it became independent in 1867 through the British North America Act. Provisions of this act made it necessary for the British Privy Council to approve any amendment to the constitution. In 1982 the act was amended and renamed the Constitution Act. It gave the Canadian people the right to change their constitution without further consultation or approval of the mother country. The British monarch is sovereign of Canada and is represented as head of state by a governor-general, who since World War II has always been a Canadian. Jeanne SauvΘ, appointed in 1984, was the first woman to hold the office.
\par \tab Although the role of the governor-general is largely ceremonial, it plays an essential part in Canadian government. No sitting of the House of Commons or Senate, nor of any provincial legislature, may take place unless called by the governor-general or by the provincial lieutenant-governors. Elections are called by the governor-general or the lieutenant-governors though usually only on the advice of the prime minister or the provincial premiers. No act of any government becomes law until given royal assent by the governor-general or by the governor-general's deputy. Governors-general and lieutenant-governors are appointed by the monarch on the advice of the prime minister and the premiers for a term of approximately five years.
\par \tab The Parliament of Canada is modeled on the British Parliament and has two chambers: the House of Commons, which is elected, and the Senate, whose members are appointed by the prime minister and who hold office until age 75. Representation in the Commons is based on population, with a minimum of four members from each province and a total of three from the territories. The 1988 elections were the first under the redistricting that increased House of Commons membership from 282 to 295. The 104 seats in the Senate are distributed by region. A set of 28 proposals for constitutional reform introduced by Prime Minister Brian Mulroney in 1991 included the direct election of senators.
\par \tab There is no basis in law for the office of prime minister to exist. But the leader of the party with the most members, or of the party able to gain the support of sufficient members of an opposition party to give it control in the Commons, is accepted as the leader of government--the prime minister--provided that he or she has a seat in the Commons. The term of office for the federal government is a maximum of five years, but the prime minister may request an election at any time it is felt advantageous to do so or if the government has been defeated or stalemated by the opposition on a money or a major policy bill. The provincial legislatures and the National Assembly in Quebec each have only one chamber and operate in the same fashion as the Commons.
\par \tab Government policy is determined by the prime minister and the Cabinet, usually with the agreement of the party's members obtained in frequent meetings called the party caucus. It is a custom for every province to be represented in the Cabinet, but, when there is no member in the Commons of the party in power from a particular province, it is customary to appoint a senator to a Cabinet post. No senator may enter the Commons, however, so the prime minister or a delegate must represent such a senator in the House of Commons. Proceedings in the House of Commons are controlled by an elected speaker. The speaker of the Senate is appointed by the Cabinet. It is the custom in both houses to alternate French-speaking and English-speaking leaders.
\par \tab The power to make laws is shared between the federal government and the provinces. Canada since its inception has been a centralized state. The Constitution Act provided for specific responsibilities for the provinces and reserved all others, specified or not, for the federal government. By custom some responsibilities are shared by both levels. The provinces have control over direct taxes for provincial purposes, natural resources, prisons (but not penitentiaries), hospitals, education, property, civil rights in the province, the creation of courts and administration of justice, and other purely local matters.
\par \tab Court decisions since confederation in 1867 have substantially broadened provincial powers to include most responsibility for labor regulation. The federal government has the right to make laws for "peace, order, and good government" and has specific powers in direct and indirect taxation, regulation of trade and commerce, and such social programs as pensions, medical care, and higher education. The Post Office, the Bank of Canada, census and statistics, fisheries, shipping, air and rail transport, telegraph, broadcasting, immigration, criminal code, and many other areas of jurisdiction have been given explicitly to the federal government. The Supreme Court of Canada was established by the federal government in 1875.
\par \tab Municipal and regional governments and school boards have been established under the authority of and regulation by provincial governments to care for strictly local matters. Mayors, reeves (local council presidents), and members of municipal or regional governments are elected to office. All members of other boards and commissions, police departments, and the judiciary are appointed by either federal, provincial, or local government bodies.
\par \tab Canada is a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and of the United Nations (UN). Because of its reputation for seeking impartial settlements to international disputes, Canada has been called upon to take part in a number of UN peacekeeping missions.
\par \tab Membership in the Commonwealth, composed of Britain and many of her former colonies, has tended to give Canadians a broader and more moderate view of the world than it might have had otherwise. (For tables of provincial premiers governors-general and prime ministers, and supreme court, see Canada in Fact-Index.)
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by James D. Miller, Program Coordinator, Support Services, York Board of Education, Toronto, Ont.; editor, 'Media Canada: A Guide for Educators', 2nd ed.
\par \tab Lerner Publications, Geography Department. Canada in Pictures (The Company, 1990).
\par \tab Malcolm, A.H. The Canadians (St. Martin's, 1991).
\par \tab Patterson, Freeman. The Last Wilderness (Rizzoli, 1991).
\par \tab Tucker, Alan, ed. The Penguin Guide to Canada, 2nd rev. ed. (Penguin, 1991).\par \tab An archipelago, or group of islands, in the Atlantic Ocean, the republic of Cape Verde is 385 miles (620 kilometers) off the western coast of Africa. There are ten islands and five rocky islets divided into the Barlavento, or Windward, and Sotavento, or Leeward, groups. The archipelago has a total land area of 1,557 square miles (4,033 square kilometers). After 500 years of Portuguese colonial rule, Cape Verde became an independent nation on July 5, 1975. Its capital is Praia.
\par \tab The islands are mountainous and volcanic in origin. Fogo, an active volcano 9,281 feet (2,829 meters) high, is the highest of the islands. All of the islands, especially the Windwards, have been eroded, or worn, by sand carried by high winds so that the outline of the landscape appears jagged. There are small valleys that stretch out from the mountains to the shore. The climate is hot and dry with almost no rainfall. The sun is sometimes blocked by a dense mist of fine sand brought by trade winds from the Sahara.
\par \tab The Windward Islands consist of Santo Antπo, Sπo Vicente, Santa Luzia, Sπo Nicolau, Boa Vista, and Sal, together with the islets of Raso and Branco. The Leeward Islands include Maio, Sπo Tiago, Fogo, and Brava, and the three islets called the Rombos. They are Grande, Luφs Carneiro, and Cima. The islands' largest port is Mindelo, or Porto Grande, on Sπo Vicente. Its deepwater harbor serves vessels of any size and is used primarily as a fueling station.
\par \tab On the windward sides of the islands there are desert conditions. A sea mist on the higher hills provides enough moisture for some agriculture. Plants called aloes grow, and crops are raised on the green mountain of Sπo Vicente. There are monkeys, sea turtles, lizards, butterflies, and 105 species of birds.
\par \tab Volcanic rock is exported for use in making cement. Salt is an important product on Sal, Maio, and Boa Vista. The vast majority of Cape Verde's work force has traditionally been employed as agricultural laborers. Crops grown and eaten on the islands include coconuts, corn (maize), bananas, and sweet potatoes. The chief agricultural exports are bananas, refined sugar, peanuts, and coffee. More than four fifths of the nation's food requirements must be imported. Severe droughts on and off since 1968 would have led to widespread starvation but for large-scale international food aid. About two thirds of the inhabitants are Creole, and the remainder are European or African.
\par \tab Cape Verde's first settlers came from Portugal and landed on Sπo Tiago in 1462. The importance and wealth of the islands increased with the development of the transatlantic slave trade. In the early 1800s there was drought and famine along with government corruption and poor administration. In 1951 the islands' status was changed from that of a Portuguese colony to an overseas province, and on July 5, 1975, the islands became an independent republic.
\par \tab Under a 1980 constitution, the National People's Assembly held sole legislative power, with the African Party for the Independence of Cape Verde (PAICV) the only legal party until 1991. Both the assembly deputies and the president are elected. A prime minister heads the Council of Ministers. Cape Verde and Guinea-Bissau were linked by a single nationalist movement (the African Party for the Independence of Guinea-Bissau and Cape Verde), but a split followed a 1980 coup in Guinea-Bissau. Relations have since normalized, leading to a cooperative agreement in 1988.
\par \tab Starting in the early 1980s Cape Verde became a frequent host to international summit meetings. Its policy of neutrality under President Aristides Pereira, who served from 1975 to 1990, inspired the confidence of both moderate African leaders and leaders of the Western powers.
\par \tab The first multiparty elections since Cape Verde gained independence were held in January 1991. The PAICV lost its majority in the Parliament to the newly formed Movement for Democracy. Former supreme court judge Antonio Mascarenhas Monteiro was elected president in February. Population (1991 estimate), 341,000.\par \tab Central America extends for a distance of 1,200 miles (1,900 kilometers) east-southeastward from Mexico to South America. Its wider western half is occupied by the nations of Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, and Nicaragua. The republics of Costa Rica and Panama occupy the narrower eastern half.
\par \tab There are 26 million people in Central America. Mestizos of mixed white and Indian heritage make up one half of the population. Indians, which make up one fifth, are concentrated in Guatemala. Whites are dominant in Costa Rica, and blacks and mulattos in Panama and the Caribbean coastal plains.
\par {\b Natural Environment}
\par \tab Central America is an isthmus, or narrow strip of land connecting two larger bodies of land, in this case North and South America. This makes it especially sensitive to movements of the Earth's crust that result in earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. Throughout history capital cities have been repeatedly destroyed. Since 1970, 35,000 persons have been killed by earthquakes in Guatemala and Nicaragua, and the capital cities were badly damaged.
\par \tab A majestic row of geologically recent volcanoes runs along the Pacific shoreline of much of Central America. Inland lies a rugged upland surface produced by earlier volcanic activity. Nearly three quarters of the population live within the volcanic regions and the narrow Pacific coastal plain that has been built up of materials derived from the volcanic upland.
\par \tab While the Pacific side is primarily of volcanic origin, the Caribbean side is dominated by a landscape in which the Earth's crust has been compressed into parallel ridges and valleys. This rugged landscape extends in an east-west arc across northwestern Central America. Along the Caribbean shoreline of northern Honduras it plunges beneath the sea. To the east the tops of the ridges re-emerge as islands of the Greater Antilles. Although this region of Central America is less heavily populated and generally more isolated, it contains greater mineral resources than the volcanic regions to the south.
\par \tab Low-lying plains are limited to part of northern Guatemala, narrow coastal strips along the Pacific and Caribbean shorelines, and the Nicaraguan lowlands that border lakes Managua and Nicaragua. Although these plains are limited in area, they serve in the production of cotton, sugar, cattle, and bananas, which are four of the five major agricultural exports.
\par \tab Although Central America is thought of as being tropical, one third is more than 3,000 feet (900 meters) high and, so, has temperate to cool climates. Four of its seven capital cities and nearly two thirds of its population live in the cool uplands.
\par \tab Rainfall varies considerably. Northeasterly trade winds passing over the warm waters of the Caribbean Sea produce heavy showers throughout the year along the windward slopes of the isthmus. Within the interior and on the Pacific side, there is less rainfall, and it is limited to the summer period between May and October. While seasonal rainfall on the Pacific coastal plain provides an ideal climate for the production of sugar and cotton, year-round rainfall on the Caribbean plains supports tropical rain forests and encourages the production of bananas.
\par \tab Central America has periodic droughts as well as storms that may produce severe flooding. Particularly damaging are hurricanes that strike both the Pacific and Caribbean shorelines of the western half. In 1974 the hurricane Fifi destroyed banana plantations in northern Honduras and killed about 6,000 people.
\par {\b People and Cultures}
\par \tab At the time of the arrival of Europeans in the New World in 1492, Central America contained a population of approximately 5 million Indians. Most of these lived within the Mesoamerican region of advanced culture ruled in part by the Mayan Indians.
\par \tab The number of Spanish involved in the conquest of Central America was remarkably small, and no more than 10,000 or 15,000 migrated into the region before 1600. They profoundly changed the way of life among the Mayan Indians. Mayan culture had begun to decline after AD 900, possibly due to overpopulation, stresses in the social structure, and deforestation. Nevertheless, they resisted the Spanish longer than did the Aztec of Mexico or the Inca of Peru. Many went to northern Guatemala, establishing the city of Tayasal as a place of refuge, and maintained autonomy until 1697.
\par \tab The Indians were congregated into villages and towns. They were converted to Roman Catholicism. Sheep, pigs, horses, and cows, unknown to the Indians, were introduced as were new grains, fruits, and vegetables. Indians were also shown how to use metal implements such as hoes, plows, and saws, and they were taught how to craft products of fiber, clay, wood, leather, and metal. These products were needed by the Spanish in building their new cities. A major contribution was the rise of the mestizo (often called the Ladino in Guatemala), a racial group made up of mixed white and Indian blood.
\par \tab Unfortunately, the arrival of the Spanish also ushered in a host of diseases--such as measles, smallpox, and malaria--against which the Indians had no immunity. Their numbers decreased dramatically so that by 1600 no more than 1 million Indians remained. The population stabilized near that level for the following two centuries. It was not until the early 1800s that the population began to increase again.
\par \tab A small number of blacks had been introduced into colonial Central America by the Spanish and the English. After 1850 a need for labor for the construction of the Panama Canal and railroads, as well as the establishment of banana plantations on the Caribbean coastal plain, brought the importation of several hundred thousand blacks, largely from Jamaica. Earlier English influence along the eastern coastal fringe of Central America was thus reinforced by the arrival of Protestant and English-speaking black islanders. There are still more blacks than any other group along the Caribbean margin of Central America.
\par \tab The population of Central America did not return to its pre-Columbian level of five million until 1930. Thereafter it increased rapidly to 12 million in 1950 and 26 million by 1985. This rate of growth has significantly increased population density, particularly in Guatemala and El Salvador, which contain 53 percent of the population of Central America. El Salvador, with no empty frontier region for an expanding population, has a density of 680 persons per square mile (260 per square kilometer). This is by far the highest for any Central American nation.
\par \tab Between 1970 and 1985 the proportion of the population living in cities increased from one third to one half. This has contributed to an explosive growth of cities and of slums within them. Although the proportion of people living in rural areas has declined in these years, their numbers have grown from ten to 14 million. Increasing rural poverty has been the product of this growth.
\par \tab The nations of Central America share many cultural characteristics. Except in Belize, Spanish is the common official language, Roman Catholics make up between 85 and 95 percent of the population, and masses of rural poor people live on what they can grow on the land. At the same time there are regional differences. In Guatemala, El Salvador, and Honduras, people tend to be poorer. A greater proportion of their inhabitants live in rural areas. Although elementary education is required in all nations, far fewer people can read and write than in Belize, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, and Panama. Medical facilities are also poorer, and the ratio of physicians to people is lower. Guatemala, El Salvador, and Honduras are nations that lie within the culture area once ruled by the Mayan Indians and where Indians still make up a major part of the population. Nations, such as Costa Rica, that are dominated by whites or nations, such as Belize or Panama, with political and economic ties to the United States or Europe tend to be better off.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab As a colonial possession of Spain, Central America had few resources to offer. There was a limited supply of gold and silver. Cacao was in great demand in Europe, but a shortage of labor and the spread of plant diseases took a toll of production within a century after the arrival of the Spanish. The export of the vegetable dyes indigo and cochineal provided limited sources of income. Agriculture and local craft activities essentially provided only for the residents of the colonies. It was not until the mid-1800s, after independence from Spain, that exports from Central America began to enter world markets and thus provide funds necessary for modernization.
\par \tab In the latter half of the 1800s, coffee production spread rapidly throughout the volcanic uplands. By 1900, banana plantations were established in the Caribbean lowlands. Coffee and bananas dominated the exports of all Central American countries, and they became known as banana republics or coffee republics. Railroads and ports were constructed to handle exports. Hundreds of thousands of Indians and poor mestizos were seasonally drawn into the harvest of coffee. Blacks were brought from islands in the Caribbean to assist in creating and caring for banana plantations.
\par \tab Exports continued to be dominated by coffee and bananas until after World War II. Cotton appeared as a major export in the 1950s. The United States embargo of Cuban sugar led to a major increase in the export of sugar in the 1960s. In the 1970s beef became a major export. The three new exports come from coastal lowlands predominantly along the Pacific.
\par \tab The establishment of the Central American Common Market in 1960 encouraged foreign investment in industry. The development of a highway network established the first reliable surface linkage between Central American nations and made possible the exchange of manufactured products. Manufactured goods make up between one quarter and one third of the exports of the Central American Common Market. However, most Central American manufactured goods are traded within Central America and do not bring in large enough profits for economic development. Economic difficulties caused by political tension, regional violence, and border disputes plagued the region in the 1980s.
\par \tab Although industrialization has progressed rapidly, it is highly concentrated in mostly only the capital cities. In general, one half of all manufacturing deals with food processing, beverages, tobacco, textiles, shoes, and clothing. The production of chemicals and pharmaceuticals, refining of petroleum, making of cement, and the processing of paper and wood products contributes an additional one quarter.
\par \tab Since 1950 rapid economic growth has been accompanied by major improvement in transportation. Although railroad freight and passenger traffic have declined markedly since 1955, there has been a dramatic increase in the expansion and use of roads and highways. The Inter-American Highway extends nearly the length of the isthmus.
\par \tab Poor farmers make up nearly three quarters of all rural inhabitants. Although farming is decreasing in importance, farmers continue to make a significant contribution to the national economy of each nation. They produce mostly corn, beans, and squash, which make up a large part of their diets. Throughout much of Central America this type of subsistence farming is referred to as milpa agriculture. It involves the interplanting, or mixing, of these as well as other crops within the same plot.
\par \tab Depending on the climate, subsistence farmers may also produce grains, fruits, vegetables, and meat products for the commercial market. Moreover, the subsistence farmer is critically important as a source of cheap labor during the seasonal harvests of coffee, sugar, and cotton.
\par {\b International Relations}
\par \tab It was not until after its victory over Spain in the Spanish-American War that the United States began to use political influence in Central America. United States intervention in support of revolutionary activity against Colombia assured the independence of Panama. The establishment of the Canal Zone and the construction of an interoceanic passageway under the control of the United States established its role as a protector of the region. Military interventions in Honduras on three occasions between 1907 and 1924 and the occupation of Nicaragua between 1912 and 1933 further confirmed the intention of the United States to act when its interests were at stake.
\par \tab Since World War II there has been a movement away from rule by dictatorship toward constitutional rule by elected officials. Nevertheless, the region has been plagued by continuing conflict. This has been caused in part by a great number of long-standing social problems within the region. The situation was long complicated by the intrusion of ideological rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union. To help solve regional problems the Organization of American States (OAS) was founded in 1948. From its original 21 member states it had grown to 35 by 1991.
\par \tab Social change initiated in the late 1940s succeeded in Costa Rica but failed in Guatemala when the United States became involved in the overthrow of the Jacobo Arbenz Guzmßn regime in 1954. The shipment of arms to Guatemala from the Communist-bloc countries of Eastern Europe precipitated the action. Since then, revolutionary struggles involving warfare between guerrilla and government forces have spread throughout Central America. In Nicaragua this struggle resulted in a victory of the revolutionary Sandinistas in 1979 over the conservative forces of President Anastasio Somoza Debayle. The Soviet Union continued to supply arms to the Sandinista government amid charges by the United States that these arms were being funneled to guerrilla forces in neighboring nations. In an effort to prevent further Communist expansion in the Western Hemisphere, the United States tried to destabilize the Sandinista government by giving financial aid to the guerrillas, or contra rebels, who were battling the leftist regime.
\par \tab In Guatemala the government managed to hold guerrillas in check. In El Salvador the struggle raged on at a great cost of life and economic progress. The Contadora group--comprised of representatives from Venezuela, Colombia, Panama, and Mexico--continued to work toward the resolution of political conflicts within the isthmus.
\par \tab Led by Oscar Arias Sßnchez of Costa Rica, the presidents of Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, and Nicaragua launched a peace initiative, an effort for which President Arias was awarded the Nobel peace prize in 1987. The quest for peace was also joined by the personal involvement of Pope John Paul II and Javier PΘrez de CuΘllar, secretary-general of the United Nations. A cease-fire between Nicaragua and the contras was achieved in 1988.
\par \tab Although the United States agreed in 1979 to give up control of the Panama Canal Zone, it continued to exert its influence in Central American political affairs. This was evident in the United States attempt to isolate Nicaragua as well as its effort to promote the presidency of JosΘ Napoleon Duarte in El Salvador in 1984. International rivalries were further complicated by the failure of the executive and legislative branches of the United States government to agree on a joint plan of action in Central America. The end, in 1991, of the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union probably helped bring some stability to Central America.
\par \tab Drug trafficking was a tremendous problem in Panama at the end of the 20th century. While cocaine and marijuana exports brought huge amounts of money into the economy, the economic benefits were accompanied by widespread corruption in government and violence by drug-trafficking organizations. This led to further foreign intervention in the area. In 1989 the United States brought about the ouster of Gen. Manuel Antonio Noriega, who had taken control of the country. Noriega was flown to the United States for trial on drug-trafficking charges.
\par {\b History}
\par \tab At the time of the discovery of Central America by Christopher Columbus in 1502, highly civilized Maya and Nahua Indians inhabited the westernmost part of the isthmus. The impressive ruins of Tikal in Guatemala, Copßn in Honduras, and Tazumal in El Salvador are relics of that civilization. Panama and most of Costa Rica were occupied by less civilized societies that shared cultural characteristics with the Indians of northern South America.
\par \tab Within 25 years of the discovery of Central America the Spanish had essentially completed their conquest. Vasco Nu±ez de Balboa crossed Panama and discovered the Pacific Ocean in 1513. Exploring along the Pacific coast north and west of Panama in 1522, Gil Gonzßlez Dßvila ventured into Costa Rica and Nicaragua. During 1524 Pedro de Alvarado defeated the QuichΘ, Cakchiquel, and Mam peoples in battle and seized their respective Guatemalan strongholds of Utatlßn, IximchΘ, and Zacaleu. Shortly thereafter Hernando Cortez marched southeastward from Mexico into Guatemala and Honduras. Following various shifts in administrative borders, in 1570 the Spanish reestablished the Captaincy-General of Guatemala, whose authority extended from the province of Chiapas in southern Mexico eastward to the province of Costa Rica. These borders remained intact until after 1821 when Chiapas and Soconusco were stripped away from Central America and annexed to Mexico. Panama, initially included in the Viceroyalty of Peru, came under the control of the Viceroyalty of New Granada in 1718 and was ruled from Colombia.
\par \tab As early as the 16th century the Spanish were required to relocate and fortify Caribbean port settlements because of repeated attacks by English, French, and Dutch privateers. The English established holdings along the Caribbean shoreline between the Yucatßn and Nicaragua that initially were devoted to the cutting of logwood from which dyes were produced, and later to the lumbering of mahogany. Rebellious Caribs, transported by the English from St. Vincent, in the West Indies, to Caribbean shoreline settlements in 1797, remained a major element of the local population. The only part of the coast over which the English were to maintain control into the 20th century was the colony of British Honduras, which is now the independent nation of Belize.
\par \tab For nearly three centuries Central America was joined under the banner of Spain. The Captaincy-General of Guatemala was governed from Ciudad Vieja until its destruction by an earthquake and flood in 1541. The capital then was transferred to the new city of Santiago de los Caballeros, which is known today as Antigua. An earthquake in 1773 destroyed Antigua and resulted in the relocation of the capital to the site of present-day Guatemala City.
\par \tab Independence from Spain in 1821 was followed by a political union with Mexico under Emperor Agustφn Iturbide. In 1823 Central America declared its independence from Mexico and formed the United Provinces of Central America. The province of Chiapas remained with Mexico. The final breakup of the United Provinces of Central America took place in 1838 with the withdrawal of Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica.
\par \tab During the remainder of the 19th century the history of Central America was dominated by internal conflict between conservatives, who supported the traditions of royal Spain and the Catholic church, and liberals, who favored broad reforms and a federated union of the states of Central America. This was further complicated by the intervention of foreign powers vying for control of passages across the isthmus and by the British attempt to maintain its influence along the Caribbean shoreline. The struggle between conservatives and liberals occurred between the independent nations as well as between cities within the nations. In Guatemala conservative Quezaltenango was pitted against Guatemala City; in Honduras, Comayagua against Tegucigalpa; and in Nicaragua, Granada against Le≤n. For more than 40 years after independence, the politics of Central America were dominated by the conservative Guatemalan dictator Rafael Carrera. Between 1873 and 1885 Justo Rufino Barrios, an anticlerical liberal, was president of Guatemala and successfully exercised his authority in support of liberal allies in other nations of Central America. During this period, foreign currency, earned from the export of coffee, supported the construction of railroads and the modernization of national economies. President Barrios was fatally wounded during a conflict with El Salvador while attempting to force the political reunification of Central America.
\par \tab After independence, the idea of establishing an interoceanic passage across Central America drew the increasing attention of entrepreneurs from the United States and Europe. The discovery of gold in California in 1848 further fueled competition for exclusive rights to routes across Nicaragua and Panama. The British, in an effort to assure their control of the Caribbean entrance to a proposed canal across Nicaragua, occupied the port of San Juan del Norte between 1848 and 1850, renaming it Greytown. In 1851 Cornelius Vanderbilt established a highly profitable route across Nicaragua by waterway and carriage road. A railroad under the control of the United States was completed across Panama in 1855.
\par \tab A number of treaties and concessions were drawn regarding the construction of a transisthmian canal; however, the only major attempt to build a canal was undertaken by the French after 1880. It ended in failure in 1889. After futile attempts with the government of Colombia to construct a canal across Panama, the United States managed to conclude a treaty for that purpose with Panama in 1903.
\par \tab The American filibusterer William Walker went to Nicaragua, where he attempted to acquire control of transisthmian transit. In 1856 he became president of Nicaragua. The opposition of Vanderbilt and the neighboring nations of Central America ultimately led to his capture and execution in 1860.
\par \tab The record of internal and external affairs in Central America during the 20th century featured a number of distinctions from the preceding century. The attempt to unify Central America as a single political unit faded as a major issue. Conflicts between nations revolved around issues, generally boundaries, rather than attempts to overthrow governments. These conflicts included disputes between Guatemala and Honduras in 1933, between Nicaragua and Costa Rica during the mid-1950s, and between El Salvador and Honduras in the 1969 Soccer War. Governments were dominated by military regimes supported by organized armed forces. Long-term dictatorships included those led by Manuel Estrada Cabrera and Jorge Ubico Casta±eda in Guatemala, Maximiliano Hernßndez Martφnez in El Salvador, Tiburcio Carφas Andino in Honduras, and the Somoza family in Nicaragua.
\par \tab In the 20th century European domination in Central American affairs gave way to North American interests. The Hay-Pauncefote Treaty of 1901 alerted the British that the United States was no longer bound by the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty of 1850, which required neutral control in the construction of a transisthmian canal. The signing of the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty in 1903 provided for the establishment of the Panamanian Canal Zone, the building of a canal, and the presence of the armed forces of the United States and their right to intervene in Panama in the event of public disturbance.
\par \tab In an effort to secure the canal, which was opened in 1914, the United States was increasingly involved as a mediator in maintaining political stability within Central America. Military forces occupied Nicaragua between 1912 and 1925, and between 1927 and 1933. It was during the latter period that Augusto Sandino gained prominence as a leader of guerrilla forces opposed to occupation by United States Marines.
\par \tab Political turmoil in the early 1930s was a by-product of the economic collapse brought about by the Great Depression. During this period, political unrest contributed to the founding of the dictatorial regimes of Jorge Ubico Casta±eda in Guatemala, Maximiliano Hernßndez Martφnez in El Salvador, Tiburcio Carφas Andino in Honduras, and Anastasio Somoza Garcφa in Nicaragua.
\par \tab The period after World War II introduced a rise of nationalism and concern for the economic and social welfare of the underprivileged in Central America. This led to the overthrow of conservative military governments in Guatemala and El Salvador in 1944. JosΘ Figueres led a liberation army against ultra-leftist forces in Costa Rica in 1948. He also worked toward the overthrow of the Somoza regime in Nicaragua. Labor agitation and government restrictions in Honduras in 1954 led to a movement in Central America to force the United Fruit Company, which owned many banana plantations and had a virtual monopoly on the transportation network in the area, to make concessions. The company since disposed of many of its holdings in plantations and rail and port facilities. After riots in Panama in the early 1960s, the United States agreed to review its policy of sovereignty over the Canal Zone. Belize gained independence in 1981.
\par \tab The dream of reuniting the nations of Central America was partially fulfilled by the establishment of the Central American Common Market in 1960. The market, however, has had many problems since it was established. Panama and Belize chose not to participate. The Soccer War between El Salvador and Honduras in 1969 brought to an end economic cooperation between the member nations of the Central American Common Market.
\par \tab Continued armed conflict between Central American nations contributed to the political instability of the entire region. Border tensions, except between Costa Rica and Panama, were common throughout the region. This was particularly true along borders between El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica. Guatemala continued to pressure Belize for border adjustments.
\par \tab On Dec. 20, 1989, the United States invaded Panama to oust strongman Gen. Manuel Antonio Noriega and install a friendly government. The Organization of American States and the United Nations passed resolutions deploring the invasion.
\par \tab The presidents of Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua signed an accord in August 1989 to disband the contra rebels. The Marxist Sandinista regime of Nicaragua fell after the country's February 1990 elections. Opposition candidate Violeta Barrios de Chamorro was elected president. By early 1992 a peace plan was in place in El Salvador between rebel forces and the government.
\par \tab In June 1990 United States President George Bush proposed an initiative to encourage the growth of free-market economies in Central America by canceling part of their debt to the United States and by promising to work towards establishing a free trade zone throughout North, Central, and South America.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by Oscar H. Horst, Professor Emeritus of Geography, Western Michigan University.
\par \tab {\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR CENTRAL AMERICA}
\par \tab Bachelis, Faren. The Central Americans (Chelsea House, 1989).
\par \tab Booth, J.A., and Walker, T.W. Understanding Central America (Westview, 1989).
\par \tab Bulmer-Thomas, Victor. The Political Economy of Central America Since 1920 (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1987).
\par \tab Helms, M.W. Middle America: A Culture History of Heartland and Frontier (Univ. Press of America, 1982).
\par \tab Kirk, J.M., and Schuyler, G.W., eds. Central America: Democracy, Development, and Change (Praeger, 1988).
\par \tab Lye, Keith. Take a Trip to Central America (Watts, 1985).
\par \tab Morrison, Marion. Central America (Silver Burdett, 1989).
\par \tab PΘrez-Brignoli, HΘctor. A Brief History of Central America (Univ. of Calif. Press, 1989).
\par \tab Pimlott, John. South and Central America (Watts, 1988).
\par \tab West, R.C., and others. Middle America: Its Land and Peoples, 3rd ed. (Prentice, 1989).
\par \tab Woodward, R.L., Jr. Central America: A Nation Divided, 2nd ed. (Oxford Univ. Press, 1985).
\par \tab Woodward, R.L., Jr., ed. Central America: Historical Perspectives on the Contemporary Crises (Greenwood, 1988).\par \tab Cayman Islands, British colony in West Indies, group n.w. of Jamaica, consisting of Grand Cayman, Little Cayman, and Cayman Brac; the first is the largest, area 71 sq mi (184 sq km); the other two about 70 mi (115 km) n.e.; total area 102 sq mi (264 sq km); cap. George Town; exports: mahogany logs, thatch rope, turtles, coconuts; pop. 28,500\par \tab Independent since 1960, the Central African Republic formerly was a French dependency named Ubangi-Shari. Landlocked and remote, the territory fell victim to concessionaires--companies given exclusive rights to certain products--and was little developed. Independence brought new problems, including a 14-year reign of terror by Bokassa I, who named himself emperor and renamed the country the Central African Empire. Following Bokassa's ouster the country reverted to its former name. It remains one of Africa's least modernized countries, though its economic potential is great.
\par \tab The Central African Republic lies on a large rolling plateau that forms the drainage divide between the Ubangi-Bomu river system, part of its southern boundary, and the watershed of Lake Chad to the north. Its compact area covers 240,324 square miles (622,436 square kilometers). It lies in the transition zone between the forested Congo, or Zaire, Basin to the south and the basin of Chad made up of desert and steppe, or treeless plain. As a result there are several climate and plant zones. The southwest is covered by dense forests. The heart of the country is a savanna, or grassland, that is increasingly dry to the north. The northern corner of the country is dry steppe.
\par \tab Moderate rainfall occurs in two wet seasons; it is heavier in the southwest and south than in the north. Streams are numerous and permanent in the south and fewer and often dried up in the north. The Ubangi River is a navigable tributary of the Congo, or Zaire, River, and Bangui, the capital city, lies upriver where navigation first becomes possible.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab French and Sango, a Sudanic language, are the official languages, but many others are actually used there. Some Arabic languages are in use in the northeast, and Niger-Congo languages are spoken in the southwest.
\par \tab There are about 75 ethnic groups, of whom the Banda, occupying the eastern and central parts of the plateau, are the most numerous. The Baya, Ngbandi, Azande, and Sara are other major groups. About 40 percent of the people are Protestant, 28 percent Roman Catholic, and 8 percent Muslim, with the rest practicing traditional animist faiths. Christian religions are associated with colonial rule, and traditional religions have regained some ground.
\par \tab Education is not well developed. Only about 40 percent of the people can read and write. Health care is also a problem, with a low number of physicians and hospital beds per person. The birthrate is among Africa's highest. Infant deaths are also high, and life expectancy is 48 years for males and 53 years for females.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab On the forest margins of the moist south, coffee trees produce a good harvest. On the plateau cotton does well. Tobacco and palm products also are produced in limited quantities. In the cooler, grassy uplands livestock are raised.
\par \tab Diamonds and gold are the only minerals that the country produces, though deposits of uranium, iron ore, manganese, and copper also exist. The absence of a railroad is a major obstacle to the development of these raw materials. Gold and diamonds are exported by air. The republic's forests produce exportable timber.
\par \tab About 65 percent of the labor force farms, most individuals producing only enough for themselves and their families to eat. Mostly they grow cassava, yams, peanuts (groundnuts), corn (maize), bananas, plantains, and oranges. Industrial development is limited and concentrates on textile processing.
\par \tab To some extent the human problems of the Central African Republic stem from abuses of the colonial period. The concession companies created a climate of African mistrust for European actions and motives that was intensified by the French colonial policies that followed. Forced labor ended, but European settlers raised the most profitable crops and made it difficult for African farmers to compete. After independence traditional farmers were suspicious of change. From the 1970s to the early 1990s, however, there was progress. Bokassa's reign ended with French help, and France sent aid to the republic.
\par {\b History and Government}
\par \tab The region has been inhabited for thousands of years. In colonial times it was part of French Equatorial Africa, centered on the Congo city of Brazzaville. After independence was granted in 1960, President David Dacko created a one-party state. Under Dacko the country's economy declined, and in December 1965 the commander of the army, Jean-BΘdel Bokassa, staged a successful coup to replace Dacko. In 1976 he declared himself emperor.
\par \tab Bokassa's excesses gained international attention, and in 1979, with French help, he was himself overthrown and eventually imprisoned. Dacko was restored to power, but he was in turn removed by a military coup in 1981. General AndrΘ Kolingba became head of state of the new military government. In 1985 Kolingba dissolved the military committee that ruled the country and established a new government with a few civilians. The following year he was elected to a six-year term and had a new constitution approved by the voters. In 1987 the first legislative elections in 20 years were held, though the government continued to operate under the control of Kolingba. In a vote taken in 1993, former prime minister Ange-FΘlix PatassΘ defeated Kolingba. With the country near bankruptcy, students, soldiers, and civil servants held protests and strikes. Population (1992 estimate), 2,930,000.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab Harm J. De Blij\par \tab The Republic of Chad is a large landlocked country in west central Africa. Formerly a part of French Equatorial Africa, Chad became independent in 1960. Since then civil war and prolonged droughts have devastated much of the country, creating serious problems, including severe food shortages. Foreign countries, especially France, have helped in several ways, one of which is preventing Libya from expanding into Chad from the north. Internal development has slowed, and Chad has become increasingly dependent on imports of food, fuel, and other products.
\par {\b Land and People}
\par \tab Chad is a country of 495,800 square miles (1,284,000 square kilometers). In the Saharan territories of the north, the rugged granite uplands of the Tibesti mountains have extinct volcanic peaks that reach 11,204 feet (3,415 meters). The Ennedi and Wadai plateaus along the eastern border with Sudan have peaks that reach 1,969 feet (600 meters). To the south and west, the land slopes to the featureless plain of the BodΘlΘ depression and the Lake Chad basin. Intermittent wadis, or streams, flow into the BodΘlΘ, and Lake Chad sometimes overflows into the depression during the rainy season. The southern part of Chad is in the watershed of, or area that drains into, the Shari and Congo, or Zaire, rivers.
\par \tab The northern two thirds of the country is in the hot arid Sahara desert. Most areas receive less than one inch (2.5 centimeters) of rainfall annually. On the southern edge of the Sahara is the Sahel, a band of hot, semiarid steppe, or treeless plain, that extends from the Atlantic coast across central Africa. Here rainfall averages 10 to 20 inches (25 to 50 centimeters) annually and long droughts followed by wetter periods are common. Droughts occur in the winter, and temperatures are higher than 32░ F (0░ C) throughout the year. In the southern part, an area of grassland and light woods with scrub underbrush, rainfall averages 20 to 40 inches (50 to 100 centimeters) annually. The average annual temperature at N'Djamena, the capital, is 82░ F (28░ C).
\par \tab The Sahel is a fragile ecological zone that has many prolonged droughts. The most recent were from 1968 to 1972 and from 1978 to 1982. Because of increased demand for food, marginal lands have been cultivated, and livestock are grazed on smaller areas of poorer pasture. Extensive gathering of firewood adds to the deterioration. Widespread famine in the north has become common.
\par \tab Population densities range from 88 persons per square mile (34 per square kilometer) in the south to less than one per square mile in the Saharan north. There are many ethnic groups that share common languages and cultures. Nationally, the main regional cultural differences are between the nomadic stock herders in the north and African farmers in the south. About 10 percent of the people live in cities and towns of 20,000 or more.
\par \tab The official language is French. The majority of the people, however, use other languages in their daily lives. Arabic, the language of Islam and commerce in northern Chad, is superimposed on local Nilo-Saharan languages. In southern Chad the Sara is the largest ethnic group among Central Sudanic speakers, with about 1 million people. An estimated 8 percent of the country's adult population can read, and 43 percent of 10-year-old children attend school. Education is most widespread among the Sara. The University of Chad, which opened in 1972, is in N'Djamena.
\par \tab About 45 percent of the people are Muslims, most living in northern Chad. Christians, primarily Roman Catholic, account for about 33 percent of the population. Most live in towns and cities in the south and include many of the educated Sara elite. Many farmers in the south are animists. Although Chad is not a religious state, its peoples' economic, political, and social differences are closely tied to their religions.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab About two thirds of the people depend on subsistence agriculture for a living. The principal food crops are cassavas, or manioc, sugarcane, millet, and yams. Peanuts (groundnuts), pulses, rice, sweet potatoes, dates, and corn (maize) are also grown. About 10 percent of the economically active population raise cattle, sheep, and goats. Since the early 1970s, the prolonged droughts have resulted in annual food deficits. Food imports and international aid are meeting some of the need.
\par \tab Raw cotton is the primary export, accounting for more than 90 percent of all exports. A government-supported monopoly purchases, gins, and markets cotton. Meat and live cattle are the second most important exports. Most go to neighboring Nigeria and Congo. Gum arabic is collected in the Sahel.
\par \tab Chad has the least industry in equatorial Africa. Cotton ginning, sugar refining, and textiles are the primary industries. Chad has few mineral resources, though uranium, tungsten, cassiterite, bauxite, and gold are thought to exist in the north. In the early 1970s petroleum resources were sufficiently developed to supply 80 percent of Chad's own needs. Production stopped in 1980, however, and petroleum is imported from Nigeria. Chemicals, machinery, and transport equipment as well as textiles and clothing are other imports.
\par \tab N'Djamena is the capital and largest city, with a population of about 500,000. Moundou, Sarh, and AbΘchΘ are regional administrative and commercial centers. Transportation within the country is primarily by road. A primitive road suitable for motor traffic links Chad with Algeria and Libya. Chad has no railways, and water transportation is limited to small craft on the Shari and Logone during the wet season. The N'Djamena international airport links Chad with neighboring African countries and with Europe.
\par {\b History and Government}
\par \tab The Lake Chad region has been settled since about 500 BC. North African Berbers controlled trans-Saharan commerce from the 8th to the 11th century. Then Arabs gained control of trade and gradually gained political control and converted local Africans to Islam. In the 18th century the Ottoman Empire claimed Chad. Later when European powers split up control of Africa, France gained control of Chad. In 1910 Chad was made part of French Equatorial Africa, and in 1946 it became a French overseas territory. The territory gained its independence in 1960.
\par \tab According to the 1989 constitution, Chad is governed by a president, who is head of state, and a 123-member National Assembly elected by universal suffrage. There are no political parties but groups aligned with the Islamic north and with Sara tribes in the south have attempted to gain control of the government. Civil war broke out in the mid-1960s when two guerrilla groups struggled to overthrow the government and create closer ties with Arab North Africa. In the late 1970s Libya lent its support to one of these groups and attempted to annex part of Chad. Foreign intervention halted Libyan expansion and contained the civil war in Chad, but conflict with Libya continued until 1988, when diplomatic relations between the two countries were restored. In 1990 Gen. Idriss Deby overthrew President Hissen HabrΘ, suspended the constitution, and dissolved the legislature. In March 1991 Deby established a new government according to the terms of a national charter that had been adopted on February 28. Population (1991 estimate), 5,823,000.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab Gary L. Fowler\par \tab The country of Chile in South America is noted for its diversity. In the north is one of the driest areas in the world--the Atacama Desert--which contains places where rainfall has never been recorded. In the far south lies the extremely rainy Strait of Magellan. Middle Chile is a transition zone between the desert north and the rainy south.
\par \tab The land also varies. The relatively flat valley floors of middle Chile give way to the towering Andes Mountains to the east and the Coastal Ranges on the west. The country lacks an extensive plain bordering the Pacific Ocean; generally the coastal mountains plunge directly to the sea.
\par \tab Geographically and economically the country can be divided into three major regions: the mineral-producing northern desert; central Chile, the economic, political, and agricultural core of the nation; and the wet, sparsely settled southern third, where sheep raising is the major activity.
\par {\b Variety of Climates}
\par \tab Two major factors contribute to the broad range of climates. One is that the country extends a long distance from north to south. The other is the cool Peru, or Humboldt, ocean current that flows from Antarctic waters and helps cool the Chilean coast. For example, the average annual temperature at Valparaφso is 58.6░ F (14.8░ C), while opposite it on the east coast of South America, Rio Grande, Brazil, has an average annual temperature of 64.4░ F (18░ C).
\par \tab The cool current also is partly responsible for the lack of rainfall in the desert north. Onshore winds are cooled by the current, then heated as they pass over the adjoining land area. The warming enables the air to hold its moisture, resulting in little rain. Furthermore, the high Andes Mountains to the east help block winds from the interior and trade winds from the Atlantic, which might otherwise bring some moisture to northern and middle Chile.
\par \tab Between Coquimbo and Concepci≤n is middle Chile, a land of hot, dry summers and cool, moist winters. The temperatures are seldom extreme. At Valparaφso the coldest months, June and July, average 52.3░ F (11.3░ C), while the warmest month, January, averages 63.7░ F (17.6░ C). In the Central Valley, where coolness is created by higher altitudes rather than the effects of the sea, temperature averages are similar, but extremes are somewhat greater.
\par \tab Proceeding southward from middle Chile, rainfall increases, and the length of the summer dry season shortens until south of Concepci≤n it rains most of the year. Rainfall totals more than 200 inches (500 centimeters) per year in some places.
\par {\b The Land}
\par \tab Chile is long and narrow with the longest seacoast of any country in the world. Stretching more than 2,600 miles (4,200 kilometers) from north to south, it is only 277 miles (445 kilometers) east to west at its widest point. Chile claims a pie-shaped piece of Antarctica as well as a group of Pacific Islands, including Rapa Nui, or Easter Island. Its area totals 292,133 square miles (756,621 square kilometers).
\par \tab Approximately 70 percent of the land is mountainous, as the Andes extend the length of the country and form a natural barrier between Chile and its neighbors Argentina and Bolivia to the east. From heights of more than 20,000 feet (6,000 meters) in the north, the ranges become increasingly lower until they finally dip into the sea in southern Chile. The Andes contain many volcanoes, but most are extinct.
\par \tab Along the Pacific the lower coastal ranges parallel the Andes between 30░ and 40░ S latitude, enclosing the Central Valley, or Vale of Chile. Crossed by low transverse ridges of hills, the valley continues southward for some 700 miles (1,127 kilometers), reaching the sea near Puerto Montt, where the coastal mountains fragment, forming a chain of islands that fringe the coast for hundreds of miles.
\par {\b Natural Resources}
\par \tab Chile heads the list of mineral producers in Latin America with coal, iron ore, gold, silver, manganese, sulfur, petroleum, nitrates, and, of greatest importance, copper. Chile possesses the world's largest copper reserves. In an average year copper comprises almost 50 percent in value of Chile's exports. Three of its four largest mines are found in the Atacama Desert in the north.
\par \tab The Andes of Chile contain vast amounts of low-grade copper ore. In the 19th century, when mining began, only high-grade ores could be used. Improvements in technology during the first decades of the 20th century, however, made possible the use of the low-grade ores. The mines of Chuquicamata, El Teniente, El Salvador, and Andina account for about 85 percent of annual output and are under the control of the state.
\par \tab Chile also possesses the necessary raw materials for a steel industry. Next to copper, iron ore is Chile's most valuable resource and employs some 5,000 workers. Chile is the third largest producer in South America and exports most of its production to Japan. The mining of iron ore began in 1908 at El Tofo in northern Chile. El Tofo is now almost exhausted, but since 1956 iron mining has moved to newly discovered deposits--east of Antofagasta in the north near the Argentine border; a 300-mile (480-kilometer) belt parallel to the coast some 50 miles (80 kilometers) inland from La Serena north to Cha±aral; and in southern Chile south of Concepci≤n.
\par \tab Chile's only large iron and steel mill is located at Huachipato, near Concepci≤n. It is operated by the Compa±φa de Acero del Pacφfico (CAP), a state-owned corporation that also operates the nation's largest iron mines. About 60 percent of the plant's needs for coal are supplied from domestic sources nearby; the remainder of its coal is imported from the United States and Canada.
\par \tab The Atacama contains the largest nitrate areas in the world. In the 1800s the world's leached and heavily overworked soils were in need of a fertilizer that would replace nitrogen. Sodium nitrate from the Atacama began to find markets in the cotton belt of the United States, in parts of Europe, and in Egypt. Exports by 1860 exceeded 50,000 tons per year. Although this resource no longer plays the important role in the country's economy that it once did, Chile still is the world's leading producer. With the increased prices of petroleum-based synthetic fertilizers in the mid-1970s, the nitrate industry regained some of its former importance.
\par \tab Most of the country's coal production is concentrated in middle Chile; approximately two thirds comes from the Lota mines just south of Concepci≤n. Slightly southward on the Lebu Peninsula is an area of low-grade coal that extends under the sea. A further 25 percent is located in the Osorno-ChiloΘ area.
\par \tab Like most other countries in Latin America that are heavily dependent upon petroleum, Chile must plan to use alternative sources of energy. Hydroelectric potential is abundant and far from being fully utilized. Chile also has abundant uranium reserves and expects eventually to have a nuclear plant operating. There are considerable undeveloped geothermal resources, which produce energy from heat just below the surface of the ground.
\par \tab In 1945 oil and gas were discovered in far southern Chile--Tierra del Fuego. Oil is sent by tankers to refineries in middle Chile, and the gas is liquefied at plants in Tierra del Fuego and shipped north to supply cities in middle Chile. A petrochemical complex on the Strait of Magellan produces chemical fertilizer for export.
\par {\b Vegetation}
\par \tab The vegetation of Chile varies considerably from the desert north to the humid south. Along the coast in the far north, heavy winter fogs account for some seasonal desert plant life. In the desert interior, however, the extreme saltiness of the soil and the absence of rainfall stop most growth.
\par \tab An exception is the Pampa of Tamarugal, south of Iquique, where remnants of a once-extensive thornwood forest survive. Eastward, on the Andean slopes, are scatterings of cacti and desert shrubs. Scrub growth also appears at the southern end of the desert and increases southward.
\par \tab In central Chile, between the Central Valley and the Bφo-Bφo River, a diversified plant life varies with latitude and altitude. In the lowlands blackberry thickets and scrub vegetation are common, while along the coast grow stunted species of palm trees. Vegetation becomes heavier toward the south, but throughout central Chile much of the native cover has been replaced by cultivated crops.
\par \tab To the south most of the area between the Bφo-Bφo River and Puerto Montt originally was covered by tree growth, but much of this cover has been cleared. The remaining stands include beeches, myrtle, and a variety of evergreens.
\par \tab One of the more distinctive hardwood trees of this area is the Auracaria, or monkey-puzzle tree. This tree has a long, straight trunk that terminates in a wide crest of thick foliage at its crown. This same area also contains tangles of vines, shrubs, ferns, and mosses. The forest glades provide an ideal environment for wild bamboo.
\par \tab South of Puerto Montt the thick forest changes from deciduous, or leaf-shedding, growth to evergreens and stretches from the island region on the west to the treeline on the western slopes of the Andes. The forest thins toward the far south and comes to an end in Chilean Patagonia, where grass cover serves as forage for sheep.
\par {\b Wildlife}
\par \tab Wildlife too varies from north to south. In the northern Andes exist all four members of the South American camel family--the guanaco, llama, alpaca, and vicu±a. Other mountain animals include the large huemul deer, Andean wolf, puma, and wildcat. Among native mountain rodents is the nearly extinct chinchilla. The southern forests shelter the Darwin fox, the pud·, which is a small deer, and several kinds of marsupials, or animals with pouches like that of a kangaroo or opossum.
\par \tab The principal forms of bird life found in Chile include doves, ducks, and the perdiz, which resembles the partridge but is actually a member of the titmouse family. The giant condor, Chile's national bird, occasionally is seen in the Andes, while the vulture of Tierra del Fuego preys upon the sheep population of the far southern region.
\par \tab There are few species of freshwater fishes natural to the country, but lake trout, introduced from North America, are plentiful and reach sizes of 30 inches (75 centimeters) or more. A wide variety of saltwater fishes abound in the cool waters off the coast. Big game fishing for marlin and swordfish is excellent near Tocopilla north of Antofagasta, while tuna thrive in most of the coastal waters.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab Chile has no pronounced racial divisions. Only 5 percent of its people are genetically pure native Indians. People of pure Spanish descent total about 25 percent, while 66 percent are mestizo, a mixture of Spanish and native Indian.
\par \tab After the Spaniards came to Chile in the mid-1500s, they mixed with the native Indian population freely and with few prejudices. Social differences, however, soon began to appear in the new society, and the contrast between landowners and the landless people increased despite the fact that few racial differences separated the two classes. People of Indian and Spanish heritage mixed freely within the landed aristocracy or among the tenants who had become increasingly attached to the large estates.
\par \tab By 1980 approximately 80 percent of Chile's population lived in cities, the largest of which is Santiago. It not only serves as the national capital but is the country's industrial, commercial, and cultural core. Chile's second leading city, the seaport of Valparaφso, is located near the mouth of the Aconcagua River. A highway and railroad link the two major cities. Vi±a del Mar near Valparaφso is one of Latin America's most famous resort towns. Chile's third-largest metropolitan area is Concepci≤n. With the adjoining steel city of Huachipato and the ports of Talcahuano and San Vincente, it is the focus of the nation's heavy industry. The city is the mining, agricultural, and transportation hub of southern Chile.
\par \tab Chile contains numerous other large and rapidly growing cities, including Antofagasta in the north, which is an export center for minerals from the interior of the Atacama. It is also a fishing, refining, and regional supply center. Valdivia in southern Chile is a center for fishing, forestry, and cattle raising. Its factories produce textiles, wood products, leather goods, and foodstuffs. Still farther south, Puerto Montt serves as a tourist center for the Chilean lake district as well as a transportation gateway to Argentina and the far south of Chile.
\par {\b Central Chile: the Nation's Heartland}
\par \tab More than 90 percent of Chile's population live in central Chile. Here is centered the cultural, political, financial, and social life of the country. The region is also the location of the modern, European-style capital city, Santiago.
\par \tab The long Central Valley, which is filled with fertile soils deposited by Andean streams, produces most of the nation's food supply. Most of the rainfall occurs in the winter from May to August, while summers generally are rainless.
\par \tab In the summer a large high-pressure area called the Easter Island High lies off the coast, producing dry trade winds. But in winter the area of high pressure moves northward, allowing the westerlies to penetrate the area with their rains.
\par \tab South of the Bφo-Bφo River the valley has dense forests, where the Araucanian Indians successfully defended themselves against the Spanish invaders for 300 years. After the Indians were subdued, the area was opened for Chilean settlers and European immigrants, principally Germans.
\par \tab Wheat is the leading crop of central Chile, and alfalfa is grown widely as livestock feed. Large areas are devoted to vineyards, which produce grapes for Chile's wine industry. Other crops include barley, oats, corn, beans, olives, citrus fruits, peaches, tobacco, potatoes, and other truck garden crops.
\par {\b Transportation and Trade}
\par \tab The sea was the earliest and is still the most serviceable highway. There is coastal traffic between different sections of the country, and some 30 ports are visited by ships engaged in international trade. Chile's merchant marine is one of the largest in South America. The building of the Panama Canal brought the nation closer to world markets and greatly stimulated its industrial development.
\par \tab Of some 35,000 miles (56,000 kilometers) of roads, fewer than half are all-weather roads. The best highways are in the Central Valley. Air service, under government ownership, links the main cities.
\par \tab Chile has more than 5,000 miles (8,000 kilometers) of railways, some electrified. The government owns most of the mileage. Two lines cross the Andes to Bolivia, giving it access to the Chilean ports of Arica and Antofagasta. A third, linking the Pacific and Atlantic oceans, is the Transandine railway that runs from Valparaφso to Buenos Aires, climbing nearly 10,500 feet (3,200 meters) to tunnel through the Andes. Landslides often block the road. A fourth, opened in 1948, crosses the Andes from Antofagasta to Salta, Argentina. There is no railway south of Puerto Montt except on the Isla de ChiloΘ, but southern Chile is served by air.
\par \tab In the total value of its foreign trade, Chile is one of the leading nations of Latin America. In general it ships raw materials and receives manufactured goods. About 90 percent of the value of all exports comes from its minerals--copper, iron ore, nitrate and iodine, gold, silver, sulfur, and sulfate of soda. The second leading group is made up of wood, sheepskins, and fresh and frozen meats. Lentils, beans, peas, oats, barley, fruits, wine, and wood products are also exported, chiefly to neighboring countries.
\par \tab The major imports are machinery, transportation equipment, iron and steel products, chemicals, petroleum and its products, textiles, sugar, and other foodstuffs. Dependence on imported petroleum lessened when petroleum was discovered on Tierra del Fuego in 1945.
\par \tab A pipeline for crude petroleum was opened in 1950. A large part of Chile's trade is with the United States, Germany, Japan, and the United Kingdom as well as other South American countries.
\par {\b Culture}
\par \tab Chile has one of the richest cultural traditions of Latin America. Literature, particularly poetry, is important. The famous verse, 'La Araucana', by Alonso de Ercilla y Z·±iga, is considered by many to be the most important epic poem in the Spanish language. An important landmark in Chilean literature occurred in 1945 when Gabriela Mistral received the Nobel prize for literature. Her two better-known works are 'Desolaci≤n' and 'Los Sonetos de la muerte' (Sonnets of Death). Pablo Neruda, known as "the poet of enslaved humanity," won the Nobel prize in 1971. His epic poem 'Canto general' is memorable.
\par \tab Chileans' cultural interests extend beyond literature to include the entire range of artistic expression. Santiago contains the Palace of Fine Arts, the National Library, National Ballet, symphony orchestras, and theater companies.
\par \tab Folk music and dance are extremely popular. Best known is the cueca, a spirited dance of conquest and submission. Numerous religious festivals commemorate episodes from Chile's history. Rodeos with huasos, or cowboys, in colorful costumes are popular.
\par \tab Soccer is Chile's main sport, and thousands of Chileans watch professional teams in large stadiums in the country's principal cities. Many Chileans, too, are attracted to the sea. The most fashionable seaside resorts include Conc≤n, Vi±a del Mar, San Antonio, Zapallar, and Cartagena. Horse racing, skiing in the Andes, tennis, and yachting are also popular.
\par {\b Education}
\par \tab Public school education provided by the state is free, and eight years of basic education is compulsory. More than 90 percent of Chile's people can read and write. Chile's university system, long known as one of the best in Latin America, underwent a major change in 1981 and 1982. The University of Chile and the University of Santiago of Chile, both in Santiago, had long dominated the highly centralized system. But with the reorganization branch campuses outside Santiago became autonomous. More than 100,000 students are registered, and there are approximately 15,000 faculty members in the 15 universities.
\par {\b History and Government}
\par \tab In 1541 Pedro de Valdivia founded Santiago, the first white settlement in the area. Colonization was slow, as the Araucanian Indians destroyed settlements almost as soon as the Spaniards built them.
\par \tab In 1810 Chile broke from Spain, and, in the struggle that followed, General Bernardo O'Higgins of Chile and General JosΘ de San Martφn of Argentina finally defeated the Spanish forces. Independence was officially proclaimed in 1818, and O'Higgins became dictator. He tried to improve roads, schools, and public health; to stamp out banditry; and to increase foreign trade, but public opposition forced him to resign in 1823. In 1833 Chile adopted a constitution that called for a centralized government.
\par \tab Throughout the 19th century Chile made great social and economic progress. Immigration doubled the population between the 1840s and 1870s, and foreign capital expanded Chile's industry. While other Latin American nations were torn by continual strife, Chile suffered only one serious revolt--in 1891.
\par \tab The mining boom in the Atacama began when, in about 1860, a use was found for sodium nitrate in the manufacture of smokeless powder in explosives. Boundaries in the Atacama were vague, and disputes over nitrate deposits led to the War of the Pacific with Peru and Bolivia from 1879 to 1883. Chile won the war, and its forces occupied the Peruvian capital of Lima. The treaty of Anc≤n in 1884 resulted in transfer of the Peruvian section of the Atacama to Chile. Bolivia was deprived of its part of the Atacama and its access to the sea. Chile, in complete control of the nitrate country, further developed the industry and made increasing profits.
\par \tab During World War I exports at times exceeded 3,000,000 tons a year, but, when Germany was cut off from nitrate shipments, an atmospheric process was perfected for producing synthetic nitrogen. After the war nitrate plants were built in Norway and on the Tennessee River in Alabama. Since then Chile has continued to export nitrate but with little profit.
\par \tab The collapse of the market for nitrates after World War I depressed Chile's economy for more than ten years. Political strife and the workers' demands for better living conditions led to a new constitution in 1925. It provided for the most progressive social legislation in Latin America. Under this constitution the president and Congress were popularly elected. The president was limited to a single six-year term. In 1949 women won the right to vote.
\par \tab Inflation brought wage and price controls in 1956. Destructive earthquakes struck Chile in 1960 and in 1965. President Eduardo Frei initiated far-reaching economic and social reforms in 1965. In 1970 Salvador Allende Gossens became the first freely elected Communist president in the Western Hemisphere. His program included state control over mining, banking, credit, and external trade along with agricultural reform and an expansion of central planning. Large wage increases were granted without a corresponding increase in productivity. A breakdown of the economy was a quick result, followed by a bloody military takeover of the government in 1973.
\par \tab The military regime, under Gen. Augusto Pinochet Ugarte, suspended all of the activities of the political parties and the labor unions. Planning, economic development, and the nation's educational system were decentralized. Government control over industry, banking, commerce, and transportation was ended, as were most forms of tariff protection. A new constitution was approved by the electorate in 1980 that gave Pinochet an additional eight-year term of office. The government ended its 16-year-old state of emergency in August 1988. Voters went to the polls on October 5 and rejected another eight-year term for Pinochet, whose repressive regime was condemned by human-rights organizations. The defeat cleared the way for presidential and congressional elections on Dec. 14, 1989.
\par \tab Opposition candidate Patricio Aylwin Az≤car's election to the presidency marked a new stage in the country's return to democracy. In his first act as president, Aylwin pardoned all "prisoners of conscience" jailed by the Pinochet government. Pinochet remained as commander in chief of the army.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by Robert N. Thomas, Professor of Geography, Michigan State University.\par \tab Everything in China seems larger than life, and perceptions of the country must be adjusted to its enormous scale. Its culture and its civilization go back thousands of years. Its vast area of more than 3,690,000 square miles (9,560,000 square kilometers) is the third largest in the world, after Russia and Canada. With a population of more than 1 billion, it is Earth's most populated country.
\par \tab The Himalayas along China's southwestern frontier with India are the world's tallest mountains. China's greatest river, the Yangtze, is the world's fourth longest. The Taklimakan Desert, in western Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, is one of the driest spots on Earth. The area of loessic soil (fine, siltlike soil created by wind action in dry regions) in Shaanxi and Shanxi provinces is probably more extensive than in any other place.
\par \tab China has a great wealth of mineral and natural resources. Reserves of coal, petroleum, iron ore, tungsten, tin, bauxite, copper, limestone, and many other minerals needed in modern industry are abundant. Used in domestic manufacturing and exported to obtain money, these resources provide China with a solid foundation for rapid industrial growth.
\par {\b Historical and Cultural Continuity}
\par \tab Another significant aspect of China is its long cultural and national history. The Chinese people have shared a common culture longer than any other group on Earth. The Chinese writing system, for example, dates back almost 4,000 years. The imperial dynastic system of government, which continued for centuries, was established as early as 221 BC. Although specific dynasties were overturned, the dynastic system survived. China was even ruled at times by foreign invaders, such as the Mongols during the Yⁿan Dynasty, from AD 1279 to 1368, and the Manchus during the Ch'ing Dynasty, from AD 1644 to 1911, but the foreigners were largely absorbed into the culture they governed. It is as if the Roman Empire had lasted from the time of the Caesars to the 20th century, and during that time had evolved a cultural system and written language shared by all the peoples of Europe.
\par \tab The dynastic system was overturned in 1911, and a weak republican form of government existed until 1949. In that year, after a long civil war, the People's Republic of China, with a Communist government, was proclaimed. This government and the ruling Communist party have controlled China ever since. Although the dynastic system has disappeared, the People's Republic occupies essentially the same territory and governs the same people. If anything, the culture and power of China seem stronger in the late 20th century than at almost any other period in history. Under the People's Republic, China's role in world economic and political affairs has grown increasingly more important.
\par {\b Importance of the People's Republic}
\par \tab Size alone makes China an important member of the world community, a fact that the United Nations has recognized for some years. China has had a permanent seat on the UN Security Council since that organization was founded. For a number of years, this seat was occupied by Chiang Kai-shek's Nationalist government, which had fled to Taiwan when the Communists came to power.
\par \tab In 1971, however, the UN General Assembly voted to turn this seat over to the representatives of the People's Republic. The People's Republic is recognized by most nations as the legitimate government representing mainland China. After 1971, China joined a number of UN and other international organizations, such as the International Monetary Fund. It has become a more active participant in international programs.
\par \tab An example of China's growing involvement with the world community is the rapid increase in its foreign trade with countries outside the Communist bloc. Between 1959 and 1982 China's total trade turnover with non-Communist countries rose from $1.3 billion to about $32 billion. This represented a significant shift in policy on the part of China. It indicates they had come to believe that the key to economic growth and modernization--including access to new industrial and scientific technologies--lay in closer economic and political relationships with developed countries such as Japan, the United States, Germany, and the United Kingdom.
\par \tab By the early 1980s, after several decades of civil war, conflicts with foreign powers, and domestic upheavals, China seemed to have stabilized. Domestic policies and programs appeared to focus on improving the economy, the educational system, and the level of scientific and technical achievement. Disputes with neighbors and foreign powers remained, but they were muted. The emphasis had switched to the practical problems of economic growth.
\par \tab Although China is still a poor country, sheer numbers (22 percent of the world's population) and the size of the overall economy make it an important force among the world family of nations. China has disclaimed any ambition to be a major world power, but its leaders like to represent themselves as speaking for all the less developed and nonaligned countries of the Third World. How effectively China can maintain that position depends on the policies of its leaders in the international community and the success or failure of its economic development programs.
{\b THE LAND}
\par \tab Like the United States, China is located in the mid-latitudes. On the east and south China faces major arms of the Pacific Ocean. Consequently, eastern China--especially the southeastern coast--is humid and has generally mild winters compared to the rest of the country. High mountains close off the west, however, and much of the western two thirds of the country is relatively dry and isolated. Traditionally, China's western regions have been sparsely populated, largely by minority peoples such as Tibetans, Uygurs, and Mongolians.
\par {\b Surface Features}
\par \tab China's land surface is rugged and uneven. Almost one third of the total area consists of mountains and hills. Traveling westward from the coast in central China means going steadily upward across a series of hills and ridges, plateaus, and elevated basins. This climb ends at the Plateau of Tibet with the Himalayas on its southern flank.
\par \tab The major mountains, plateaus, and basins of the west--the Himalayas, Kunlun Mountains (also Kunlun Shan), Tian Shan, Altai, Plateau of Tibet, Tarim Basin, and Junggar Basin--follow an eastward axis. The main structural orientation of the mountains in the east--Great Khingan Range (also Da Hingan Ling) and Taihang--is north-south. Where these mountains cross, they form what has been likened to a gigantic checkerboard. This checkerboard pattern is not so clear in the south, however, because the low but rugged Nan Ling mountains form a more complex association of hills and ridgelines.
\par \tab In the southwest the ridges are folded into extremely rugged, high uplands separating the major drainage systems of several great rivers. Extensive areas in southwest China are underlaid with limestone. This karst, or limestone, region has been weathered into some unusual and striking landscapes that feature a variety of steep domes and towers. These landscapes have served as a popular theme for the traditional school of Chinese landscape painting.
\par {\b Major Rivers}
\par \tab China's two most famous rivers, the Huang He (also called the Yellow River) and the Yangtze, rise on the eastern edge of the Plateau of Tibet and flow eastward, eventually emptying into, respectively, Bo Hai Gulf and the East China Sea. Several other large rivers that rise in eastern Tibet, such as the Mekong, Salween, and Brahmaputra, flow into Southeast Asia or India. Another important river, the Amur, forms part of the boundary between China and Russia in the northeast. China's major southern river, the Xi, together with the Zhu Jiang (Pearl River) and other rivers, forms the important large southern delta plain in which the southern city of Canton is located.
\par {\b Natural Resources}
\par \tab China has a large and varied stock of natural resources. The variety of different landforms, soil conditions, and climate patterns offers many different kinds of opportunities for agricultural production. A tremendous range of food and industrial crops can be grown, and this makes it possible for China to keep imports to a minimum.
\par \tab Another aspect of China's natural endowment is its rich supply of mineral resources, a product of its complex geology. In ancient geologic times much of what is now China was under the sea. Movements of the Earth's crust against three huge, stable masses of ancient Precambrian rock (in southeastern China, Tibet, and Inner Mongolia) gave rise to China's characteristic parallel ridges and plains. In the lowlands and basins, which were repeatedly submerged during the Paleozoic era hundreds of millions of years ago, great quantities of carbon-containing material were deposited, and these became the carbon-based fossil fuels--coal and petroleum--that exist today. Deposits of other minerals accumulated as a result of geologic processes, including vulcanism associated with the crustal movements.
\par \tab China's coal and petroleum reserves are abundant. Reserves of tungsten, antimony, tin, mercury, salt, fluorspar, and magnesite are among the largest in the world, and the tungsten and antimony deposits may be the largest. China also has sizable reserves of iron and manganese ores, bauxite (aluminum ore), limestone, and copper, though it remains to be determined whether these are sufficient to meet China's growing domestic needs.
\par \tab China leads the world in the size of its coal reserves, which are estimated at more than 600 billion tons. These reserves would keep China supplied with coal for about 1,000 years if usage were to continue at its present level. China produces more than 660 million tons (600 million metric tons) of coal annually, most of it bituminous coal or lignite; this is almost as much as the United States produces. China relies on coal as its primary energy source, a condition likely to continue at least through the 20th century.
\par \tab Petroleum is not as easy to estimate as coal, but China is believed to have extensive reserves, both on land and offshore. There are a number of large areas with the right characteristics to contain oil and gas scattered throughout the country, and oil and gas have been discovered in more than half a dozen of them. In addition, there are believed to be major offshore deposits in the Bo Hai Gulf; the Yellow Sea; the East China Sea; the Formosa, or Taiwan, Strait; and the South China Sea. All of these deposits are in the continental shelf, the natural extension of the mainland under the adjacent water bodies.
\par \tab Offshore prospecting is under way in several locations, with a number of Western and Japanese petroleum companies assisting China. Some offshore drilling has taken place, and producing wells have been developed in the Bo Hai Gulf region. In recent years, however, most of China's petroleum has come from the large Daqing field in Heilongjiang Province in the northeast or from fields in the North China Plain near the mouth of the Huang He. Petroleum production in 1982 totaled 750 million barrels, enough to meet China's domestic needs and provide a small amount for export.
\par {\b Difficult Environments}
\par \tab One of the most unusual and challenging regional environments in China is found on the plateau west of the North China Plain, called the Loess Plateau. Here the special type of soil known as loess covers tens of thousands of square miles. The loess is blown by the wind from the adjacent Ordos, Alxa, and Gobi deserts and has accumulated over thousands of years. In many places the loess forms a thick mantle that completely covers the original landforms. When the forest or prairie vegetation on the loess is disturbed, the soil in the upland regions is easily eroded and formed into gullies by summer rainstorms.
\par \tab The region around the confluence of the Wei He and the Huang He is called the cradle of Chinese civilization. It was there that Late Stone Age people began to develop the culture that evolved into the Chinese civilization. When these people began to farm, they disturbed the original forest vegetation. Ultimately, this increased the rate of erosion and led to severe environmental problems. In addition to scarring the surface landscape with gullies and badlands, the runoff found its way into the Huang He, adding to the silt burden of that stream. The high silt content of the Huang He, which gives the stream its common name of "Yellow River," has resulted in a high deposit rate and a tendency to flood farther east on the North China Plain. The chronic and severe flooding of the Huang He, sometimes accompanied by major changes in the location of the channel, led the Chinese to call it "China's sorrow." Tremendous efforts and vast amounts of human labor have been used in building levees and channels to control it.
\par \tab The southwest, with its extensive limestone deposits, irregular karst towers, and subsurface drainage networks, presents a different set of difficulties. There the problems are to find areas of level land large enough to cultivate and to keep water on the surface so it can be used for irrigation. Other environments within China pose their own challenges. Farming is difficult in many parts of the country, and large investments are needed to improve the land and control water for irrigation. Transportation networks are difficult and expensive to plan and build in many areas, where inaccessibility and geographic isolation have seriously impeded development for centuries.
{\b CLIMATE, VEGETATION, ANIMAL LIFE}
\par \tab In terms of climate, China may be divided between the humid eastern region and the dry west. The humid east may be further subdivided between the warm and humid south and southeast and the temperate-to-cool, moderately humid north and northeast. Much of the humid eastern region of China exhibits a monsoonal pattern of temperature and precipitation. In a monsoon climate, the warm summer months are typically the months of maximum precipitation.
\par {\b Precipitation}
\par \tab Only the south and southeast have sufficient rainfall to support intensive farming. Just 20 to 26 inches (500 to 650 millimeters) of precipitation are common throughout much of the north and northeast. This is not enough to grow rice or to raise more than one crop per year. Consequently, much of north and northeast China must rely on irrigation water.
\par \tab Western China gets very little rainfall. Most of this region consists of mountains or enclosed desert basins. In extreme western Xinjiang at Kashgar in the Tarim Basin, rainfall averages only 4 inches (100 millimeters) per year. About the same amount falls farther northeast, at ▄rⁿmqi in the Junggar Basin, while near Lhasa, high on the Plateau of Tibet, the average is about 11 inches (280 millimeters). These dry conditions permit little farming, even where drought-resistant crops such as gaoliang (Chinese sorghum) and some of the millets are grown. Irrigation is essential, and most of the settlements in western China developed initially around oases where there were dependable sources of water. In Tibet less water is needed because of the lower average temperature, but irrigation is becoming increasingly important as a means of making agricultural output more reliable.
\par \tab An important feature of China's climate is the annual occurrence, usually in the summer or autumn, of great storms that sweep in from the western Pacific. These storms, called typhoons, are similar to Atlantic hurricanes. They are accompanied by high winds and tremendous quantities of rain, usually concentrated within a few hours. The storm paths most commonly focus on the southeastern coast, though sometimes they sweep northward toward Japan. Great damage may be done by the flooding caused by typhoons, especially in low-lying floodplains and basins.
\par {\b Temperature}
\par \tab In general, temperature patterns in China are determined by north-south location, though there are some exceptions. South of the Qin Ling Mountains, an eastward extension of the Kunlun Mountains, average annual temperature is high and winters are generally mild. For example, the middle and lower Yangtze Basin in southeastern China has mild winters and extremely hot summers, and the average temperature increases only gradually as one moves south into the tropical coastal areas. Average annual temperature drops rapidly north of the Qin Ling barrier. In much of this area there is a continental climate. This is reflected in the cold winters that occur in such cities as Beijing, Xi'an, and Harbin.
\par \tab The length of the growing season for plants, defined as the period during which daily mean temperatures are above 43░ F (6░ C), varies in line with the temperature patterns. Thus, most of the area south of the Yangtze has a growing season of at least 300 days, mild enough to grow two crops a year. Along the southern and southeastern coast the growing season lasts all year round. Light frosts may occur, but they are not severe enough to kill most plants. North of the Yangtze Basin average temperatures drop sharply, and the growing season shortens rapidly as distance north increases. In the northern interior the growing season is less than 180 days.
\par {\b Vegetation}
\par \tab As might be expected from its huge area and variety of regional climates, China has a great range of vegetation. Most of the types of plants that grow in the Northern Hemisphere can be found there, except for those varieties common to arctic and tundra regions. In Hainan Island in the extreme south, and along the southern coast, there are rain forests and associated plant communities typical of the humid tropics. The high, rugged mountains of western China and Tibet contain alpine and subalpine plants. Other regions of China exhibit a variety of plant life common to deserts, steppes and savannas, prairie meadows, mangrove swamps, and coniferous evergreen and deciduous forests.
\par \tab It is possible, however, to divide this broad range of plants into regional groupings. Thus there is a clear distinction between the character of the plant life in the humid and subhumid east and that of the dry west. The eastern part of the country can be further subdivided into four regions: (1) the tropical, humid southeast, which supports a tropical rain forest; (2) the subtropical southern and central area of broadleaved evergreens, pines, and varieties of bamboo; (3) the mid-latitude forest zone of mainly deciduous species, which extends from the Yangtze north to the Northeast region, formerly called Manchuria; and (4) the less humid but cooler extreme north and northeast, with evergreen conifers and northern deciduous tree species similar to those of the taiga zone in Russia. Throughout China coarse grasses have grown up where forests have been removed. In southern China there is a tough, fibrous type of grass that impedes further economic use of the land. Savanna grasslands are common in the tropics.
\par \tab The large, dense population of eastern China has placed great pressure on the natural vegetation. Especially serious is the demand for wood and forest products. Over the centuries, the great need for firewood, construction material, and paper has led to a serious loss of trees. In many places in eastern China it is difficult to determine the nature of the original vegetation. Today the main commercial forests (mostly conifers, birch, and ash) are found in northeastern China. There are also important and accessible commercial forests on the eastern flank of Tibet and Qinghai.
\par \tab In the mountains, deserts, and steppes of the west, where rainfall is low and winters are cold, the flora is not rich. Vegetation in the deserts and at higher elevations often consists of several species of grasses and subshrubs. Three major vegetation zones of western China have been identified: Inner Mongolia, the Junggar and Tarim basins, and Tibet. Within these three zones, the plant life varies according to local ecological conditions rather than according to north-south location. Trees, for example, are found where precipitation is greatest and where the average annual temperature permits their growth.
\par \tab On the windward, northern slopes of the Tian Shan facing the Junggar Basin, forests of such trees as spruce, birch, ash, and aspen are found up to 10,000 feet (3,000 meters) above sea level. However, there is great variation in the extent and type of tree cover as a result of differences in slope conditions, temperature, and moisture. At higher elevations and in drier steppe and desert locations a variety of grasses, shrubs, and sedges are common. The harshest region in western China is the western part of the Plateau of Tibet, a cold, forbidding desert above 14,800 feet (4,500 meters). Plant growth under such conditions is highly restricted.
\par {\b Soils}
\par \tab The nature of the underlying bedrock and the local topography are the most important factors in determining the formation and character of a soil, but climate and vegetation also play a major role. For example, in humid regions, especially under forest cover, the soils are leached, or drained by water, of certain minerals and nutrients and become acidic. In drier, cooler environments, where soils have developed under a grass cover and chemical weathering has been reduced, the soil typically has a higher humus content and is alkaline.
\par \tab In the humid tropical and subtropical regions of southeastern China, the soils generally have been leached of alkalis, leaving high concentrations of aluminum and iron oxides in the subsoil. Commonly known as lateritic soils, they are acidic and frequently have a reddish color. In general, they are not good for agriculture. A similar process has taken place in the humid but cooler areas of central and northeastern China and also at higher elevations in the west, especially where forests of cone-bearing trees have been present. In these soils, alkalis and iron compounds have been leached from the surface layer and clay and humus have accumulated in the subsoil. Traditionally called podzols, these soils are common at higher elevations in much of China.
\par \tab The dry areas of China, especially in Inner Mongolia, Gansu, Ningxia Huizu, Xinjiang, and parts of northeastern China, are covered with desert, steppe, and prairie soils, some of which are very rich. These soils are fundamentally different from the acidic types. Typically, they develop in dry areas as a result of the concentration of magnesium and calcium carbonates and have a high humus and alkaline content. They range from the extremely rich chernozem, or black earth, type of the northeast to the thinner, poorer brown steppe and gray-brown near-desert soils of Inner Mongolia and arid areas of Xinjiang.
\par \tab In addition to these major soil groupings, there are other soil types that are important. Loess, the windblown, fine-grained, yellow earth found over wide areas in Shaanxi and Shanxi provinces, is generally alkaline and potentially fertile, but it erodes easily. Many desert and mountain soils are thin and poorly developed and are essentially useless for any agricultural purpose. Perhaps most important for agriculture are the alluvial soils associated with the floodplains of streams and rivers. They are generally acidic and not rich, but they are easy to work and are usually near water. Especially in central and south China, they are used extensively for the production of such crops as rice, wheat, and cotton. With proper techniques, they can support some of the world's most intensive year-round farming.
\par \tab China has only a modest supply of arable land (about 10 percent of the total land area). Where precipitation is sufficient for growing crops, however, Chinese farmers have satisfactory to good soils to work with or they have improved existing soils by adding natural nutrients. Controlling runoff and erosion is the great problem in the loess areas. In low-lying floodplains, the water tables may be too high, resulting in the accumulation of excessive chemical compounds called salts. Nevertheless, China's soils are generally satisfactory, and local farmers and scientists have worked together to maintain and improve their quality and productivity.
\par {\b Animal Life}
\par \tab A tremendous number of animals are native to China. Some, such as the giant panda and the Yangtze alligator, are found nowhere else, and in recent years the Chinese government has stepped up efforts to protect and preserve them.
\par \tab Animals of the north include the Siberian tiger, wolf, badger, lynx, sika and musk deer, weasel, sable, stone marten, flying squirrel, snow rabbit, pheasant, mandarin duck, and the white-headed crane. Dry areas of the northwest are home to the wild donkey, Bactrian camel, Mongolian gazelle, and Mongolian beaver, as well as big horn sheep. Western birds include the whooper swan, pheasants, quail, and the great bustard. Sika deer, Tibetan antelope, rock sheep, yak, snow leopard, Himalayan brown bear, and such unusual birds as the Tibetan snow cock live at high elevations in Tibet and Qinghai.
\par \tab Much of the distinctive animal life of the southern and central parts of the country is associated with forested hills or aquatic environments. The panda, golden cat, clouded leopard, rhesus macaque, and takin, or goat antelope, are found in the southwest, and the giant salamander, Yangtze dolphin, crocodile lizard, several types of badgers and weasels, the golden langur, and the tiger in the Yangtze Basin. South China has hornbills, pheasants, monkeys, deer, and civets as well as the tigers and clouded leopards.
\par \tab This listing is by no means complete, but it indicates the rich variety of wildlife found in China and the importance of China as a preserve for the world's animals. Many of China's animals are the same or similar to those in neighboring lands. Distinctively Chinese species occur especially in the mountains.
{\b THE PEOPLE}
\par \tab China has the largest population of any country: 1,133,682,501 people were counted during the census taken in 1990. This population had grown rapidly in recent times, expanding by approximately 15 million each year, an increase equal to the total population of Australia. Between 1964 and 1982 China added 313 million to its population, more people than lived in the Soviet Union during that time. This rapid growth has occurred because the death rate has dropped sharply. The birthrate has also fallen, but the total population is enormous, and there are many young people. Thus, without extreme means of population control, the outlook is for continued rapid increase. The problem of providing an acceptable quality of life for a society this large--and growing ever larger--is a major concern in China. In an effort to reduce the rate of population growth, the Chinese government since 1978 has promoted the one-child family among the Han. (All married couples are urged to have only one child.) Rewards such as better opportunities for that one child are offered. Family-planning advice and birth-control techniques are easily available and commonly used. If a woman becomes pregnant with a second or third child, she is urged to have an abortion. Sterilization after one child is also being promoted.
\par \tab One problem facing the government is the widespread desire for male children. If the first child is a girl, she may be neglected. Some incidents of infanticide, the killing of children, have been reported in cases of female children. Despite all the government's efforts, the family-planning program and campaign promoting the one-child family have had only limited success in rural areas, where peasant families still want sons to carry on the male family name and for the heavy labor necessary on rural farms. Until rural people participate fully in family planning, China's population will continue to grow rapidly.
\par {\b Society and the Family}
\par \tab Traditionally the family has been the most important unit of society, and this is still true. The family is also an important economic unit. In rural areas, where about 74 percent of China's people live, the traditional family consisted of the head of the household, his sons, and their wives and children, often living under one roof. Common surnames gave families membership in a clan. In some villages all families had the same surname, or four or five surname clans might account for most of the villagers.
\par \tab Land, the main form of wealth in traditional China, was divided equally among all the landowner's surviving sons when he died. Thus, as China's population grew, the landholdings became smaller and smaller, and many people were very poor. In the first half of the 20th century the family as a social unit came under severe stress. Rural conditions were bad, income was low, and food was often scarce. Health care was poor or nonexistent for most peasants, and mortality rates were high. Civil unrest, warfare, and foreign invasions added to the difficulties.
\par \tab After the Communist revolution in 1949 rural conditions stabilized. Private ownership of land was abolished, but each peasant family was given a small plot to farm. Health care improved. The fluctuations in the food supply leveled off and life expectancy increased. Living conditions for the average peasant are generally better today than they were in 1949, and there are opportunities for at least some education. All these things have meant a considerable improvement in the quality of life and greater security for the family as a social unit.
\par \tab Today some rural families are still likely to have three generations under one roof. Despite state ownership of the land, they once again serve as basic production units. The Production Responsibility System, initiated in 1978, permits individual families to contract with their local production team or brigade to lease land for farming. Production quotas are also contracted. Whatever is left after taxes are paid and quotas are met belongs to the family. If a family works hard, it can meet its contract quotas and also produce a surplus for consumption or sale. This program was designed to stimulate production, but one result has been to strengthen the role of the traditional family as a consuming and producing unit.
\par \tab Urban family life is different from that in rural areas. In the cities, families usually are smaller, often composed only of parents and children. Since both parents work, the children are left in day-care centers or schools. Sometimes couples are split up if their work units are not close together, and husband and wife may see each other only rarely. Despite such problems, family life for most people in the cities is stable, and family ties continue to play a major role in the lives of both parents and children.
\par {\b Cities}
\par \tab More than 500 million people live in and around cities in China, according to the 1990 census. There are more urban dwellers in China than are found in either the United States or Russia. Some of the cities are quite large. Shanghai, for example, has more than 7 million people; Beijing has more than 6 million, and Tianjin more than 5 million. Many cities have more than 1 million people each. Even so, city dwellers represent a relatively low percentage of the total population--about 20.1 percent, according to the 1982 census.
\par \tab China's cities are expanding rapidly. The government is attempting to regulate urban growth in order to avoid such problems as congestion, overcrowding, slum development, and unemployment. It is difficult, for example, for a person to move to a city unless he or she has a permanent job and a housing permit. Through such constraints, China can slow the migration of people to cities and encourage the kind of urban and regional growth that planners believe is most suitable. Nevertheless, it seems quite likely that urbanization, the flow of people to cities, will continue to be a factor as China modernizes and its economy continues to expand.
\par {\b Ethnic and Language Groups}
\par \tab The concept of being Chinese is not based on race. Rather, it is a cultural concept. To speak and behave like a Chinese--in short, to accept the Chinese system of cultural values--is to be Chinese. The Chinese refer to themselves as Han or sons of Han (as in Han Dynasty, a period of great historical significance). Throughout history, small ethnic groups that came into contact with the Han Chinese have adopted Chinese culture and have been absorbed into the mainstream. This process continues, though there are legal guarantees designed to protect the rights and culture of minority nationalities.
\par \tab Traditionally, the definition of a minority nationality in China is a group of people who speak a common language, occupy a common area, and share a common sense of social values. They see themselves as non-Chinese--not belonging to the majority Han Chinese population. In 1982 approximately 67 million people, or 6.7 percent of China's population, were members of minority nationalities. In 1978 the central government recognized 55 minority nationalities with populations ranging from 300 (the Lobo, a small group living in Tibet) to 12 million (the Zhuang in southwestern China). Thirteen of the nationalities had populations of 1 million or more, and 27 had at least 100,000 members.
\par \tab Although the minority nationalities represent a comparatively small proportion of the total population of China, they have an importance in Chinese society beyond their numbers because of the strategic territories they occupy. Most minority nationalities live along China's sparsely populated frontiers and have cultural relationships with minority groups in neighboring countries, such as Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, North Korea, Mongolia, Thailand, and Myanmar (formerly called Burma). If these groups became hostile toward the central government it could affect China's national security.
\par \tab In part, the guarantees protecting the minority nationalities are expressed in the structure of China's administrative system. In addition to the 22 provinces, there are five autonomous regions, based on the location of five of the larger and more important minority nationalities. These are the Zhuang, a group of more than 42 million occupying the Guangxi Zhuangzu Autonomous Region; the Hui, or Muslims, a religious group of more than 4 million occupying the Ningxia Huizu Autonomous Region; the Uygurs, a Turkic group of more than 15 million in the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region; the Tibetans, or Zang, a group of 2.2 million who live in the Tibet Autonomous Region and Qinghai Province, an area of high plateaus and mountains bordering India; and the Mongols, a group of more than 21 million occupying the Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region between Mongolia and northern China. In addition, smaller units such as autonomous prefectures, leagues, and banners (equivalent to British counties) are based on their occupancy by even smaller minority groupings.
\par \tab This administrative system is designed to give the minorities political equality with the Han people and to help them maintain their distinctive identities. At the same time, Putonghua (based on the Mandarin dialect spoken in the Beijing area) is being promoted as the official spoken language of the country. All minority peoples are urged to learn it. Generally, all minorities live harmoniously with the Han. The government has adopted measures to promote economic development among minorities to enable them to catch up with the Han.
\par {\b Religion}
\par \tab Before the Communist Revolution, a number of religious and philosophical systems were practiced in China. Traditionally Taoism and Confucianism provided ethical guides to the proper behavior of individuals and officials. Both of these systems originated in China during the so-called Golden Age of Chinese thought, several centuries before the beginning of the Christian era. Taoism sought to promote the inner peace of individuals and harmony with their surroundings. Confucianism, based on the teachings and writings of the philosopher Confucius, is an ethical system that sought to teach the proper way for all people to behave in society. Each relationship--husband-wife, parents-children, ruler-subjects--involved a set of obligations which, if upheld, would lead to a just and harmonious society. Following his teachings would also promote a stable, lasting government.
\par \tab Buddhism, which came to China from India as early as the 1st century AD, was a more conventional religion. Its followers attended occasional services, practiced rituals, and supported a temple on a regular basis. It has been estimated that more than 68 million Chinese still consider themselves Buddhists, though it is unlikely that they practice the religion regularly. Prior to 1949, practices that may best be called folk religions were common throughout China. Although they incorporated elements of Buddhism and, especially, Taoism, these religions were usually local, often based on local gods, and served the local people.
\par \tab Christian missionaries have been active in China since Roman Catholics belonging to the Jesuit order arrived in the early 17th century. Protestant missionaries first appeared in the early 19th century. All the Christian missionaries had difficulty converting the Chinese because Christianity was associated in the popular mind with Western imperialism. By 1949 there were only 3 or 4 million Christians in China, less than 1 percent of the total population. Islam came to China mainly from Central Asia, where it was practiced by many of the Turkic peoples. Today there are believed to be more than 4 million Chinese Muslims. One autonomous region, Ningxia Huizu, has been designated for Islamic adherents.
\par \tab The Communists have discouraged religious practices, which they consider anti-socialist. Many temples and churches have been closed and their property taken. During the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution (or simply the Cultural Revolution), a mass movement that lasted officially from 1966 to 1977, conditions were especially difficult, and religious practitioners were persecuted. The situation eased after 1977. A number of Buddhist temples were allowed to reopen. Worship services among Christians were permitted once again, and it is believed that as many as 2 million Christians are practicing their faith in China. The Chinese government is cautious about all religious activity, especially if it happens to involve foreign people in any way.
{\b LANGUAGE, LITERATURE, ART}
\par {\b The Chinese Language}
\par \tab There are two elements to the Chinese language: the written language, based on individual symbols called characters, each of which represents an idea or thing; and the spoken language, which includes a number of different dialects. The written language originally had no alphabet, but it was easily understood by literate people no matter what dialect they spoke. Since the early 1950s a system using the Latin alphabet, called Pinyin, has been developed in China, and it is now in common use. Most of the spellings of Chinese sounds and names in this article are based on the Pinyin system of romanization. Those that are not are generally very familiar in their conventional form, such as the name Chiang Kai-shek.
\par \tab Some of the numerous dialects of spoken Chinese are totally different from each other. All of them use tones to distinguish different words. Mandarin, which is spoken in the Beijing region and in northern China generally, has four common tones. Cantonese, spoken in southeastern China, has nine tones and is quite different from Mandarin. Today Putonghua, which is based on Beijing-area Mandarin, is the official language of government and education, and everyone is expected to learn to speak it. The central government is also expanding the use of the Pinyin romanization system and is urging citizens to learn this alphabetized system of writing Chinese words. (Pinyin represents the spoken sounds of Putonghua, which is an oral representation of Chinese characters.) Citizens are also urged to learn a simplified system of Chinese.
\par {\b Literature}
\par \tab China has a very old and rich tradition in literature and the dramatic and visual arts. Early writings generally derived from philosophical or religious essays such as the works of Confucius (551-479 BC) and Lao-tzu (probably 4th century BC). These writings were often about how people should act and how the society and political system should be organized and operated. A strong tradition of historical writing also evolved. After the fall of a dynasty, for example, a grand history of the late dynasty was commissioned and written by scholars in the next dynasty.
\par \tab In addition to philosophical, religious, and historical writings, China also produced poetry, novels, and dramatic writings from an early date. Poetry became well established as a literary form during the T'ang Dynasty, from AD 618 to 907. One of China's greatest poets, Li Po, wrote during this period. This tradition of poetry, often dealing with the relationship of humans to their natural surroundings, has continued.
\par \tab Drama is another old and important literary form. Chinese drama usually combines vernacular language with music and song and thus has been popular with the common people. A variety of popular and standard themes are presented in Peking Opera, which is probably the best known of several operatic traditions that developed in China. Chinese opera is a favorite artistic and cultural medium.
\par \tab Early Chinese novels often stressed character development and usually centered on an adventure or supernatural happening; an example is the classic Ming version of 'Shui-hu chuan' (The Water Margin). Historical themes were also popular, as in the 'Romance of the Three Kingdoms', written in the late Yⁿan period. There were also love stories such as the extremely popular 'Dream of the Red Chamber', probably China's most famous novel. Many of the early novels were written anonymously. Often these works were written in the vernacular, and many authors felt it was beneath their station to be associated with this type of writing.
\par \tab China's literary tradition continues to the present, though much 20th-century writing has concentrated on efforts to reform or modernize China. Probably the most famous 20th-century writer is Lu Xun, a poet, essayist, and novelist whose work focused on the need to modernize through revolution. Under Communism, writers have been expected to uphold the values of the socialist state, though the degree of control over their output has varied.
\par {\b The Visual Arts}
\par \tab Chinese art, like Chinese literature, goes back many centuries. Early themes were developed from religious and supernatural beliefs or from the natural environment and landscape. One of the oldest and most basic forms of Chinese art is calligraphy, the painting of the Chinese characters with a brush. Calligraphy has developed as a pure art form with its own standards of excellence. Building on the tradition of calligraphy, Chinese painting developed a distinctive style that differs greatly from Western painting. It is more efficient in terms of brushstrokes and appears more abstract. Landscapes have always been a popular theme, and sometimes these appear bizarre to the Western eye. To the Chinese painter, they may represent a figurative view painted with a few swift strokes of the artist's brush.
\par \tab With their stress on simplicity and economy, Chinese calligraphy, painting, and poetry are closely related. In all of them, the artist seeks to express both inner harmony and harmony with the natural surroundings. Chinese poets and painters often have sought inspiration by withdrawing to isolated, mountainous areas, and these landscapes have become conventional themes of Chinese art. Similarly, Chinese architecture has traditionally aimed to convey harmony with society and nature.
\par \tab The magnificent life-size terra-cotta statues of men and horses, discovered in the early 1970s in the tomb of an emperor who died in 210 BC, provide some indication of the long history of Chinese sculpture. After the introduction of Buddhism into China, Buddhist subjects became dominant themes of the sculptor's art. Perhaps best known (and most copied) in the West, however, are the works of Chinese decorative artists, such as pottery, bronzes, lacquer ware, and exquisitely detailed jade and ivory carvings.
{\b EDUCATION AND HEALTH}
\par \tab The traditional educational system in China was based on literacy and the ability to read and write essays about the Confucian classics. Social advancement was achieved through successful completion of the imperial examinations, leading to an appointment in the imperial bureaucracy. Therefore, the questions asked in the imperial examinations determined the nature of the educational system. Since this examination system was used for many centuries and was not discarded until 1905, the Chinese educational system changed little during that time. The emphasis was on interpretation of the Confucian classics and the writing of elegant essays. Practical and scientific subjects were excluded.
\par \tab Although in theory the imperial examinations were open to anyone, only the wealthy could afford to give their children the years of schooling that were necessary for success. It is no wonder that the highest social class, the elite of traditional Chinese society, came to be called the scholar-gentry. They controlled the land and wealth, and, in general, only their sons were taught the Confucian classics, passed the imperial examinations, and became imperial officers.
\par \tab In the late 19th century, as the weaknesses of the Chinese economic and social system became more obvious, calls for reforming the educational system grew louder. Peking National University, with modern programs and courses, was founded in 1898. In 1905 the old imperial examination system was abolished. New courses in Western science and other nontraditional subjects were introduced, and new schools were established. The early 20th century was a period of rapid educational and intellectual change. Many young Chinese wanted to overturn the old society completely and reform China along modern, Western lines. Others advocated educational reform and social and political change, but within the framework of the traditional Confucian values. During the first half of the 20th century vast efforts were made to promote literacy. Both the Nationalist and Communist parties supported literacy and education, and both parties used education to promote their political goals. By 1945, however, it was estimated that only 20 percent of China's people could read and write.
\par \tab Since the Communists came to power in 1949 literacy has risen rapidly. Today it is estimated that 76 percent of adults are literate. Educational policy, however, has varied considerably. Generally, a primary school education has been made available to almost everyone, and about 40 percent of young people are able to attend middle school. This reflects a belief that basic knowledge is essential to rural development and economic progress.
\par \tab Education at the college or university level is difficult to obtain, however. The average primary school student has about one chance in 145 of enrolling in a university or college. More and more of China's young people are finishing high school, but no more than 2 to 3 percent of high school graduates go on to the next level. Policies on college admission have changed from time to time, and the basis of selection is not always clear. During the Cultural Revolution stress was placed on "good political background" as a requirement, and technical expertise was strongly criticized. Many schools and most universities were closed at that time, and education for China's youth and young adults was largely interrupted.
\par \tab The political climate changed in the late 1970s. Schools and universities were reopened. Admission came to be based on achievement, and scholastic goals emphasized technical learning and proficiency in subject matter. The political leaders who came to power after the Cultural Revolution believed that an educated group of professional managers, technicians, researchers, and teachers is essential for the modernization and development of China. Since 1978 the only requirement for admission to college has been a passing score on a college-entrance examination. The political background of an applicant's parents is no longer a factor in college admissions.
\par {\b Health and Welfare}
\par \tab There has been remarkable improvement in the health and material well-being of most of China's people since the civil war. Life expectancy at birth has almost doubled in a little over three decades, rising from an estimated 35 years in 1949 to more than 65 years in 1982. In the same period, the annual death rate declined from 23 per 1,000 population to about six per 1,000.
\par \tab Two major factors help to account for this progress. First, there has been a steady general improvement in the diet of the average citizen, resulting from larger and more reliable crop production. The old problem of periodic famine has largely disappeared, though poor harvests (such as that of the Loess Plateau in 1980) may still result in serious malnutrition. The average daily intake in the early 1980s was 2,700 calories per citizen, which is sufficient to sustain life and support a fair degree of physical activity. This compares with an average intake of 3,000 to 3,500 calories per person in the more heavily industrialized countries of the West.
\par \tab The second factor is the great improvement in the nature and quality of health care. Diseases such as tuberculosis, cholera, typhus, malaria, leprosy, smallpox, typhoid, and bubonic plague traditionally took a heavy toll of lives in China. In addition, a variety of debilitating parasites, such as hookworm and the trematode worm that causes schistosomiasis, were widespread. Dysentery and acute diarrhea were serious problems, especially among young children. Poor diet, insanitary conditions, poverty, and lack of health care made the entire population vulnerable to disease. Fatal illness was frequent and often struck babies and young children.
\par \tab The Communist government has made a tremendous effort to improve this situation. Inoculation against some diseases has been emphasized, as have cleanliness and sanitation. Health facilities, ranging from hospitals and clinics to "barefoot doctors"--people with some medical training who work especially in the villages--have been made available to the entire population. The cost of health care is low, and it is often provided by the farm commune or factory where a person is employed.
\par \tab Most of the epidemic diseases that used to sweep over China have been brought under control. Such diseases as tuberculosis, encephalitis, cholera, and malaria and certain parasites still present problems, but to a lesser degree than in the prerevolutionary period. Diarrhea and dysentery are likely to continue as long as human waste (referred to as night soil) is used as a type of farm fertilizer. Nevertheless, the much improved figures of life expectancy indicate the tremendous progress that has been made in the fight against diseases.
{\b THE ECONOMY}
\par \tab China's traditional economy was based on rural activities and farm production. Ownership of land was the main form of wealth, and large holdings often belonged to absentee landlords who lived in nearby cities. Many peasants were poor and landless and worked as tenants for the absentee landlords or for richer peasants.
\par \tab {\b Rural poverty.}
\par \tab For several centuries one of China's most serious problems has been the rapid growth of the population, which tended to match any increases in food production. This became especially serious after 1800, partly because the supply of farmland grew slowly and partly because the practice of dividing farm holdings among all the surviving sons resulted in ever smaller units of production. Eventually many of the holdings were so small that a family could not sustain itself without going into debt. Once this happened, it was very difficult for the family to clear itself of financial obligation. Large numbers of peasants lost their land as a result. In times of famine and hardship, such families suffered the most.
\par \tab As rural poverty spread during the 19th and early 20th centuries, many poor and middle peasants were attracted to political movements that promised radical changes and the breakup of large landholdings. The programs of Sun Yat-sen, Chiang Kai-shek, and the Nationalist party were intended to improve the people's livelihood, but much of their political support came from landlords. Therefore, it was difficult for the Nationalists to promote effective and thoroughgoing land reform.
\par \tab The Chinese Communist party had no such ties to landlords. At first the party attempted to focus its attention on urban workers, but it made little progress. One young Communist organizer, Mao Zedong (also Mao Tse-tung) urged that the party concentrate its efforts on the rural peasantry, and eventually this strategy proved successful. The Communists gained power in China partly because of the bad rural conditions that existed there.
\par \tab {\b Central planning, the Communist approach.}
\par \tab When the Communist government took over in 1949, several paths to economic development and growth were available to it. The Soviet model of central direction and planning based on the development of heavy industry was one. Another was to retain central planning but to focus on agricultural development and light industry. Still another was to decentralize decision making and allow market forces to determine--in part at least--how resources were used. This last option is closest to the capitalism of Western industrialized countries.
\par \tab Almost by definition any Communist or Marxist system must include a strong element of central direction and planning. China is no different from other Communist states in this respect, and it moved quickly to develop a central planning body to direct the economy and determine the use of resources. The main planning organs are centrally directed by the State Council, the highest administrative body in the government. Under the State Council is the State Planning Commission, which directs the various ministries such as the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry and the Ministry of Commerce.
\par \tab Another important aspect of China's economic system after 1950 was state ownership of all land and major equipment, what Marxists call the "means of production." Initially land seized from the big landlords was given to peasant cultivators, but by 1955 all land was taken over by the state and organized into collective farms. A small fraction was later returned to the peasants as their own family plots, but there has not been any true private ownership of land in China since 1955.
\par \tab Since 1950 China has followed several strategies to promote economic growth and development, but they have all been based on central planning and direction, what is called a "command" economy. However, there have been substantial variations in the amount of decision making left to individuals at the local level and in the types of incentives available to individual farmers and workers. In the early 1950s China followed the Soviet model, focusing on the development of heavy industry to the neglect of other sectors of the economy. Over the years, however, there have been shifts in the relative emphasis placed on heavy industry, light and consumer-oriented industries, and agriculture.
\par \tab Some of these changes in emphasis have been tied to changes in the political orientation and thinking of leadership. In the past such shifts have often been reflected in major policy statements and associated with mass participation campaigns.
\par \tab Examples of mass participation campaigns are the Great Leap Forward from 1958 to 1959 and the Four Modernizations program beginning in 1978. The Cultural Revolution was basically a political movement, though it did have far-reaching effects on the economy and on economic development.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab The Geography portion of this article was contributed by Clifton W. Pannell, Professor, Department of Geography, University of Georgia, and author of 'China, The Geography of Development and Modernization'. The History portion of this article was contributed by Bonnie B.C. Oh, former Associate Professor of History, Loyola University of Chicago.
\par \tab {\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR CHINA}
\par \tab Butterfield, Fox. China: Alive in the Bitter Sea, rev. ed. (Random, 1990).
\par \tab Carter, A.R. Modern China (Watts, 1986).
\par \tab Congress of the United States, Joint Economic Committee. China Under the Four Modernizations. Part I (U.S. Govt. Printing Office, 1982).
\par \tab Danforth, Kenneth, and Dickinson, M.B., eds. Journey into China (National Geographic, 1982).
\par \tab Dures, Alan. The Postwar World (David & Charles, 1988).
\par \tab Fairbank, J.K. Chinabound: A Fifty Year Memoir (Harper, 1983).
\par \tab Filstrup, Chris, and Filstrup, Janie. China: From Emperors to Communes (Dillon, 1982).
\par \tab Goff, Denise. Early China, rev. ed. (Watts, 1986).
\par \tab Hacker, J.H. The New China (Watts, 1986).
\par \tab Lord, B.B. Legacies: A Chinese Mosaic (Knopf, 1990).
\par \tab McLenighan, Valjean. China: A History to 1949 (Childrens, 1983).
\par \tab Martin, Helmut. Cult and Canon: The Origins and Development of State Maoism (M.E. Sharpe, 1982).
\par \tab Medley, Margaret. The Chinese Potter (Cornell Univ. Press, 1982).
\par \tab Pannell, C.W. East Asia, Geographical and Historical Approaches to Foreign Area Studies (Kendall/Hunt, 1983).
\par \tab Poole, F.K. Album of Modern China (Watts, 1981).
\par \tab Rau, Margaret. The Minority Peoples of China (Messner, 1982).
\par \tab Roderick, John. China: From the Long March to Tiananmen Square (Holt, 1990).
\par \tab Sabin, Louis. Ancient China (Troll, 1985).
\par \tab Sadler, C.E. Two Chinese Families (Atheneum, 1981).
\par \tab Tao Tao Liu Sanders. Dragons, Gods and Spirits from Chinese Mythology (Schocken, 1982).
\par \tab Wood, Frances. People at Work in China (David & Charles, 1988).
\par \tab Xiao Ming and Katie Visit the Zoo (China Books, 1981).
\par \tab Yungmei, Tang, photog. China, Here We Come! (Putnam, 1981).\par \tab The fourth largest country in South America, the Republic of Colombia has coasts on both the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea. Lying next to the Isthmus of Panama, which until 1903 was a part of its territory, Colombia is a strategic crossroads in the network of communication between North, Central, and South America.
\par \tab Colombia has an area of about 440,000 square miles (1,140,000 square kilometers), extending for more than 1,100 miles (1,800 kilometers) from north to south and for more than 850 miles (1,370 kilometers) from west to east. It is bounded by the Caribbean on the north, Venezuela and Brazil on the east, Peru and Ecuador on the south, the Pacific on the west, and Panama on the northwest.
\par \tab At its southeastern tip, the Colombia-Peru border is made up of the Amazon River for a distance of 72 miles (116 kilometers). Its only important outlying possession is San AndrΘs and Providencia, a group of islands 500 miles (800 kilometers) from the mainland and only 100 miles (160 kilometers) off the eastern coast of Nicaragua.
\par {\b Land and Climate}
\par \tab Colombia's physical backbone is the northern Andes mountain chain, which effectively separates the country's eastern lowland regions from the Pacific coastal lowlands in the west and the Caribbean littoral in the northwest. A short distance from the Ecuadorian border, the Andes branch into three cordilleras, or ranges, roughly parallel in a south-north direction. The Cordillera Occidental (western) and the Cordillera Oriental (eastern) are separated from the Cordillera Central by the Cauca and Magdalena valleys. The Andean ranges help break the country into five natural units: the Andean region itself, the Pacific lowlands, the Caribbean coastal plain, the eastern Llanos, or plains, and the Amazonian lowlands.
\par \tab The extremely varied land of the Andean region has steep slopes alternating with long valleys and plateaus, or high flat areas. Bogotß, the national capital, is located in the heart of the country on a cool plateau of the Cordillera Oriental at 8,600 feet (2,600 meters) above sea level. Some of the snowcapped peaks in the Cordillera Central, the highest range, are extinct volcanoes. Volcanic activity, however, continues in the southern part of this region.
\par \tab In spite of its inland location and mostly rough terrain, the Andean region has been the one where people have chosen to live throughout Colombian history. This is because it offers so much physical variety and has favorable climates. Yet it makes up only 20 percent of Colombia's land.
\par \tab West of the Cordillera Occidental a narrow plain faces the Pacific Ocean. This lowland is made up of comparatively recent alluvial soils deposited by the San Juan River and numerous streams that drain the western slopes of the Cordillera, one of the rainiest spots in the world. The region is entirely occupied by marshlands and tropical rain forests. Low hills between the watersheds of the San Juan and Atrato rivers separate the Pacific and Caribbean coastal plains. Colombians have long-term hopes of digging an interoceanic waterway in this area as an alternative to the Panama Canal.
\par \tab The Caribbean coastal plain is a lowland formed by materials that settled out of water in the floodplains of the lower Magdalena, Cauca, Sinu, and Atrato valleys, which spread out as they approach the sea. Near the coast the plain is a grassland with seasonal droughts. But its southern section, in contact with the northern spurs of the Andes, is forested marshland affected by seasonal flooding.
\par \tab East of the mouth of the Magdalena, the coastal plain is interrupted by the Sierra Nevada of Santa Marta, an isolated, massive mountain with two peaks--Col≤n and Bolφvar--that rise to nearly 19,000 feet (5,800 meters) and 16,500 feet (5,000 meters), the highest in the country.
\par \tab Colombia's eastern half is a vast inland plain that extends beyond the Venezuelan and Brazilian borders. This area is subdivided by geographers into two separate natural regions--the Llanos, or plains proper, in the northern part and Amazonia south of the Guaviare River.
\par \tab The Llanos is an endless tropical grassland drained through the Arauca, Meta, and Vichada rivers to the Orinoco, which flows across central Venezuela and empties into the Atlantic Ocean. As a typical savanna, or treeless plain, environment with a wet-and-dry tropical climate, the Llanos soils are poor. Sparsely populated and undeveloped, the region traditionally has been used for open-range cattle ranching. Its chance for economic development arrived in the form of rich petroleum deposits discovered in 1984 along the Andean piedmont, or broad low slopes at the base of the mountains.
\par \tab The great lowland located south of the Guaviare River is the Colombian share of the Amazon Basin. Amazonia is a frontier land with a warm climate almost as rainy the year around as the Pacific plain. Until the 1950s this area was almost entirely covered with selvas, or humid forests. It still is a large natural reserve, but large numbers of pioneers settling along the upper Guaviare, Caquetß, and Putumayo rivers are rapidly turning the forest into cropland and pastures.
\par \tab Tropical characteristics may be the common denominator of the climatic conditions of Colombia. Despite local variations, there is no seasonal temperature fluctuation as in middle-latitude climates. Latitude and elevation are the most important factors determining the climate.
\par \tab Since 80 percent of Colombia is made up of lowlands less than 10░ from the equator, warm climates are widespread with average daily temperatures always above 78░ F (24░ C). Weather conditions are controlled by the Intertropical Convergence Zone, a low-pressure belt that moves back and forth across the equator bringing together the trade winds and seasonal rains. Wet and dry seasons alternate in the Andes, the Llanos, and the Caribbean plain. The Pacific region and Amazonia, which are crossed by the equator, have abundant rainfall evenly distributed throughout the year.
\par \tab In the Guajira Peninsula, the northernmost tip of South America, semidesert conditions yield annual precipitation figures of only 12 inches (30 centimeters). By contrast, there are stations on the northern Pacific plain that record more than 390 inches (990 centimeters), matched only by the rainiest places of India, Hawaii, and equatorial Africa.
\par \tab A vertical environmental zoning results from the decrease of temperature as altitude increases in the Andes. At the bottom lies the tierra caliente, or zone of warm lands, to about 3,300 feet (1,000 meters). Next the tierra templada, or temperate zone, reaches to 6,600 feet (2,000 meters). On top of this lies the tierra frφa, or fringe of cool climate, extending up to 9,800 feet (3,000 meters). Finally, a zone of treeless pßramos reaches to the permanent snow line at about 15,400 feet (4,700 meters).
\par \tab Different plant zones exist within the vertical climate zones. The tropical species of the selvas give way gradually to subtropical woods in the tierra templada and to temperate species in the tierra frφa. The pßramos are covered with alpine meadows that dwindle in the colder uplands of barren rock and snow. Crops are also grown according to the vertical climate zones. The warm lowlands are devoted to rice, cotton, bananas, and cacao. Coffee cultivation is typical of the intermediate tierra templada, which also produces maniocs, bananas (plantains), and citrus fruits. Certain cereals grow well in the cool tablelands, which are also the best dairylands. The pßramos are well suited for potato farming.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab Colombia's total population was just over 20 million at the 1973 census. In a 1984 estimate it was thought to have reached more than 33 million. Ninety percent of the people live in the western half of the country, where the most densely settled valleys and tablelands reach as high as 300 persons per square mile (117 persons per square kilometer). The greatest population densities are in the departments of Caldas, Quindφo, and Risaralda; parts of the Antioquia and Valle del Cauca departments; and the highlands of Cundinamarca and Boyacß. Another area densely populated is the Caribbean seaboard around the port of Barranquilla. By contrast the eastern Llanos, Amazonia, and the Pacific plain are sparsely settled.
\par \tab Traditionally Colombia was a rural nation of landlords and peasants, villages, and small towns. Cities were small and provincial. Since the late 1940s, however, a major shift in population from the countryside to urban centers has been taking place. As cities grow, more rural dwellers move in. The greatest urban growth has been in the country's capital, Bogotß, a city that grew from 660,000 inhabitants in 1951 to more than five million in the 1980s. Other thriving centers with more than one million people are Medellφn, Cali, Barranquilla, Bucaramanga, Cartagena, and C·cuta. Altogether half of the Colombians live in 17 cities of more than 150,000 population.
\par \tab Colombians are of Spanish, Indian, and, to a lesser degree, African black ancestry. An accurate ethnic division is difficult to establish after nearly four centuries of intensive racial blending. An educated guess is that about 60 percent of the people are mestizo, or a mixture of Europeans and Indians. Mulattos and blacks may represent 18 percent and whites about the same percentage. Pure or nearly pure Indians make up less than 2 percent. Spanish is the language spoken in Colombia and Roman Catholicism the assumed religion of more than 90 percent of its people.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab Although Colombia is often included in the group of less developed nations of the world, its traditional dependence on agriculture, mining, and other extractive activities is being changed by a steady industrializing trend and technological modernization. The world financial crisis of the 1980s hit Colombia, but its economy is less troubled than some in Latin America that are on the verge of bankruptcy from recession and high foreign debts.
\par \tab Although coffee remains the largest single item contributing to foreign earnings, a greater variety of exports has been successfully encouraged to include such products as coal, nickel, textiles, clothing, and chemicals. The savings of foreign currency is also increasing through government incentives to investors in domestic manufacture.
\par \tab During the 1970s Colombia's gross national product (GNP) grew at an average rate of 6.2 percent per year, reaching a peak of 7.3 percent in 1973. The following decade was poor in economic terms, showing a steady decline to 0.8 percent in 1983. The relative contributions to the GNP are: agriculture, 22.7 percent; manufacturing, 20.4; trade, 12.3; transportation, 9.8; construction, 3.8; and other sectors, 31 percent.
\par {\b Agriculture}
\par \tab Although agricultural output has grown as a result of better farming techniques, its relative role in the national economy is declining as other sectors expand and improve in productivity. The added value of crops and livestock in the GNP went from 40 percent in 1948 to 28 percent in 1975 and to 22.7 percent in 1984. The varied climatic conditions of the country have helped government policies of agricultural diversification. Colombia is nearly self-sufficient in a large number of foodstuffs and has made substantial progress in producing some crop surpluses for the world market. Its traditional exports of coffee and bananas are now complemented by cotton, rice, and fresh-cut flowers. Growing demand in Colombian cities for perishable foodstuffs has led to intensification in vegetable and fruit farming as well as in the poultry industry and dairying. Farms on the plateau surrounding Bogotß are probably the most intensively cultivated in the country. Agriculture may be increased not only by further modernization but by the development of new living areas. In the 1980s only about five percent of the Colombian landmass was under cultivation in spite of this increased food production.
\par \tab After Brazil, Colombia ranks as the world's largest coffee exporter. This single commodity represented 47 percent of Colombia's total foreign income in the early 1980s. Nearly one quarter of Colombia's cropland is in coffee, with 300,000 farms employing more than 20 percent of the agricultural labor force. The typical coffee-producing region is in western Colombia in the intermediate hillsides of the departments of Caldas, Quindφo, Risaralda, Valle del Cauca, and Antioquia. Their rich volcanic soils and temperate climate are excellent for this crop, with yields reaching record figures. Coffee cultivation requires much hand labor because the rough land surface is impossible for the operation of most farm machines. Coffee farms are small and family-operated in contrast to the large plantations producing rice, cotton, or sugarcane.
\par \tab Colombia is also an important cattle-producing country. Livestock ranching is an activity in the best Spanish cultural tradition. During colonial times the Spaniards built a cattle empire that extended from the southern Rockies in the United States to Argentina. The raising of beef cattle is important in the Caribbean plain and the Magdalena Valley and is the leading activity in the Llanos. Dairy cattle, mostly of the Holstein breed, are restricted to the cool climates of the Andes. The total Colombian herd is estimated at about 25 million head grazing on 44.5 million acres (18 million hectares) of pasture, more than three times as much area as in crops.
\par \tab Colombian agriculture faces serious problems. Seasonal flooding and drought in the lower valleys and plains and killing frost in the high mountains cause heavy losses, as do pests and disease. Social unrest and violence has also plagued the rural areas for decades. Traditional small units, called minifundia, of subsistence farming exist along with idle estates, called latifundia. Landless, illiterate peasants are drawn to open revolt by leftist guerrilla movements. The official land reform program established in the early 1960s has failed to counteract this sociopolitical conflict. Furthermore, a large share of agricultural effort presumably has been eroded since the 1970s by secret marijuana and coca plantings. The cocaine trade has been very bad for both the national economy and the country's international prestige.
\par {\b Transportation and Communications}
\par \tab Colombia's transportation network links the major urban centers with one another, with the Caribbean ports of Barranquilla, Santa Marta, and Cartagena, and with the Pacific port of Buenaventura. Until the mid-20th century the transportation system was organized around the Magdalena River, which handled most of the cargo and passenger traffic between the north coast and the country's interior.
\par \tab Now the road network is of foremost importance, totaling 28,000 miles (45,000 kilometers). The highway system is tied to two main north-south roads. The Western Trunk Highway runs from the Ecuadorean border to the Caribbean coast, passing through Cali and Medellφn.
\par \tab The Central Trunk Highway runs from Cali, leading into Bogotß and farther northeast to join the road network of western Venezuela. The two main highways are linked by the 1,700-mile (2,700-kilometer) Caribbean Trunk Highway.
\par \tab There is also overland transportation via the 2,120-mile (3,400-kilometer) rail network. The importance of Colombian railroads declined as the road network improved, and today they are used mostly for cargo transport.
\par \tab Air transportation came early to Colombia; SCADT, later to become AVIANCA, was founded in 1919, the first commercial airline in the Western Hemisphere. Colombia's air traffic is handled through international airports in Bogotß, Cali, Medellφn, Barranquilla, and San AndrΘs Island.
\par \tab Although air cargo traffic has greatly expanded, ocean carriers of the country's Grancolombiana Merchant Marine transport the bulk of the international cargo. The Grancolombiana is one of the leading shipping lines in the Americas.
\par \tab In order to overcome natural barriers that isolate different regions in the country, Colombia developed an effective telecommunications system. Automatic telephone service has operated in Bogotß since 1945, and radio and television are also well developed.
\par {\b Power and Mineral Resources}
\par \tab Colombia's power resources rest heavily on hydroelectric plants, which total 70 percent of installed capacity. In the 1980s the generating capacity was greatly increased by projects in the upper Magdalena, Cauca, and Guavio rivers.
\par \tab Further surveys indicate that by the beginning of the 21st century about 90 percent of new power will be based on hydroelectric sources. The electricity distribution system is publicly owned.
\par \tab Coal is Colombia's most abundant mineral resource and is found throughout the country. Reserves are estimated at 16.5 billion tons, 64 percent of the known Latin American total. Of foremost importance is the Cerrej≤n Basin on the Caribbean seaboard, with proven reserves of 3.7 billion metric tons. Coal shipments to American and European customers began in 1985 through the port of Sim≤n Bolφvar on the Guajiran coast.
\par \tab For nearly half a century beginning in the early 1920s, Colombia exported crude petroleum. Wells running low in the middle Magdalena Valley and in the Catatumbo area, however, reversed that condition just at a time when oil prices climbed to the highest level. New wells in the upper Putumayo Basin eventually brought production to a 150,000-barrels-per-day level, but it was insufficient to satisfy national needs. An intensified search for more petroleum sources, launched in the late 1970s, has shown new promise for self-sufficiency and petroleum exports. The Arauca, Casanare, and Meta basins in the Llanos have proven to be a surprisingly rich oil reserve. Sizable reserves of natural gas, including the major Guajira gas field, have also been found in different parts of the country.
\par \tab There are also new mining activities. The Cerromatoso nickel-mining project began in 1982. There are prospects for new gold discoveries in the Amazonian area, and Colombia continues to be the foremost producer of emeralds.
\par {\b Education and Culture}
\par \tab Illiteracy is one of Colombia's most serious problems. Although elementary schooling is compulsory, the government has been unable to provide education to many Colombians over 7 years of age. It is estimated that about 20 percent, or nearly 7 million, of the people cannot read and write. In the 1980s 86 percent of the children of primary school age attended public institutions, and 58 percent of the eligible students were in secondary school systems. Only 40 percent of college-age students attended officially recognized universities. There is a relatively large number of institutions of higher learning, led by the public National University and the private University of the Andes, both in Bogotß.
\par \tab Colombia has a long-standing cultural tradition. Colombian poets and novelists have earned well-deserved recognition in the Spanish-speaking world. The most famous writer is Gabriel Garcφa Mßrquez, the Nobel prizewinner for literature in 1982. His best-known literary work is 'One Hundred Years of Solitude', a novel translated into more than 30 languages. The fine arts are represented by a number of painters and sculptors led in contemporary times by Fernando Botero, Alejandro Obreg≤n, and Edgar Negret.
\par {\b History and Government}
\par \tab Colombia is the only nation named after Christopher Columbus, who first sailed off its Caribbean shores at the end of the 15th century. Prior to Spanish colonization, Colombia was settled by numerous Indian tribes. One of them--the Chibcha, or Muisca--occupied the fertile valleys and plateaus of the Cordillera Oriental. As a peaceful, settled people, they achieved a cultural development surpassed in the New World only by the Aztec, Maya, and Inca. The Chibcha were farmers and weavers. They were ruled by two principal caciques, or chieftains. No one knows their origin for certain, but their archaeological record goes back 10,000 years. At the time of the Spaniards' arrival, the Chibcha were defending their territory from the Caribs, Indians who had invaded the Caribbean plain and mountain valleys.
\par \tab There were other tribes such as the Tairona in the Sierra Nevada of Santa Marta, the Calima in the Cauca Valley, the Quimbaya in the Quindφo region, and the Agustinians in the upper Magdalena Valley. They left legacies of gold craftsmanship and stone sculpture.
\par \tab The first Spanish settlement was Santa Marta on the Caribbean coast, founded in 1525 by Rodrigo de Bastidas. From this port the Spanish conqueror Gonzalo JimΘnez de Quesada made his way to inland territories by way of the Magdalena River. JimΘnez de Quesada was joined by other adventurers shortly before his founding of Bogotß in 1538. This consolidated the European settlement of the country, which thereafter was known as the Kingdom of New Granada. Two centuries of intensive colonization eliminated most Indian cultural traits. The Spaniards transplanted their language, religion, customs, and institutions as well as their crops and animals, which the Chibcha learned to cultivate and care for. Wherever Indians were rebellious or unable to adapt themselves to hard labor conditions, as in the mines or on tropical plantations, they were replaced by imported African slaves.
\par \tab New Granada grew important enough to be raised in the 18th century to a viceroyalty comprising what is today Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, and Panama. Rivalry between Spain and England troubled the ports of Cartagena and Santa Marta. English pirates frequently looted these cities as they attacked and captured the richly laden ships crossing the Caribbean. The San AndrΘs archipelago was a sanctuary of privateers whose legacy is the English dialect still spoken in these islands.
\par \tab Late in the 18th century mounting resentment against Spanish rule escalated to open revolt in New Granada. In 1781 JosΘ Antonio Galßn led an unsuccessful uprising of the native comuneros. To further set the stage for revolution, Antonio Nari±o translated and published in 1794 the document that embodied the principles of the French Revolution, the 'Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen'. A Supreme Junta of the Kingdom of New Granada was created in Bogotß on July 20, 1810, providing for the liberty and autonomy of the colony. Finally, absolute independence from Spain was proclaimed on July 16, 1813. The war of independence that followed initially favored Spain. An expedition led by Pablo Morillo easily restored the viceroyalty in 1816. Several patriot leaders were either shot or hanged by Morillo. One of the few who escaped was Francisco de Paula Santander. He reorganized an army in the Llanos and in 1819 joined the war effort of the Venezuelan Gen. Sim≤n Bolφvar. Bolφvar and Santander led an army of liberation across the Andes, defeating the Spanish in Boyacß on Aug. 7, 1819. Bogotß was taken, and the same year the Greater Colombia Confederation was established by the Congress of Angostura. In 1830 the federation was dissolved when Venezuela and Ecuador withdrew.
\par \tab In 1832 a government with legislative, executive, and judicial branches was established by a new constitution. General Santander was elected president and led the nation toward democracy.
\par \tab Colombia has a democratic form of government. Its current constitution dates from 1886, though it has been amended. Civil rights, social guarantees, and private property rights are foremost provisions of the constitution and laws of the country. A president elected for a four-year term is the chief of state and head of government. The governors of the departments are appointed by the president. There is complete independence of the executive, legislative, and judicial branches. Traditionally the country has been run through a two-party system. Liberals and Conservatives are both democratically committed. The Communist party is legal, and there is ample freedom for the establishment of other political organizations.
\par \tab In 1989 the government cracked down on the local drug traffickers, who retaliated with a series of killings and in August assassinated the Liberal party's presidential candidate, Luis Carlos Galßn. A state of emergency was declared, and the government attempted to seize the assets of the drug cartels and extradite traffickers to the United States. In response the traffickers began a series of bombings and killings. In February 1990 the presidents of Bolivia, Peru, and Colombia--the world's three main cocaine-producing countries--met in Cartagena with the president of the United States--the world's top cocaine-consuming country. They agreed to exchange United States economic and military aid for increased Latin efforts to combat the drug trade. Voters in May 1990 elected CΘsar Gaviria, the Liberal party presidential candidate, who took a hard line against drug traffickers.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by HΘctor F. Rucinque, Head, Graduate Geography Program, Instituto Geogrßfico "Agustφn Codazzi," Universidad Pedag≤gica y Tecnol≤gica de Colombia, Bogotß.\par \tab The Federal Islamic Republic of the Comoros is made up of three main islands and some smaller islands at the northern end of the Mozambique Channel between Madagascar and the eastern coast of the African mainland. The total land area, excluding the island of Mayotte, is about 719 square miles (1,862 square kilometers). The capital, on Grande Comore, is Moroni and has a population of about 22,000 (1990 estimate).
\par \tab The largest island is Grande Comore. Rising near the southern end of Grande Comore is the highest point in the country, Mount Karthala, an active volcano. MohΘli is the smallest of the main islands, and the third island is Anjouan. A fourth island, Mayotte, is a French dependency, though the Comorian government regards it as part of Comoros.
\par \tab Comoros' tropical climate has two clearly marked seasons. Between May and October it is dry, and between November and April it is hot and humid. The islands' highest temperatures of about 82░ F (28░ C) occur in November. The most rainfall is in January.
\par \tab More than half of the country's food is imported. Cassavas, sweet potatoes, bananas, and mountain rice are grown, and goats, sheep, and cattle are raised. Vanilla, perfume plants, coconuts, cloves, and bananas are cultivated. There are sawmills, vanilla-processing plants, woodworking facilities, oil and soap factories, and hydroelectric plants.
\par \tab An international airport is on Grande Comore near Moroni. The islands are linked to Madagascar and East Africa by regular ship and air ferries. Islam is the state religion. Education is patterned after Islamic and French schools.
\par \tab France took possession of Mayotte in 1843 and in 1886 placed the other three islands under its protection. All four became a French overseas territory in 1947. In 1974 three of the islands voted for independence, but Mayotte continued under French rule. France recognized the independence of the three in 1975 and a year later designated Mayotte as a special collectivity. The government is headed by an elected president who nominates a council of ministers and the governors of the islands. The 42-member Federal Assembly is chosen by direct popular vote.
\par \tab Since 1984 the islands were used by South Africa as a base from which to supply rebels in Mozambique, and the government was essentially controlled by the Presidential Guard, led by the French mercenary Bob Denard. On Nov. 27, 1989, President Ahmed Abdallah was assassinated and Said Mohamed Djohar became interim president. Djohar was elected president in March 1990 elections that marked a return to democracy for the country; he was reelected in 1994. Denard failed in another coup attempt in 1995. Population (1994 estimate), 527,000.\par \tab The Republic of the Congo, usually simply called Congo, lies west of Zaire, east of Gabon, and south of Cameroon and the Central African Republic in equatorial Africa. The country has a short but important coastline on the Atlantic Ocean, where one of the region's principal ports, Pointe-Noire, is located. The Congo, or Zaire, and Ubangi rivers form Congo's eastern boundary. The capital, Brazzaville, lies on the Congo River opposite Kinshasa, the capital of Zaire. A railroad connects Brazzaville to Pointe-Noire.
\par \tab Once the cornerstone of French Equatorial Africa, Congo became an independent republic in 1960. The country's name comes from that of one of the major groups of people in this region, the Bakongo.
\par {\b Land and Climate}
\par \tab Located astride the equator, Congo is hot and humid over almost all of its area of 132,047 square miles (342,000 square kilometers). Most of the northern half of the country is covered by dense forest. The Ubangi River is navigable to the northern border, and it joins the lowest navigable stretch of the Congo River, which flows on to Brazzaville and Kinshasa. There rapids and falls interrupt the flow of the Congo so that all goods that are transported by water must be transferred to railroad cars for the journey to Pointe-Noire.
\par \tab Extensive marshlands cover the areas around the Ubangi and Congo rivers that are not equatorial forest. Savannas develop in the narrow midsection of Congo. Another zone of forest lies behind the drier coastal zone, and forest also covers the northern part of western Congo. Thus savannas extend over less than one quarter of the country, and here the majority of the population is concentrated.
\par \tab In the savanna areas, rainfall averages from 50 to 60 inches (125 to 150 centimeters) per year; there are two rainy seasons--October to December and February to April. But the savanna rains are not reliable, causing serious problems for farmers.
\par \tab Soils are not fertile except in limited areas. The best lie in the Niari Valley, which has become a leading agricultural zone about 100 miles (160 kilometers) inland from Pointe-Noire.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab The population of the republic is not large but is quite varied. The main ethnic groups are the Bakongo, the Ubangi, the Teke, and the Sanga. These, in turn, are divided into numerous subgroups. There are also several small bands of Binga Pygmies, along with small populations of foreigners from Portugal and China, as well as refugees from Zaire.
\par \tab Language distribution is similarly complicated, with Kongo and Teke as major traditional languages and French the official language. Animist, or traditional, religions are practiced by about 5 percent of the population, but more than 90 percent of the population is Christian, mainly Roman Catholic.
\par \tab Congo has both high birth and death rates with high infant mortality and a life expectancy of approximately 50 years for men and 55 years for women. Health conditions are typical of underdeveloped Africa, with approximately 6,000 persons per physician and about 200 persons per available hospital bed. About 57 percent of adults can read and write.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab Congo's economy is not well developed. About 50 percent of the labor force works at agriculture that usually produces only enough food to keep the people alive. Among agricultural products that are exported, coffee and cocoa yield most of the income. Important crops grown and consumed in Congo include maniocs, yams, bananas, corn, and peanuts. Some sugarcane and rice also are grown.
\par \tab During colonial times the Niari Valley became a region of European settlement, and mechanized, large-scale farming soon became the primary way of growing crops. Since independence this area has remained the country's chief concentration of commercial agriculture. Sugar and tobacco continue to be exported from the region.
\par \tab The major source of outside income lies in the export of raw materials, including principally crude petroleum from fields in the southwest. Some natural gas also is produced. Congo has high-grade iron reserves, and some industrial diamonds, zinc, lead, copper, and a small amount of gold are produced. Potash production, once a major source of income, ended in 1977.
\par \tab The United States is the major purchaser of Congo's exports. France, formerly Congo's leading trade partner, still provides almost 50 percent of its imports and is its major source of financial and economic assistance. Privately owned French companies dominate the country's commerce and local industry.
\par \tab Forestry and fishing also contribute to the economy. Timber is a valuable export, and fish help to balance protein-deficient diets. Industrial development is slight. Lumbering, food processing, palm-product treatment, flour milling, and brewing are the leading industries. During the second decade of independence there was foreign aid from Communist countries, but the long-term results were discouraging. A Chinese-built textile complex, for example, lost much money and had to close in 1979. Annual inflation during the decade 1975 to 1984 often reached 100 percent.
\par \tab Most development has taken place in the south, where the major cities, most of the rural population, the best surface communications, the most productive farmlands, the majority of the mineral resources, and almost all industries are located. This has contributed to a regional inequality that is one of Congo's major problems.
\par {\b History and Government}
\par \tab Two stable African states once occupied the Congo region. Both kingdoms were past their peak when the Europeans arrived in the late 15th century. Colonization began in 1880, when Father Savorgnan de Brazza traveled up the OgoouΘ River in present-day Gabon. A colony called Gabon-Congo was established in 1886. The French Congo was formed separately in 1891, with de Brazza as commissioner general based in the town named after him.
\par \tab Beginning in 1897, the concession companies entered the Congo. Between 1898 and 1900 more than 40 such companies were awarded concessions, or exclusive rights to products. They ruthlessly exploited the main resources, natural rubber and ivory. After 1913 the French government regulated economic activity in the region. The railroads were built, mines opened, and settlement proceeded. After 1940 the pace of change accelerated. Congo became successively an overseas territory, an autonomous territory, and in 1960 the Republic of the Congo, electing to remain within the framework of the French Community with Fulbert Youlou as the first president.
\par \tab The republic's original system of government soon changed. Youlou was overthrown in 1963 by Alphonse Massamba-DΘbat, founder of the Marxist-Leninist Party, who in 1968 was ousted by a military coup. In 1970 the People's Republic--which was the first in Africa--was proclaimed under Capt. Marien Ngouabi, the leader of the 1968 coup. In 1977 Ngouabi was assassinated and Massamba-DΘbat executed for his supposed role in the killing. Another coup failed the following year. The Congolese Workers' Party (PCT) installed Col. Denis Sassou-Nguesso as president. His power was diminished in 1991, when political pressure forced him to appoint a prime minister and call a national conference. The gathered representatives declared themselves to be the government and wrote a new constitution. Marxism was rejected and movement toward democracy and a free economy begun. Population (1991 estimate), 2,411,000.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab Harm J. De Blij\par \tab Renowned for its democratic traditions, the country of Costa Rica differs politically and socially from most of its Latin American neighbors. Wealth is more evenly divided, far more is spent on education than on support for the military, and there is an unmatched respect for freedom of expression and the orderly transfer of government.
\par \tab Costa Rica is one of seven countries, all republics, in Central America. The average distance from its border with Nicaragua on the northwest to its opposite border with Panama is 200 miles (320 kilometers). Between the Caribbean and Pacific shorelines it ranges between 100 and 150 miles (160 and 240 kilometers) in width. With an area of 19,575 square miles (50,699 square kilometers), it ranks as one of the smaller Central American republics.
\par \tab In central Costa Rica is a basin area known as the Meseta Central. This intermountain plateau, between 3,000 and 5,000 feet (900 and 1,500 meters) above sea level, is a central feature in the life of the nation. Two volcanic ranges, the Cordillera Central and the Cordillera de Guanacaste, extend northwestward from the Meseta to the Nicaraguan border. Within 15 miles (24 kilometers) of the capital city of San JosΘ is the active volcano Iraz·, 11,253 feet (3,430 meters) high. Extending southeastward from the Meseta toward Panama are the high and rugged mountains of the Cordillera de Talamanca.
\par \tab Along the Pacific, tropical plains are sandwiched between the interior mountains and two peninsulas that jut into the ocean. Along the Caribbean, the Nicaraguan lake plains extend into northeastern Costa Rica. A narrow plain follows the Caribbean shoreline southward to the Panamanian border.
\par \tab Costa Rica is a land of many climates. The low-lying coastal plains are hot throughout the year. The Meseta Central has a more moderate climate. At high elevations in the mountains it is cool.
\par \tab More than 120 inches (305 centimeters) of rain falls throughout the year in the coastal regions of southern Costa Rica. The Meseta Central and the northwest get 60 to 80 inches (150 to 200 centimeters) between May and October.
\par \tab Lacking precious metals and also a supply of Indian labor, Costa Rica attracted only a few Spanish colonists. At the time of independence in 1821, the population was less than 75,000. Not until the mid-1800s did the white settlers occupy all of the Meseta Central and begin to move out to frontier regions.
\par \tab By 1989 the population was estimated at 2,941,000, of whom one half continued to live on the Meseta. Within or near the Meseta are Costa Rica's six largest cities, including the capital, San JosΘ (population, 1984 census, 241,464). Through the ports of Puntarenas and Lim≤n pass much of Costa Rica's foreign trade.
\par \tab There is a significant black population along the Caribbean coast. Their ancestors came from Jamaica and other British colonies beginning in the 1870s to build railroads and to work on banana plantations.
\par \tab Manufacturing contributes the greatest share to national income; yet far more people are engaged in farming. About half of the population lives in rural areas. Sugarcane, bananas, rice, coffee, plantains, corn, and oranges rank as the most important agricultural crops. Of these only coffee, bananas, and sugar are exported. Dairy cattle are concentrated in the cooler Meseta Central. Beef cattle are on the tropical plains.
\par \tab In 1960 coffee and bananas made up three quarters of all exports. With major increases in the export of sugar, beef, and manufactured goods, coffee and bananas have now dropped to half. Imports consist largely of manufactured goods; chemical products; machinery; and automobiles, trucks, buses, and parts. One third of all foreign trade is with the United States. Japan, Western Europe, and the Central American Common Market are other major trading partners.
\par \tab Manufacturing has grown rapidly since the establishment of the Central American Common Market in 1960. Costa Rica is now the only nation in Central America in which the value of manufactured goods is greater than the value of agricultural products. Food processing, textiles, and clothing make up half of all output.
\par \tab Costa Rica was one of the first nations in Central America to have railroads. Paved highways between San JosΘ and the Panamanian border and between San JosΘ and Lim≤n were completed during the 1970s. The Meseta Central and the volcanic uplands on the Pacific side have an adequate network of highways, but the highlands south of the Meseta and the Caribbean coastal plains lack year-round roads.
\par \tab Education is required throughout Latin America, but no nation contributes a greater share of its wealth to education than does Costa Rica. Ninety-three percent of Costa Ricans can read and write. The University of Costa Rica in San JosΘ is considered one of the best in Central America.
\par {\b History}
\par \tab Given the name of Costa Rica--meaning "rich coast"--by Christopher Columbus in 1502, the province turned out to be far less valuable than he had imagined. Little gold and silver were found, and the colony remained poor throughout the colonial era.
\par \tab After independence in 1821 a progressive government promoted production of coffee and bananas and railroad construction, and Costa Rica developed peacefully and with democratic traditions. Although there have been periods of dictatorships and civil war, these have been relatively short. After 1870, under the leadership of President Tomßs Guardia, a constitution assured presidential succession. It remained in force until 1949.
\par \tab Luis Alberto Monge ┴lvarez was elected president in 1982 and instituted a program of economic austerity. In 1986 Oscar Arias Sßnchez, of the ruling National Liberation party, was elected president. He worked toward a settlement of the region's violent disputes, and in 1987 he initiated a peace plan calling for a cease-fire in Central America. Arias won the 1987 Nobel peace prize for his efforts. In 1990 Rafael Angel Calder≤n Fournier, of the Social Christian Unity party, was elected president. Although opposed to Arias' peace plan, Calder≤n promised to maintain close ties to the United States and to fight drug trafficking, poverty, and crime.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab Oscar H. Horst\par \tab The name of C⌠te d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast) comes from the thriving trade in elephant tusks, or ivory, that attracted European adventurers to the area in the 17th century. Located on the southern shore of West Africa's bulge, the Republic of C⌠te d'Ivoire covers an area of 124,504 square miles (322,464 square kilometers). It is bounded on the north by Mali and Burkina Faso, on the west by Guinea and Liberia, and on the east by Ghana. In 1983 Yamoussoukro was designated as the new capital, though Abidjan continued to serve as the capital in fact.
\par \tab The shoreline on the Gulf of Guinea is known for its heavy surf, treacherous currents, and sand barriers that prohibited significant European settlement until the mid-19th century. The Bandama is the largest of four major rivers. The shallow rivers are useless for commercial navigation, but they create the only natural breaks in the coastal sand barriers.
\par \tab The terrain is a plateau, with three zones of vegetation. The coastal sand barriers and lagoons support mangroves, coconut palms, and halophytes, or plants adapted for living in an environment that is high in salt content. These give way to one of Africa's densest tropical forests, which covers about one third of the country before it melds with the savanna of the north. The southern forest zone receives 80 to 120 inches (200 to 300 centimeters) of rain per year.
\par \tab French is the official language. More than 60 languages or dialects are spoken by the various peoples. About 60 percent of the people practice their traditional religions; about 20 percent are Muslims; and some 20 percent are Christians. A national university opened at Abidjan in 1964.
\par \tab After gaining independence in 1960, the country enjoyed a rate of economic growth unequaled by its neighbors. Cacao beans, from which cocoa and chocolate are made, are the main export crop and are grown by more than a quarter of the population. Coffee, tropical woods, copra, pineapples, rubber, cotton, and palm oil are also exported. The mining industry is undeveloped and is limited to diamonds, some gold, and offshore petroleum. There are reserves of copper, nickel, uranium, and manganese, but these have not been developed.
\par \tab With about 3,100 miles (5,000 kilometers) of paved roads and 31,100 miles (50,000 kilometers) of secondary roads, C⌠te d'Ivoire has one of the best transportation systems in West Africa. An international airport was built at Port-Bouδt. Abidjan's port facilities have been expanded. Hydroelectric dams built on the Bandama and Bia rivers supply electricity.
\par \tab Migrations and conquests in precolonial times created the present distribution of the many ethnic groups in C⌠te d'Ivoire. The Senufo founded the kingdom of Kong in the 11th century. After the conquest of Kong by the Dyula at the beginning of the 18th century, it became the largest empire south of the Niger River. The Ashanti Empire was settled near Lac de Kossou. The Akan and Anyi peoples migrated there during the same period and established kingdoms.
\par \tab French colonial rule was not officially established until 1893. While the French moved to conquer the southern part at the end of the 19th century, the kingdom of Kong was destroyed by the Mandingo warrior-king, Samory TourΘ, who tried to establish a Muslim kingdom in the north. Samory himself was defeated by the French in 1898. The Baule fought for their independence until after World War I.
\par \tab Under French rule the territory known as the Ivory Coast was part of the federation of French West Africa. Most Ivorians had few political rights, but those who served in the government or in the French military were granted French citizenship. The French contributed to economic development, but the people were subject to forced labor. Although political, educational, and legal reforms were introduced after World War II, Ivorians--along with all of French West Africa--demanded independence.
\par \tab In 1958 the country became an autonomous republic within the French Community. By 1960, however, France was forced to recognize the political independence of all its West African colonies.
\par \tab The new republic elected FΘlix Houphouδt-Boigny president and established a government with executive, legislative, and judicial branches. Houphouδt-Boigny was consistently reelected. Opposition to him and to the country's main political party--the Democratic party of C⌠te d'Ivoire (PDCI)--arose in the early 1970s. The economy suffered as cacao and coffee prices fell and Houphouδt-Boigny pumped huge sums of money into transforming Yamoussoukro into a modern capital city. Opposition grew toward the government and continued close association with France. In 1986 the French version of the country's name became the only official name. In January 1991 the country held its first multiparty parliamentary elections, which Houphouδt-Boigny won overwhelmingly. Population (1991 estimate), 12,464,000.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab David S. Wiley\par \tab The crescent-shaped republic of Croatia became part of Yugoslavia when that country was created after World War I. It remained part of Yugoslavia for 74 years, until it, along with Slovenia, declared its independence on June 25, 1991. Resistance to independence on the part of the Serbian population of Yugoslavia plunged the nation into a prolonged civil war.
\par \tab Croatia is made up of the territories of Dalmatia, most of Istria, and Slavonia. The northeastern part is mostly flat and fertile and suitable for agriculture, while the southwestern part, in the Dinaric Alps, has a rugged terrain. The Sava and Drina rivers are the country's major waterways. Croatia is bounded by Slovenia and Hungary on the north, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Yugoslavia on the east, and the Adriatic Sea on the south. It covers an area of 21,829 square miles (56,537 square kilometers). The capital, Zagreb, is in the north.
\par \tab Ethnic Croats, a Slavic people, constituted 78 percent of the population in the 1991 census. They are largely Roman Catholic and speak a variant of the Serbo-Croatian language. Other ethnic groups present in the country include the Serbs (12 percent) and the Muslims (1 percent). Before World War II Croatia had an economy based primarily on agriculture and cattle breeding. Grains, potatoes, sugar beets, and grapes were among its output. The discovery of rich petroleum fields and the expansion of light industry after the war greatly changed the region's character. The use of natural resources--such as hydroelectric power, coal, and bauxite--increased in those territories after World War II. During the 1990s Croatia attempted to make the move from a centrally planned economy to a free market system. However, the outbreak of hostilities in the former Yugoslavia caused a rapid and sharp decline in the Croatian economy--the nation's gross domestic product (GDP) fell an estimated 20 percent in 1992 from just a year earlier. The Croatian tourist trade, which accounted for 82 percent of pre-war Yugoslavia's tourism revenues, suffered the greatest war-related economic loss.
\par \tab The Croats began to settle in the lower Danube Valley in the 6th century. Croatia became a kingdom in the 10th century. It was conquered in 1091 by Ladislas I of Hungary, and a union was formed with Hungary that lasted for eight centuries. Croatia became an autonomous Hungarian crown land in 1868. In 1918 it was proclaimed independent from its previous ties with Hungary and Austria, and, with other provinces, it entered into a union known as the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes. The new state was renamed Yugoslavia in 1929, with King Alexander, a Serb, establishing a royal dictatorship. Discontent soon began to rise in Croatia, where many began to argue for the creation of a federation allowing Croatia more autonomy. In 1934 King Alexander was assassinated by Croatian separatists while on a state visit to France, and a regency headed by Prince Paul, the king's cousin, took power.
\par \tab After a separatist party captured 80 percent of the vote in the Croatian elections of 1938, negotiations concerning political reform began between the central government and Croatian political leaders. In 1939 an agreement was reached that Croatia autonomy over its affairs except for defense and foreign affairs. World War II broke out soon afterward, however, and Croatia became an independent state under German and Italian influence in 1941. The Ustase regime that ruled wartime Croatia carried out a brutal persecution of the nation's Serbs, Jews, and Gypsies. More than 350,000 Serbs were massacred by the regime during the war, including thousands at the notorious Jasenovac concentration camp. In 1945 Croatia was rejoined with Yugoslavia, which became a people's republic ruled by Josip Broz Tito, a Croat. The Communist hold on Croatia lasted until 1990, when the spirit of reform that was spreading throughout Eastern Europe led the government to hold multiparty elections. The Croatian Democratic Union, led by Franjo Tudjman, triumphed in those elections.
\par \tab Croatia declared its independence from Yugoslavia on June 25, 1991, and Yugoslav federal troops invaded. When appeals from the European Communities (EC) and the United States failed to stop the civil war, the EC recognized the independence of Croatia and Slovenia. Attempts at a cease-fire worked until Bosnia and Herzegovina declared independence. A bloody civil war soon consumed this province, pitting Serbs, Croats, and Muslims against each other. Nearly 1 million refugees from Bosnia and Herzegovina flooded into Croatia by 1994, prompting the nation's government to appeal for international humanitarian and financial aid. The Krajina and Eastern Slavonia regions of Croatia had been annexed by Serbia during the civil war, but a Croatian military offensive in August 1995 succeeded in recapturing Krajina, and Serbia later agreed to return Eastern Slavonia.
\par \tab In November 1995 the leaders of Croatia, Serbia, and Bosnia and Herzegovina signed a peace agreement ending the four-year-old war in Bosnia. The treaty called for Bosnia to be divided into a Muslim-Croat federation covering 51 percent of the territory and a Bosnian Serb republic controlling the remaining 49 percent of the land. The two segments would be linked by a limited central government and an elected parliament. Population (1994 estimate), 4,788,000.
{\b The Former Federated Republic of Yugoslavia}
\par \tab One of the youngest nations of Europe, Yugoslavia was created after World War I as a homeland for several different rival ethnic groups. The country was put together largely from remnants of the collapsed Ottoman Empire and Austria-Hungary. Demands for self-determination by Slovenes, Croats, Serbs, and others went unrecognized, and thus Yugoslavia became an uneasy association of peoples conditioned by centuries of ethnic and religious hatreds. World War II aggravated these rivalries, but a Communist dictatorship took power after the war and kept them restrained for 45 years. When the Communist system failed, the old rivalries reasserted themselves; in 1991-92 the provinces of Slovenia, Croatia, Macedonia, and Bosnia and Herzegovina seceded from the union, leaving the republics of Serbia and Montenegro as the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. Serbia includes the formerly independent provinces of Vojvodina in the north and Kosovo in the south.
\par \tab Yugoslavia is bounded on the north by Hungary, on the northeast by Romania, on the east by Bulgaria, on the south by Macedonia and Albania, on the southwest by the Adriatic Sea, and on the west by Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. At its widest point, the country measures more than 290 miles (465 kilometers) from northwest to southeast and 250 miles (400 kilometers) from northeast to southwest. Yugoslavia's total area is 39,449 square miles (102,172 square kilometers).
\par \tab Yugoslavia has a mountainous terrain. In eastern Serbia, the Balkan Mountains form the republic's border with Bulgaria and Romania, reaching an elevation of 6,000 feet (1,800 meters). The Sar and Kopaonik Mountains, located in southwestern Yugoslavia, feature the country's highest peak, Daravica, at 8,712 feet (2,655 meters). The Dinaric Alps occupy much of Montenegro and contain peaks reaching more than 8,000 feet (2,400 meters), including Montenegro's highest mountain, Durmitor, at 8,274 feet (2,522 meters). The major area of flatland lies in the north and is part of the Mid-Danube, or Pannonian, Plain. Stretching from Croatia and Hungary across northern Serbia, the plain is Yugoslavia's most fertile land.
\par \tab The major river in Yugoslavia is the Danube, which flows southeastward from the Hungarian border, through Belgrade, to the border with Romania. Its primary tributaries are the Sava, Drava, Tisa, and Morava. Other rivers include the Piva, Tara, Lim, and Vardar. Lake Scutari, on the border between Montenegro and Albania, is the largest lake on the Balkan Peninsula.
\par \tab The mountainous nature of Yugoslavia causes considerable climatic differences from one place to another. The Mid-Danube Plain has a continental climate with cold winters, hot summers, and moderate precipitation. The mountain regions have, on the whole, colder and shorter summers and more severe winters compared with other regions.
\par {\b Natural Resources and Plant and Animal Life}
\par \tab Yugoslavia has numerous deposits of lignite, or brown coal, but there is little good-grade black coal. There are some small petroleum and natural gas fields, located primarily in the Vojvodina region. The country has no nuclear power stations. Waterpower is a major source of energy, providing about one third of Yugoslavia's electricity. Yugoslavia is a major European producer of lead and copper. Other minerals include iron ore, zinc, bauxite, mercury, and antimony. About 37 percent of the country is forested. The predominant species are oak, beech, and other deciduous trees, with such evergreens as pine and fir growing in the mountains. Yugoslavia has a wide range of animals, including deer, foxes, wolves, wild pigs, bears, and martens. Birds include grouse, partridge, swans, buzzards, woodpeckers, and pelicans. The Adriatic Sea contains anchovies, sardines, mackerel, tuna, and other fishes.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab The inhabitants of Yugoslavia are of varied ethnic origins. According to the 1991 census the largest group is the Serbs, who number 6.5 million, or 62 percent of the population. They speak Serbo-Croatian, a Slavic language, and belong to the Eastern Orthodox church.
\par \tab A non-Slavic people, the Albanians, live in the southern part of the country. They number 1.7 million (17 percent of the population) and are the fastest growing ethnic group. Montenegrins total about 600,000 and are concentrated within the borders of their republic in southern Yugoslavia. They are Eastern Orthodox and speak Serbo-Croatian. Other ethnic groups present in Yugoslavia include Bosnian Muslims (300,000) and the Hungarians (300,000), Romanians, Bulgarians, Slovaks, Czechs, and others who live mostly in the northern province of Vojvodina.
\par \tab The largest city is Belgrade, the federal capital, with about 1.1 million inhabitants. Novi Sad, the capital of Vojvodina, is the second largest, with more than 170,000. Other important cities include Nis, with 160,000 people; Pristina, the capital of Kosovo, with 108,000; and Podgorica (formerly Titograd), the capital of Montenegro, with about 96,000 inhabitants.
\par \tab Yugoslav culture has been influenced by the Slavs, Turks, Italians, and Austrians. The influence of the long Turkish occupation can be seen in the food, folk costumes, and architecture of the nation.
\par \tab The earliest Yugoslav literature was religious in nature. The first popular literature appeared in medieval Serbia, mainly in the form of epic poems describing the struggle of the Serbs against the Turks. These poems were chanted by minstrels who traveled from village to village.
\par \tab In the 19th century Serbian writers laid the foundations of a modern literature. Vuk Karadic reformed the language and collected folk poetry, while Petar Petrovi Njegos produced epic poetry on the theme of liberty. Among modern writers are the Serbs Branimir Cosic, Branko Copic, and Ivo Andric, the winner of the 1961 Nobel prize for Literature, whose novel 'The Bridge on the Drina' has been translated into many languages.
\par \tab Yugoslav folklore is very colorful. Each ethnic group has its own costumes, songs, and dances. The most popular folk dance is the kolo, a circle dance performed to lively music.
\par \tab Soccer is the most popular sport, and Yugoslavia has produced some star players. Yugoslav basketball teams have also had success in international competitions, including a gold medal victory in the 1980 Summer Olympics. Outdoor sports such as hunting and fishing are also popular.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab Farming is a major occupation, employing about 34 percent of the labor force and utilizing more than half of the nation's land. Most farms are owned privately and are small. The major crops are corn (maize), wheat, barley, oats, potatoes, sugar beets, sunflowers, tobacco, and alfalfa. About one third of the agricultural area consists of pastures for grazing pigs, sheep, and cattle. Much of this is in the mountains. The growing of fruit includes plums, apples, pears, peaches, raspberries, strawberries, and apricots. Grapes are widely grown and wine produced, some for export.
\par \tab Fishing is carried out along the Adriatic coast and on the Danube River. Forestry is concentrated mainly in the mountain forests of northern Yugoslavia. It supports the pulp and paper and furniture industries.
\par \tab Much of Yugoslavia's industry is located in the north, primarily in the area surrounding Belgrade. Major exports include iron, steel, electronics, machinery, textiles, automobiles, and trucks. The processing and refining of metallic minerals also gives considerable employment.
\par \tab In the late 1980s, Yugoslavia began the shift from a centrally planned economy to a market economy. By 1993, only 4 percent of the nation's businesses were owned by the state, though nearly 70 percent of the labor force was employed in the state sector. The combined effects of the civil war in Bosnia and Herzegovina and United Nations (UN) economic sanctions against Yugoslavia served to devastate the Yugoslavian economy in the early 1990s. The country was plagued by a fall in output in almost every sector of the economy, and hyperinflation raged from early 1993 until January 1994, when the government introduced a new currency, called the new dinar, that is pegged to the German deutsche mark.
\par {\b Transportation, Communication, and Education}
\par \tab The problems of rail construction over the mountainous terrain of Yugoslavia have favored the development of a highway network. In the early 1990s, there were nearly 30,000 miles (48,300 kilometers) of roads in the country, compared to almost 2,500 miles (4,025 kilometers) of rail. More than 1.4 million passenger cars and 120,000 trucks were registered for use in 1993.
\par \tab With the secession of Croatia and Slovenia in 1991, Yugoslavia lost all of its major ports except the Montenegrin town of Bar. Yugoslav Airlines (JAT) is state owned and flies to many foreign destinations. The country has five airports, including international terminals at Belgrade and Podgorica.
\par \tab Postal and telephone services are run by the state. In 1993, there were 11 daily newspapers, including the notable Politika and Borba, published in Belgrade, and Pobjeda, printed in Podgorica. More than 2,500 books are published annually in Yugoslavia.
\par \tab In addition to the state-run Serbian Radio and Television and Montenegrin Radio and Television networks, there were three independent radio and television networks operating in the mid-1990s. An estimated 1.7 million televisions and 1.8 million radio receivers were in use in 1993.
\par \tab Education is compulsory between the ages of 7 and 15, after which students may choose to attend either a vocational or general secondary school. Students attending vocational school have the option of continuing their education at a two-year postsecondary school, while those attending general secondary school may continue at one of the country's six four-year universities. All education is free in Yugoslavia, including that at the university level.
\par {\b Government}
\par \tab Under a constitution drafted in April 1992, the government of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia is a federal multiparty republic with a bicameral legislature. The parliament, called the Federal Assembly, is divided into the Chamber of Citizens, which has 138 members elected by universal suffrage, and the 40-member Chamber of Republics, composed of representatives elected in equal numbers from the assemblies of both Serbia and Montenegro. The head of state is the president, who is elected by the federal parliament. The president is responsible for appointing a prime minister to head the government, a choice subject to approval by the legislature.
\par \tab The federal government handles matters of national defense, foreign policy, monetary policy, social welfare, and human rights. A large amount of administrative power is delegated to the separate republican governments of Serbia and Montenegro, which are organized on the federal model.
\par {\b History}
\par \tab After World War I the breakup of Austria-Hungary made possible the creation of a new state for the South Slavs, who include the Serbs, Croats, Slovenes, Bosnian Muslims, Montenegrins, and Macedonians. In 1918, an uneasy coalition of mutually hostile ethnic groups, each with a distinct 1,400-year history, became the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes; the new nation was renamed the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in 1929.
\par \tab Yugoslavia's first ruler was King Alexander, a Serb, who declared a personal dictatorship in 1929. He was assassinated by Croatian terrorists while on a state visit to France in 1934, and the throne passed to his young son Peter II. The resolution of the country's ethnic troubles appeared closer when an agreement was reached in 1939 to give Croatia autonomy, but in 1941 Yugoslavia was invaded by Germany, Italy, Hungary, and Bulgaria. Serbs resisted the occupation forces, and the Communist Partisans under the leadership of Josip Broz, known as Tito, became the dominant group. The Croats and Slovenes, however, sided openly with Germany and Italy.
\par \tab In the aftermath of World War II, Yugoslavia was devastated, with much of the country in ruins and more than 10 percent of its prewar population dead. Peter II was deposed in 1944, and Tito--who now bore the title of marshal--and the Communists came to sole power after an election in November 1945.
\par \tab A new constitution adopted in January 1946 abolished the monarchy and established the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia, a federation of six republics: Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia, and Slovenia. The Serbian provinces of Kosovo, with its Muslim Albanian majority, and Vojvodina, with a large Hungarian population, were given autonomous status within the people's republic in an effort to protect the interests of those two populations.
\par \tab In June 1948 Yugoslavia was expelled from the Soviet bloc for refusing to submit to Soviet orders. Despite Soviet efforts to depose him by isolating Yugoslavia, Tito became the country's first president in 1953. He managed successfully to steer a nonaligned path between the two superpowers, the Soviet Union and the United States, criticizing Western colonialism while also denouncing Soviet aggressions, such as the 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia. When Tito died in 1980, the fragile federation he had held together began to unravel.
\par \tab The League of Communists relinquished their constitutionally guaranteed monopoly on power, and in 1990 the first multiparty elections were held since Tito took power. In May 1991 Serbia and its allies blocked the election of a Croat to the federal presidency, leaving the country without a president. A new Serbian leader emerged--Slobodan Milosevic, who renewed the age-old promise of a Greater Serbia. This goal entailed taking parts of other republics where Serbian minorities lived and uniting them with Serbia.
\par \tab On June 25, 1991, Croatia and Slovenia declared their independence from Yugoslavia. Serbian leaders denounced this action, fearing for the safety of the more than half a million Serbs living in the other Yugoslav republics. Federal troops made up mostly of Serbs poured into Slovenia, resisted by Slovenian militia. The Serbs invaded Croatia.
\par \tab At the end of 1991 Germany, followed by the European Community (EC; now the European Union) and the United States, recognized the independence of Croatia and Slovenia. In January 1992, a cease-fire was negotiated that left Serbia with about one third of Croatia's territory. (A shaky peace between Serbia and Croatia lingered for more than three years until Croatia regained the captured territory in a military offensive during May-August 1995.)
\par \tab The violence spread next to Bosnia and Herzegovina. In an early 1992 referendum boycotted by the large Serb minority, the republic's Croats and Muslims voted for independence. International recognition came on April 6, 1992, and soon after, a bitter civil war erupted throughout the republic as the artillery of Serb militias shelled cities and towns.
\par \tab The situation in Bosnia was complicated by religious differences. Many of its residents were Muslims. Serbs tended mostly to be Serbian Orthodox, while Croats were mostly Roman Catholic. These rivalries added to the ethnic hatreds. Croat and Serb Christians also turned their weapons on the Muslim minority.
\par \tab A campaign of terrorism and genocide, which they termed ethnic cleansing, was started by the Serbs against the Muslims. Many Muslims were killed outright. Muslim women were raped, and men and boys were put into concentration camps. At least two million people became refugees, and about 140,000 were missing and presumed dead.
\par \tab In May 1992 the UN imposed sanctions on the newly formed Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. The UN accused the country of fueling the conflict in Bosnia and Herzegovina by supplying weapons and material support. The sanctions devastated the Serbian economy, causing hyperinflation and massive unemployment. Serbian President Milosevic closed his country's borders with Bosnia and broke off contacts between Serbia and the Bosnian Serbs in an effort to have the sanctions lifted.
\par \tab By late 1995, Muslim and Croat forces had made substantial gains against Serb forces and were in control of more than half the country. Many of Bosnia's cities were in ruins, among them Sarajevo, the capital. A breakthrough peace agreement was signed by the presidents of Serbia, Croatia, and Bosnia on November 21. The deal called for Bosnia and Herzegovina to be split 51 percent to a Croat-Muslim federation and 49 percent to a Bosnian Serb republic, both of which will share power in a central government. As a reward for Yugoslavia's role in bringing the peace treaty to fruition, the UN lifted its economic and military sanctions, signaling that the nation's long international isolation had finally come to an end.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by Ian M. Matley, Professor of Geography, Michigan State University.
\par \tab {\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR YUGOSLAVIA}
\par \tab Cohn, Lenard. Broken Bonds: The Disintegration of Yugoslavia, 2nd ed. (Westview, 1995).
\par \tab Crnobinja, Mihailo. The Yugoslav Drama (Univ. of Toronto Press, 1994).
\par \tab Dragnich, Alex. Serbs and Croats: The Struggle in Yugoslavia (Harcourt Brace, 1992).
\par \tab Pavlowitch, Stevan. Tito--Yugoslavia's Great Dictator: A Reassessment (Ohio State Univ. Press, 1992).
\par \tab Silber, Laura, and Little, Allan. Yugoslavia: Death of a Nation (TV Books/Penguin, 1996).
\par \tab Singleton, Fred. A Short History of the Yugoslav Peoples (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1985).\par \tab The largest island of the West Indies is Cuba. It is one of four islands--with Jamaica, Hispaniola, and Puerto Rico--that make up the Greater Antilles archipelago. Located just south of the Tropic of Cancer in the Caribbean Sea, Cuba's western tip extends into the Gulf of Mexico between Florida and the Yucatßn Peninsula. Cuba commands three strategically located sea-lanes: the Straits of Florida, between the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean; the Windward Passage, from the Atlantic to the Caribbean between Cuba and Haiti; and the Yucatßn Channel, between the Caribbean and the Gulf of Mexico. Havana, the capital city, is on the northwest coast, 92 nautical miles (170 kilometers) from Key West, Fla.
\par \tab The long, narrow main island lies in an east-west direction. It is about 780 miles (1,255 kilometers) long and averages 60 miles (97 kilometers) in width. The Isle of Youth with 926 square miles (2,398 square kilometers), off the southwest coast, and nearly 2,000 smaller islands bring the country's area to nearly 43,000 square miles (111,400 square kilometers). Cuba's population was nearly 10.5 million in 1988.
\par {\b Land and Climate}
\par \tab Most of the island is a rolling limestone plain. Its median elevation is less than 300 feet (91 meters) above sea level. Mountainous areas cover only about one quarter of the island and are widely separated. The most rugged is the Sierra Maestra, which rises steeply from the southeastern coast to 6,496 feet (1,980 meters) at Pico Turquino, the highest point on the island. Near the middle of Cuba, the Sierra de Trinidad and the Escambray Mountains have maximum elevations of more than 3,800 feet (1,160 meters). In the west the Sierra de los ╙rganos are characterized by curious limestone hills shaped like organ pipes.
\par \tab Cuba's 2,000-mile (3,200-kilometer) indented coastline is bordered with coral reefs and mangrove swamps. There are more than 280 white-sand beaches. Hundreds of pouch-shaped bays and inlets provide many fine harbors, including Guantßnamo Bay in the southeast, which was leased by the United States in 1903 for use as a naval base and is still under American control. There are more than 200 short, swift rivers. Seasonal flooding is common. Only the Rφo Cauto is navigable for a short distance.
\par \tab The surrounding bodies of warm water and the mild northeasterly trade winds moderate Cuba's tropical climate. The average annual temperature is about 77░ F (25░ C). The average temperature in winter is about 70░ F (21░ C), and in summer it is about 80░ F (27░ C). Rainfall averages 54 inches (137 centimeters) a year. It is heaviest from May to June and from September to October. Hurricanes pose a threat from July through October.
\par {\b Agriculture}
\par \tab Cuba's leading industry is agriculture. The most valuable crop is sugarcane. Cuba is the world's major exporter of cane sugar and the third greatest producer after Brazil and India. Now, as before the revolution of 1958 under the leadership of Fidel Castro, more than half of the cultivated land is devoted to sugarcane. The manufacture of sugar from cane is the chief industry. By-products include molasses, syrups, industrial alcohol from molasses, and rum. The cane harvest occurs during the dry months of January through April. Since the establishment in 1959 of a centrally planned economy under the Communist government, sugarcane has been grown mainly on large state farms and cooperatives. The Soviet Union and Eastern European countries were the principal importers of Cuban sugar. Sugar accounted for more than three quarters of all export revenues. The heavy dependence on a single crop continues to hinder Cuba's economy.
\par \tab Cuban tobacco is famous worldwide. Traditionally it has been the country's second most valuable crop. The finest tobacco is grown in Pinar del Rφo Province. During the 1980s tobacco production declined. By the late 1980s it occupied only about 1 percent of the land under cultivation, and its position as the second leading agricultural export was being challenged by citrus fruits.
\par \tab Other major crops are coffee, rice, tropical fruits, and vegetables, especially corn, yucca, plantains, beans, and yams. There are dairy farms and large cattle ranches. In spite of government efforts to improve these herds, fresh milk and meat are in short supply and are rationed.
\par \tab In May 1959 the government of Fidel Castro signed into law the Agrarian Reform Bill. At that time fewer than 10 percent of the landowners controlled more than 70 percent of the agricultural land. The bill established 1,000 acres (405 hectares) as the maximum amount of land that any person or company was allowed to own. A second Agrarian Reform Bill passed in October 1963 reduced that figure to 167 acres (68 hectares). Under these agrarian laws only Cuban citizens may buy or inherit land. The government took back all land owned by foreigners. Approximately 100,000 formerly landless farmers were given plots of about 67 acres (27 hectares) each to farm. Most of the confiscated land was transformed into large government farms.
\par {\b Natural Resources and Industry}
\par \tab The huge forests that once covered the island are nearly gone. In remote mountains a few stands of mahogany, cedar, ebony, and other fine cabinet woods and dyewoods remain. Reforestation, a major government goal, is underway. Fishery resources were relatively undeveloped until recent years. Since 1959 the annual fish catch and consumption of fish throughout the island have increased substantially. Cuba is the world's fourth largest producer of nickel and has about 10 percent of the world's estimated reserves. There are large deposits of iron ore and copper. Gold, silver, chromium, and cobalt are also mined. Although petroleum has been produced since 1916, more than 90 percent of Cuba's petroleum demand was supplied by the Soviet Union until 1990.
\par \tab Diversifying Cuba's industry is an objective of the Castro regime. Lack of inexpensive fuel and comparatively few raw materials have hindered the development of heavy industry. Trade and credit agreements have been made with the Soviet Union and its allies to help Cuba build factories.
\par \tab Tourism was once a source of income second only to the production of sugar. After the revolution in 1958 tourism declined, as hotels and casinos were seized by the Castro government. Since the mid-1970s tourism has again become a major source of income. More tourists visit the island now than did before the revolution. Most of them come from Canada, Europe, and other countries of Latin America.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab Cuba was a colony of Spain until 1898. The great majority of its white population is of Spanish descent. The Indians who lived on the island when Christopher Columbus arrived in 1492 were Taino and Ciboney. They were almost completely eliminated by disease, warfare, and the hardships of slavery. Black Africans were first brought to Cuba in 1522 to work on the sugar plantations. Slavery was abolished in 1886. About 66 percent of the present population is white, 12 percent black, and 22 percent of mixed heritage. The annual rate of population growth is 1.1 percent, one of the lowest in the Caribbean. Life expectancy at birth is 73 years for males and 76 years for females.
\par \tab Cubans speak Spanish, and their way of living reflects their Spanish background. African folkways--art, music, and dancing in particular--have profoundly influenced the people and helped produce a uniquely Cuban culture. Since the 1958 revolution, the role of religion in Cuban society has become relatively insignificant. Education is free and compulsory. On average, Cubans attain a seventh-grade education. About 96 percent of adults are literate. The University of Havana is the leading institution of higher education.
\par \tab About 70 percent of the Cuban population resides in urban areas. Havana, with a population of about 2 million, is the capital and largest city. It is nearly six times larger than the next largest city, Santiago de Cuba. Transportation by air, rail, and highway is well developed. All the provincial capitals are linked by the Central Highway, a 711-mile (1,144-kilometer) road that extends from Pinar del Rφo in the west to Santiago de Cuba in the east.
{\b HISTORY}
\par \tab Columbus came to Cuba in 1492. Spain conquered it under Diego Velßsquez in 1511. Frequent insurrections failed to end Spain's harsh rule. From 1868 to 1878 occurred the armed rebellion known as the Ten Year's War, led by plantation owner Carlos Manuel de CΘspedes, a coauthor of Cuba's declaration of independence. After the loss of more than 200,000 lives, the revolt ended in failure.
\par \tab "Cuba libre" (Free Cuba) became the rallying cry for another revolt in 1895. One of its leaders was the poet and Cuban hero JosΘ Julißn Martφ, who died in battle early in the struggle. The cruelties of the Spaniards led to protests by the United States. On Feb. 15, 1898, the USS Maine blew up in Havana Harbor, and the United States declared war on April 25, 1898. A peace treaty, signed in December, forced Spain to surrender Cuba and provided for its temporary military occupation by the United States. In 1902 the Republic of Cuba was established. The Platt Amendment to the Cuban constitution gave the United States the right to intervene in the interests of a stable government. The United States intervened several times to help settle revolts, reform corrupt administrations, and supervise elections. In 1934 the United States canceled the Platt Amendment. It had asked for several "coaling or naval stations" at first, but finally retained, in a 99-year lease, only the strategic naval base on Guantßnamo Bay, guarding the Windward Passage route to the Panama Canal.
\par {\b Dictatorship and Revolution}
\par \tab Fulgencio Batista led a "sergeants' revolt" in 1933 that toppled the despotic rule of Gen. Gerardo Machado y Morales. Batista thus became the most powerful man in Cuba. Batista was elected president in 1940. He retired from office in 1944. In 1952 he overthrew the civilian government a second time. Suspending the constitution, he made himself chief of state with dictatorial powers.
\par \tab Years of corrupt government, embezzlement, and terrorism--generally condoned by the United States--led to a revolt in the fall of 1958 under the leadership of Fidel Castro. Batista fled to the Dominican Republic on Jan. 1, 1959. A week later the Fidelistas were in control of Havana. Castro, at age 32, became premier.
\par \tab At first many Cubans applauded Batista's downfall and hoped that Castro's promised reforms would benefit their country. Before long, however, it became evident that the new regime had embraced Communism. A visit from the Soviet Union's First Deputy Premier Anastas Mikoyan in 1960 brought Cuba a credit of 100 million dollars and a promise that the Soviets would buy 5 million tons of sugar. Offers of loans, trade, and technicians from mainland China and the Soviet satellite countries followed. Many critics of the new regime were put to death by firing squads or were imprisoned. Thousands of anti-Communist Cubans went underground or fled the country. The vast majority of the refugees sought exile in the United States.
\par {\b Communism in the Western Hemisphere}
\par \tab Cuba's turn to Communism raised serious problems for its neighbors in the Americas. Castro repeatedly criticized the United States in long speeches at rallies in Cuba and in messages to the United Nations (UN) and the Organization of American States (OAS). He frequently charged that the United States was plotting to invade Cuba. United States citizens suffered more than those of any other foreign country from the confiscation, or nationalization, of property because they had the largest investments in Cuba. Cuba's promises to pay for the property went largely unfulfilled.
\par \tab During the first two years of Castro's rule in Cuba, the other governments of the Western Hemisphere attempted to maintain friendly relations with their neighbor. On Jan. 3, 1961, however, United States president Dwight D. Eisenhower broke off diplomatic relations with Cuba after Castro charged that the United States Embassy in Havana was the center of counterrevolutionary activities. Eisenhower also canceled the United States sugar imports and imposed a total export embargo that seriously damaged the Cuban economy.
\par \tab Eventually the Latin American nations, with the exception of Mexico, severed relations with the Castro regime. In January 1962 a conference of OAS foreign ministers voted to expel Cuba from the organization.
\par \tab Meanwhile, anti-Castro refugees in the United States and elsewhere in the Americas clung to their hope that with outside help the Communist government in Cuba could be overthrown. The exiles carried out hit-and-run raids on Cuban ports and trained for an invasion, which was planned by the United States Central Intelligence Agency. On April 17, 1961, a force of 1,500 Cuban exiles landed at the Bay of Pigs, some 90 miles (145 kilometers) southeast of Havana. Their attempt to liberate the island failed. More than 1,100 of the invaders were taken prisoner.
\par {\b Soviet Financial and Military Aid}
\par \tab In February 1962 President John F. Kennedy proclaimed an embargo on most United States trade with Cuba. Castro then signed a 700-million-dollar trade agreement with the Soviet Union. The Cuban economy was in serious danger. Industrial plants, most of them confiscated during the revolution and now in disrepair, lacked the raw materials to keep operating. Spare parts for factory equipment and motor vehicles made in the United States were no longer available. Crop yields were poor. Food rationing began in March 1962.
\par \tab After mid-July shipments of goods from the Soviet Union were not limited to peacetime products. Freighters entered Cuban ports loaded with military equipment and supplies. Transports brought thousands of Soviets. Soviet spokesmen gave assurances that the armaments were defensive and that only Soviet technicians, not military personnel, were being sent to the island.
\par {\b Soviet Missiles in Cuba}
\par \tab On Oct. 22, 1962, President Kennedy announced in television and radio broadcasts that photographs taken by reconnaissance planes showed that Soviet atomic-missile sites were being built in Cuba. The missiles, already in place, according to Kennedy, had a range of 1,000 miles (1,600 kilometers). Sites for intermediate-range missiles were also under construction. The Soviet jet bombers that were already in Cuba were also capable of carrying nuclear weapons.
\par \tab Kennedy charged that the presence of these weapons constituted a threat to the security of the nations of the Western Hemisphere and violated the Rio Treaty of 1947. He called for the withdrawal of the missiles and bombers and announced that the United States was imposing a quarantine on ships carrying offensive military equipment to Cuba. He warned that an aggressive act from Cuba would be regarded as an attack by the Soviet Union and that the United States would retaliate with nuclear force.
\par \tab A week of international tension followed, during which the United States prepared for war. United States naval vessels patrolled the Caribbean, but the Soviet ships carrying missiles had turned back.
\par \tab On October 26 Kennedy received a letter from Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev that indicated his willingness to remove the missiles from Cuba. Khrushchev also asked Kennedy to promise that the United States would not invade Cuba. Kennedy accepted the condition, and on October 28 Khrushchev ordered the missiles withdrawn. The United States lifted the quarantine on November 20.
\par {\b Migrations of Cubans}
\par \tab Castro's relations with the United States and the Soviet Union followed a quieter course after the missiles crisis. On Dec. 21, 1962, he agreed to exchange the prisoners taken at the Bay of Pigs for 53 million dollars worth of drugs and food from the United States. In 1965 Castro agreed to permit Cubans with relatives living in the United States--except for youths of military age--to migrate to the United States on chartered flights. These so-called Freedom Flights carried nearly 300,000 Cubans to the United States between 1965 and the end of the agreement in 1973.
\par \tab Meanwhile, the Soviet Union continued to pour money and goods into Cuba. Its outlay was estimated at 1 million dollars a day. Castro's drive to diversify Cuba's economy by industrializing proved unsuccessful. Since Cuba needed sugar to carry out its trade agreements with the Soviet Union and its allies, emphasis was again placed on agriculture.
\par \tab Castro's advocacy of violent revolution throughout Latin America weakened Cuba's relations with the Soviet Union in the late 1960s. The Soviets favored a more moderate policy. In 1967 Ernesto (Che) Guevara, a leader of the revolt that brought Castro to power and one of Castro's most trusted associates, was captured and executed while trying to spark a guerrilla uprising in Bolivia. In 1968 several high-ranking Cuban Communists were arrested because of their pro-Soviet stand. Soviet-Cuban ties were revitalized in the 1970s, however, and the winning faction in the 1975-76 Angolan civil war was supported by Cuban troops and Soviet arms. A phased withdrawal of Cuba's 50,000 troops began in 1988 when South Africa agreed to grant independence to Namibia.
\par \tab The first steps toward resumption of United States-Cuban diplomatic relations were taken in 1977. Agreements were reached on fishing rights and maritime boundaries and the partial lifting of bans on travel to Cuba. On Feb. 24, 1976, Cuba's first socialist constitution took effect. It created a National Assembly of the People's Power led by a Council of States. The premiership was abolished, and in December 1976 the assembly elected Castro to be the council president--making him chief of state as well as the head of government.
\par \tab In early 1980 nearly 10,000 Cubans sought asylum in foreign embassies in Havana. After Castro removed restrictions on emigration, about 125,000 Cubans fled to the United States in boats from the Cuban port of Mariel. An estimated 3,000 of these refugees were later found to have serious criminal records or to be otherwise undesirable immigrants. Most of them were jailed, and Castro resisted the United States attempts to send them back to Cuba. In June 1984 Jesse Jackson, then a candidate for the Democratic presidential nomination in the United States, secured the surprise release from Cuba of 22 United States citizens who had been imprisoned for drug dealing or illegal entry and 26 Cuban political dissidents. In December a normal immigration policy between the two countries was restored; the deportation of unwanted Cuban exiles began in February 1985.
\par \tab In May 1985, however, the United States began broadcasting programs to Cuba over a service called Radio Martφ, based in Miami. In angry response, Castro suspended the immigration agreement. In 1988 the return of undesirable refugees began again.
\par \tab The Soviet Union for many years provided Cuba with an estimated 5 billion dollars annually in economic assistance. In April 1989 Soviet premier Mikhail Gorbachev visited Castro to discuss cutbacks in aid. As the Soviet Union disintegrated into economic chaos after 1990, the aid to Castro's government nearly ceased. The Cuban economy was soon beset by serious shortages of nearly everything, and rationing became more stringent. Castro nevertheless vowed to persist with his Communist policies.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by James Curtis, Professor of Geography, Oklahoma State University.\par \tab An island nation in the Mediterranean Sea, Cyprus is located approximately 40 miles (65 kilometers) south of Turkey and 60 miles (100 kilometers) west of Syria. It is the third largest island in the Mediterranean and has an area of 3,572 square miles (9,251 square kilometers). Since 1974 the northern third of the island has been under the control of the Turkish Cypriot community.
\par \tab Four major physical regions characterize Cyprus: the Kyrenia Mountains in the north, the Tro÷dos Mountains in the south, the Mesaoria Plain in between, and the coastal plains that surround almost the entire country. The island's highest point, Mount Olympus, is in the Tro÷dos range and reaches a height of 6,406 feet (1,953 meters). Copper was once plentiful in this range, but reserves are now largely depleted. (The name of the metal was actually derived from that of the island, since copper was once so significant a resource. It was mined there as early as 2500 BC.) The Mesaoria is the island's agricultural area, but some crops must be irrigated. The Kyrenia range is noted for its castles dating from the time of the Crusades.
\par \tab Cyprus has a Mediterranean climate with hot, dry summers and rainy winters. In the capital city of Nicosia, average daytime temperatures reach a maximum of 97░ F (36░ C), and the sun shines for more than 11 hours a day in the summer. During the winter, freezing temperatures can occur in the Tro÷dos. The average yearly rainfall is only 19 inches (48 centimeters), and every river is dry for at least part of the year.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab The majority of Cypriots are of Greek descent. They speak Greek, are mostly Cypriot Orthodox Christians, and make up approximately 95 percent of the total population. Those of Turkish descent, a legacy from the Ottoman period, speak Turkish and are mostly Muslims. As a result of the Turkish invasion of 1974, most Greek Cypriots fled the northern part of the island and now live in the south. The island is primarily rural with only two cities having more than 100,000 inhabitants--Nicosia and Limassol. Both Greek and Turkish are official languages.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab Although the Turkish invasion in 1974 greatly disrupted Cyprus' economy, there has been slow but steady recovery. Agriculture employs the highest percentage of the population. Major crops include potatoes, citrus fruits, grapes, and barley. Raw agricultural products are a major component of total exports. Manufacturing products include apparel, food, beverages, cement, bricks, and tiles. Important manufacturing exports include clothing, shoes, cement, paper products, and cigarettes. Gypsum and asbestos have replaced copper as the major minerals produced. Tourism, despite the unsettled political conditions, remains a strong contributor to the economy.
\par {\b History and Government}
\par \tab Cyprus has been inhabited for more than 7,000 years. Sometime between 2000 and 1000 BC, Greek Achaeans colonized the island. The island fell to the various great Middle Eastern empires and was part of the Roman Empire when the Apostle Paul and his assistant Barnabas introduced Christianity there. Cyprus was part of the Eastern, later Byzantine, Empire but fell to the Crusaders in the late 12th century. The Ottoman Turks captured it in 1571. The British leased Cyprus from the Ottomans in 1878 and took it as their own in 1914.
\par \tab Disagreements between the Greek and Turkish communities hampered the struggle for independence. Many Greek Cypriots wanted to be part of Greece, while many Turkish Cypriots wanted the island split into two distinct political areas. When independence was achieved in 1960, the constitution guaranteed representation to both communities, but continuing conflicts made the document unworkable. In 1963 the Turkish community withdrew from the coalition government, and each community governs itself with its own president, council of ministers, and legislative assembly.
\par \tab In 1974, when a coup forced out the president of Cyprus, Turkish forces invaded and took control of the northern third of the island for the Turkish minority. Efforts to restore a united country were further hurt when the Turkish-occupied zone declared independence in 1983.
\par \tab This declaration was condemned by the United Nations and was recognized internationally only by Turkey. Talks, however, continued between the two communities, and efforts were directed toward establishing some kind of federal republic. Population (1984 estimate) 662,000.\par \tab The nation of Czechoslovakia split peacefully into two countries on Jan. 1, 1993. The western provinces of Bohemia and Moravia became the Czech Republic, while the eastern section became Slovakia. Of the two new countries, the Czech Republic was the larger, with a land area of 30,441 square miles (78,842 square kilometers), compared to Slovakia's 18,919 square miles (49,000 square kilometers). Its population was almost twice as large: 10,314,000 compared to Slovakia's 5,297,000. Economically, too, the Czech Republic was better off, with a much higher gross domestic product, less unemployment, and greater success in returning former state industries to private hands.
\par {\b Land}
\par \tab The Czech Republic is bordered on the south by Austria, on the north by Poland, on the west by Germany, and on the east by Slovakia. The country's greatest length, west to east, is about 300 miles (480 kilometers); and its greatest width, north to south, is about 160 miles (260 kilometers). Most of the country consists of the Bohemian Massif, a large basin circled by low mountain ranges that occasionally exceed 3,000 feet (900 meters) above sea level. In the southwest is the large Bohemian Forest. The highest mountains are in the Sudeten Mountains, along the Polish border in the north.
\par \tab The country's main river is the Elbe, which flows into Germany and becomes a major waterway. The Oder and Vistula rivers flow north into Poland. Other significant rivers are the Berounka, Vltava, Sßzava, Iser, Uhlava, and Morava. Of these, the Vltava (Moldau in German) is the longest within the country, flowing 270 miles (435 kilometers). There are no sizable lakes, but there are several man-made reservoirs, of which the Lipno in the far southwest is the largest.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab Nearly 95 percent of the population consists of Bohemians--or Czechs--and Moravians. The other major ethnic groups are Hungarians, Slovaks, and Gypsies. The large German population that occupied the Sudetenland (the mountainous border regions of Bohemia and Moravia) before World War II was removed after the war. The Gypsy population may be the largest in Eastern Europe, but they have no legal standing as a recognized ethnic group. About 39 percent of the people are Roman Catholic, while a slightly larger percentage are atheists. Russian Orthodox and Protestant churches have much smaller followings.
\par \tab More than 75 percent of the people live in urban areas, though most of the cities are of modest size. Prague, the capital, exceeds 1 million in population. The second largest city, Brno, has a population of only about 390,000, however. Ostrava, in the northeast, and Pilsen, in the southwest, are the other major cities. The latter is one of the most famous beer-brewing centers in the world.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab The Czech Republic is highly industrialized, compared to Slovakia. However, much of the industry was, in the early 1990s, obsolete--a leftover from Communist central planning. The country has some modern plants that were expected to become productive when economic reforms took root. The largest single industry is engineering, followed by food production, electronics, chemicals, rubber, asbestos, and iron and steel. During Communist rule the country was a leader in production of automobiles and diesel locomotives.
\par {\b Government and History}
\par \tab The Czech Republic has a parliamentary, multiparty form of government. The head of state is the president. Vßclav Havel, who had resigned as president of Czechoslovakia in July 1992, was elected president of the Czech Republic in January 1993. The head of government is the prime minister, who governs with a cabinet. The one-house parliament has 200 deputies.
\par \tab From the early Middle Ages until 1918 Moravia and Bohemia were both Central European kingdoms. Moravia was settled in the 4th century by Germans and Celts and in the 6th and 7th century by Avars. The Slavs, ancestors of the present occupants, arrived in the late 8th century. The Slavs had settled in Bohemia by the 6th century. By the mid-9th century the Moravians had formed a kingdom, which eventually grew into Great Moravia and included part of Poland, all of Bohemia, and part of Hungary. This small empire was destroyed by Magyars in 906.
\par \tab The decline of Moravia led to the ascendancy of Bohemia. The kingdom of Bohemia, in the 10th century, included Moravia and part of Poland. The kingdom's greatest extent was in the 13th century, when it added sections of Hungary and Austria.
\par \tab After the 14th century the Moravians and Bohemians were caught between more powerful neighbors and torn by religious controversies. Both regions came under the control of the Hapsburg monarchy of Austria in 1526. A Czech revolt against Austria was harshly put down in 1620, and the two kingdoms became provinces within the empire of Austria-Hungary.
\par \tab Czech nationalism revived in the 19th century, inspired by such popular rebellions as the Revolution of 1848. The Czech language was put on the same footing as the more prevalent German. Bohemia, Moravia, and neighboring Slovakia drew closer together as they sought to throw off the yoke of Austria-Hungary. This goal was achieved in 1918, with the formation of Czechoslovakia and the end of Austria-Hungary. Bohemia and Moravia remained part of Czechoslovakia until Jan. 1, 1993, when Slovakia broke away to form an independent state.\par \tab One of the most prosperous nations of Europe, Denmark is a small country with few natural riches. Its location on the North Sea, however, makes it easily reached by the industrial states of Western Europe, and it is a physical, cultural, and commercial bridge between Scandinavia and Central Europe. Although it is dependent on foreign trade, Denmark has one of the highest standards of living in the world.
\par \tab Denmark proper is made up of a long peninsula called Jylland, or Jutland; two large islands--Fyn, or Fⁿnen, and SjΣlland, or Zealand; and 483 smaller islands that dot the entrance to the Baltic Sea. People live on 97 of those islands.
\par \tab Denmark's only landward neighbor is Germany. A strip of land about 30 miles (48 kilometers) wide joins Jylland to the German Plain at the south. The long peninsula at its northern tip is 70 miles (113 kilometers) from Norway across the Skagerrak, a rectangular arm of the North Sea. The North Sea itself lies to the west. To the east, between Denmark and Sweden, stretch the strait called Kattegat, meaning "cat's throat," and the narrow strait called ╓resund.
\par {\b The Lowland and Its Produce}
\par \tab Denmark has an area of 16,629 square miles (43,069 square kilometers) without counting Greenland, the world's largest island, and the Faeroe Islands, located in the North Atlantic between Iceland and the Shetland Islands. Both are self-governing parts of Denmark.
\par \tab The surrounding sea makes Denmark's climate quite mild for its location between 54░ and 58░ N. latitude. The temperature averages 61░ F (16░ C) in summer and 32░ F (0░ C) in winter. Periods of frost seldom last long. Rainfall is plentiful, with the greatest monthly amounts occurring in August and October.
\par \tab The Jylland peninsula makes up two thirds of the area of the country proper. The western side is a broad plain of moor, heath, and sand. Swept by winds, it is rimmed at the coast by dunes and low cliffs. This part of the peninsula was all wasteland at one time. As a result of the efforts of the Danish Heath Society, a large part of it is now producing grains, sugar beets, pasturage, and pine trees. The middle of the peninsula is a wide strip of irregular hills. The eastern shore is fertile and wooded with a coast indented by shallow fiords, each with a small town or fishing village at its head.
\par \tab The harbor of Frederikshavn, at the northern end of Jylland, is the sailing point for Sweden. Aarhus, halfway down the east coast, is an important seaport and Denmark's second largest city. The only city of any importance on the west coast is Esbjerg, from which food exports go to Great Britain.
\par \tab The islands are fertile spots, alike in formation, with low hills, tiny lakes, and sandy beaches. Even the smallest ones are richly green and wooded by the typical beech trees. The soil is of glacial origin, constantly moistened by the damp sea winds and fogs that blow in off the North Sea.
\par \tab Just to the east of Jylland, across the Little Belt, by ferry or over the half-mile bridge, is the garden island of Fyn. Its largest city, Odense, is famous as the birthplace of the beloved writer of charming fairy stories, Hans Christian Andersen.
\par \tab East from Fyn, 10 to 15 miles across the Great Belt, lies ZjΣlland, the largest of the islands and the seat of the capital city of Copenhagen. The city is the country's largest port, its only important industrial center, and the metropolitan area for more than a quarter of the population.
\par \tab The two-mile Storstrom Bridge links SjΣlland to the southern island of Falster. West of Falster is Lolland Island; east is M÷en. Some 100 miles farther east is Bornholm Island, site of Denmark's deposits of brown coal and the kaolin used in making porcelain. These deposits were long thought to be Denmark's only minerals, but great salt beds were found elsewhere in the years 1946 to 1948.
\par \tab The Danes were once primarily a farming people, but only about 8 percent of the workers now are farmers. Many are dairy or stock farmers. About three fourths of the land can be cultivated. Much of it is difficult to work. The soil is kept fertile by the use of fertilizers. The combination of mild climate, usable soil, skillful scientific farming, and government aid has made Denmark one of Europe's richest farming countries. Most farmers are small landowners. Laws forbid the merging of small farms into larger units.
\par \tab Denmark has the most successful system of rural cooperatives in the world. They include nearly nine tenths of the farmers in the country. The cooperative societies pool capital and buy farm machinery. They handle the marketing of milk, butter, cheese, eggs, and bacon. They also help to keep members informed about the best agricultural methods.
\par \tab Much of the farmers' prosperity depends upon pigs, cows, and chickens. These provide the bacon, eggs, and dairy products for their export business. The crops of grain and vegetables are now raised almost exclusively for home use or to feed the livestock. Until the mid-19th century, grains and cereals were Denmark's largest exports. Then American competition made it impossible for the farmers to market these products profitably. Many of the farmers were ruined. They changed to stock and dairy farming.
\par {\b Fishing and Industry}
\par \tab Fishing is a profitable occupation for many Danes. Some of the fishing villages are shining and modern; others are old and weathered. All along the coast fishermen are hard at work with boats and nets to bring in the plaice, or flatfish, herring, cod, eels, and other fishes that, with fish products, make up a large part of the country's food and exports.
\par \tab Industry now provides more of the national income than does agriculture. Each year more people are employed in manufacturing and handicrafts. Artistic designers and skilled craftsmen turn out elegant modern silver goods, china and ceramics, textiles, and furnishings that are admired and widely bought abroad. The leading industries are iron and other metal manufacturing and the processing of foodstuffs. Also important are the paper and graphics industries, transport, footwear and clothing, wood and furniture, and mineral extraction industries.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab The cities, even around the port districts, are so clean that they look as if they are carefully scrubbed every night. The buildings and streets are modern and well constructed. The most popular method of transportation is the bicycle. Here and there rise old castles, many built in the 16th century.
\par \tab The Danes seem to have discovered a fine philosophy of living well and vigorously. They are happy, friendly, and helpful. The farmer and his family do most of the work on the land. Their home is equipped with central heating, telephone, and refrigeration. Most farms have low, white-plastered buildings built around small courts. They have either thatched or red-tile roofs. In front of the house, a neatly fenced flower garden grows in gay colors. A little summerhouse offers an outdoor dining room for use in the brief summer months, as the sun-loving Danes never stay inside when the weather is good.
\par {\b Education and Social Welfare}
\par \tab The Danes have no racial problems. They are almost all of the same northern stock--tall and blond. Neither have they any racial prejudices. There are no extremes of wealth and poverty; there is almost no illiteracy, as education is compulsory. An outstanding feature of Danish education is the system of folk high schools. Though called high schools, they are institutions of advanced education and part of the adult education movement. Their founding was inspired by the writer and teacher Bishop Nikolai Grundtvig (1783-1872). He believed that understanding and love of country would arouse his people to an active interest in their government. The schools specialize in Danish history, literature, folklore, and methods of democracy.
\par \tab Denmark has kept in advance of many other countries in social legislation. Its government, a constitutional monarchy with legislative powers delegated to the Folketing, or Parliament, was founded in 1849. Before the end of the 19th century, Denmark's laws had provided for old-age pensions, health and hospital insurance, and trade unions. The government also maintains the National Health Service. Its members give instruction in hygiene, nutrition, and related subjects. Living standards are so nearly uniform that it has been possible to organize these measures along similar lines for all the people. There is uniformity of religion also, as a large majority of the people belong to the established Lutheran church.
\par \tab The principal universities in Denmark are the Copenhagen University, founded in 1479, and the University of Aarhus, opened in 1933. Since the days of the 16th-century astronomer Tycho Brahe, Denmark has produced many distinguished scholars and artists. Among them are philosopher S÷ren Kierkegaard, geologist Nicolaus Steno, physicists Hans Christian Oersted and Niels Bohr, sculptor Bertel Thorvaldsen, and novelist Isak Dinesen.
\par {\b History}
\par \tab The ancient history of the Danes previous to the Viking period is founded on tradition and sagas. The Norse heroes were savage and warlike and loved fighting for its own sake. The Vikings were pirates whose galleys sailed to the shores of all the countries of the known world. They were a scourge to all the lands within their reach.
\par \tab Although the "wild Danes" were mentioned in a document written in the 6th century, the first authentic historical record of these people dates from AD 800. From 800 to 1042 they constantly raided the British shores. They conquered and sent colonists to southern England.
\par \tab In 826 the missionary monk Ansgar brought the first Christian teachings to the wild northland. True Christianization of Denmark was not accomplished until the Viking period ended in the reign of Harold Bluetooth (960).
\par \tab Under King Canute, Norway was conquered. After Canute's death the kingdom was in a state of chaos, with bitter jealousy and fighting among the nobles. The free Danes were forced to accept a feudal system under which they became serfs. Poverty and dissatisfaction were widespread.
\par \tab With the reign of Valdemar I (1157-82) Denmark regained its power. The Danes conquered northern German territory as far as Hamburg. The Baltic became Denmark's sea. After the reign of Valdemar II (1202-41) the whole political structure of the nation again fell apart through internal strife and religious differences. It was not until the reign of Valdemar IV (1340-75) that the country became reunited. This monarch again made Denmark a great Baltic power. His work for the welfare of his people was carried on by his daughter, Margrethe I.
\par {\b Union of Kalmar}
\par \tab In 1397, during Queen Margrethe's reign, the Union of Kalmar was formed. This agreement gave each of the Scandinavian countries--Norway, Sweden, and Denmark--the right to manage its own affairs, but it united them against aggression. Sweden was never satisfied with the Union, as Denmark was the powerful member. After many quarrels it withdrew in 1523. Norway and Denmark kept the Union until 1814, when the Peace of Kiel ceded Norway to Sweden.
\par \tab There were then 50 years of peace. But in 1864 Denmark was attacked by Austria and Prussia and lost the provinces of Schleswig and Holstein. After that war the Danes were at peace until the German invasion in 1940. In the intervening period they built their present strong democratic structure. In World War I the country remained neutral, though its sympathies were with the Allies. After Germany's defeat, a plebiscite gave back to Denmark the northern third of the province of Schleswig.
\par {\b Resistance to German Occupation}
\par \tab In April 1940, disregarding its nonaggression pact with Denmark, Germany sent in its troops. King Christian X asked his people not to resist. He remained in Copenhagen, regarding himself a prisoner. He refused to appoint a new cabinet, as the Germans wished him to do. Later, all semblance of authority was taken from the Danish government. The people's trade, homes, and lives were controlled by the invaders. Sabotage against the Germans increased. Trains were wrecked, manufacturing plants were blown up, and general strikes were called.
\par \tab The Danes saw few battles and little bombing, and Denmark fared better than other occupied nations. In 1947 Frederik IX succeeded his father, Christian X, as king. Denmark joined the European Recovery Plan in 1948 and ratified the North Atlantic Treaty in 1949. In 1953 it amended the constitution and changed the parliament to one body, the Folketing.
\par \tab Greenland was made part of Denmark and given representation in the Folketing, with full home rule granted in 1979. Denmark was one of the seven charter members of the European Free Trade Association formed in 1959. In 1967, faced with severe economic difficulties, Denmark applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), based on Britain's acceptance into the organization. Membership became effective on Jan. 1, 1973. Frederik IX died in 1972, and his eldest daughter succeeded to the throne as Margrethe II.
\par \tab After 1973 rising petroleum prices and the international depression increased unemployment. A tax bill controversy in 1973 led to the dissolution of the Folketing. Two new parties were elected, and Poul Hartling became prime minister. His Venstre party, however, was defeated in 1975 elections. A Social Democratic government was in control until 1982, when economic problems forced Prime Minister Anker J÷rgensen to resign. He was replaced by conservative Poul Schlⁿter. Population (1984 estimate), 5,112,100.
{\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR DENMARK}
\par \tab Eriksen, Peter and others. Fⁿnen--the Heart of Denmark (Nordic, 1980).
\par \tab Linker, Robert, trans. Misfortunes of Ogier the Dane (Blair, 1964).
\par \tab MacHaffie, I.S. and Nielsen, M.A. Of Danish Ways (Harper, 1984).
\par \tab Wohlrabe, R.A. and Krusch, W.E. The Land & People of Denmark, rev. ed. (Harper, 1972).\par \tab A small country in the Horn of Africa, on the eastern coast, Djibouti faces the Strait of Bab el Mandeb between the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden. Formerly known as Afars and Issas, the country has been called officially the Republic of Djibouti since 1977. Djibouti is bordered almost entirely by Ethiopia; Somalia borders on the southeast, and the Gulf of Aden is on the east. It covers an area of 8,900 square miles (23,050 square kilometers). Its coastline, deeply indented by the Gulf of Tadjoura, runs some 500 miles (800 kilometers) from north to south. The capital is the port city of Djibouti.
\par \tab Djibouti is both a desert land of traders and nomads, or wandering peoples, and a busy commercial trade center at the western end of the Gulf of Aden. The country has few natural resources. Djibouti city, a deepwater port located on the southern shore of the Gulf of Tadjoura, is the only seaport connected by rail to neighboring Ethiopia.
\par \tab Temperatures average 86░ F (30░ C) yearly at Djibouti city. There is a less warm season from November to April. Precipitation is scarce and plants are mostly scrub. Animal life includes hyenas, jackals, antelopes, and gazelles.
\par \tab The two major ethnic groups of the country are the Issas, who are of Somalian ancestry, and the Afars, who are of Ethiopian ancestry. The Afars are concentrated in the north and west and the Issas in the south and east. Both groups are largely nomadic and adhere to the religion of Islam.
\par \tab Agriculture is limited to small-scale production of fruits and vegetables. Livestock includes goats, sheep, cattle, and camels. There is limited fishing along the coast but most takes place at the seaport of Obock. Salt mining, cement manufacturing, and a bottling plant are in various stages of development.
\par \tab Djibouti's economy relies almost entirely on services and external trade, but its unfavorable balance of trade makes it dependent on foreign assistance. Imports are mainly foods and beverages, textiles, machinery and electrical machines, coal, and chemical products. Exports include live animals and food and food products. Djibouti city has several piers, warehouses, water reservoirs, and fuel-storage tanks. The closing of the Suez Canal from 1967 to 1975 adversely affected trade in Djibouti. Destruction of parts of the Djibouti-Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, railway during the Ethiopian civil war of 1977 led to further disruption of Djibouti's economy.
\par \tab From the Djibouti city airport there are international flights to and from France, parts of the Middle East, and East African countries. There are two radio transmitters and one for television; they broadcast programs in French, Afar, Issa, and Arabic. The country's cultural life is centered in Djibouti city. A weekly newspaper is issued by the government.
\par \tab The port of Djibouti was created in 1888 by LΘonce Lagarde, the first governor of French Somaliland, as the area was then called. Shortly after the port city became the capital in 1892, work began on the railway that finally linked it to Addis Ababa in 1917. The area was a French colony until 1967, when it became an overseas territory of France. It remained so until it became a republic in 1977. Djibouti is a single-party republic governed by a president elected by the National Assembly. A prime minister heads the Council of Ministers. Population (1993 estimate), 565,000.\par \tab In the Caribbean Sea, lying between Guadeloupe and Martinique, Dominica is an island republic of the Lesser Antilles. It is a mountainous island of volcanic origin covering an area of 290 square miles (750 square kilometers). Its main physical feature is a high, forest-covered mountain range that runs from north to south. Morne Diablotin, in the north, is the highest point at 4,747 feet (1,447 meters). A plain breaks the mountain range at about the center of the chain. The Layou, Pagua, and Castle Bruce rivers all drain the plain. These and the many other rivers and streams on the island are mostly unusable by boats larger than canoes.
\par \tab There are volcanoes on the island, and, though they are probably now extinct, a number of thermal springs and Boiling Lake in the south are definite signs of continuing volcanic activity. The island soil is rich, and there is dense tropical plant growth and lush rain forests. Dominica has a warm year-round tropical climate with temperatures that range from 78░ F (26░ C) to 90░ F (32░ C). Rainfall is very heavy, averaging 250 inches (635 centimeters) in the mountains and 70 inches (178 centimeters) along the coast. Animal life on the island includes 135 species of birds, the iguana, opossum, agouti, boa constrictor, and many species of bat.
\par \tab Dominica is one of the poorest of the Caribbean nations. Bananas are its main agricultural product and major export. Grapefruit, coconuts, limes, oranges, and vegetables are produced. Coconuts are used in copra, oils and fats, soap, and detergents. Fruit juices and rum are also produced from local agricultural products. Pumice, which is mined, is the only known mineral resource on the island. There is some livestock raised on the island and a small commercial fishing industry. In addition to bananas, exports include coconut oil and fruit juices. Manufactured goods, machinery, transport equipment, foods, and chemicals are imported. Handicrafts also contribute to the economy, and a local industry produces cigarettes from imported tobacco.
\par \tab Tourists are attracted to Dominica for the island's rich tropical environment and mild climate. It has excellent swimming, boating and fishing facilities, and an unspoiled wilderness.
\par \tab There are more than 400 miles (644 kilometers) of paved roads and paths. A deepwater port was completed in 1976 at the capital city of Roseau. A number of steamship services call there. The main airfield is Melville Hall, about 40 miles (64 kilometers) from Roseau.
\par \tab When Christopher Columbus sighted Dominica in 1493, the island was inhabited by fierce Carib Indians. Because of its steep coastal cliffs, it was one of the last islands to be explored by Europeans. The Carib Indians, French, and British later fought for control of the island, however, and it was awarded to Britain in 1783. Dominica has been under the control of various governments, but it finally became independent in 1978 as the Commonwealth of Dominica. Population (1990 estimate), 82,200.\par \tab Located in the Caribbean Sea, the Dominican Republic covers an area of 18,703 square miles (48,440 square kilometers), occupying the eastern portion of Hispaniola, the second largest island of the Antilles. It shares the island with Haiti but the two neighbors have little in common. The inhabitants of Haiti are predominantly black, have French and African cultural roots, and live in an overpopulated and poor environment. In contrast, the population of the Dominican Republic is predominantly mulatto or white, Hispanic in culture, and belongs to a country that suffers from some environmental deterioration but also has areas of lush vegetation and rich farmland.
\par {\b Land and Climate}
\par \tab The Dominican Republic has the most rugged and complicated terrain on any of the islands of the Antilles. In general terms there are four major mountain systems and three intervening lowlands, lying roughly in an east-west direction.
\par \tab One of the systems, the Cordillera Septentrional, is located between Montecristi and Nagua across the northern coast, and only small areas of coastal plain are found squeezed between the hills and the Atlantic Ocean. The principal mountain system is the Cordillera Central, which runs across the middle of the country from northern Haiti almost to Santo Domingo. Here there are more than 20 mountains with heights greater than 6,500 feet (2,000 meters), including the highest peak in the Antilles called Pico Duarte at 10,417 feet (3,175 meters). The Cordillera Central has a maximum width of 50 miles (80 kilometers) but makes up more than one third of the country. Two smaller mountain systems called Sierra de Neiba and Sierra de Baoruco are in the southwest.
\par \tab These four mountain systems fix the limits of three lowlands. Between the Cordillera Septentrional and the Cordillera Central is the Cibao Valley. It contains areas of flat land that are particularly fertile to the east of the city of Santiago in a region called the Vega Real. It is well known for producing bananas, cacao, and rice. The San Juan Valley lies between the Cordillera Central and the Sierra de Neiba. This valley also has excellent soil and, with irrigation, has become a major rice-growing region. Farther to the south, between the Sierra de Neiba and the Sierra de Baoruco, is the Enriquillo Basin, which has a drier climate and contains the salty Lago Enriquillo 130 feet (40 meters) below sea level.
\par \tab The only extensive coastal plain is in the southeast. Called the Caribbean coastal plain, it is the principal sugar cane and beef producing area.
\par \tab Although the country is at tropical latitudes, the trade winds, the surrounding ocean, and high elevations combine in some areas to produce a climate that is far from typical of the tropics. In fact, frost is common on the highest peaks of the Cordillera Central. In most areas, however, temperatures are moderately high and vary little from season to season. Rainfall is normally greatest on the mountain slopes over which the easterly trade winds blow and decreases on the opposite slopes and in the major valleys.
\par {\b Plant and Animal Life}
\par \tab The Dominican Republic once had many pine, hardwood, and mixed pine-hardwood forests. But hurricanes, fire, uncontrolled cutting, and conversion to agriculture have destroyed most of this woodland. Only 14 percent of the country still had hardwood forests in 1980. These are concentrated in the dry southwest and northwest and are being rapidly degraded by charcoal manufacturers and by goats that graze on seedlings. Pine forests remain in the higher and least accessible parts but now cover less than 10 percent of the nation. The country imports $30 million more wood products than it exports annually.
\par \tab Its wide variety of topographic and climatic conditions has given the Dominican Republic the richest plant life in the Antilles. About 36 percent of the approximately 5,600 species are thought to be native. Over 125 plant species are threatened or in danger of extinction, including many kinds of orchids. A total of 139 resident and 90 migratory bird species have been identified. Serious habitat destruction, hunting, and the introduction of such species as the mongoose and rabbit, however, have reduced most native populations.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab Most inhabitants live in the central part of the country, especially in the Cibao Valley and the Santo Domingo region. In the west along the Haiti border, population is sparse. The annual rate of growth is high at 2.6 percent. At this rate, population doubles in 27 years. Poverty has forced many people to leave the countryside and move into the towns, especially to the capital city, Santo Domingo. The urban population now exceeds the rural, and it is increasingly difficult for the new urban dwellers to find employment. Thousands of Dominicans have chosen to leave the country, particularly to go to the United States.
\par \tab Although mulattos are most numerous, power has historically been in the hands of Dominican whites. They dominate business, finance, the prestigious professions, government, and high society. Mulattos are the majority in the military officer corps, the provincial towns, the less prestigious professions, and among lower- to middle-level government officials. Almost everyone speaks Spanish and is Roman Catholic. The church is influential on some issues--education, divorce, birth control--but its overall influence has diminished with time.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab The economy is still dominated by agriculture, with 56 percent of the country used for crops or pasture. Small farmers produce staple foods, especially bananas (plantains), yucas, beans, and sweet potatoes. Although they make up the bulk of the rural population, these farmers have little land and they are too poor to apply the best farming practices. As a result their incomes remain low, and many migrate to urban areas in search of a better way of life. Foodstuffs are imported to make up the ever-increasing shortage in the nation's food production. Large farmers own the most fertile land and concentrate on crops for export, particularly sugar cane, coffee, cocoa, and tobacco; they also raise beef cattle.
\par \tab There is growing concern about farming hillsides, especially by small farmers who cut down the forest and grow their crops without using conservation techniques that would protect against rapid soil erosion. To make things worse, much of the eroded soil is transported by rain into rivers that carry it into expensive reservoirs built for water supply, irrigation, and hydroelectric energy systems.
\par \tab Agricultural products account for two thirds of export earnings. The rest comes largely from minerals, especially bauxite, nickel, and gold. The Dominican Republic is among the top ten gold-producing countries of the world and has the largest single gold mine in the Western Hemisphere. The income from the export of these metals is about equal to the amount spent on imported petroleum. Most of the remaining imports are manufactured goods such as machinery, chemicals, and foodstuffs.
\par \tab In recent years the government has made great efforts to improve the economy by stimulating the tourist industry. More than 500,000 tourists visit the country each year to enjoy the warm climate, attractive beaches, and the capital city.
\par {\b History and Government}
\par \tab Christopher Columbus' brother Bartholomew founded Santo Domingo in 1496. This makes it the oldest permanently occupied town in the Americas. At that time there were more than a million native inhabitants on the island, but within 50 years most had died of starvation, overwork in the gold mines, and epidemics of European diseases. The gold that could be obtained using 16th-century mining techniques was exhausted by 1530, and Spain lost interest in her Santo Domingo colony soon afterward with the discoveries of Mexico and Peru. The Spaniards who remained on the island turned to cultivating sugar cane, using black slaves imported from Africa.
\par \tab In 1697 Spain ceded the western third of Hispaniola to France. By the end of the 18th century, the new French possession known as St. Domingue was one of the world's richest colonies, producing vast quantities of sugar and cotton. It had 524,000 inhabitants, of whom 88 percent were African slaves. Santo Domingo, with twice the territory of its neighbor, had barely one fifth the population, and its economic growth was slow.
\par \tab France gained control in 1795 of the whole island, but slave uprisings in the west led in 1804 to the creation there of Haiti, the world's first black republic. In 1814 Spain again got control of the eastern part of the island, but the Dominicans declared independence in 1821. Soon afterward the Haitians invaded the Dominican Republic and ruled it by force for 22 years. This occupation is often considered the cause of an antagonism that still separates Dominicans from Haitians. One favorable consequence of Haitian rule, however, was the freeing of slaves.
\par \tab Unhappily, liberation from the Haitians did little to bring peace and economic progress. During the rest of the 19th century, the Dominican Republic suffered scores of revolutions, more armed invasions from Haiti, and another period of Spanish domination from 1861 to 1865. Money was borrowed recklessly by corrupt governments, and by 1916 the country was in political and economic chaos. World War I was in progress, and the United States decided to occupy the Dominican Republic to restore order and protect approaches to the Panama Canal. This occupation lasted for eight years, and, though there was opposition to it, the enforced political stability permitted major social and economic advances.
\par \tab In 1930, however, there was another revolution, and the country fell into the hands of a dictator, Gen. Rafael Leonidas Trujillo Molina. For nearly 31 years, until his assassination in 1961, Trujillo headed a ruthless police state. At the cost of political freedom, the Dominican Republic had another period of imposed stability that, combined with favorable sugar prices, stimulated impressive economic growth. Five years of political turmoil after Trujillo's death led in 1965 to another intervention by the United States, which was concerned about the possibility of a Cuban-style Communist takeover. Since then the political scene has been relatively orderly with freely elected presidents. Joaquφn Balaguer was president from 1966 to 1978, and was reelected in 1986 and 1990. Antonio Guzmßn Fernßndez won a controversial election in 1978 and held office until 1982.
\par \tab Much wealth has been generated, but it has always been unequally distributed. The bulk of the population remains poor and undernourished. In the 1980s the low price of sugar in the world market brought on a series of economic crises. Under Salvador Jorge Blanco, who was president from 1982 to 1986, the government instituted an austerity program. Wage controls and the removal of food subsidies led to rioting in 1984.
\par \tab Economic difficulties persisted in the debt-ridden nation through the 1990 election, in which Balaguer defeated his long-time opponent, Juan Bosch. Austerity measures dictated by the International Monetary Fund were still in force in 1992. The 1991 deportation of illegal Haitian immigrants worsened relations with Haiti. Population (1991 estimate), 7,320,000.\par \tab The republic of Ecuador became an independent nation in 1830. Its small area of about 108,000 square miles (280,000 square kilometers) gives it a limited range of natural resources.
\par \tab Its relatively small population also limits the size of the domestic market. It is bounded on the north by Colombia and surrounded on the east and south by Peru, with which it has had frequent border disputes. Since 1973 it has benefited from petroleum exports that have stimulated both industrialization and increasing urban migration.
\par {\b Regions}
\par \tab Ecuador can be divided into three ecological regions: the coastal lowlands, the Andean highlands, and the eastern forested plains--known respectively as costa, sierra, and oriente. The Andean highlands run like a wide backbone north-southward through the center of the country, and it is their altitude that dramatically diversifies the equatorial climate and vegetation of the whole country.
\par \tab Two parallel ranges containing high volcanic peaks--such as Cotopaxi at 19,347 feet (5,897 meters) and Chimborazo at 20,702 feet (6,310 meters)--mark the edges of these highlands. The ranges are separated by a wide trough composed of ten basins averaging more than 7,000 feet (2,100 meters) in height. Though each basin varies in size and altitude, all are characterized by rugged relief, the result of rivers cutting through glacial terraces and extensive fans of volcanic ash. Quito, the national capital--like Ibarra, Cuenca, Ambato, and Loja--nestles within one of these basins. In the sierra region the principal resources are a fertile but easily eroded soil and a climate that has been compared to an eternal spring.
\par \tab The plains that descend abruptly eastward from the flanks of the highlands toward the Amazon River are predominantly shrouded in thick tropical rain forest. The resources of hardwoods and petroleum and other minerals have hardly begun to be explored, let alone exploited.
\par \tab The characteristics of the western coastal region perhaps explain the relative neglect of the east of Ecuador. Here, at elevations of normally less than 1,000 feet (300 meters), there is relatively flat land that is easily accessible from the historic highland core. It is firmly connected to the outside world by international commerce. On the coast one can pass within a few degrees of latitude from tropical rain forest in the north to absolute desert conditions in the south. This is the region that for generations has produced Ecuador's best-known export--bananas. It is now not only the agricultural breadbasket of the country but also the focus of industrial development. Guayaquil and Esmeraldas are the two dominant cities of the costa, the former exceeding the population of Quito since 1910.
\par {\b People and Culture}
\par \tab Ecuador has four ethnic groups: Indians, mestizos, blacks, and whites. The historic homeland of the Indians--some 40 percent of the total population--is the sierra. It was here that a relatively advanced culture was encountered in the 16th century by the invading Spaniards. For the last 400 years this Indian population, after recovering from near destruction caused by the introduced European diseases, has struggled to maintain some of the symbols and functions of its cultural identity: the quichua language, traditional dress (especially the ruana shawl), foodstuffs, the strength of local community organization, and a suspicion of non-Indian ways. Yet modernization has encouraged change that has normally meant migration out of the sierra and the adoption of modern technology in agriculture. Indians are the least significant population element of Ecuador in terms of economic and political power as well as social status.
\par \tab The mestizos--called cholos in the highlands--are the product of the rapid racial intermixture of whites with Indians. The majority of this group--some 40 percent of the total population--live in the coastal region and are employed on the rice, banana, and cacao plantations. Many have gained economic benefits, but relatively few have political power.
\par \tab The 10 percent of blacks and mulattoes reflects the colonial past of Ecuador when black African slaves were imported to work coastal plantations. They are now mostly concentrated in the northern section of the coast.
\par \tab The whites of Spanish descent, who make up the remaining 10 percent of the population, are the elite of Ecuadorian society. Since they form the majority of the industrialists, large agricultural estate owners, politicians, and businessmen, they usually decide what other Ecuadorians will have and what they can do. This group is typically urban-based, concentrated in the largest cities.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab Each of Ecuador's ecological regions has a distinctive economic base and has experienced a distinctive economic history. The sierra economy continues to be directly or indirectly based on agriculture, primarily subsistence production for domestic use. Typical crops are corn, potatoes, wheat, and barley. On the high grassy pastures sheep and cattle are also raised to supply the urban markets with meat. The most significant problem in agriculture is that of the uneven distribution of land. Farms are either too large or too small. In spite of agrarian reform laws that were passed in 1964 and 1974, 10 percent of the land area still accommodates 75 percent of the total number of farm units. Almost 2 million peasant farmers have less than 4 acres (1.6 hectares) each on which to make a living, and fragmentation continues at a rapid rate. The only manufacturing industy in the sierra is the remnant of the so-called Panama hat industry in the city of Cuenca. It uses palms brought from the southern coast. The textile industry of Quito and other towns of the highlands was destroyed by competition from British imports in the 19th century. For this reason persons who abandon farming in the sierra have few alternative employment opportunities. They thus tend to migrate directly out of the central region to seek their fortune on the coast.
\par \tab The coast has experienced what is best described as a series of "boom" economic cycles, each of which has further strengthened the coast's dominant role in Ecuadorian development. From 1870 to 1924 cacao cultivation triggered an economic boom that quickly boosted national revenues, financed the construction of the railway from Guayaquil to Quito, and stimulated agricultural colonization in the Guayas River basin. Cacao production was badly affected, however, by the effects of witchbroom disease after 1922. In the 1930s first rice and then coffee were cultivated, but it was not until around 1945 that Ecuador's principal export crop--bananas--spread rapidly throughout the coastal zone. Ecuador's coast has almost optimum conditions for the cultivation of this crop that rapidly achieved popularity in Western Europe and the United States. Before the export of petroleum, bananas accounted for some 60 percent of total export revenues, and by 1953 Ecuador had become the world's leading supplier. The two centers of production and export have been Esmeraldas and Guayaquil. Since the construction of a specialized port near Guayaquil, there has been a significant shift southward of areas under cultivation. Access to foreign markets is the key to success in banana production. The activity in and relative prosperity of the costa have attracted serranos, or natives of the sierra, in very large numbers. Many work as sharecroppers on the commercial estates.
\par \tab The oriente, long an isolated and undeveloped region except for scattered logging camps, quickly reoriented the entire national economy following the major petroleum strikes in 1967 near Lake Agrio in the northeast. With the rapid construction of a pipeline from the oil fields to Quito and then to Esmeraldas on the coast, Ecuador began to export petroleum in 1971 and joined the OPEC group in 1974. The rapid rise in world prices for oil after 1973 meant huge gains in foreign currency for Ecuador. Export earnings rose fivefold between 1971 and 1975, and Ecuador came to be seen as a creditworthy nation by the international financial market. Income from the new export earnings and loans began to be invested in major planned projects. The national road network, for example, was extended from 6,200 to 17,400 miles (10,000 to 28,000 kilometers) between 1970 and 1985. The government also invested money in industrial enterprises such as steel, petrochemicals, shipbuilding, and fishing after 1973. In spite of such attempts to diversify the basis of the economy, and as a result of the disadvantageous competitive position of Ecuador in world trade, in the mid-1980s the processing of foodstuffs and consumer goods still accounted for two thirds of industrial production, three quarters of which is located in Quito and Guayaquil.
\par \tab The changing regional basis of resource development in Ecuador has had a dramatic effect on population distribution. By 1974 the coastal region's share exceeded that of the sierra for the first time, and cities everywhere acted as magnets to poor migrants who saw little hope in agriculture. New settlements began to appear in the forests of the eastern region, as did vast shantytowns around almost all of the coastal towns. Thousands of Ecuadorians were literally on the move to a better future. As many were to find to their bitter disappointment, modern industrial technology did not require their eager hands. Thus, thousands were forced to enter the so-called "informal" industrial sector, working part-time in a variety of menial jobs such as shoe shining, garbage collecting, or street vending. For those who did not speak Spanish, had little formal education, and did not have personal contacts who could find jobs for them, the rosy future became a desperate present.
\par {\b History and Government}
\par \tab In 1533 Sebastißn de Benalcazar was sent northward from Peru by Francisco Pizarro to conquer the local Indians. Present-day Ecuador was occupied by a culture that had only recently been absorbed within the Inca empire. The sierra became rapidly colonized by the Spaniards, who established a chain of townships through the length of the mountains to connect settlement areas in Peru with those of New Granada (now Colombia).
\par \tab From 1563 the province of Quito became part of the Viceroyalty of Peru, but it was later transferred to become a subdivision of the Viceroyalty of New Granada. This closer relationship with the north, rather than the south, was strengthened after political independence from Spain in 1822. Ecuador became one of three regional units in the Federation of Greater Colombia--together with Venezuela and Colombia. This grand idea of Sim≤n Bolφvar, however, did not endure the strains of nationalistic feelings.
\par \tab Ecuador separated in 1830 to become an independent nation-state. Since that date Ecuador insists that it has unjustly lost vast territories to its several neighboring states, especially Peru. As recently as 1981 armed conflict broke out in a disputed sector of the Condor Mountains on Ecuador's southern border. Ecuador controls the Galßpagos Islands and insists on its rights to a 200-mile limit for its territorial waters in the Pacific.
\par \tab Based on the Constitution of 1978, Ecuador is a republic with a one-house legislature known as the National Congress. The president, elected to a single five-year term, is both head of state and head of the government. The judicial system is headed by the Supreme Court of Justice, which is elected by the National Congress.
\par \tab During the first century of political independence, Ecuador experienced a rapid sequence of presidents, dictators, and ruling juntas. Between 1922 and 1948, for example, some 22 chiefs of state began, but did not finish, their terms of office. Political power in Ecuador has been fought over by two rival groups. The first is a combination of Roman Catholic conservatives whose power base is in the landholding elite of the sierra and the extensive national bureaucracy of Quito. The second is a group of more liberal progressives of Guayaquil and the coast who challenged the longstanding authority of the traditional elite of the sierra. For this second group commerce and wealth were avenues to power and prestige. Great inequalities of wealth are still evident in almost every sector of Ecuador. The most wealthy 20 percent of the nation still receives almost 80 percent of the national income. The country is divided into two classes: the one rich, powerful, and bent on modernization; the other poor, powerless, neglected, and questioning the alleged benefits of modern life.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by David J. Robinson, Dellplain Professor of Latin American Geography, Syracuse University, N.Y.; Director of USAID Technical Assistance to the Integrated Regional Development Project, Peru (1981-84); and author of 'Studying Latin America' (1981) and 'Social Fabric and Spatial Structure of Colonial Latin America' (1979).
\par \tab {\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR ECUADOR}
\par \tab Foley, E. Ecuador (Cavendish, 1995).
\par \tab Hurtado, O. Political Power in Ecuador (Westview, 1985).
\par \tab Luzuriaga, C. Income Distribution and Poverty in Rural Ecuador (Arizona State Univ. Press, 1983).
\par \tab Schodt, D.W. Ecuador (Westview, 1986).
\par \tab Whitten, N.E., ed. Cultural Transformations and Ethnicity in Modern Ecuador (Univ. of Ill. Press, 1981).\par \tab The Arab Republic of Egypt occupies the northeastern corner of the African continent and the Sinai Peninsula. It has an area of about 390,540 square miles (1,011,500 square kilometers), including the 23,440 square miles (60,710 square kilometers) of the Sinai. Ninety-nine percent of the Egyptian population lives on only 3.5 percent of the land. Most of them are in the Nile River valley and large, fertile delta of the river. Egypt is bordered on the south by the Republic of the Sudan and on the west by Libya. Its northern coast is on the Mediterranean Sea, and its eastern coasts are on the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aqaba, between Sinai and Saudi Arabia. The Gulf of Suez and the Suez Canal separate African Egypt from Sinai. In northern Sinai Egypt's border with Israel was fixed in 1979 by a peace treaty, though the disputed territory did not return to Egyptian sovereignty until 1982.
\par {\b The Land and Climate}
\par \tab The headwaters of the Nile River are in the highlands of East Africa. The Nile flows northward across the Sudan and enters Egypt near Wadi Halfa. It is 4,130 miles (6,650 kilometers) long, with 960 miles (1,545 kilometers) in Egypt. Annual flooding is a natural feature of the Nile. Fed by summer rains in the highlands, the flood travels northward, reaching Egypt in August.
\par \tab The Upper Nile is confined to a narrow valley that is no more than 2 miles (3 kilometers) wide. Outcrops of resistant granite rock form stretches of cascades and rapids called cataracts. The First Cataract is at Aswan, the only one in Egypt. A dam was built here in 1902 to help control the floodwaters for irrigation. Four other cataracts are located upstream of Aswan in the Sudan.
\par \tab The Aswan High Dam is located upstream of the original dam. Construction began in January 1960 and was completed in July 1970. The high dam created Lake Nasser, the largest artificial lake in the world. It extends for 350 miles (560 kilometers) southward to the Third Cataract and averages 6 miles (10 kilometers) wide. The high dam makes possible the large-scale storage and use of Nile water independent of natural floods, and it provides Egypt with low-cost hydroelectric power.
\par \tab Between Aswan and Cairo the Nile Valley widens into a plain ranging in width from 6 to 9 miles (10 to 15 kilometers). The delta of the Nile begins near Cairo, where the river separates into the Damietta branch on the west and the Rosetta on the east. The delta, which contains about 8,500 square miles (22,000 square kilometers), has numerous small waterways and canals. At its northern edge several large shallow lakes have formed as the delta continues to expand into the Mediterranean. The largest of these is El Manzala, which is between Damietta and Port Said.
\par \tab West of the Nile the Western Desert is one of the world's driest areas. It is a low-lying plateau that gradually rises from a narrow coastal plain to an elevation of more than 3,300 feet (1,000 meters) in the southwest. In the Libyan Desert large areas are covered by shifting sand dunes. Several large depressions have been hollowed out of the limestone and sandstone by wind erosion. The oases of Bahariya, Dakhla, Farafra, and Siwa and the great oasis of Kharga have underground water supplies that support permanent agriculture. A branch of the Nile, the Bahr Yusef, flows through a gap in the Nile's western cliffs to water the town of El Faiyum. In Wadi Natrun northwest of Cairo and the Qattara Depression, the water is salty. Located near Siwa on the edge of the Libyan Plateau, the Qattara is 437 feet (133 meters) below sea level.
\par \tab The area between the Nile River and the Red Sea is the Arabian, or Eastern, Desert. It is a rugged, heavily dissected plateau with elevations of more than 3,300 feet (1,000 meters). Along the Red Sea coast, Jebel, or Mount, Shayib is 7,178 feet (2,188 meters) above sea level. The highest point in Egypt is in the Musa Mountains of southern Sinai, where Jebel Katherina reaches 8,655 feet (2,638 meters). In the north is the Sinai Desert, which extends to the coast between the Suez Canal and Israel.
\par \tab Egypt has an arid climate. Alexandria has the highest rainfall, with a mean of 7.4 inches (18.8 centimeters) annually. Other parts of the Mediterranean coast receive even less rainfall, with only 2.5 inches (6.4 centimeters) annually at Port Said. Most rain falls in the winter, none in the summer. The mean annual temperature is 69░ F (20░ C), reaching a high of 80░ F (27░ C) in the summer.
\par \tab Cairo is a desert capital. It receives slightly less than 1 inch (2.5 centimeters) of rainfall annually, and the mean annual temperature is 71░ F (22░ C). In the spring and summer early morning fogs on the Nile Delta provide some additional moisture. The rest of Egypt has only a few centimeters of rainfall annually. Most of the year is hot and dry, and periodic droughts extending over several years are common. Aswan, for example, has a mean annual rainfall of 0.2 inch (0.5 centimeter) and a temperature of 80░ F (27░ C) with a high of 94░ F (34░ C) in the summer.
\par \tab During the spring, hot dry khamsin winds blow northward from the Sahara across Egypt to the Mediterranean coast. The khamsin, which often produces sandstorms, can last for several days, destroying crops. Egypt has no forests and only a few permanent grasslands for pasture. At best the deserts support sparse drought-resistant scrub vegetation.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab Egypt's population is about 48.5 million. The average annual rate of growth is 1.7 percent. In the delta and valley of the Nile, densities reach 3,243 persons per square mile (1,252 per square kilometer). About 49 percent of the population live in cities. The majority of Egyptians live in rural agricultural villages, some of which have 20,000 or more people.
\par \tab Egypt's largest cities are Cairo, the capital, and Alexandria. Together they contain about two thirds of the urban population. Cairo and its suburbs occupy both banks of the Nile just south of the delta. It is the largest city in Africa. Greater Cairo was estimated to have 10 million people in the mid-1980s. Giza is its largest suburb. Alexandria, the chief seaport, had about 3 million. Fifteen other cities, most located in the delta and the valley of the Nile, had populations of 100,000 or more. The Suez Canal cities of Port Said, Ismailia, and Suez, which were abandoned during the 1967 war with Israel, have been rebuilt.
\par \tab Large-scale migration from rural areas to cities, especially Cairo and Alexandria, has caused urban population growth at twice the average national rate. Both cities have severe housing shortages and lack basic services. Extensive urban redevelopment programs are under way, and new towns are planned near Damietta, Cairo, and Aswan. Land reclamation in the Nile and planned agricultural settlements in the Western Desert are designed to help relieve population pressures.
\par \tab Most Egyptians are Hamitic Arabs. They are descendants of the Hamites of ancient Egypt and of the Arabs who migrated to Egypt after the Muslim conquests of the 7th century. The Nubians, who are related to the Berber tribes of North Africa, are located south of Aswan. They were resettled in new villages near Kom Ombo when Lake Nasser flooded their homeland. A few Europeans, primarily Armenians and Greeks, live in cities. Most are in Alexandria.
\par \tab About 86 percent of the Egyptians, including Nubians, are Sunni Muslims. Islam is the state religion and the basis for Egyptian law. The largest minority is made up of members of the Coptic church, one of the oldest Christian churches. The Copts, who are also descended from the Hamites, number about 6 million, or 13.5 percent of the total population. Egypt also has about 250,000 other Christians, and a small Jewish community remains in Cairo.
\par \tab Arabic is the official language. Although it is spoken by all Egyptians, there are many dialects. Classical Arabic is used in printed materials and in the schools. Through radio and television the government is attempting to develop a vernacular Arabic as the common language. Educated Egyptians use English and French as second languages. French-language publications have wide circulation in Cairo and Alexandria. The Coptic language, related to ancient Egyptian, is used only in church services. The Nubian dialect, while still spoken, is no longer written.
\par {\b Operation of the Economy}
\par \tab Major segments of Egypt's economy are controlled by the government. Most commercial and industrial companies are either state-owned or are run under government supervision. Only agricultural land and urban real estate are relatively free of government control. President Gamal Abdel Nasser instituted a centrally planned socialist economy. His successor, Anwar el-Sadat, encouraged foreign investment and private enterprise. Increased aid came from petroleum-rich Arab states, primarily the Gulf Organization for the Development of Egypt.
\par \tab After the 1979 peace treaty with Israel, most Arab countries withdrew economic and political support from Egypt. President Hosni Mubarak reestablished ties with Arab countries and instituted policies to increase exports, particularly of petroleum, and private investment.
\par \tab From 1970 to 1980 Egypt's gross domestic product (GDP) grew at an average annual rate of 8.1 percent. Agriculture contributed 19 percent, mining 17 percent, and manufacturing, wholesale and retail trade, and services 12 to 13 percent each. Because of limited opportunities in Egypt, many professionals and skilled workers took jobs in other Arab countries, primarily the Gulf States and Libya.
\par {\b Agriculture and Industry}
\par \tab Agriculture in Egypt depends almost entirely on irrigation from the Nile. Barrages and dams on the Nile, especially the Aswan High Dam, allow water to be stored for use when the river level is low. Canals distribute it where it is needed throughout the year. Under perennial irrigation, a field may yield several crops each year. Cotton, rice, corn (maize), and sorghum are grown in summer. Barley, wheat, and beans are winter crops. Citrus fruits and vegetables are grown on the Mediterranean coast. Although enough fruits and vegetables are grown for the Egyptian people, only 38 percent of the demand for wheat is met. Egypt imports about half of its food supplies, primarily wheat and flour.
\par \tab Three quarters of Egypt's agricultural income is from cotton and rice. Cotton and cotton products account for 23 percent of its export trade. Egypt produces about one third of the world's long-staple cotton. The area planted in cotton, however, has declined by half since 1968, and exports have been limited. Rice, fruits, and vegetables are also export crops. Sugarcane is grown to produce sugar for Egypt. Most cattle are used as draft animals, and sheep and goats are raised for wool and hair. Despite recent attempts to improve livestock husbandry, Egypt is a net importer of meat.
\par \tab Egypt faces growing food shortages. Rapid population growth, rapid urbanization, and an increased production of commercial export crops have intensified the pressure on a limited supply of agricultural land. Farms are limited to a maximum of 50 feddans, or 52 acres (21 hectares). Cooperatives aid farmers by renting implements and distributing seeds, fertilizers, and pesticides. Programs to increase the cultivated area through land reclamation, however, have not had significant results. The Aswan High Dam's potential to add 30 percent to the cultivated area has not been realized. In fact, large areas have gone out of cultivation because of poor drainage and salinization, urban expansion, and industrial growth--especially in the Nile Delta. The government has plans to reclaim 3 million acres (1.2 million hectares). The largest projects are at West Nuberiya, which is near Alexandria, and in the northern Tahriv region. Projects are also planned for the "new territories" in the oases of the Western Desert.
\par \tab Textiles and food processing are the most important industries. Textiles, primarily cotton, account for one third of the total output. Food processing, including the refining of sugarcane and preparation of fruits, is the second largest industry. Iron and steel plants are located at Helwan and El Dikheila, near Alexandria. An aluminum plant at Nag Hammadi processes imported bauxite. Cement is produced for the construction industry, but Egypt imports half of the cement used. Ten new cement plants are under construction. Fertilizer plants that use Egyptian natural gas are located at Takla and El Dikheila, and plants are planned or under construction at Alexandria, Mansura, and Asyut.
\par {\b Energy and Natural Resources}
\par \tab Egypt depends on fossil fuels and hydroelectric power for its energy supplies. In the late 1970s petroleum supplied the majority of the energy and hydroelectric power, 20 percent. Other renewable resources--such as crop residues, animal wastes, and wood--supplied 14 percent of the total energy consumed. Industry used 48 percent of the energy; residential, commercial, and municipal, 32 percent; and transportation, 14 percent. Only 6 percent was for agriculture and irrigation.
\par \tab Egypt has the capacity to generate 5,610 million kilowatt hours. Two thirds is generated by hydroelectric plants, most at the Aswan High Dam. Power plants that burn petroleum produce most of the rest. These facilities are near Cairo and Alexandria and on the Nile Delta. High-voltage transmission lines link the Aswan hydroelectric plants with Cairo.
\par \tab Industrialization and a national program of rural electrification have demanded additional generating capacity. A large coal-burning power plant near Cairo supplies three quarters of the city's electricity. Eight nuclear reactors, which will generate 8,000 megawatts, are also planned. The first two units were being built at El Dabaa, about 100 miles (160 kilometers) west of Alexandria. Plans to generate hydroelectricity by flooding the Qattara Depression with water from the Mediterranean are also under way.
\par \tab Crude oil provided about 60 percent of Egypt's export revenues in the early 1980s, helping the nation to remain financially independent of its Arab neighbors. Petroleum exports have increased since 1976, with crude oil production reaching 860,000 million barrels per day in 1984. The main fields are in the southern Gulf of Suez and adjacent coastal areas of the Arabian Desert and the Sinai. The offshore fields of El Morgan, Ramadan, July, October, and Belayim accounted for about 90 percent of the total crude oil production. In the Western Desert are the major fields of El 'Alamein, Razzak, and Abu Gharadiq. Large new reserves were found as the Egyptian government encouraged exploration and made concessions.
\par \tab Egypt has six petroleum refineries with a total capacity of 369,000 barrels per day. Two are located near Alexandria (47 percent of the total), two are at Suez, and the others are at Tanta and Mostarud near Cairo. They are linked by pipeline to the main producing fields. The largest and most important is the Suez-Mediterranean (Sumed) pipeline, which extends from Ain Sukhna on the Gulf of Suez to Sidi Krer west of Alexandria. It is being expanded. A new refinery planned for Asyut will be linked by pipeline to the Ras Gharib and Ras Shuqair fields in the Arabian Desert.
\par \tab Natural gas is produced from five fields. Located at the edge of the delta, the Abu Madi field supplies gas to Tanta and Abu Qir, to Alexandria. Cairo (Helwan) is supplied by Abu Gharadiq, which is 124 miles (200 kilometers) to the west. In addition, two offshore fields provide a quarter of total production. Egypt uses all of the natural gas it produces, and demand is growing rapidly.
\par \tab Manganese, phosphates, iron ore, and coal are in the western Sinai. Iron ore is also mined near Aswan, and large deposits have been found in Bahariya. Phosphates are mined in the Nile Valley and near Safaga in the Arabian Desert. Chromium, lead, asbestos, gypsum, granite, and talc are also mined. Limestone comes from the cliffs along the Nile.
\par {\b Transportation, Communication, and Education}
\par \tab Water transportation is of primary importance in Egypt. It has about 1,925 miles (3,100 kilometers) of navigable waterways, half on the Nile and the other half on canals, mostly in the delta. The main canals are the Nubariya on the delta and the Bahr el Yusef, which links El Faiyum with Asyut on the Nile.
\par \tab The Suez Canal is an international shipping link between the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea. The canal extends 121 miles (195 kilometers) from Port Said to Suez, on the Gulf of Suez. It has a 624-foot (190-meter) channel and a maximum draft of 54 feet (16.5 meters). Since 1975 the canal has been expanded to accommodate supertankers. Alexandria, Port Said, and Suez are Egypt's major ports. Alexandria's port is being expanded, and new ports are planned or are under construction at Dakheila, Damietta, and Safaga.
\par \tab Egypt has 3,327 miles (5,355 kilometers) of railways. From Cairo lines extend along the Nile to Aswan, across the north coast to Salum, and to Alexandria, Port Said, and Suez. A railroad parallels the west bank of the Suez Canal between Suez and Ismailia. A railway also connects the iron ore mines at Bahariya with Helwan. A 26-mile (42-kilometer) subway transit system for Cairo began operation in 1988.
\par \tab Egypt also has about 28,000 miles (45,000 kilometers) of roads, of which about 19,000 miles (30,600 kilometers) are paved. The 1-mile (1.6-kilometer) Ahmad Hamdi tunnel under the Suez Canal opened in 1980. Egyptair operates a full schedule of domestic and international flights. Service to Tel Aviv began in March 1980. The Nuzbah International Airport near Cairo opened in 1983.
\par \tab Cairo is the major publishing center in the Middle East. It has four major publishing companies. Al Ahram, which was founded in 1875, is the most authoritative daily newspaper.
\par \tab Cairo is also a center for radio and television. Egyptian radio and television broadcast in several African and Asian languages. Egyptians have 14 million radios--more per capita than any other Middle Eastern or North African country--and nearly 3.5 million television sets.
\par \tab Illiteracy is one of Egypt's most severe problems. Although elementary schooling is compulsory, an estimated 55 percent of the population is illiterate.
\par \tab Secondary-school graduates may take examinations for entrance to universities, or they may attend technical institutes specializing in agriculture, commerce, and industry. Egypt has 13 independent universities. The six major state universities are coeducational. The largest of these is the University of Cairo at Giza, founded as the Egyptian University in 1908. Universities were opened at Alexandria in 1942 and at Asyut in 1957. Ain Shams University, incorporating several other schools near Cairo, was established in 1950. There are also state universities at Helwan, Mansura, and Tanta.
\par \tab One of the world's oldest centers of Islamic education is El Azhar University in Cairo. Shortly after El Azhar Mosque was built in 972, it had one of the leading academies in the Muslim world. Since 1961 it has also provided secular education. The American University in Cairo was founded in 1919, and the Suez Canal University was established in Ismailia in 1976.
\par {\b Government}
\par \tab The Arab Republic of Egypt is governed under the 1971 constitution. Islam is the state religion, and Islamic jurisprudence is the basis of Egyptian law. Arabic is the official language. The constitution provides for a strong presidency and a unicameral, or one-house, legislature--the People's Assembly. About half of the members of the assembly must be farmers and workers. Members are elected for five-year terms by direct universal suffrage. The president has extensive executive powers. He is nominated by at least one third of the members of the People's Assembly, approved by at least two thirds of them, and elected by popular referendum.
\par \tab From 1962 to 1977 the Arab Socialist Union was the only legal political organization in Egypt. Political parties had been abolished in 1953. In 1976, however, groups within the union were allowed to support candidates. Political parties were legalized in 1977. The National Democratic party replaced the Arab Socialist party as the majority, and the Socialist Labor party formed the official opposition.
\par \tab In 1979 the People's Assembly was expanded from 350 to 392 members, ten of whom the president appointed. In the 1984 elections new laws required parties to receive at least 8 percent of the vote in order to be represented, and the number of seats was increased. In 1990 elections the principal electoral change was to move to voting for individual candidates rather than party lists. The Assembly has 444 members chosen from 222 constituencies and 10 members appointed by the president.
\par \tab The National Democratic party continued to dominate Egyptian politics. Its strongest opposition since Egypt became a republic came from the New Wafd party. The other independent parties were forced to form a coalition in order to gain more than 8 percent of the vote.
\par {\b History}
\par \tab After the death of the prophet Muhammad in 632, Arabs conquered Egypt in 639 to 641. Most Egyptians, who were Christians, converted to Islam. Those who resisted despite persecution were called Copts, from an Arabic word meaning "Egyptian." Arabic replaced the Egyptian language, which was restricted to use in the Coptic church. In 973 Cairo was founded, replacing the old capital of Al Fustat. Egypt became part of the Ottoman Empire in 1517. Napoleon I invaded Egypt in 1798, defeating the Turks in the battle of the Pyramids, but his fleet was destroyed by Britain's Admiral Horatio Nelson. The British left Egypt by 1803. Mehemet Ali, an Albanian officer in the Ottoman forces, became pasha, or governor, of Egypt in 1805. He defeated the British at Alexandria in 1807 and conquered most of the northern Sudan between 1820 and 1822. In 1856 Sa'id Pasha, Mehemet Ali's son, granted Ferdinand de Lesseps the right to build the Suez Canal. It was opened in 1869 during the reign of Ismail Pasha. To repay his debts to British and French bankers, Ismail Pasha sold Egypt's shares of Suez stock to Britain, giving it control of the canal. In 1876, again in debt, he allowed British and French officials strict control of Egypt's finances. In 1883 British forces occupied Egypt to support the monarchy in the face of a growing nationalist movement. In 1899 the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan was established under joint British and Egyptian rule.
\par \tab In World War I Turkey sided with Germany, but Egypt supported the British. Britain proclaimed Egypt a protectorate in November 1914 and assumed responsibility for defending the Suez Canal. The Wafd, or nationalist, movement gained strength in wartime. After failing to reach a settlement with the Wafd, Britain abolished the protectorate and recognized Egyptian independence on Feb. 28, 1922. Britain retained responsibility for the security of the Suez Canal and the defense of Egypt.
\par \tab In 1923 a constitutional monarchy was established with Sultan Fuad as king. He was succeeded in 1936 by his son Farouk. A treaty that year ended the British occupation of Egypt but confirmed its control of the canal zone and joint rule of the Sudan. When the British left Palestine in 1948, Egypt and its Arab allies invaded the area proclaimed as the state of Israel. Although defeated, Egypt kept the Gaza Strip.
\par \tab Farouk was overthrown by a military junta on July 23, 1952. The Revolutionary Command Council, which was led by Major General Mohammed Naguib and Colonel Gamal Abdel Nasser, controlled the government. The constitution was abolished, and political parties were dissolved. Egypt was declared a republic on June 18, 1953, and Nasser became prime minister. An Anglo-Egyptian agreement in the same year ended the union of Egypt and the Sudan, resulting in independence for Sudan.
\par \tab After a new Egyptian constitution was approved in June 1956, Nasser was elected president. The British forces left Egypt in July. Nasser declared the internationally owned Suez Canal Egyptian property. The United States and Britain had withdrawn financial aid for the Aswan High Dam, and Nasser planned to use revenues from the canal to finance Egypt's share of the project. Israel invaded Sinai in October, and British and French forces landed in the canal zone in November. Nasser sank some 40 ships in the canal to block it. United Nations (UN) pressure brought a cease-fire and withdrawal of forces, and the canal reopened in March 1957 under Egyptian control, with guarantees of international use.
\par \tab Egypt and Syria merged as the United Arab Republic in 1958 and, with Yemen, formed the United Arab States. Syria withdrew from the union in 1961 after a military coup, and Egypt ousted Yemen. A 1963 agreement between Egypt, Syria, and Iraq to form another United Arab Republic failed, though steps were taken in 1965 to join Egypt and Iraq.
\par \tab Because of tensions between Israel and Syria, Nasser forced UN troops to withdraw from Egypt and blockaded the Gulf of Aqaba against Israeli shipping. Israel attacked on June 5, 1967, defeating the allied Arab forces in a six-day war and occupying the Gaza Strip and the Sinai. The Suez Canal was again blocked by damaged ships. A UN-negotiated cease-fire failed to result in a peace settlement. After the war Egypt faced severe financial crises and widespread discontent among students and workers. As efforts to reach a settlement continued through 1970, Egyptian and Israeli forces dueled across the canal.
\par \tab Nasser died in September 1970 and was succeeded by Anwar el-Sadat. In April 1971 Egypt, Libya, and Syria agreed to form the Confederation of Arab Republics. Full union was prevented by worsening relations between Egypt and Libya. On Oct. 6, 1973, Egypt and Syria launched surprise coordinated attacks on Israeli-held Arab lands. A UN-sponsored cease-fire took effect, and in January 1974 Egypt and Israel signed a disengagement agreement that returned to Egypt a strip of land east of the Suez Canal. The canal was reopened in 1975.
\par \tab Egypt reestablished diplomatic relations with the United States after the 1973 war with Israel. In 1976 Sadat canceled a 1971 mutual friendship treaty with the Soviet Union. In 1977 he became the first Arab head of state to visit Israel. As a result of the 1979 Camp David agreements, moderated by United States President Jimmy Carter, Egypt and Israel signed a peace treaty that provided for a phased withdrawal of Israeli forces from the Sinai. As Palestinian autonomy talks continued, the two countries established diplomatic relations, and Egypt took control of parts of the Sinai. Egypt was suspended from the Arab League, which it had once dominated, and most member countries withdrew economic aid from Egypt.
\par \tab Sadat was assassinated by Muslim extremists in October 1981. Vice-President Hosni Mubarak became president. In October 1984 Egypt withdrew from its 1971 confederation with Syria and Libya. Despite economic difficulties, Mubarak remained in control of the government after the 1984 legislative elections. A five-day mutiny in Cairo by security police in 1986 raised questions about his ability to cope with forces that were steadily eroding the nation's stability.
\par \tab In October 1987 Mubarak began a second six-year term after receiving 97 percent of the vote in a popular referendum. As a result of his moderate policies Egypt gradually improved its relationships with other Arab states, and many of the members of the Arab League reestablished diplomatic relations with Egypt. In 1989, Egypt rejoined the Arab League, and Mubarak was elected chairman of the Organization of African Unity. Egypt was thrust onto center stage in 1990 by the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait, first through Mubarak's attempts to bring about an Arab diplomatic solution and later by the deployment of Egyptian troops and tanks as part of a multinational force in defense of Saudi Arabia.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by Gary L. Fowler, Chairman and Associate Professor of Geography, University of Illinois at Chicago.
\par \tab Hart, George. Ancient Egypt (Harcourt, 1990).
\par \tab Lye, Keith. Take a Trip to Egypt (Watts, 1983).
\par \tab Romer, John. Ancient Lives (Holt, 1984).
\par \tab Stead, Miriam. Egyptian Life (Harvard Univ. Press, 1986).\par \tab One of the smallest, poorest, and most crowded nations in Central America, El Salvador is equal in area and population to the state of Massachusetts. Unlike its neighbors, it does not border on the Caribbean Sea, and it has no empty frontiers into which people may move.
\par \tab Shaped like a rectangle, it extends 150 miles (241 kilometers) westward from the Gulf of Fonseca to the border with Guatemala. The mountainous Honduran frontier lies 60 miles (97 kilometers) north of El Salvador's southern Pacific shoreline. There are about 8,100 square miles (21,000 square kilometers) within its borders. Because it is such a small nation, El Salvador lacks a wide range of natural resources. But it has easy access to the markets of nearby nations.
\par {\b Land and Climate}
\par \tab Between the southern Pacific shoreline and its northern border with Honduras, four distinct landscapes extend across the east-west breadth of El Salvador. A 10- to 12-mile- (16- to 19-kilometer-) wide coastal plain, interrupted by volcanic hills, parallels the Pacific Ocean. It is separated from a narrow interior valley by a row of recent volcanoes, both active and inactive. Between the interior valley and the Honduran border to the north lies an old and badly eroded volcanic upland. Although two peaks in the volcanic row and several summit areas in the volcanic plateau near the Honduran border reach 7,000 feet (2,134 meters), very little of the land surface in El Salvador lies above 5,000 feet (1,524 meters) in elevation.
\par \tab The Rφo Lempa, a major source of hydroelectric power, drains the northwestern part of El Salvador. Taking a course southward midway across the country, the river cuts across the interior valley, the volcanic row, and the coastal plain before emptying into the Pacific.
\par \tab Because El Salvador is small and without major high mountains, there are few variations in rainfall and temperature. Since El Salvador lies on the drier Pacific side of the isthmus, it receives less rain and only during the summer. Yearly rainfall throughout the country averages between 60 and 85 inches (152 and 216 centimeters). Ninety percent of this falls between the months of May and October.
\par \tab The average annual temperature in the capital, San Salvador, at an elevation of 2,230 feet (680 meters), is 74░ F (23░ C). On the coastal plain it is slightly warmer.
\par \tab El Salvador has suffered repeatedly from natural catastrophes. Earthquakes have badly damaged or destroyed the city of San Salvador on 14 occasions. Major eruptions of the nearby volcano of Boquer≤n last occurred in 1917. Hurricanes are rare, but severe droughts have caused widespread losses.
\par {\b People and Culture}
\par \tab When the Spanish entered El Salvador, they encountered a dense population of Indians. Since the countryside was open, Spaniards managed to settle throughout the land. Thus most of the natives came under their direct influence. Because of this, Indians gradually adapted many European customs and came to be classified as Ladinos. Today Indians make up less than 5 percent of the population.
\par \tab There were 800,000 people in El Salvador in 1900. They increased to 1.6 million by 1940 and now number about 5.5 million. Because of the high rate of population increase, it is predicted that the country will have 8.5 million people by the year 2000. The density of population is 644 persons per square mile (249 per square kilometer). This is three and a half times denser than Guatemala and up to 10 times denser than other Central American nations. Because of the high density, many Salvadorans have migrated to less populated areas in surrounding countries.
\par \tab Urban and rural populations are about equal, and both are concentrated on the inner coastal plain and within the volcanic row and interior valley. The three largest cities--San Salvador, Santa Ana, and San Miguel--lie in basins along the lower flanks of volcanoes.
\par {\b Economy, Transportation, and Communication}
\par \tab For 100 years coffee has dominated the economy of El Salvador. It has been the major source of employment, has financed the cost of governments, and has paid for the construction of highways, railroads, and ports. Village lands were converted into coffee estates on which peasants labored. The owners became the aristocracy of El Salvador. Present-day culture and politics are products of the coffee economy.
\par \tab After its introduction in the 1850s, the planting of coffee spread rapidly within the volcanic row. By 1870 it had replaced the dye indigo as the nation's major export. Coffee made up about 90 percent and never less than 75 percent of Salvadoran exports between 1900 and the early 1940s. After World War II forested areas and natural pastures on the coastal plain were converted into cotton farms. Sugar produced for export increased in the 1960s.
\par \tab The limited area within El Salvador makes the further expansion of commercial agriculture difficult. There are no empty lands onto which poor subsistence farmers, who make up 40 percent of the population, can move to produce their corn, beans, and sorghum.
\par \tab A disciplined work force and the favorable location of El Salvador have contributed to the development of manufacturing. Textiles, food processing, and the manufacture of shoes, clothing, and pharmaceuticals are leading industries. Manufacturing increased dramatically during the 1960s after the establishment of the Central American Common Market, which eased the exchange of products between member nations of the region. During the 1970s the growth of manufacturing slowed as a result of a war with Honduras.
\par \tab Because El Salvador is a small nation restricted to a landscape of volcanic origin, few minerals are available for mining. There is a very small output of silver. There are no domestic supplies of coal or petroleum. Energy requirements are met by dams that produce hydroelectric power on the Rφo Lempa. El Salvador was the first nation in Central America to develop geothermal energy from underground volcanic steam.
\par \tab Lumbering is restricted, as few forests remain. Offshore in the Pacific fishermen harvest shrimp and fish, but the industry is not well developed. The port of La Uni≤n on the Gulf of Fonseca is the primary harbor for fishing fleets.
\par \tab Exports have expanded since World War II from the rise of manufacturing and the expansion of agriculture into cotton and sugar. Coffee, however, continues to make up half of all sales abroad. The agricultural products are sent primarily to western Europe, the United States, and Japan. Manufactured products are exported to neighboring countries of Central America.
\par \tab Imports come primarily from the United States, Central America, Europe, and Venezuela. They consist of petroleum, textiles, food products, chemicals, machinery, and transport equipment.
\par \tab Since landforms offer limited obstacles to transportation, it has been possible to build the best system of railroads and highways to be found in Central America. Railroads were constructed after 1880 to carry coffee to the ports of Acajutla and La Uni≤n. A railroad was completed to the Caribbean coast through Guatemala in 1927 that allowed coffee to be shipped more directly to Europe and the United States. The Inter-American Highway passes through the interior valley with links to the coastal highway and to the seaports on the Pacific.
\par {\b Education}
\par \tab Although education is supposed to be compulsory, many people neither read nor write. Thirty percent of all children do not attend primary schools. While 80 percent of those living in cities can read and write, this is true of only half of those living in rural areas.
\par {\b History}
\par \tab After defeating Indian armies in Guatemala in 1524, the Spanish conqueror Pedro de Alvarado continued into El Salvador. Here he encountered the armies of the Pipil, a Nahuatl people of Mexican origin. It was not until the following year that the conquest was completed. During Spanish rule El Salvador was a province of the Kingdom of Guatemala.
\par \tab The first revolt in Central America against the Spanish took place in El Salvador in 1811, but it was not until 1821 that independence from Spain was achieved. In 1823 El Salvador joined the United Provinces of Central America. The breakup of the United Provinces led to complete independence for El Salvador in 1840. For nearly a century there was a succession of conservative governments.
\par \tab The 1970s were a period of political turmoil, when JosΘ Napole≤n Duarte failed to be seated as president after an election. The outbreak of civil war between the right-wing military and left-wing guerrilla forces (FMLN) in the late 1970s resulted in the deaths of thousands of civilians. The government was accused of atrocities and ousted in 1979. A new constitution in 1983 paved the way for the election of Duarte as president in 1984 and marked the return to civilian government.
\par \tab In March 1989 Alfredo Cristiani of the ultraconservative Nationalist Republican Alliance was elected president. Despite sporadic peace talks, the fighting continued between the government and guerrillas. In April 1990 the rebels and the government agreed to United Nations-sponsored peace talks. Government and rebel leaders signed a peace treaty on Jan. 16, 1992, after almost two years of talks. Key provisions of the agreement included a UN-sponsored cease-fire that would last until October 31, when the FMLN was to disarm and become a legal political party. The government promised to cut the military forces in half by 1994 and absorb the National Police and the Treasury Police into the army. A civilian police force was created and included former rebels. In the 12 years of civil war, more than 75,000 people were killed. Armando Calderon Sol was elected president in March 1994.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab Oscar H. Horst\par \tab A republic on the west coast of Africa, Equatorial Guinea includes an area on the mainland called Rφo Muni (or Mbini) and five islands: Bioko, Corisco, Great Elobey, Little Elobey, and Annob≤n. The total land area is 10,831 square miles (28,052 square kilometers). Rφo Muni is bordered on the north by Cameroon and on the east and south by Gabon. The Gulf of Guinea separates Rφo Muni from the islands.
\par \tab The mainland area of Rφo Muni has coastal hills and inland plateaus that rise eastward toward the Gabon border. It is divided by the Benito River, which runs generally from east to west. Bioko Island is made up of volcanic cones, crater lakes, and rich lava soils. There is an extinct volcano in the north that is 9,868 feet (3,008 meters) high. The capital, Malabo, is on Bioko.
\par \tab The climate is tropical, but the wet and dry seasons differ somewhat between the mainland and the island. The rainfall of the coastal mainland region ranges between about 95 and 180 inches (240 and 457 centimeters) a year. Less rain falls in the interior. The average yearly temperature is about 79░ F (26░ C). Thick tropical rain forest dominates the mainland region. More than 140 species of wood are found, including okoume (known as gaboon mahogany), African walnut, and various mahoganies. Animal life--including the gorilla, monkey, leopard, elephant, and crocodile--has been hurt by overhunting. Bioko Island has mangrove swamps along the coast and no big game.
\par \tab Equatorial Guinea has a mixed, developing economy based largely on agriculture. Cacao, coffee, and lumber are the only exports; cacao accounts for more than 42 percent of exports. Coffee is grown mainly along the Cameroon border. Other crops are bananas, grown on Bioko, and palm oil and cassavas on the mainland. Petroleum was discovered off the north coast of Bioko in 1981. A fishing industry is developing.
\par \tab The country depends heavily on international aid, mostly from the International Monetary Fund and from Spain. The country's economic progress depends mainly on its good relations with Spain.
\par \tab Industry is limited to the processing of agricultural products. Shortages are a continuing problem. The country has a fairly extensive road system, though it is in urgent need of repair. The main harbor, Malabo, was updated and has regular services to Europe. There is an international airport.
\par \tab Traditional customs have a large influence. Witchcraft, traditional music, gorilla and elephant hunting, and storytelling are important to the Fang people, who form the majority of the population on the mainland. Spanish is the official language, though each ethnic group also speaks its own. About four fifths of the population is Roman Catholic, but the Bubi people on Bioko Island retain their traditional forms of worship.
\par \tab Five years of primary education are required. In the late 1980s it was estimated that more than 50 percent of school-age children were attending primary school. Only a small percentage goes on to secondary school. Higher education is limited to vocational schooling and training for teachers and government workers.
\par \tab Health conditions are generally poor. The average life expectancy is about 50 years with an infant mortality rate of 127 per 1,000 live births. Malnutrition is common, and more than three fifths of the people suffer from malaria at some point in their lives. Health problems are worsened by poor sanitation and a shortage of physicians. In the early 1980s major steps toward preventive health care were begun.
\par \tab The first inhabitants of the mainland appear to have been Pygmies. The Fang and Bubi, who displaced them, form the majority of the modern-day population, reached the mainland region and Bioko, respectively, in the 17th and 19th centuries. Equatorial Guinea was part of the large area that went from Portuguese to Spanish domination in the late 18th century. It was a stopping point for slave traders and British, German, Dutch, and French merchants. Bioko Island, known as Fernando Po until 1973, was administered by the British from 1827 to 1858.
\par \tab Through the early and mid-20th century, the site was called Spanish Guinea. Independence was declared in 1968 and was followed by a reign of terror and economic troubles brought on by the dictatorial president, Francisco Macφas Nguema. He was overthrown by a coup in 1979 and was later executed. Equatorial Guinea has since been governed by a Supreme Military Council and is attempting to develop democratic social and political norms and its economy. A new constitution was approved in 1982, and on Aug. 28, 1983, a 41-member National Assembly was elected. Population (1984 estimate), 325,000.\par \tab For 30 years, beginning in 1962, rebel groups in the northern part of Ethiopia fought for the secession of the historic region of Eritrea. Its name comes from the Latin words for "Red Sea," Mare Erythraeum.
\par \tab Eritrea occupies the Red Sea coast north of Ethiopia and covers an area of 36,170 square miles (93,680 square kilometers). It is bordered by Djibouti on the southeast, by Sudan on the northwest, and by Ethiopia on the south. Unreliable rainfall and locusts make Eritrea agriculturally poor and prone to famine. Industry is concentrated in the capital, Asmara, and is based mainly on the production of food products, textiles, salt, and leather goods.
\par \tab The region was linked to the beginnings of the Ethiopian kingdom, under the Aksumite empire. It retained much of its independence, though, until it fell under the rule of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century. A treaty between Italy and Menelik II of Ethiopia recognized Italian possessions on the Red Sea, and in 1890 the colony became part of Italian East Africa. After 1941 the area was under British administration until Eritrea became an autonomous unit of Ethiopia in 1952.
\par \tab In 1962 Eritrea became part of the Ethiopian Empire. From that period on, government troops battled Eritrean secessionist groups, notably the Eritrean People's Liberation Front (EPLF). In the years between the overthrow of Emperor Haile Selassie in 1974 and the dissolution of the military-Marxist government of Mengistu Haile Mariam in 1991, fighting was particularly fierce. The rebel capture of Addis Ababa in 1991 assured Eritrean victory. Eritreans voted overwhelmingly for independence in an April 1993 referendum. Their authorities vowed to give now-landlocked Ethiopia access to the Red Sea ports of Massawa and Aseb. Rebel factions promised to cooperate with the new government after the referendum. Population (1992 estimate), 3,317,600.\par \tab The three small Baltic republics of the Soviet Union--Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania--were the first of the republics to declare their sovereignty and regain their independence in 1991. An attempted coup in Moscow in August to stop the reform movement begun by the Baltics led instead to a popular uprising and the dissolution of the Soviet Union. The smallest and northernmost of these three Baltic states is Estonia. Its area of 17,413 square miles (45,100 square kilometers) includes about 800 islands off the coast. These control the traffic lanes from the Baltic Sea to St. Petersburg, the chief Russian port. Tallinn is the capital.
\par \tab Except in the southeast, where the land is hilly, the ground is flat with many lakes, streams, and marshes. Dairying is a major industry. The chief crops are rye, wheat, oats, and barley. Forests are abundant and furnish wood for match, furniture, and paper industries as well as for fuel.
\par \tab The most significant mineral is oil shale, from which petroleum and fuel gas are obtained. Estonia produces great quantities of oil shale, and one fifth of its industrial workers are employed in its production. The shale-processing industry was also responsible for 75 percent of the Soviet Union's synthetic gas, and it contributes to the production of thermal electric power for all the Baltic states. A chemical industry that relies on shale makes benzine, adhesives, tanning agents, resins, formaldehyde, and detergents. The chief manufacturing centers are Tallinn, Tartu, and PΣrnu.
\par \tab Woodworking has long been a traditional industry in Estonia, but exploitation of the forests threatened the enterprise until extensive reforestation policies were implemented in the 20th century. Estonia is also noted for its textiles, especially cotton cloth. It produces wool, linen, silk, knitted and woven garments, and shoes.
\par \tab Agriculture was collectivized at the end of World War II, when small, private farms were converted into collectives and state farms. After independence in 1991 the old collective system began to be dismantled and private ownership reintroduced.
\par \tab The Esths, or Estonians, are a blond people related to the Finns. Their language is much like Finnish, which is Mongolian and not European in its origins. Most of the people are Lutheran in religion.
\par {\b History}
\par \tab Little is known of the early history of Estonia. The Danes held the north from 1219. In 1346 they sold it to German landholders--the so-called Balts, or Baltic barons--who held the south. Later the land was divided between Sweden and Poland. Sweden ruled all of Estonia for about 100 years until 1721, when it was lost to Peter the Great of Russia.
\par \tab Estonia won its freedom after the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917, becoming an independent republic. Estonia's later destiny was decided by a nonaggression pact signed by Germany and the Soviet Union in August 1939. A secret protocol assigned Estonia and other Eastern European nations to the Soviets. In 1940 during World War II, Soviet forces occupied the Baltic states, and Estonia became the Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic. The next year the Germans drove out the Soviets. With the return of the Red Army in 1944, about 30,000 Estonians escaped to Sweden and 33,000 to Germany. Peasant farms were brought into collectives, and industries were nationalized.
\par \tab In 1988 Estonia's constitution was amended to give the republic the right to veto Soviet laws, and Estonian was made the official language. As Eastern Europe abandoned Communism in 1989, efforts continued to secure political and economic independence from Moscow. An Estonian congress completely outside the official Soviet structure--Estonian voters had to establish that they or their ancestors lived in the republic before it was annexed--called on the Soviet parliament and the United Nations to restore the "free and independent republic of Estonia." On March 30, 1990, the Estonian parliament approved a declaration of a gradual transition to independence. By April, however, it ended compulsory service in the Soviet Army and declared Soviet rule over its territory to be illegal. The Soviet defense ministry responded in January 1991 by sending thousands of army paratroops to Estonia and six other republics to enforce military conscription and round up draft dodgers. In an open plebiscite held March 3, 1991, Estonia voted overwhelmingly for independence. On Sept. 6, 1991, following an unsuccessful coup in Moscow, the Soviet Union's new ruling council recognized Estonia's independence. Population (1990 estimate), 1,583,000.\par \tab Located in northeastern Africa, in an area known as the Horn of Africa, Ethiopia is one of the largest and most populous countries in Africa. It is bordered by Djibouti and the former Ethiopian autonomous region of Eritrea on the north, Somalia on the east, Kenya on the south, and Sudan on the west. Ethiopia's landscape varies from lowlands to high plateaus and its climate from very dry to seasonally very wet. The Ethiopian population is also very mixed, with broad differences in cultural background and traits, methods of gaining a livelihood, languages, and religions.
\par \tab While influenced and even occasionally occupied by other nations, Ethiopia is one of the few countries in Africa or Asia never truly colonized. Since World War II Ethiopia has often been economically, politically, or militarily dependent on the major world powers. Its substantial balance-of-trade deficit has been attributed to internal disorder.
\par {\b Land and Climate}
\par \tab The landscape of Ethiopia is dominated by the northern end of the East African Rift system and by central highlands of plateaus and mountains that rise from about 6,000 feet (2,000 meters) to more than 14,000 feet (4,300 meters). Surrounding these highlands are hot, usually arid, lowlands. The highlands are cut by deep river valleys.
\par \tab Situated in the tropics, Ethiopia has climatic regions that vary with elevation: the hot and arid lowlands at elevations from below sea level to about 5,000 feet (1,500 meters); the densely populated warmer uplands and the cooler uplands at about 5,000 to 7,500 feet (1,500 to 2,300 meters) and 7,500 to 10,000 feet (2,300 to 3,000 meters), respectively; and alpine regions above 10,000 feet (3,000 meters). Daily temperatures range seasonally from well above 100░ F (40░ C) in the lowlands to below freezing in the cooler upland elevations and higher.
\par \tab Moisture is also unevenly distributed. Most areas have regular wet and dry periods in the year. The amount of rainfall often depends on altitude--higher areas are wetter, lowlands drier. There is also a fairly predictable annual amount of rainfall from the drier northeast to the wetter southwest. Drier areas occasionally receive much less moisture than even their already low average. Rains may start later or end earlier than usual, or storms may be separated by a few weeks, allowing the soil to dry out. Such drought is most common in the northern and eastern highlands and in lowland areas. When this happens farming and herding suffer, causing famine.
\par {\b Environment and Resources}
\par \tab Under natural conditions the nondesert parts of Ethiopia are grasslands or forests. After many thousands of years of farming and herding, much of this natural landscape is altered. At least 85 percent of the natural forest has been cleared, especially in the northern part of the country, usually to create fields. From the 1960s onward local and government efforts at environmental rehabilitation have led to the replanting of trees in some deforested areas.
\par \tab The most valuable natural resource is the soil. It is potentially highly productive for traditional and modern agriculture, but this potential is largely unmet. In parts of Ethiopia soil resources suffer from declining fertility and erosion. The decline results from the continuous inefficient use of the soil, including the cultivating of land that is better for grazing or that should be left fallow, or unplanted, for a while. This is partly the result of a socioeconomic system that does not reward investment in soil protection and partly the result of the increasing demands of a rapidly growing population. As a consequence, agricultural production per person has declined in the late 20th century. This decline in agriculture is common not only in Ethiopia but also in much of the rest of Africa.
\par \tab Little has been done to find possible mineral resources in Ethiopia. Those known and exploited include gold, platinum, manganese, and salt. There is little extraction of either metallic ores or mineral fuels such as coal or petroleum.
\par {\b People and Culture}
\par \tab Ethiopia has historically been an empire, expanding in area and incorporating new groups into the population. A major expansion of the empire in the second half of the 19th century incorporated new peoples in the west, south, and east. The result is a population of great diversity.
\par \tab Many languages and dialects are spoken. The greatest numbers of people speak either Semitic or Cushitic languages and their dialects. Semitic includes Amharic, the official national language, Tigrigna, Tigre, and Guragingna. Cushitic includes Oromigno, Somali, Sidama, and Afar. In the west and southwest some people speak Nilotic languages. Some of the Semitic languages have been written since before European influences.
\par \tab Various religions are represented, with numerous people following Christianity, Islam, and traditional sects. Most Christians are Coptic, or Ethiopian Orthodox, Christians who follow rites similar to those of Eastern Orthodox Christianity. Christianity was introduced into Ethiopia in the 4th century and was the official state religion until 1974. Although there is often a great mix of religions in any given place, Christians tend to be the most numerous in highland areas, Muslims in the lowlands, and traditional religious groups in the south and west. There is also a small Jewish religious group known as Beta Israel, or Falasha, in the northwest.
\par \tab The diversity of people has always played a significant role in Ethiopia. Disagreements and problems between groups are often tied to differences in language, religion, and other cultural lines.
\par \tab According to a 1992 estimate, the national population is about 54 million. It is most densely concentrated in the highland areas. Almost 90 percent of the people live outside cities. More than 45 percent of the people are 15 years of age and younger. Both birth and death rates are high. The average life expectancy at birth is about 45 years for males and 49 years for females, among the world's lowest.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab The Ethiopian economy is one of poverty. Average annual incomes are estimated at between 100 and 150 dollars per person in United States dollars. Little is produced that is not needed within the country. Most people work as farmers or as herders. Traditionally farmers have worked small, scattered plots and have low harvests per cultivated area. Until 1974 most Ethiopians worked the land either as tenants, as members of a community or a lineage, or as private owners. The government officially took ownership of all land in 1975. All farming families were allotted a parcel of land, but they did not own it nor could they sell it.
\par \tab Throughout most of Ethiopia there is mixed farming, the raising of both plants and animals. In most areas the major crops include grains such as teff (a grain native to and commonly grown only in Ethiopia), wheat, barley, sorghum, millet, and corn (maize). In the southern half of the country, an additional main crop is ensete, a banana-like plant whose starchy stem is eaten rather than the fruit.
\par \tab Other crops include oilseeds like nugg (another crop common only to Ethiopia), linseed, and sesame. Pulses--beans, peas, and lentils--are important protein sources in the diet. Regionally, cotton, coffee, and khat (grown for a leaf that is chewed for its mild narcotic effect) are important to subsistence and cash economies. Animals raised include cattle, sheep, goats, donkeys, mules, horses, camels, and chickens.
\par \tab There are some areas with large commercial farms. Their products go largely to Ethiopian urban markets or international trade. When the government took the land, these farms were converted to collective, or state, farms. Their significant crops include sugarcane, cotton, and fruits from the Awash River valley in the north, sesame, sorghum, and grains from the East African Rift system in the south.
\par \tab Manufacturing forms only a small part of the Ethiopian economy. Factories are concentrated in and around the two largest cities, Addis Ababa and Dire Dawa. Processed foods, textiles, and beverages are the major products, mostly for local consumption.
\par \tab Ethiopia's main exports are agricultural products. Coffee makes up more than half of exports by value. Other significant exports are hides and skins, edible seeds, and oilseeds. The major imports are machinery, petroleum products, and manufactured goods.
\par {\b Transportation, Communication, and Education}
\par \tab Until the 20th century transportation in Ethiopia was on foot or on pack or riding animals. Even with the development of mechanized transport, a high proportion of people and goods moves on foot or on the backs of animals.
\par \tab Central Ethiopia was connected to the Red Sea coast in 1917, when the railway from Djibouti reached Addis Ababa. This line still functions as a major mover of goods between the highlands and the rest of the world.
\par \tab A highway network for motor vehicles was built by the Italians during their occupation from 1935 to 1941. All-weather roads connect most of the larger cities and towns, but there are few feeder roads connecting the countryside to this network. Much of the road system in the less stable areas in the north fell into disrepair or was damaged during the civil war.
\par \tab Ethiopia has telegraph, telephone, and postal services between the larger towns. With the availability of inexpensive battery-operated radios since the mid-1960s, radio broadcasts are received everywhere. Television reception is still confined to large cities.
\par \tab There is a long history of church-based education in Ethiopia, but modern education dates only from the early 20th century. There was limited access to classroom education until the 1960s, with no secondary level until the 1950s. Elementary schools have been built in market towns since the 1960s, making formal education more accessible to children in the countryside, but only a limited number of school-age children actually entered school. About 15 percent of the children in the appropriate age group are enrolled in elementary and secondary schools.
\par \tab University education began in Addis Ababa in 1950, and by the late 1950s specialized colleges of agriculture and public health opened in the provinces. Education development has often depended upon aid and teachers from other countries. It is estimated that only about 5 percent of Ethiopian adults, most of them men, can read and write. Most of them live in towns and cities. This picture has been improving somewhat with more children attending school and with the influence of national literacy campaigns. There is still a shortage of teachers and facilities, however.
\par \tab While there has been much expansion of the education system, opportunities remain concentrated in the major cities and towns. This is also true for many other services, including health care, piped sanitary water, electricity, telecommunications, and banking.
\par {\b History and Government}
\par \tab Ethiopia's history is virtually that of a continuous feudal monarchy. Originally centered in the north of modern Ethiopia and Eritrea, the monarchy predates the Christian Era and continued under various guises to 1974. Over the last 2,000 years Ethiopia and its center of power have moved southward. The greatest expansion of the empire occurred with the conquests of Emperor Menelik II in the late 19th century, when the modern national boundaries were drawn.
\par \tab The Ethiopian monarchy was a Solomonic dynasty, claiming descent from the Biblical joining of Solomon and Sheba. Anyone accepted as possessing Solomonic descent could claim monarchical rights. This caused frequent internal strife, civil wars, and wars of succession.
\par \tab Ethiopian history also includes wars with neighbors and colonial nations. The 16th-century war with forces from the eastern lowlands of the Horn of Africa nearly succeeded in conquering Ethiopia. Italian colonial influences expanded into Eritrea and Ethiopia in the last two decades of the 19th century, but the Italian armies were defeated in 1896 at the battle of Aduwa. This preserved Ethiopia as one of the few noncolonized nations of Africa, but in 1935 Italy once again invaded Ethiopia, occupying the country until 1941. Much of Ethiopia's 20th-century history is dominated by Emperor Haile Selassie. He was named regent in 1916 and subsequently crowned emperor in 1930. His regency and rule were characterized by the breaking of regional feudal powers. He encouraged some movement toward becoming a modern nation and ruled until 1974, when he was deposed in a Marxist revolution.
\par \tab After 1974 Ethiopia had a Marxist military government run by the Provisional Military Administrative Council (PMAC), also called the Derg. The Derg was rocked by internal power struggles until Lieut. Col. Mengistu Haile Mariam emerged as the head of state.
\par \tab Under Mengistu, the Derg enlarged the military tenfold. Beginning in 1975 it also instituted a program of nationalization of industry, banking, insurance, and large-scale trade. Many Ethiopians who opposed military rule supported the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary party, which fought the military regime in the cities until it was crushed in 1978. Separatist movements arose in attempts to break away from Ethiopia or to change the people or the pattern of government. The most active of these movements were in the north, in Eritrea and in Tigre.
\par \tab There was also warfare with the Somalia-backed Western Somali Liberation Front, beginning in 1977. Ethiopia shifted its international ties with the United States to an alignment with the Soviet Union, which became its chief source of weapons.
\par \tab Economic aid and foreign investment from the West dried up, while Ethiopia's own resources were consumed by the wars. In 1987 a new constitution was approved to make the country the People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. This constitution established a civilian Communist government. The PMAC was dissolved, members of the new assembly, or Shengo, were installed, and Mengistu became the first president of the republic.
\par \tab Ethiopia was struck by a major famine in the early 1970s and two more during the 1980s. More than 200,000 people may have died in the first of these. Ethiopia has been heavily dependent upon international donations to overcome starvation in famine areas.
\par \tab Conflict between Eritrean and Tigrean rebel groups and the government continued. By 1991 rebel forces controlled all or parts of seven provinces. Already facing a bankrupt economy and famine, the government saw its army fall apart. Mengistu resigned and fled the country. An unstable transitional government, led by Meles Zenawi, was appointed in August 1991. The government planned a general election for 1993. The Eritreans' goal, for which they had been fighting for more than 31 years, was finally realized. Eritreans voted overwhelmingly for independence in an April 1993 referendum. They promised to allow Ethiopia free access to the Red Sea ports of Massawa and Aseb when granted their independence. Ethiopia, meanwhile, was beset by factional violence and famine. Meles's government seemed unable to improve the country's economy.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by Robert W. Roundy, Assistant Professor of Human Ecology, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, N.J.
\par \tab {\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR ETHIOPIA}
\par \tab Abebe, Daniel. Ethiopia in Pictures (Lerner, 1988).
\par \tab Pankhurst, Richard. Ethiopia (Chelsea House, 1988).\par \tab Historically, the continent of Europe has been a dominant force in world development. Starting in the late 1980s world attention again focused on the region, as Communism crumbled and Western Europe's economic and monetary union took shape. This next-to-smallest continent possesses a large, ethnically diverse, and highly productive population. The continent consists of 40 independent countries, including five small monarchies, principalities, and duchies. Normally, the most populous western part of Russia is also included in Europe, as is European Turkey.
\par \tab Europeans and their ideas have penetrated into every corner of the Earth. This influence has been expressed through the development of empires, the widespread distribution of European peoples and their cultures, and the adoption and adaptation of European political, economic, and social innovations throughout the world. The democratic form of government and modern, technological, industrial development both originated in the countries of Western Europe and have had a major influence on the rest of the world.
{\b NATURAL ENVIRONMENT}
\par \tab Europe is a peninsula of the much larger Eurasian landmass. The traditional boundary of the continent follows roughly the crest of the Ural Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian Sea, the crest of the Caucasus Mountains, the Black Sea, the Bosporus, the Sea of Marmara, the Dardanelles, the Aegean Sea, the Mediterranean Sea, and the Strait of Gibraltar. In the past other significant boundary lines have included the line separating the European countries from the Soviet Union and the ideological boundary between Eastern, Communist Europe and Western Europe that followed the eastern boundaries of Finland, West Germany, Austria, and Italy.
\par {\b Land}
\par \tab The continent of Europe totals more than 4 million square miles (10 million square kilometers), or 7 percent of the world's land area. It spreads from 35░ to 81░ N latitude and from 60░ E to about 10░ W longitude. Norway's Svalbard (Spitzbergen) extends European islands to more than 80░ N, and Iceland extends to nearly 25░ W. Europe is centrally located among the world's landmasses. Fortunately, its location in the westerly wind belt brings to the land the marine influences of the nearby oceans, seas, and bays. The peninsular shape of the continent and its numerous islands and indentations along the coasts facilitate the influence of the marine winds. The result is a moderate climate with a long growing season over much of Western Europe. This is quite in contrast to the severe cold conditions of comparable northerly latitudes along the East coast of North America for much of the year.
\par \tab The highly disrupted coastline brings the advantages of a location near salt water to much of the continent. The Scandinavian, Iberian, Italian, and Balkan peninsulas--plus the major islands of Crete, Sardinia, Corsica, and Sicily in the Mediterranean Sea and Ireland, Great Britain, Iceland, Greenland, and Svalbard off Northwestern Europe--are features of the irregular, disrupted coastline. The Mediterranean and Black seas on the south and the North, Baltic, and Barents seas on the north give many countries and many peoples easy access to ocean transportation. No one in Western Europe is more than 450 miles (720 kilometers) from salt water, and even in the European portion of Russia the maximum distance is 800 miles (1,300 kilometers).
\par \tab Europe has a complex geologic structure. The highlands in the north contain some of the oldest known rock formations, and the Alps in the south are a geologically young mountain system. East of the Carpathian Mountains and the Vistula River is a low, stable, geologic platform. West of this platform repeated uplift, folding, and erosion have left mountains, plateaus, hills, and plains close to one another. The Caucasus, the Pyrenees, and the Alpine system are young mountains in Southern Europe that result from plates, or large portions of the Earth's crustal rock structure, pushing northward from Africa. Mount El'brus in the Caucasus rises 18,481 feet (5,633 meters). The highest peak in the Pyrenees, Pico de Aneto, is 11,168 feet (3,404 meters), and Mont Blanc in the French Alps is 15,771 feet (4,807 meters). The highlands in Norway, Sweden, and Finland are part of the old Fennoscandian Shield. This is a rock base composed of crystalline, resistant rocks that have been uplifted and eroded many times over geologic history. The Kj÷len Mountains are on the border between Norway and Sweden and occupy most of northern Norway. They have peaks averaging from 6,000 to 8,000 feet (1,800 to 2,400 meters). The highest point, at 8,104 feet (2,470 meters), is Glittertinden in south-central Norway.
\par \tab The most recent event that affected the natural environment as well as the landmasses of much of Europe was the Pleistocene Ice Age. The huge ice sheets of this period sculptured, scoured, and smoothed the highland topography of Northern Europe and deposited sands, silts, and clays over lowland Europe to the south.
\par \tab The mountains and plateaus of Central and Western Europe are middle in geologic age between the Alps and the Scandinavian highlands. The long erosion periods have resulted in rounded landforms that extend from the western part of the Czech Republic through the highlands of southern Germany, the Vosges Mountains and Central Plateau of France, and the upland Meseta, or plateau, of Spain. These highlands are broken up by frequent river valleys and lowlands.
\par \tab The Alpine system, a complex system of young folded mountains with associated forelands and basins and plains between the mountain systems, dominates Southern Europe. The Alps average 12,000 feet (3,700 meters) in height, with higher, individual, sharp peaks such as Mont Blanc. The river valleys are narrow, steep, and rocky, with fertile, water-deposited soil normally found in narrow valley bottoms. The southern slope of the Alps is steep and abrupt. The northern slope is a gradual decline to the plateaus of southern Germany. Despite the high altitude of the Alps, numerous passes and tunnels exist. The Pyrenees and Caucasus are much more formidable transportation barriers than the Alps. The highlands of Italy and Balkan Europe are unstable and subject to devastating earthquakes and periodic eruptions from such volcanoes as Mount Etna and Mount Vesuvius.
\par \tab Most of the rivers of Central and Western Europe have their sources in the Alps and associated mountains. Large northward-flowing rivers--such as the Vistula and the Oder--drain into the Baltic, and the Elbe and the Rhine flow into the North Sea. They have swift currents and are valuable for waterpower near their source, but they become broad and sluggish streams when crossing the European Plain. France has three major rivers flowing to the west--the Seine, Loire, and Garonne--and the Sa⌠ne-Rh⌠ne flowing to the south. The Po in Italy, the Tagus, Ebro, and Guadalquivir in the Iberian Peninsula, the Thames in England, and the Shannon in Ireland are also major waterways. In Eastern Europe the Danube, Don, and Volga are the principal rivers.
\par {\b Climate}
\par \tab The moderate climates of Europe result from the peninsular, marine, and mid-latitude location in the path of the prevailing westerlies. These winds bring the warmth and moisture of the North Atlantic to Western Europe. The almost daily changes in weather conditions result from the passing of large low- and high-pressure systems. These have cold and warm fronts that cause temperature changes and frequent but normally slow precipitation. The lack of blocking mountains allows air and moisture to flow into the plains of Central and Eastern Europe, though the amounts of precipitation decrease toward the east. Temperature ranges--both daily and seasonal--are narrow in Western Europe and wide in Eastern Europe. The Alps and the high-pressure system of the Azores help prevent moisture from entering the Mediterranean region during the summer. As the Azores high moves southward in winter, the cyclonic storm systems penetrate from the north and west into the Mediterranean and give Southern Europe a cool and rainy winter season.
\par \tab Reliability is the keynote of Western European climate. The decreasing precipitation toward the east reaches drought conditions north of the Caspian and Black seas as well as in eastern Greece and eastern Spain. Summer droughts are common throughout the Mediterranean lowlands. The heaviest precipitation occurs in the mountains and coastal regions of Western Europe and reaches 200 inches (500 centimeters) per year in the high peaks of Wales and Scotland. The average precipitation ranges from 20 to 30 inches (50 to 75 centimeters) in the Western European lowlands and from 30 to 80 inches (75 to 200 centimeters) in higher areas, and it decreases eastward to less than 10 inches (25 centimeters) north of the Caspian Sea.
\par \tab The water-moderated climate of Western Europe is called west coast marine; the warm to hot summer and cold winter conditions of Eastern Europe make a continental climate; and the dry, hot summer and cool, rainy winter in the south form a Mediterranean climate. Central Europe has a frequently changing climate as the area shifts from marine to continental influences. The highland climates change in temperature and precipitation characteristics from the lower slopes to the higher peaks, depending on orientation and elevation. Parts of the higher Alps are permanently covered with snow and glaciers.
\par {\b Vegetation and Soils}
\par \tab The natural vegetation and soils of Europe relate closely to the varied climate, relief, subsurface rock structure, and drainage conditions. The intensive use of the land by a dense population has greatly changed the original natural patterns of Europe, especially the vegetation. The Ice Age glaciation scoured some areas bare of soil and deposited sandy, gravelly, and stony soils in others. In general the glacier left behind soils highly varied in both composition and fertility.
\par \tab Broad associations of climate, vegetation, and soil can be better defined in Eastern than in Western Europe. The north to south zones begin with the acid, poor, swampy tundra soils in the far north that have mosses, lichens, and shrub vegetation. To the south of this zone, evergreen trees are found in the taiga zone, which has a gray, acid, infertile soil low in the vegetable matter called humus. Agriculture is more widespread in the next zone south, which has deciduous, or broadleaf, trees that lose their leaves each year. This adds vegetable matter, which results in a brown-colored soil. To the south of the tree zone in Eastern Europe--as precipitation becomes less and less reliable--natural grass replaces trees. The first zone has tall-grass prairies, changing to short-grass prairies, then semiarid shrubs, and finally desert vegetation. In the Mediterranean lowlands the natural vegetation consists of drought-resistant species such as olive, cypress, and scrub trees and maquis shrubs that have leaf adaptations to prevent water loss. Mediterranean soils are often red from the high iron content and are frequently of volcanic origin. Alluvial, or water-deposited, soils found in the river valleys are the most productive. Mountain soil and vegetation types change with varying elevations.
\par {\b Animal Life}
\par \tab Animal life is as highly varied as are the physical conditions. Intense population pressure over history has resulted in the disappearance of many wild animals such as the bison, European ox, and wild horse. Native wild animals are most abundant in areas less disturbed by people, such as the far north, the coniferous forests, and the mountainous regions. The reindeer in northern Finland, Norway, and Sweden have become major domestic animals that feed on the Arctic pastures of mosses, lichens, and shrubs.
{\b REGIONAL CONTRASTS}
\par \tab The regional contrasts of Europe are related closely to its physical diversities. The geologic and environmental variations have been modified by people over history, resulting in marked political, economic, and cultural differences. The physical environment sets the stage for human activity and often places limits on what people can do with the available climate, landforms, and natural resources. Urban landscapes have become dominant--especially in Western and Central Europe--as a result of the impact of the Industrial Revolution.
\par {\b Western Europe}
\par \tab Western Europe is the urban, industrial core of the continent. It is dominated by the three major powers of the United Kingdom, Germany, and France but also includes the Benelux countries (Belgium, The Netherlands, and Luxembourg), Switzerland, and Austria. These nations have a large percentage of their population classified as urban. Economic activity has been dominated by manufacturing, but service industries have grown rapidly since 1960.
\par \tab Western Europe has a number of assets that have resulted in high levels of productivity. With the exception of Austria, all European countries have direct access to world ocean transportation. The countries bordering the North Sea form one of the major international trade generating areas of the world. The navigable rivers flowing into the North Sea, especially the Rhine, facilitate the movement of goods in and out of Western Europe. The level land aided the development of rail and highway transportation and the building of canals. The region has abundant coal and iron ore, the basic raw materials for the Industrial Revolution, but petroleum had to be, for the most part, imported until 1970. Streams flowing out of the Alps provide waterpower. The highlands are also sources of forest products. The marine conditions provide a reliable climate with a long growing season for crop and livestock production. These advantages are capped by the skills, education levels, and abilities of the people. The result is the most productive region in Europe and one of the most productive in the world.
\par {\b Northern Europe, or Norden}
\par \tab Northern Europe is often referred to as Scandinavia, but this term technically covers only the Scandinavian peninsula countries of Norway and Sweden. The Fennoscandian Shield refers to the old, resistant, crystalline basement rock of the area that extends from the Kola Peninsula of Russia westward through Finland, Sweden, and Norway to the northern portion of Scotland. The people of Northern Europe have adopted Norden, which simply means the "north," as the preferred term for their area. Norden includes Denmark, Finland, Norway, Sweden, and Iceland.
\par \tab The Norden countries have much in common physically and culturally, but there are also major differences. Norway, Sweden, and Finland are part of the geologically old Northwest Highlands. The river valleys draining into the Baltic Sea and into Skagerrak between the Baltic and North seas are gentle and produce much hydroelectric power. The streams to the west are short and swift with frequent falls. The west coast of Norway has many beautiful fjords with sheer cliffs and narrow, deep, drowned valley bottoms. The result of severe continental glaciation in Norden is a rocky, often barren, inhospitable, unproductive, and lake-dotted landscape.
\par \tab The area is sparsely populated compared to the rest of Europe. Most people live along the coast or in the river valleys. Agriculture, fishing, forestry, and mining are the major occupations. Manufacturing has developed rapidly since 1900 based on available hydroelectric power.
\par \tab Denmark and the southern tip of Sweden are part of the European Lowlands. Glacial hills provide the only relief in these areas. Dairying and crop agriculture are intense on the fertile soil of the eastern islands of Denmark. The western part of the Jutland peninsula of Denmark is sandy, infertile, and less productive. Copenhagen is the major Danish industrial and commercial center. Iceland, a largely volcanic island in the North Atlantic, has fishing, sheep grazing, and food processing as the major economic activities.
\par \tab Culturally the Norden countries have strong historical ties. The languages and racial characteristics are Germanic except for the Finns and Lapps, who originated in Central Asia. The Lutheran state religion dominates, and the governments are socialist democracies with figurehead monarchies in Norway, Sweden, and Denmark. The region is a strategic area both in terms of its geopolitical location on air and sea polar routes between Eastern Europe and the powers of Western Europe and its economic importance in its oil and natural gas production.
\par {\b Southern, or Mediterranean, Europe}
\par \tab The countries that occupy the three peninsulas--Iberian, Italian, and Balkan--jutting into the Mediterranean Sea make up Southern Europe. They are separated from the rest of Europe by the Pyrenees, Alps, Pindus, and Rhodope mountains. Italy, Greece, and European Turkey are in an unstable geologic area with frequent volcanic eruptions and earthquakes. Spain and Portugal occupy a large, high, dry plateau that is separated from areas of similar geologic age in France by the Pyrenees. Until the 1600s, when Western civilization shifted to Western Europe, the centers of Europe and the world were the Mediterranean countries. Political and economic power shifted from Mesopotamia to Greece, to Rome, and lastly to Spain and Portugal. After 1600 Southern Europe did not possess the physical and economic resources for leadership in a world that was becoming increasingly industrialized. The Industrial Revolution largely passed by these countries until the second half of the 20th century, when they broadened and strengthened their economies. Agriculture remains a major occupation throughout the area.
\par \tab The area has many problems. The excessive slopes and poor soil of the predominantly hilly and mountainous topography limit agricultural productivity. The lack of water, especially during the dry summer, is a problem throughout Mediterranean Europe. Agricultural techniques and mechanization lag behind those of Western Europe. Raw materials for industry are limited, especially the basics of coal, iron ore, and petroleum. Greece, Italy, Spain, and Portugal have been subject to political instability throughout much of their history.
\par \tab Economic development is spotty. Certain areas are highly developed, such as northern Italy, the Costa del Sol of Spain, and the major metropolitan areas of Lisbon, Madrid, Barcelona, Rome, Naples, and Athens. Rural, southern Italy, northern Portugal, and mountainous Greece typify very poor areas.
\par {\b Eastern Europe}
\par \tab The countries bordered by the Baltic and Barents seas on the north; the Adriatic, Black, and Caspian seas and the Caucasus Mountains on the south; and the Ural Mountains on the east make up Eastern Europe. In the western part of the region Poland largely occupies part of the glaciated plains, and Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, Yugoslavia, Albania, and Bulgaria are split between the mountains and highlands associated with the Alpine system and the river valleys and structural basins between the highlands. The eastern part of the region consists of a large, relatively flat, stable, geologic plateau. Continental glaciation has left its imprint of frequent lakes, glacial ridges, and disrupted drainage systems on the northeastern part of the region. The major rivers are the Vistula, the Danube, the Volga, the Dnepr, the Don, and the Ural.
\par \tab The eastern part of the region comprises nine of the former republics of the Soviet Union--the Baltic republics of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania; the Slavic republics of Belarus, Ukraine, and Moldova; and the Caucasus republics of Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia. It also includes part of a tenth, the western part of Russia. Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, and Romania were in the Soviet realm as satellites for some 40 years after World War II. Only Yugoslavia and Albania stayed relatively independent. Albania was aligned with China from 1961 to 1978 and again from 1991, and Yugoslavia was governed until 1990 by an independent form of Communism developed under the leadership of Marshal Tito.
\par \tab The major mineral resources are coal, iron ore, petroleum, natural gas, and bauxite. The Czech Republic is the leading industrial nation of the western part, and Ukraine, the Moscow region, the Ural Mountains, and along the Volga River are the major urban-industrial regions of the eastern part. Manufacturing industries are growing throughout Eastern Europe, including some growth in Albania.
\par \tab Wheat and corn are major products of the Danube Valley countries. Poland has an agricultural system based largely on rye, potatoes, and livestock. Ukraine, north of the Black Sea, is one of the most important wheat-growing areas of Europe and for years was known as the Breadbasket of the Soviet Union. It also produces sugar beets, potatoes, and livestock. The growing season shortens to the north, making crop agriculture more and more difficult. There are, however, excellent commercial forests. The area north of the Caspian Sea is among the driest, most unproductive areas in Europe.
\par \tab The economy and politics of the region, once dominated by the Soviet Union, changed greatly in the 1980s and 1990s. Nations in the western part began a shift from Communist-controlled governments and economies to more democratic and capitalist systems. The Soviet Union splintered in 1991 amid cries for increased political and economic freedom. Many of the newly independent republics aligned themselves with the capitalist democracies of Western Europe. The Commonwealth of Independent States, a loose confederation of 11 former Soviet republics, attempted to assume some control and create stability in the period of transition.
{\b PEOPLES AND CULTURES}
\par \tab The continent of Europe had about 700 million people in the early 1990s, or about 15 percent of the world's population. The annual population growth rate is 0.4 percent, with many countries in Western and Northern Europe at or near zero population growth. Today the average birthrate is 14 and the death rate 9 per thousand. Europe's population is expected to grow at 0.3 percent per year for the rest of the 20th century. The average population density for the continent is 168 per square mile (65 per square kilometer). Comparable figures for Norden are 129 (50), Western Europe 396 (153), Southern Europe 277 (107), and Eastern Europe 293 (113). This compares to an average of 88 people per square mile (34 per square kilometer) for the world and 65 (25) for the United States.
\par \tab Over the thousands of years of settlement in Europe the peoples have been so mixed that it is virtually impossible to find pure racial types. Most of Europe's peoples, however, are considered part of the fair-skinned, or Caucasoid, race.
\par {\b Racial and Ethnic Types}
\par \tab There are only small differences in shape of head, stature, and color of skin, hair, and eyes as compared to the peoples of other continents such as Africa and Asia. Some major characteristics and geographic distributions of racial and ethnic types can be identified, however. Fair-skinned people of the Nordic subrace predominate around the Baltic and North seas--in Norden countries, northern Germany and Poland, the countries on the Baltic Sea, The Netherlands, the east coast of Great Britain, Iceland, eastern Ireland, and portions of the northern European Soviet Union. The largest number of fair-skinned people are found in Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. The people of these areas are also generally tall, averaging more than 5 feet 10 inches (178 centimeters), and have a narrow or oblong head.
\par \tab Members of the Mediterranean subrace--located in the Iberian Peninsula, southern Italy, the Balkan Peninsula, southern France, and Wales--generally have darker skin color and brown to dark brown hair and eyes. They are also short in stature and tend to have broader head shapes.
\par \tab Central Europe is a transition zone between the predominantly darker-skinned people to the south and the lighter types to the north. The stature, size, complexion, and head characteristics are a blend of the Nordic and Mediterranean subraces. Exceptions may be found to these broad generalizations. The Lapps in Northern Europe are darker skinned, shorter in stature, and have a broader head shape than their Scandinavian neighbors. Many individuals throughout Europe do not fit the racial generalizations of their region.
\par {\b Language}
\par \tab The 50 to 60 languages spoken in Europe fall into the two classifications of Indo-European and Ural-Altaic. Germanic, Slavic, and Romance are the three major linguistic groups within Indo-European, but Greek, Albanian, Celtic, and Baltic are also included. The Germanic language group includes German, English, Norwegian, Swedish, Danish, Icelandic, Dutch, and Flemish. The Slavic languages include Russian, Ukrainian, Polish, Czech, Slovak, Serbo-Croatian, Bulgarian, and Macedonian.
\par \tab The Romance group, which descended from Latin, is made up of Italian, French, Portuguese, Spanish, Walloon, Romanian, Romansch, and Provenτal. Celtic remains as a language in the Breton peninsula (Brittany) of France as well as in Wales, western Ireland, and northwestern Scotland.
\par \tab Ural-Altaic languages are principally used by the Lapps, Finns, Karelians, Estonians, and Hungarians, or Magyars. Turkic, another Ural-Altaic language found mainly in Asia, is spoken by scattered groups in Balkan Europe. Maltese on the island of Malta and Basque on the French-Spanish border are two other languages used by small groups of people in distinct regions.
\par \tab During the nationalistic period in the 1800s, attempts were made to adjust political boundaries to include a distinct language and culture within a given country. This has not been successful. Belgium, for example, is nearly equally divided between the Walloons and the Flemish. The large postwar movement of people into Western Europe introduced new languages such as Turkish in West Germany. Many Europeans are fluent in more than one language, especially those in the small countries in which English, French, German, or Spanish is normally a must in daily activities in addition to their native tongue.
\par {\b Religion}
\par \tab Three great religions believing in only one god spread from Southwest Asia to Europe in early historical times--Islam, Judaism, and Christianity. Islam, which was introduced temporarily by the Moors into the Iberian Peninsula, is now found primarily in Balkan Europe--particularly Albania, southern Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, and European Turkey.
\par \tab The Jewish religion is scattered throughout Europe--particularly in the larger cities of Central and Eastern Europe, including Russia. Jews were greatly decreased in numbers by the genocidal policy of Germany during World War II. Those remaining in Communist Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union experienced difficulties after the war in continuing to practice their religion.
\par \tab Most Europeans are influenced by one of the three major divisions of Christianity--Roman Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy, and Protestantism. Roman Catholics are greatest in number and geographic spread. They are dominant in the Iberian Peninsula, Italy, France, southern Belgium, Ireland, and southern Germany, and from Lithuania and Poland to northern Yugoslavia. Eastern Orthodox Christianity follows the leadership of the ecumenical patriarch of Constantinople (Istanbul).
\par \tab The split into two separate churches in 1054 has been a factor separating the peoples of Eastern and Western Europe since that date. The Eastern Orthodox church is not as highly organized as the Roman church, and the influence of the patriarchate is not as effective as that of the Vatican. The Communist governments of Eastern Europe generally did not encourage religious activities.
\par \tab Protestantism is the dominant religion in Northern Europe--northern Germany, Scandinavia, The Netherlands, and the United Kingdom. Protestant churches grew in the 1500s and 1600s as a protest against Roman Catholicism. Martin Luther in Germany was a major contributor to the split of Protestants from Rome. Lutheranism in Scandinavia and Germany, Presbyterianism in Scotland, Anglicanism in England, and the Dutch Reformed church in The Netherlands are major Protestant subgroups.
\par \tab Religious movements in Europe have been significant in preserving and spreading alphabets, culture, agricultural technologies, and political, economic, and social ideas throughout the continent. Europe's history is very much tied to the religious character of various time periods and of different parts of the continent. The traditional role of religion has been weakened by government actions such as the Communist-controlled nations discouraging religion and governments assuming financial support for churches, as in Scandinavia. The rise of affluence in Europe also seems to have lessened interest in religion.
\par {\b Art and Literature}
\par \tab The artistic and literary heritage of Europe is extremely rich and has had a major impact on the rest of the world. Prehistoric art has been found well preserved in caves of southern France and northern Spain. In early historical times the Greeks developed systems of philosophy, the beginnings of science, various kinds of literary expression such as the poems of Homer, and new architectural types. The Romans provided the Latin language, Roman law, an architectural vocabulary, and the art and architecture of Rome and cities throughout the empire.
\par \tab As the center of civilization shifted to Western Europe in the 1600s, the influence of this region in art and literature grew rapidly. The printing press was developed in Europe in the 15th century, aiding greatly the spread of literature and culture. The concentration of more and more people in cities as a result of the Industrial Revolution, the advance of educational systems, and the ability of more Europeans to read and write increased the market for books.
\par \tab Almost every region in Europe is known for its writers, musicians, actors, and artists. The schools of literature, drama, and art that developed are major influences throughout the world. The opera, symphony orchestra, and ballet had their origins in Europe. The Dutch, French, Italians, Spanish, Flemish, and others have all had periods that produced noted painters, such as Rembrandt and Van Gogh. Such composers in Germany as Bach, Beethoven, and Brahms and the Austrians Haydn and Mozart had monumental importance in the music world. European literary contributions are too numerous to summarize adequately. Such names as Homer, Dante, Goethe, Shakespeare, Shaw, and Tolstoi stand out.
\par \tab The innovative abilities of Europeans in the arts and in literature continue and are greatly affected by the free flow of people and ideas. The mixture and movement of people and ideas have been accelerated by wars, changing economic and political conditions, and the voluntary movement of large numbers in search of better employment opportunities and improved lives. Thus new artistic and literary thrusts are constantly evolving. The great works of the past are well preserved in the countless museums, cathedrals, palaces, private homes, and libraries of Europe as well as in private and public collections elsewhere throughout the world.
\par {\b Health and Education}
\par \tab Europe is a world leader in health and education. The standards are somewhat lower in Southern and Eastern Europe than those in the western and northern parts of the continent. The ability to read and write is virtually universal among the populations of Northern and Western Europe. Life expectancy at birth in the late 1980s ranged from 66.8 years for males in Poland to 80.7 years for females in Switzerland. The daily caloric intake of the people in Europe is among the highest of any region in the world--with an average of 3,500 calories per day per person--as is the number of physicians and nurses per population. Most European countries have national health insurance plans that provide health care for all residents.
\par \tab The primary, secondary, and higher education systems are well developed. The proportion of children between the ages of 6 and 11 enrolled in primary school is nearly 100 percent in all countries. Enrollment of those eligible for secondary and higher education varies considerably within Europe but was generally low until after World War II. As countries began to subsidize secondary school and university education, the numbers greatly increased.
\par \tab Education in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe was used to promote the virtues of Communism until the Communist parties lost their constitutionally guaranteed controls. The governments in Eastern Europe paid the costs of primary education as well as education at secondary and higher levels.
\par \tab Universities were first begun in Europe during the Middle Ages by groups of students who had similar interests. Examples of well-known institutions of higher learning are in Cambridge, Oxford, London, Edinburgh, Paris, Leipzig, Vienna, Heidelberg, Moscow, Warsaw, and Leiden.
{\b ECONOMY}
\par \tab The Industrial Revolution, which began in England and spread throughout Western Europe, changed the leading economic activity from agriculture to manufacturing. Fortunately the continent possessed large amounts of coal and iron ore, which were necessary for the basic metal and chemical industries that dominated early manufacturing in Western Europe. Waterpower was available in addition to coal as an energy source. Europe was poor in petroleum, but its location made importing from the Middle East and other producing areas relatively easy. Raw materials not available in Europe were obtained elsewhere.
\par \tab Europe's highest per capita gross national product (GNP) in the mid-1990s was Switzerland, with $33,510, followed closely by tiny Liechtenstein, with $32,780. Germany had $23,650 in spite of the costs of reunification since 1990. The former Communist countries of Eastern Europe were not faring so well. The per capita GNP for the Czech Republic was only $2,450; for Poland, $1,830; and for Romania, $1,340. In the republics of the former Soviet Union, all such figures were misleading, since their economies were in desperate conditions.
\par \tab Post-World War II economic development in Europe was facilitated by regional economic and political organizations. These integrating organizations helped offset the small size of countries that resulted from the nationalistic movements of the 19th century. In Western Europe the union that became the Benelux Economic Union was formed during the war to integrate the economies of three small political units--Belgium, The Netherlands, and Luxembourg. This idea was enlarged upon in 1952 when the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) was established. France was the major promoter, but it also included Belgium, The Netherlands, Luxembourg, West Germany, and Italy. In 1957 the European Economic Community (EEC), or Common Market, was established, with the same ECSC members agreeing to the terms of the Treaty of Rome. The European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom) was also formed in 1957.
\par \tab The three communities merged in 1967 as the European Communities (EC), from 1994 the European Union (EU), which from 1986 included Belgium, The Netherlands, Luxembourg, the United Kingdom, West Germany, France, Italy, Denmark, Ireland, Greece, Spain, and Portugal. The agreement promotes "harmonious development of economic policies" by eliminating trade barriers, allowing free flow of labor, and developing other measures to facilitate economic cooperation among the 12 member countries. Plans were made in the 1980s and 1990s for the development of a single European market with open borders and for eventual monetary and political union.
\par \tab The remaining Western European countries--Austria, Finland, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, Sweden, and Switzerland--are members of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA). By the early 1990s Austria, Finland, and Sweden had applied for membership in the EU. In 1991 the countries of the EC and EFTA reached an agreement to create a European Economic Area (EEA), which was viewed as a step toward an eventual full merger of the two groups.
\par \tab In Eastern Europe, under pressure from the Soviet Union, the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA), known unofficially as Comecon, was set up in 1949 to facilitate trade agreements and economic cooperation between the Soviet Union and its satellite countries. Yugoslavia was an observer nation, and Finland had a cooperation agreement with Comecon. Albania was a member until 1961. The organization closely integrated the economies of Eastern Europe with that of the Soviet Union. With the upheaval in Eastern Europe and the breakup of the Soviet bloc, Comecon became obsolete. The organization was formally disbanded on June 28, 1991, and several of its members subsequently applied to become associate members of the EC.
\par {\b Urban-Industrial Dominance}
\par \tab The village and the city are the dominant settlement types in Europe. Scattered or isolated farmsteads are found only in Northern Europe, parts of the British Isles, The Netherlands, and some mountainous areas. Urban development grew rapidly during the Roman period. Ancient Rome reached an estimated population of 1 million people, with well-developed water distribution, sewers, roads, and other facilities.
\par \tab Urban growth declined in the Dark Ages but was begun again by the traders of the Middle Ages. The Industrial Revolution was the major stimulus to urban growth after 1800. Manufacturing became the major economic activity in most cities. The great need for labor drew many people from rural areas to the city. As employment in factories grew, additional people were needed to provide for housing, retail stores, and services of many kinds. Factories served as "growth poles" around which cities of various sizes grew. Many urban areas such as London and Paris reached more than a million people for the first time since Rome had reached that level at the height of the empire.
\par \tab Western Europe became the core area for industrial Europe based on the rich coal mines of the United Kingdom, the Ruhr area of Germany, northern France, and southern Belgium. Abundant iron ore was also available in the Lorraine area of northeastern France. Labor, capital, raw materials, food, a central location, and both water and land transportation facilitated the rapid industrial growth. The outer, or peripheral, regions of Europe provided raw materials such as minerals, fish, food, and forest products for the factories and urban population of the core region. These peripheral areas were also markets for the manufactured products from the various countries of Western Europe.
\par \tab Russia and Eastern Europe followed with urban-industrial developments in the 1900s, utilizing the abundant coal, iron ore, and petroleum that were locally available. Cities such as Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kiev, Khar'kov, and Ekaterinburg grew to be major industrial, commercial, and government centers. Urban centers in Eastern Europe grew more rapidly after World War II under Communist economic planning.
\par \tab The cities of Europe are different from those in the United States primarily because they are much older. They were built before the railroad and the automobile. The major characteristics of the European city are: a low profile with buildings of three to six stories except for recent tall buildings in large cities; compact form so that they could be more easily defended; the dominance of multiple family, or apartment, residences; many people living and working downtown; frequent outdoor markets; city centers dominated by public squares with churches and government buildings; many downtown public parks; lack of wood as a building material; few areas of slums; large use of public transportation; and narrow, winding side streets.
\par \tab Most countries in Europe classify more than 50 percent of their populations as urban. In the early 1990s there were only two exceptions--Portugal with 30 percent and Albania with 36 percent. The United Kingdom with 92 percent and Germany with 86 percent were among the most urban in Europe. The percentage of urban population is closely related to the degree of industrialization.
\par {\b Agriculture}
\par \tab As manufacturing and industry increased during the Industrial Revolution, the percentage of the labor force employed in agriculture markedly decreased, especially in Western Europe. Rural manpower was drawn to higher-paying occupations in urban areas, and mechanization and scientific methods developed that required less labor for greater agricultural productivity. Agriculture also changed to meet the food needs of the densely populated cities by placing more emphasis on horticulture, market gardening, and cash crops and less on subsistence-type agriculture that produced food primarily for large farm families.
\par \tab The percentage of the labor force employed in agriculture in the late 1980s ranged from 1 to 13 percent in Western Europe, with the United Kingdom lowest and Ireland highest. In Southern Europe percentages were higher, with 24 percent in Greece, 21 in Portugal, 14 in Spain, and 9 in Italy. Albania was the most rural in Eastern Europe with 51 percent. East Germany was lowest with 11 percent. The Soviet Union had 18 percent, and most of the rest of Eastern Europe averaged between 12 and 29 percent.
\par \tab Despite decreases in the number of farmers, agricultural productivity has been maintained because of subsidies provided by governments that artificially support prices for such products as milk, wheat, and potatoes. The goal of the price support is to assure the availability of certain farm products and to increase income in the agricultural sector to assure the continuance of the family farm.
\par \tab Farms also increased in size to facilitate the use of machinery. Farm holdings were consolidated by government programs in such places as West Germany, France, and the Benelux countries. Inheritance systems over the years had split fields into smaller and smaller plots that were often not contiguous and where it was difficult to farm and to utilize machinery practically. Large state farms and collective farms dominated the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, with the exception of Yugoslavia and Poland.
\par \tab The degree of farming success is closely related to the nature of climate, soil, and topography. The best yields, often the highest in the world, are found in Western Europe, where moderate temperatures, adequate moisture, and a long growing season combine with high levels of scientific agriculture. The extensive lowland areas generally have productive soils, though sandy, unproductive soils exist in many places. The emphasis in Western Europe is on livestock and dairying, as growing conditions are favorable for pasture and fodder crops. The needs of a large urban market caused a considerable change from livestock to cash crops such as wheat.
\par \tab Eastern Europe has much less reliable precipitation, but the higher summer temperatures allow the successful growth of corn (maize) and spring wheat. Average yields are lower than in Western Europe because of less scientific agriculture and less reliable natural conditions. The former system of state farms and collective farms also lessened private initiative and resulted in lower productivity.
\par \tab Southern Europe specializes in fruits and vegetables, often irrigated, as a result of the dry, subtropical, Mediterranean climate. Dry summers make irrigation necessary in the lowlands for successful crop farming. Sheep and goats are common animals in the hilly topography with marginal conditions for crop agriculture. Many farms are small, which makes successful farming difficult. Much land held in large estates by wealthy landowners is often not managed well.
\par \tab The problems of consolidation of fields and small farms, the production based on subsidy rather than market demand, the continuing movement of farm labor to the cities, the increased cooperative development of agriculture both in Western and Eastern Europe, and the agricultural role of regional organizations such as the EC are still in the process of solution. Throughout Europe agriculture remains important for food and employment as well as in the use of land. In several European countries, including Greece, Italy, and Ireland, more than 50 percent of the total area is used as agricultural land.
\par {\b Fishing}
\par \tab The disrupted, peninsular nature of much of Europe means that many nations have much of their land in the form of seacoasts. Thus it is natural that fishing became a major occupation. About 30 percent of the world's fish catch in the late 1980s came from nations bordering the Mediterranean, North, Baltic, Norwegian, and Barents seas.
\par \tab The fishing fleets of these nations have become increasingly efficient in catching and processing their catch. Russia, Poland, and Germany have developed a worldwide fishing industry with the aid of specialized equipment, including trawlers and fish-processing factories on vessels at sea. Among the leading fishing nations of Europe (by total catch) are Russia, Denmark, Norway, Iceland, and Spain. Cod and herring are caught in the largest quantities by European fishermen. Fish products are the principal exports from Iceland.
\par \tab The significance of fishing to Norway has dropped greatly with the development of petroleum and gas in the North Sea. The fishing industry not only feels the economic competition of offshore oil and gas production but also faces pollution threats that may affect fish reproduction.
\par \tab The extension of territorial waters to 200 miles (322 kilometers) aids in the control of coastal fishing grounds by such countries as Norway, Iceland, and the United Kingdom. The legality of this zone, though, is still a subject of controversy.
\par {\b Forestry}
\par \tab Throughout history dense forests have given way to agriculture, cities, and other needs of increasing populations. It is estimated that four fifths of Europe was once covered by forest, of which two thirds has been removed during the long settlement process. Forest destruction is especially severe in the Mediterranean region and the intense urban-industrial core of Western Europe.
\par \tab The best commercial forests are found in the taiga, or coniferous forest, of Northern Europe and on the flanks of the mountains, especially the Alps. Reforestation is being promoted in certain poor, sandy soil areas such as the Jutland peninsula of Denmark and the sand dune coast of southwestern France. Russia, Sweden, Finland, Germany, France, and Poland are major producers of roundwood.
\par {\b Minerals}
\par \tab The variety of mineral resources has been a key to Europe's successful economic development. Abundant coal and iron ore contributed to the Industrial Revolution. Russia, Ukraine, Poland, the United Kingdom, Germany, Slovakia, the Czech Republic, the former Yugoslav republics, and Romania are coal producers. Russia, Ukraine, Sweden, France, Spain, and Norway provide iron ore. Copper, zinc, lead, bauxite, potash, sulfur, silver, and gold are also mined in a number of European countries. Georgia and Ukraine are among the leading world producers of manganese, an alloy used in hardening steel. European mining activities are increasingly faced with the difficulties of depth, heat, flooding, poisonous gases, and antiquated equipment.
\par {\b Energy Resources}
\par \tab Until the petroleum and natural gas developments in the North Sea, industrial Western Europe imported most of its petroleum supply from other continents. Prior to 1970 the Soviet Union and Romania were the only European countries producing enough oil and natural gas to supply their needs and have surpluses to export to others. The recent finds in the North Sea have added Norway and the United Kingdom to the surplus producers. The natural gas field in the northern Netherlands has supplied both local needs and surpluses to neighboring countries since 1950. Italy is also a major producer of natural gas.
\par \tab The discovery of petroleum and gas in the North Sea is one of the most significant finds in the world since the discoveries in the Middle East. The development of these resources may result in the ability to supply as much as three fourths of Western Europe's needs.
\par \tab The North Sea bottom was divided into sectors for exploration by international agreements reached from 1958 to 1972. The agreements were based on median lines between countries and resulted in the United Kingdom's and Norway's receiving the largest and most productive areas. Norway has additional offshore continental shelf along its west coast in the Barents Sea and around the Svalbard island group that may supply future riches.
\par \tab The North Sea and other offshore areas, however, face many problems, such as increasing costs in deeper waters, the high winds and cold of a rigorous climate, sufficient and safe offshore living space for workers, transportation costs, and increasing costs for exploration and production platforms and other equipment. But the North Sea energy source is ideally located to help supply the needs of the densely populated and heavily industrial Western Europe.
\par \tab Russia is a world leader in oil and natural gas reserves. Azerbaijan has significant reserves in the Baku field on the flanks of the Caucasus Mountains and the Caspian Sea borderlands. The region is a major supplier of the world's crude oil. Pipelines supply oil and gas to other countries of Eastern Europe, and Russian natural gas reaches Germany by pipeline. Oil and natural gas have replaced coal as a major energy source.
\par \tab The mountainous topography and the damming of rivers made possible considerable amounts of hydroelectric energy. Almost all of Norway's electric energy is generated from waterpower. Hydroelectric power is produced from dams in rivers originating in the mountains of France, Switzerland, Austria, Italy, Sweden, Finland, Spain, and Portugal. In Russia and Ukraine, waterpower is created by huge dams on the major rivers flowing southward into the Black and Caspian seas, such as at Dnepropetrovsk on the Dnepr River.
\par \tab Most European countries obtain some electricity from nuclear plants. More than 70 percent of France's electricity comes from nuclear production.
\par {\b Manufacturing and Services}
\par \tab As the modern industrial economy becomes more complex, increasing numbers of people are required in the service industries such as banking and financial services, personal professional services, the repair of mechanical equipment, and government services. When services in a nation become greater than manufacturing in terms of employment and value produced, a postindustrial economy is reached. Much of Europe has become postindustrial since 1965, particularly Western Europe. Sweden had the highest percentage, with nearly 60 percent of its labor force employed in services in the early 1990s, compared to 36 percent in industry and only 3.5 percent in agriculture, forestry, and fishing. Most Western European countries average from 45 to 60 percent of their labor force in services and 35 to 45 percent in industry and manufacturing. In Southern and Eastern Europe, both services and manufacturing are relatively less important and agriculture is more important. Most Eastern European countries have a larger percentage of their labor force in manufacturing as compared to services.
\par \tab Industry and services are the leading contributors to the gross national product (GNP) per capita in most European nations. The average for Western Europe was $18,169 GNP per capita in 1989; for Eastern Europe, excluding the Soviet Union, $2,283; in Northern Europe, $21,474; and in Southern Europe, $6,250. Using the measure of value added by manufacturing as an indicator of economic development, West Germany ranked third in the world behind the United States and Japan in the late 1980s.
\par \tab The Western European manufacturing belt extends from the Scottish Lowlands and England across the English Channel to the Benelux countries, the Rhine and Ruhr valleys of Germany, northern France, Switzerland, and northern Italy. These areas have changed from basic iron and steel and other so-called heavy industry to high-quality machine and metal products, textiles based mostly on artificial fibers, chemicals, appliances, and materials needed by the increasingly demanding population of Europe and the world. High-technology production is increasingly significant. The location of this kind of industry can be scattered, as it is dependent on the skill of workers rather than on heavy materials such as coal and iron ore. The overall emphasis is more on quality in order to make products that are competitive in world trade. The manufacturing of Northern Europe also emphasizes quality in processing the raw materials of the region, using cheap hydroelectric power. Major electrometallurgical and electrochemical industries have been developed.
\par \tab Changes in industrial locations in Western Europe have resulted from the need to import large quantities of raw materials from the rest of the world, the removal of tariffs on goods flowing between EC countries, the large use of petroleum rather than coal as an energy source, and the attempts of governments to decentralize industry to less developed areas of countries. New steel mills and oil refineries, for instance, have been located along the coasts of Western Europe to take advantage of bringing in bulky raw materials by cheap and efficient ocean transportation. Electrical engineering and chemical manufacturing are examples of growth industries that depend primarily on electric power. This source of power allows industry to be dispersed throughout Europe rather than concentrated in certain locations.
\par \tab Eastern Europe is in earlier stages of industrialization. Here the more traditional industries are found--food processing, textiles and clothing, basic iron and steel and metals industries, and those industries that satisfy local needs or that previously found a market in the Soviet Union before its breakup. Manufacturing in Eastern Europe was highly dependent on raw materials, equipment, energy, and capital as supplied by the Soviets. East Germany, the former Czechoslovakia, and Poland emerged as industrial leaders in Communist Eastern Europe, but manufacturing increased in other nations as well. Major industrial zones include: Donbas in southern Ukraine, based originally on abundant local coal and iron ore; the central region focusing on Moscow, with diverse industries; the Ural Mountains, with an abundance of metal manufacturing; and the banks of the Volga River, based on water and land transport and local oil and gas resources for energy. The industrial emphasis in each of these regions changed as resources and population concentrations developed elsewhere. The needs of the people and the plans of the various governments also caused shifts in industrial locations.
\par \tab In Southern Europe manufacturing is very spotty. The major cities stand out, along with northern Italy's Po Valley and northern Spain. The Mediterranean countries do not have the raw materials, energy resources, capital, and skilled labor to compete yet with the rest of Western Europe. Manufacturing is increasing in all countries, however, especially in Italy in recent decades. Greece and Portugal have particularly low proportions of their labor forces in industry.
\par {\b Tourism}
\par \tab Income from European and international tourists offsets unfavorable balances of trade in most European countries. The attractive scenery, combined with a long and fascinating historical heritage, provides numerous tourist attractions throughout the continent. An example is Switzerland, with its unsurpassed Alpine landscape combined with lakes, picturesque cities, historical buildings, and charming farming scenes on the populated central plateau. Swiss hotel, restaurant, and recreation site management have become models for the world.
\par \tab Europe has varied environments from subtropical to polar, each with its attraction for the tourist. Major cities--such as London, Paris, Copenhagen, Amsterdam, Vienna, Madrid, Rome, Athens, Budapest, and Moscow--attract millions of visitors and billions of dollars each year. In the EC countries about 2 percent of gross domestic product comes from tourism, with an annual growth rate of 3 to 10 percent. There are some negative effects of rapid tourism growth. These include the pollution of lakes and rivers, overcrowding of beach areas, and misuse of rural, mountainous, and scenic land by increasing numbers of recreational visitors. Large numbers of foreigners also tend to change the culture of an area, often undesirably.
\par {\b Transportation and Communication}
\par \tab The dense population and high economic productivity created an early demand for a good transportation network, especially in industrial Western Europe. The small size of most European countries required a transport system to connect bordering and nearby countries. Individual governments provided financial support, and the short distances and relatively flat topography lessened costs of construction. Small-scale systems developed in each country or in regions rather than a single large, internationally integrated system. Europe's oceangoing vessels and a well-developed system of interconnected rivers and canals led to the best water transport system in the world. The railway mileage in Europe represents about one third of the world's total.
\par \tab Automobiles on the roads of Western Europe in the early 1990s totaled 139 million. The tremendous rise in numbers of private automobiles, trucks, and buses has put great pressure on increasing the effectiveness of the highway system. The Germans had an excellent autobahn network built for military purposes in the 1930s. Most of the remainder of Europe's expressways were built after 1950. Roads in Western Europe now account for more than three quarters of the freight carried in that area and for more than 85 percent in Norden.
\par \tab The number of automobiles has begun to increase in Eastern Europe, especially in Romania, the Czech Republic, and Poland. Trucks and buses, however, are still more important than private cars in transporting people and goods in this part of Europe.
\par \tab As the number of automobiles, trucks, and buses increased, the role of railways decreased. Railroads are used to carry heavy commodities such as coal, iron ore, and bulky manufactured products throughout Europe. The mileage of rail lines has decreased, especially in Western Europe. Some high-speed express trains have been added--for example, one from Paris to Nice and the Trans-European Express from England to Italy. These fast trains, as well as commuter trains serving cities, have helped maintain railway passenger service. In 1987 construction began on a tunnel under the English Channel. Completed In May 1994, it links auto and rail traffic between England and France.
\par \tab Water transportation has also suffered in competition with highways and pipelines. The Rhine River system from Basel, Switzerland, to the North Sea is the major European waterway, in volume of traffic, for goods flowing into and out of the EU countries.
\par \tab Air transport and pipelines are significant forms of transportation in and between the countries of Europe. Major airports in each country serve primarily passenger traffic but also transport mail and high-value, low-bulk products. Europe has become a focus for air traffic because of its large population, and it attracts business and tourist traffic from all over the world. The largest generators of air traffic in Europe are Russia and the United Kingdom.
\par \tab Pipelines have grown rapidly as the chief means of transporting oil and natural gas. Pipelines connect coastal refineries with inland consumer cities as well as coastal crude oil terminals to inland refineries. With the oil and gas developments in the North Sea after 1970, pipelines were built to bring these products ashore in Scotland, England, Germany, and Norway. They are then distributed further by pipeline or by tanker to world destinations.
\par \tab In both Eastern and Western Europe, regional integration is an important consideration to more effective water, rail, highway, air, and pipeline transportation. One of the EC's major goals was the development of a unified, effective, and viable transportation system within its member countries. Comecon had the same objective in Eastern Europe.
\par \tab Telephone, telegraph, radio, television, and newspaper communications are well developed throughout the continent. Newspaper circulation is high in all of Western Europe. In Eastern Europe, Communist dailies were party-run and spoke for government policy. Independent opposition newspapers--first permitted in the late 1980s as dramatic changes took place in Eastern Europe--competed with the official party newspapers, outselling them in many cases.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by Lawrence M. Sommers, Professor and former Chairman of Geography, Michigan State University, East Lansing.
\par \tab {\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR EUROPE}
\par \tab Barzini, Luigi. The Europeans (Simon & Schuster, 1983).
\par \tab Gay, Peter, and Webb, Robert. Modern Europe, 2 vols. (Harper, 1973).
\par \tab Holmes, George, ed. The Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe (Oxford Univ. Press, 1990).
\par \tab Hughes, H.S., and Wilkinson, James. Contemporary Europe: A History, 7th ed. (Prentice, 1991).
\par \tab Jordan, Terry. The European Culture Area (Harper, 1987).
\par \tab PΘrin, Patrick, and Forni, Pierre. The Barbarian Invasions of Europe (Silver Burdett, 1987).
\par \tab Pimlott, John. The Cold War (Watts, 1987).
\par \tab Riordan, James. Eastern Europe: The Lands and Their Peoples, rev. ed. (Silver Burdett, 1987).
\par \tab Sabbagh, Antoine. Europe in the Middle Ages (Silver Burdett, 1988).
\par \tab Taylor, A.J.P. The Struggle for Mastery in Europe, 1894-1918 (Oxford Univ. Press, 1954).
\par \tab Thompson, W.C. Western Europe (Stryker, annual).
\par \tab Tuchman, Barbara. The Proud Tower: A Portrait of the World Before the War (Macmillan, 1966).
\par \tab Tusa, Ann, and Tusa, John. The Berlin Airlift (Atheneum, 1988).\par \tab Three hundred miles (480 kilometers) east of the Strait of Magellan, near the tip of South America, lie the Falkland Islands. Rocky and treeless, they are swept by winds and pelted much of the year by cold rains. The islands, a British self-governing colony, are near the trade routes approaching the strait.
\par \tab The 200 islands of the group cover 4,618 square miles (11,961 square kilometers). The main islands are East Falkland, which is 90 miles (145 kilometers) by 55 miles (89 kilometers), and West Falkland, which is 80 miles (129 kilometers) by 45 miles (72 kilometers). The capital is Stanley, or Port Stanley, on East Falkland. A governor and executive and legislative councils rule the islands. Under their 1985 constitution, South Georgia, which has a small military garrison, and the uninhabited South Sandwich Islands ceased to be dependencies of the Falklands.
\par \tab The British claim that navigator John Davis discovered the islands in 1592. The French, Spanish, and Argentines occupied them in succession. The British took control of the islands in 1833 and held them thereafter. Most of the islanders today are British, and their chief industry is sheep raising.
\par \tab Argentina also claims the Falklands, which they call the Malvinas. In 1965 a United Nations resolution urged Britain and Argentina to resolve their dispute over control. In April 1982, after 17 years of diplomatic deadlocks, Argentina invaded the Falklands. Britain retaliated and triumphed after ten weeks of combat in which about 1,000 were killed. A "fisheries protection zone" policed by British vessels was set up around the islands in 1987. Problems such as Argentine fishing rights remain as both countries still claim sovereignty. They resumed diplomatic ties in 1990. Population (1988 estimate), 1,950.\par \tab The southwestern Pacific island nation of Fiji was a crown colony of Great Britain for 96 years until it won independence in 1970. It is an archipelago, or group of islands, having several hundred islands. Fiji is in the tropics about 500 miles (800 kilometers) southwest of Samoa and 1,100 miles (1,800 kilometers) north of New Zealand. The total land area of Fiji is 7,055 square miles (18,272 square kilometers). The port city of Suva is the nation's capital.
\par \tab The larger Fijian islands are of volcanic origin and are mountainous. The smaller ones are coral atolls. The two largest islands, which make up almost 90 percent of Fiji's land area, are Viti Levu, on which Suva is located, and Venua Levu. Rainfall is heaviest on the windward side of the larger islands, whose rugged, thickly forested peaks, often rising to more than 3,000 feet (900 meters), block the moisture carried by the prevailing southeast trade winds. Fiji has two seasons--a hot, wet period lasting from November through April, and a relatively cooler, drier period from May through October.
\par \tab The chief exports of Fiji are partially refined cane sugar and molasses. Grown mainly on small plots of land, the sugarcane is crushed and partly refined by the government-owned Fiji Sugar Corporation. Other important exports are coconut products (copra and coconut oil), fish, and gold. Rice is the main staple food crop in Fiji. Other agricultural products are ginger, cocoa, root crops, and fruits and vegetables. The pine timber, beef cattle, and dairying industries have grown rapidly with government support.
\par \tab Tourism is an important industry. Most of the vacationers are from Australia, New Zealand, and North America. The favorite resort area is the beach on the south coast of Viti Levu, between Suva and Nadi. Nadi is the principal international airport. The harbor at Suva is able to accommodate the largest passenger ships.
\par \tab In rural areas Fijians traditionally live in a communal village society, and about 83 percent of the land is owned communally by about 6,600 land-owning groups called mataqali. The Native Land Trust Board, which oversees all Fijian land matters, insures that Fijians have land to meet their own requirements and arranges leases and collects rent for the mataqali. In addition to insuring that small farmers have adequate land to grow food, the board must make long-term arrangements for the development of tourist facilities, industrial sites, sugarcane farms, cattle ranches, and commercial pine forests.
\par \tab Late in the 19th century the British brought in Indian laborers to work on the Fijian sugar plantations. As a result, more than half of all Fijians today are of Indian descent. Native Fijians make up about 45 percent. Persons of other Pacific-island origin and those of European and Chinese descent comprise almost all the remainder.
\par {\b History and Government}
\par \tab The discovery of Fiji is usually credited to Abel Jansen Tasman, a Dutch navigator, who visited the island group in 1643. Captain James Cook of England sailed through the islands in 1774. Major credit for the discovery and charting of the islands goes to another Englishman, William Bligh, who navigated the islands after being set adrift in a small boat by the mutinous crew of his ship, the ill-fated Bounty. After 1830 Christian missionaries gained influence over natives who had practiced cannibalism. King Cakobau accepted the faith in 1854. Twenty years later the islands were ceded to the British.
\par \tab In 1970 Fiji became independent from Britain. Fiji remained a member of the Commonwealth with the British sovereign as head of state. In 1987 Sitiveni Rabuka and his soldiers led two coups against the Indian-dominated government. He suspended the constitution and proclaimed Fiji a republic, severing ties to the Commonwealth. Conflicts between native Fijians and those of Indian descent continued under the interim civilian government of President Penaia Ganilau and Prime Minister Kamisese Mara. A proposed new constitution kept political power in the hands of indigenous Fijians and caused tension and violence. Population (1989 estimate) 734,000.\par \tab One of the northernmost countries of Europe, Finland is located between Russia on the east, Sweden on the west, and the tip of Norway on the north. On the southwest the land juts into the Baltic Sea, which splits into the Gulf of Bothnia on the country's western side and the Gulf of Finland along its southern edge. About one third of the length of the country lies north of the Arctic Circle. The country's Ahvenanmaa, or Aland Islands, extends from the southwestern shore into the Baltic. The climate, soils, and landforms make human settlement difficult in the northern two thirds of the country. Most of the Finnish people live in the southern third of the country, either along the coast on the Baltic Sea and the Gulf of Finland or around the edges of the numerous lakes that dot the glacially formed landscape.
\par \tab Finland is a stable, progressive country despite natural, political, and economic handicaps. It has been independent only since 1917. The young republic was defeated twice by the forces of the Soviet Union during World War II. The Finns were forced to give up valuable land areas, resettle more than 400,000 people, and pay large reparations to the Soviet Union. Since that time the Finns have rebuilt their country and have maintained a neutral foreign policy.
\par {\b Land and Climate}
\par \tab Finland's land area covers 130,129 square miles (337,033 square kilometers). In 1990 there was an average of about 42.5 people per square mile (16.4 per square kilometer). The land surface of Finland is underlain by ancient granitic rocks that were severely eroded during the Ice Age. Most of the country lies at low elevations, with mountainous terrain restricted largely to the far north. Poorly drained land dominates much of the surface, which is dotted by an estimated 55,000 lakes. Inland water covers about 10 percent of Finland's area. The hilly areas, ridges, lakes, and marshes were formed by glaciers. The most fertile soils lie mainly along the coast and around the inland lakes, but they are sparse.
\par \tab Finland has what is called a high latitude, continental type climate. In the southern part, moderating winds off the North Atlantic and the Baltic Sea prevent severe weather conditions. The northern portions of the country have long, severe winters and short, cool summers.
\par \tab Frost can occur during any month in the north, and even in the south the growing season averages only three months or less. Because of the country's far northern latitude, however, it has long hours of summer daylight, which somewhat offsets the short growing season. The annual average precipitation ranges from 24 inches (61 centimeters) in the south to 16 inches (41 centimeters) in the far north. Winter snowfall is considerable.
\par {\b Plants and Animals}
\par \tab Forests cover much of Finland, and lumbering is a major industry. Pines and spruce are the main coniferous species, and in the south they are mixed with deciduous trees, such as birch, hazel, aspen, maple, alder, and linden. Trees of the northern forests are often dwarfed in size because of the poor growing conditions. The northern tundra, or bogland, zones have lichens, moss, and cloudberries in addition to the stunted trees.
\par \tab The animal life of Finland is adapted to a land of large forest and water areas and a rather rugged climate. Waterfowl abound on coastal and inland waters. Animals such as bear, wolf, elk, wolverine, and lynx inhabit the forests. Abundant reindeer serve as domesticated animals in the northern Lapland area. Among fish species are Baltic herring in the coastal waters; salmon, trout, and whitefish in northern inland waters; and perch and pike in the southern lakes and streams.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab The Finnish language belongs to the Finno-Ugric language group, which also includes Hungarian. Notable minority groups include the Lapps in the north and the Swedes along the Baltic Sea coast and in the Ahvenanmaa. The Lapps may be descendants of the original Finnic or Mongolian tribes who came to the region. There are several thousand Lapps, and the Swedish group totals about 6 percent of the population but is steadily decreasing in number.
\par \tab Finnish and Swedish are both official languages. The Evangelical Lutheran church is the state church, but freedom of religion is granted to all religious groups. About 88 percent of the people are Lutherans, 1 percent are Greek Orthodox, and 10 percent are not affiliated with a particular religion or have other beliefs.
\par \tab Because Finnish culture has been rather isolated, it has developed distinct characteristics. The 'Kalevala', a national folk epic published in 1835, has fostered the Finns' pride in their heritage and a sense of national unity. Elias L÷nnrot, a Finnish folklorist, conceived the idea of writing down the folk tales and songs that evolved throughout Finnish history and molding them into this epic poem.
\par \tab A number of Finnish musicians, artists, and authors have achieved international acclaim. The symphonies of the composer Jean Sibelius are especially well-known. Frans SillanpΣΣ won the Nobel prize for literature in 1939. Contemporary Finnish architecture and sculpture have won a worldwide reputation. The Finns are particularly noted for their accomplishments in industrial arts, especially ceramics and glassworking. The Finnish theater is represented by some 40 professional companies. Opera, symphonies, and music festivals are popular.
\par \tab Sports also play an important role in Finnish society. Finns compete internationally in such events as cross-country skiing, ski jumping, long-distance running, and other track and field events. Also popular are waterskiing, riding, fishing, and shooting. The sauna, a dry-heat bath in which water is sometimes poured over hot stones to produce steam, is a national tradition. It is common on farms and in city homes.
\par \tab Finland has been a leader in the passage of social legislation. It was one of the first countries to enforce the eight-hour workday; paid holidays; employee pensions; disability, life, and survivor's insurance; and the protection of women and children in industry. In 1906 Finland granted equal suffrage to all its citizens. Cooperative economic activities, in which large numbers of people share both labor and rewards, are major elements of Finnish society.
\par {\b The Economy}
\par \tab Agriculture is decreasing in importance in the Finnish economy. Agriculture and forestry accounted for 36 percent of the labor force in 1960 but for less than 6 percent in the early 1990s. Nevertheless, as a matter of government policy, Finland remains self-sufficient in food staples.
\par \tab Farming is difficult due to the short growing season, infertile soils, and poorly drained land. About 8 percent of Finland's area is cultivated. The chief crops are hay, barley, oats, sugar beets, potatoes, wheat, rapeseed, and rye. Frost is a major problem and frequently causes some degree of crop failure. Cattle are raised for beef and for dairy products, including milk, butter, and cheese. The majority of the farms are small, averaging only 10 to 50 acres (4 to 20 hectares) in area.
\par \tab Forests provide Finland with a significant economic resource. Two thirds of the forestland is privately owned by farmers, and forest products normally provide more than one third of an average farm income. Lumbering is an important part-time activity for farmers in southern Finland and is also a major commercial activity. The nation is a major supplier of wood and paper products to Western European nations.
\par \tab Finland has a variety of metallic mineral deposits; the country, however, does not have any coal or petroleum. Low-grade iron ore is the chief mineral product; more than one million tons of iron ore are mined annually. Zinc, copper, nickel, gold, and silver are other important metallic minerals. Granite is quarried for the building industry.
\par \tab Manufacturing, based largely upon the processing of forest products and using hydroelectric power for energy, has grown rapidly. This trend has drawn more people to the cities for employment and the urban population has grown to three fifths of the population. Forest products were Finland's most important earner of foreign exchange throughout the 1980s.
\par \tab Metalworking, however, surpassed woodworking in both value added and employment. In 1991, 29 percent of manufacturing employees were in the wood, paper processing, and printing and publishing industries; 36 percent were in the metal, machinery, and transport equipment industries; and the remainder were in industries producing chemicals, textiles, tobacco, food and beverages, and other products. Glass, porcelain, and earthenware are important craft industries. Manufacturing industries are mostly located in Helsinki and other coastal cities, and in southern inland centers.
\par \tab Finland depends heavily upon foreign trade to obtain items such as machinery, oil, coal, food, chemicals, vehicles, and others required for its economy. Germany, Sweden, the United Kingdom, the United States, and Japan are its leading trading partners.
\par {\b Transportation, Communication, and Education}
\par \tab Despite difficulties of terrain, the large number of lakes, and poorly drained land, an extensive road and rail network has been developed. The state owns the country's railroads, with their more than 3,600 miles (5,800 kilometers) of track. There are 47,700 miles (76,800 kilometers) of public roads, more than half of which were paved. The country has about 4,000 miles (6,400 kilometers) of navigable waterways. A network of airports links the various parts of Finland. The state-owned Finnair, an international airline, serves mainly Europe and the United States.
\par \tab Radio and television broadcasting, also state-controlled, is extensive. Television service began in 1958, and the state has operated radio broadcasting since 1934. There are 60 daily newspapers published, some of which are printed in Swedish.
\par \tab Education is state-supported in Finland. Schooling is required from ages 7 to 15 and is free. Instruction for all students is standard. Virtually 100 percent of the people are literate. The University of Helsinki, founded in Turku in 1640 and transferred to Helsinki in 1828, is the principal university of the nation's 20 institutions of higher education.
\par {\b Government}
\par \tab Finland has been a republic with a government based on a constitution since July 17, 1919. A one-chamber parliament exists with 200 members elected for four-year terms. The minimum voting age is 18, and anyone over 20 is eligible to run for parliament. The president is elected every six years by an electoral college and is assisted by a cabinet. Among the many political parties, the Center party has the largest membership and promotes the interests of small farmers. Other parties include the Social Democrat party and the National Coalition party. Finland is divided into 11 provinces and one autonomous province, each headed by a governor, appointed by the president.
\par {\b History}
\par \tab Finland was inhabited for centuries before the arrival, between AD 100 and 300, of the ancestors of the present Finns. Permanent settlements date to about AD 1000. After the arrival of Christianity, Sweden established important settlements along the Bothnian coast. The Swedes invaded Finland in 1155 and held control until 1809, when Sweden surrendered it to Russia. A brief period of independence followed the Russian defeat by Japan in 1905, but a second period of Russian domination began in 1909, lasting until the declaration of independence in 1917. The country adopted its constitution in 1919.
\par \tab Events during World War II were disastrous to Finland. The nation was defeated by the Soviets in the Russo-Finnish War, or Winter War, in 1939-40. Then in 1941, with Nazi Germany as an ally, Finland won back its lost territory and even occupied some additional Soviet land. Finland was again overwhelmed by the forces of the Soviet Union in 1944. An armistice was signed with the Soviet Union, and Finnish forces were withdrawn behind the Moscow Treaty Line of 1940. The peace treaty ending World War II forced Finland to give up 12 percent of its territory and pay war reparations to the Soviet Union totaling 226,500,000 dollars over eight years. The debt was to be paid in wood products, cable, ships, and metal goods. To fulfill this obligation, Finland's shipbuilding and metal industries were greatly increased. The debt was paid in 1952.
\par \tab Another problem created by the Soviet treaty was the resettlement of about 420,000 Finns who fled the Karelian area taken over by the Soviet Union. Pioneer farm units were created in the north, and existing farmers gave up land to make new farms in the south. Many of these people subsequently have migrated into cities for employment or to Sweden, where Finns are now a substantial minority group.
\par \tab Finland joined the United Nations in 1955 and is a member of the Nordic Council. It is a member of the European Free Trade Association and has entered into trade agreements with the European Union. Urho Kekkonen was successful in maintaining international neutrality during his long term as president from 1956 to 1981.
\par \tab In 1982 Mauno Koivisto was sworn in as Finland's president. He was reelected in 1988. On a visit to Finland in October 1989, Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev recognized Finland's neutral status and announced his policy of Soviet noninterference in the affairs of its neighbors. In 1991 Finland reestablished diplomatic ties with the Baltic republics. Koivisto retired in March 1994 and was replaced by Martii Ahtisaari, a Social Democrat who defeated better-known politicians in an upset victory.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by Lawrence M. Sommers, Assistant Provost and former Chairman, Department of Geography, Michigan State University.\par \tab Among the countries of Europe, France ranks third in size behind Russia and Ukraine. France is a highly complex and diverse land. It includes a wide range of natural environments, cultural backgrounds, and economic activities that present an ever-changing perspective to the observing traveler. The diversity begins with the French landscape itself, broken by extensive highlands that include the Alps and their highest peak, Mont Blanc, and descending into lush, fertile valleys and level plains. France's area of more than 210,000 square miles (543,000 square kilometers) includes the island of Corsica in the Mediterranean Sea.
\par \tab France faces the major seas of Europe--the North Sea, the Atlantic Ocean, and the Mediterranean. It lies across the English Channel from England and shares boundaries with Belgium, Luxembourg, Germany, Switzerland, Italy, Andorra, and Spain. France has thus been open to ideas, immigrants, and invasions from many directions, and its own culture, products, and philosophies have spread throughout the world.
\par \tab A major manufacturing country that employs some of the world's most advanced technology, France is also Europe's most important agricultural nation, providing wheat, wine, and other products to the world. The French language ranks second only to English in international use; and the nation's great cultural vitality gives it an international importance far exceeding its size or population. Liberal political traditions, with emphasis on human rights and national independence, make France a leader in world affairs.
\par \tab France has many visible traces of its richly varied past. Beginning with the Stone Age monuments at Carnac and the cave paintings of Lascaux, artists have recorded the flow of centuries down to some of today's most advanced creative expressions. The French people have also molded almost every part of the country, creating the hedgerows of Normandy, the vast open fields of the Paris Basin, and the miles of carefully tended vineyards in many regions. This humanization of the landscape has sometimes gone against nature, resulting in deforestation, bleak mining areas, and high levels of air and water pollution. Today, however, France is committed to protecting and restoring both its natural environment and its rich cultural heritage.
\par \tab Reference is often made in this article to the historical provinces of France, which include such well-known names as Brittany (Bretagne), Burgundy (Bourgogne), Normandy, Provence, and Champagne.
{\b THE LAND}
\par \tab France is composed of a number of distinctive natural units, many of which have a complicated geologic history and form a pattern of great variety. The country's landscapes vary from flat, almost featureless plains to Mont Blanc, which spreads across the border of France and Italy, rising to 15,771 feet (4,807 meters) in the glorious French Alps.
\par \tab Northern France, particularly the region of ╬le-de-France and its margins, is dominated by the Paris Basin. This vast surface, which appears very flat in many places, has been compared to a series of saucers of decreasing size stacked one inside the other. There are gently sloping surfaces toward the interior, and steep slopes on the outer edges. Paris is in the center of the basin, and the outward-facing ridges, composed primarily of resistant limestone, have historically provided strong defensive lines to the east. The ridges form rugged chalk cliffs along the English Channel to the west. To the north, the Paris Basin blends into the plains of Flanders and northwestern Europe. The Ardennes and Vosges mountains to the northeast and east are part of a zone extending beyond the Rhine River through central Germany. To the west, much older rocks, mainly granites and schists, form the Massif Armoricain of Brittany and the Cotentin Peninsula of Normandy. In the southwest, the Paris Basin is connected by a low threshold, called the Gate of Poitou, to the other large lowland region in France, the Aquitaine Basin. Along the Bay of Biscay, Aquitaine has many areas of sandy soil and some of France's flattest surfaces. The south-central part of France is dominated by a large area of uplands, mostly of volcanic origin, known as the Massif Central and including the regions of Limousin and Auvergne. This area is dotted with peaks rising from 4,000 to 6,000 feet (1,200 to 1,800 meters), which impede communications and economic activity.
\par {\b Mountains}
\par \tab Some of Europe's most imposing mountains border France to the southeast and southwest. East of the Massif Central, beyond the Rh⌠ne-Sa⌠ne corridor, the linear folded ridges of the Jura mountain range give way to the Alps. In France, the Alps begin at the Mediterranean, where they are called the Maritime Alps, and extend northward before turning east and entering Switzerland and northern Italy. The French Alps, though high, rugged, and complex, were heavily glaciated, particularly in their northern section. As a result, they have broad valleys and provide relatively easy access deep into the range's interior.
\par \tab The Pyrenees Mountains, which rise between France and Spain, are not as high as the Alps, but in some ways they are more impressive. The Pyrenees were formed from a single block of the Earth's crust, thrust upward with the steeper face toward France. They were only slightly glaciated, and so are less accessible than the Alps. Only a few difficult passes cut through the central portions of this range. Pic de Vignemale, which has a height of 10,820 feet (3,298 meters), is the highest peak in the French Pyrenees, but elevations exceed 11,000 feet (3,350 meters) on the Spanish side. East of the Rh⌠ne River, the Mediterranean coast is rough and indented where the Alps extend to the sea. West of the Rh⌠ne the broad, fertile plain of Languedoc extends southward from outlying formations of the Massif Central.
\par {\b Rivers}
\par \tab Most of France is drained by five major river systems. Perhaps the most famous French river is the Seine, which rises in Burgundy, flows through Paris, and empties into the English Channel at Le Havre. With its major tributaries, especially the Marne, Oise, and Eure rivers, it drains most of the Paris Basin and upper Normandy and is an important waterway to and from Paris.
\par \tab The Loire River, which has the largest drainage basin of any river entirely in France, rises in the Massif Central. Such tributaries as the Cher, Vienne, and Sarthe rivers enter the Loire before it flows into the Atlantic below Nantes.
\par \tab The Rhine River, which rises in the Swiss Alps and enters the North Sea in The Netherlands, forms the boundary between France and Germany. Most of Alsace and Lorraine is drained by the Rhine or its major tributaries, the Moselle and Meuse.
\par \tab The Rh⌠ne, another stream with its headwaters in Switzerland, is the major river of southeastern France. Joined by such tributaries as the Sa⌠ne and IsΦre rivers, the Rh⌠ne drains southern Burgundy, the French Jura, and much of the French Alps before entering the Mediterranean through a delta just west of Marseilles.
\par \tab The fifth major French river, the Garonne, drains the southwestern regions. Rising in the Pyrenees and flowing northward, it receives tributaries from both the Massif Central--the Lot and Dordogne rivers--and the Pyrenees--the AriΦge River. The Garonne drains much of the Aquitaine Basin before entering the Atlantic north of Bordeaux through a wide estuary known as the Gironde.
\par {\b Soils}
\par \tab The maritime climate and deciduous forests of much of France promoted the development of what are generally called podzolic soils. The podzolic process involves the leaching, or carrying away, of material near the surface by moderately acidic water that has seeped through plant material on the forest floor. Podzolic soils are gray-brown and tend to be heavy, with a high clay content. They can be moderately productive for agricultural use when properly fertilized and carefully managed.
\par \tab In the Paris Basin, soils have been derived from limestone formations, which make them exceptionally rich in minerals useful for agriculture. In postglacial times this region was covered by a thin coating of fine, windblown material called limon (silt), much of which has high nutritive value. In contrast, where granites and related rocks are the base for soil formation, as in Brittany, the soils tend to be acidic and comparatively unproductive. Along many coastal areas, and especially in parts of the Aquitaine Basin, light sandy soils are impractical for agriculture. In mountainous regions, soil formation is difficult because of steep slopes, and soil erodes downward as it forms. Because of the lack of abundant grassland, France has only small amounts of the rich organic soils so vital to such regions as the American Midwest and the rich grain fields of Ukraine.
{\b CLIMATE, VEGETATION, ANIMAL LIFE}
\par \tab France has three major climates: oceanic, Mediterranean, and continental. These climates are as varied as the nation's size and physical diversity would suggest. In general, however, the French climate is moderate, with few areas having extremes of heat or cold, unusual drought, or violent weather.
\par \tab The dominant climate of much of France is oceanic, also called maritime temperate. It prevails especially along the west coasts of continents in the latitudes of westerly airflow. In France the absence of mountains except on the southern and eastern borders permits this climate, with minor exceptions, to prevail in most regions. The oceanic climate features a mild winter with no monthly temperature averaging below freezing, a relatively cool summer, and, as a result, an extremely small annual temperature range. For instance, Brest, on the coast of Brittany, has a January average of 45░ F (7░ C) and a July average of 63░ F (17░ C)--a range of only 18░--F (10░ C). The Mediterranean climate predominates along the southern coast of France, particularly in the shadow of the Alps. Taking its name from the Mediterranean Basin, which it dominates, this transitional climate is found on the western coasts of all continents between latitudes 30░ and 40░, north and south. The warm Mediterranean Basin at these latitudes produces mild winters, with an average January temperature of 47░F (8░ C) at Nice. This famous resort city has heavy winter rainfall, about 34 inches (86 centimeters), but almost no rain in summer. Because of the blocking effect of the Alps, Pyrenees, and Massif Central, temperatures remain higher and sunshine more frequent in the Mediterranean region than in the northern part of France. In summer, however, the northward shift of wind brings this region under the influence of dry subtropical weather that heads in from North Africa. Although temperatures are often very warm, especially away from the coast, this belt has little or no rain during summer.
\par \tab The continental climate prevails farther to the east, away from the sea, and especially with increasing elevation. There, temperatures become lower during winter and snow remains on the ground for several weeks, though the weather is often sunny. Winter storms and their moisture can move easily across France, and so snow often tends to be heavy in the Jura and Alps, but temperatures are rarely excessively cold except on the highest peaks.
\par {\b Vegetation}
\par \tab Forests once covered nearly all of France, but people have drastically changed the natural landscape. The plant life varies with the climate and soil. Under the moderate conditions of the oceanic climate are the remains of broadleaf deciduous forests that once covered the land, with oaks and beeches being most typical. Other common species included maples, chestnuts, and ashes. Holly and other shrubs grew thickly on the forest floor.
\par \tab To the north and east, and at higher elevations, where colder winters are more common, needleleaf evergreen trees, especially pines, spruces, and firs, became dominant. Conifers, particularly pines, are also found in sandy soils, especially along the coasts. Combinations of strong winds and poor granitic soils along parts of the Atlantic coast, especially in Brittany, prevented forests from thriving, and such hardy plants as broom, furze, and heather are common. Small shrubs of the Alpine tundra grow above the tree line in the higher Alps and Pyrenees.
\par \tab The Mediterranean fringe, with its dry summers, has unusual plants that adapt to seasonal drought. They include a group of low shrubs with small leaves, deep roots, thick bark, and other water-saving traits. This group is generally known as maquis, mainly in Corsica. A slightly different form, called garigue, grows on the dry limestone hills of Provence. Some drought-adapted trees, such as pines, olives, and live oaks, also grow along the Mediterranean. France's only major area of natural grassland is the Rh⌠ne river delta, known as the Camargue.
\par {\b Animal Life}
\par \tab France's wide variety of elevations, climates, and natural vegetation created habitats suitable for many species of animals. However, the spread of human habitation sharply reduced the number and diversity of these creatures. Today greater protection of animals and their habitats is helping to reverse the trend. Areas located farthest from human activity have retained a higher proportion of wildlife.
\par \tab Among the larger mammals, red deer are common in forested areas in northern France, and fallow deer, usually kept in compounds, are sometimes found wild in the Massif Central. The smaller roe deer is the most common species, with the ability to thrive even on the outskirts of major cities. Small populations of chamois and ibex live in the Alps and Pyrenees, and mouflon (wild sheep) inhabit Corsica. Wild pigs can be seen in all parts of the country. Small numbers of brown bears live in the high Pyrenees, and other common carnivores include red foxes and wildcats. Skunks, marmots, and several species of mink and marten are also abundant, along with hares and voles. Beavers are rare and protected by law. Birdlife is widespread in the Mediterranean region and includes rollers, bee eaters, and blue rock thrushes. Many ducks, geese, hawks, rooks, starlings, thrushes, and robins migrate from Northern and Eastern Europe to France for the winter. The Camargue is the only region in Western Europe where flamingos, egrets, and herons nest. White storks inhabit Alsace and often build nests on roofs and chimneys.
\par {\b Environmental Protection}
\par \tab Throughout their history the French, along with most of the other peoples of the world, have paid little attention to the quality of their natural environment. They have emphasized economic development and management rather than the protection and preservation of the lands they inhabited.
\par \tab With the growth of industry and its demand for coal and other minerals--together with urbanization, the increasing population, and the development of technology natural systems began to break down because they could not tolerate the stresses induced by human activities. Despite warnings, the French in general did not realize until after World War II that years of neglect had left their air and water severely polluted and the country's forests and wildlife endangered. Such events as oil spills from tanker wrecks off the coast of Brittany also drew attention to the nation's environmental problems.
\par \tab France has undertaken a significant program of environmental protection and renovation. This project has featured the creation of a system of national parks and reserves, resulting from laws that promoted the preservation or extension of natural areas, and the reestablishment of numerous endangered species of plants and animals. The program also encourages the development of opportunities for people to appreciate nature without threatening it.
\par \tab The government has also established a series of regional nature parks and reserves that are less wild and more accessible than the national parks. Many are in rural areas of abandoned farms and offer tourism and traditional artisan crafts while restoring the natural environment. Efforts are also being made to clean France's air and water.
{\b THE PEOPLE AND CULTURE}
\par \tab France had a population of about 56,942,000 in 1991. The population of the nation has increased very slowly since the beginning of the 20th century. The country had about 38,500,000 people living in it in 1900, and about 41,600,000 in 1930.
\par \tab By the early 20th century France and most other European nations had largely completed a population transition. Following high birthrates and death rates up to the 17th century, France had a rapidly falling death rate. The rate fell due to such factors as improved public health measures, medical advances, and increased food production. However, the birthrate remained high into the 19th century, and population increased at an unprecedented speed.
\par \tab Because France is large and, by European standards, sparsely populated, most of its population gain could be absorbed internally. As a result, France did not participate heavily in the waves of emigration that affected other European countries. Nevertheless, French settlement in North America resulted at least partially from population pressures at home.
\par \tab The growth of cities and industrial employment, along with the passage of child labor laws and the beginnings of social security systems, gradually discouraged French citizens from having large families. Birthrates began to decline in France and again reached virtual equality with death rates by the early 20th century. By the 1930s the French birthrate had fallen so low that the government passed legislation in 1938 to encourage population growth. This legislation, providing such benefits as family allowances and medical and educational aid, was still in effect in the 1990s. Despite these efforts, however, population growth in France has continued at a slow rate. Experts predict that the population will probably remain at about its present level into the 21st century. In the early 1990s France had an annual birthrate of less than 14 per 1,000 population and a death rate of about 9 per 1,000. About 42 percent of the people were under 30 years old; 22 percent were between the ages of 30 and 44; 16 percent were between 45 and 59; and 20 percent were more than 60. In Western Europe, France is the fourth most populous country, narrowly trailing Germany, Italy, and Great Britain, and far ahead of Spain and Portugal.
\par \tab In 1990 France ranked as the 18th most populous nation in the world. Its position is steadily declining because of the population increases in the developing nations of Africa, Asia, and Latin America. France was the fifth most populous nation in 1936, but it may be no higher than 25th by the year 2000.
\par \tab France's large area makes its population density relatively low--about 270 persons per square mile (104 persons per square kilometer). Led by The Netherlands, the major European nations are much more crowded. Within France, the population density varies widely depending on topography, urbanization, and economic opportunities.
\par {\b Urban Growth}
\par \tab Throughout most of its history France, like other European countries, was predominantly a rural society, its population concentrated in villages or clustered around castles or manor houses. A few larger communities began to develop early in the Middle Ages as sites with certain features became settlements. Many of these sites were at river crossings and mountain passes and on trade routes and harbors. Paris, as the administrative, economic, and cultural center of an expanding nation, grew steadily. By 1500 Paris had a population of about 225,000 and was Europe's largest city. In general, however, French cities remained small. Lyon, Rouen, and Tours were the only others with as many as 60,000 people in 1500, and many relatively important communities had no more than 5,000. The rapid growth rate of urban France, as elsewhere in Europe, came with the Industrial Revolution. Beginning near the end of the 18th century and continuing through the 19th, French cities grew quickly. The 1911 census showed that its population had become nearly half urban.
\par \tab Most of the population growth consisted of migration from the countryside. Rural people, many of them impoverished by the machines and manufacturing methods of the Industrial Revolution, flocked to take advantage of the growing job prospects of the cities, which also offered social and educational opportunities. The construction of railroads increased this flow during the late 1800s. By the mid-1900s many rural areas, especially in Brittany, the Massif Central, and the Alps, had lost much population.
\par \tab Since 1960 the population of French cities has changed in several ways. Internal migration from the provinces has diminished, while at the same time people from Italy, Spain, Portugal, Yugoslavia, and other European nations joined the French urban-industrial labor force. There have also been numerous arrivals from former French colonies, especially those in Africa and Indochina.
\par \tab The central districts of many French cities have begun to show population declines as the cost and inconvenience of life in crowded older quarters exceed the advantages. At the same time, suburban living has become more accessible with an increase in automobile ownership. The government has attempted to decrease the overwhelming influence of Paris by encouraging the decentralization of industry, promoting the economic and cultural development of many regional centers, and building new towns far from the capital. The 1975 census showed that the largest cities of France were Paris, Marseilles, Lyon, Toulouse, Nice, Nantes, Strasbourg, Bordeaux, St-╔tienne, and Le Havre.
\par {\b Language}
\par \tab French is one of the world's most widely spoken languages. In addition to its general use in France, it is the native tongue in seven cantons, or states, of Switzerland and in the southern half of Belgium. Outside of Europe the language continues to be widely used wherever the French colonial influence was once prevalent--for example, in the province of Quebec and in Haiti. French is also commonly heard in North and West Africa, the Middle East, and Southeast Asia. It is one of the official languages of the United Nations and is used at many international conferences as well as in numerous scientific and cultural publications. No other tongue except English is so widely studied as a second language. The wide use of French and English is out of all proportion to the number of people who speak those languages as native tongues.
\par \tab As a nation formed from a patchwork of individual cultures, France has many linguistic minorities representing various backgrounds. In Brittany, Breton is the only living Celtic language outside of Great Britain. It was originally brought to France by Celts fleeing Anglo-Saxon pressure in southern England during the 5th and 7th centuries and is accompanied by many proud traditions. In the northeast, German-speaking people live in the French portion of the Saar, and a more distinctive tongue is spoken in Alsace, where German language roots are combined with French additions. Italian is spoken in places along the French-Italian border, and numerous remnants of Latin-based languages from Roman times are heard along the Mediterranean. These include Occitan, also called Langue d'Oc, and Provenτal, which is spoken in southern France. The Corsican dialect, used on the island of Corsica, also evolved from Latin during the Middle Ages. In the western Pyrenees, the Basque language is spoken by a people who live on both the French and Spanish sides of the mountains.
\par {\b Religion}
\par \tab Religious observance plays an important part in the lives of many French people, but its importance in national life has diminished through the years, as it has in most European countries. France has traditionally been a strongly Roman Catholic nation. The powers of church and state were closely related under the monarchy, with powerful cardinals, such as Richelieu and Mazarin, serving as the king's principal ministers. Except for a period of tolerance under the Edict of Nantes, which was issued in 1598 and revoked in 1685, France was bitterly hostile to the Protestant movement. Many of the bloodiest periods of French history involved the wars of religion that ravaged Europe for over a century. During the French Revolution, from 1789 to 1799, measures were taken to reduce the power of the church and to separate religious and civil authority. Religious freedom was granted in 1795. Catholicism remains the major religion in France, but most Protestant sects are active in the country. They are especially strong in Alsace, the northern Jura, the southern Massif Central, and the central Atlantic region. The historic depth of religious feeling in France is perhaps best reflected by the nation's magnificent cathedrals.
\par \tab The Jewish community in France, though relatively small, has had a strong influence on the economic and cultural life of the nation. More recently, the arrival of many workers and their families from former French colonies in North Africa has created substantial Muslim populations and an expansion of the religion of Islam. Most French Jews and Muslims live in Paris, Lyon, and Marseilles.
\par {\b French Cultural Patterns}
\par \tab {\b Arts and literature.}
\par \tab Literary and artistic creativity have generally been highly valued by the French people, and these activities have flourished, spreading the influences of French culture throughout the world. Such 18th-century author-philosophers as Voltaire and Jean-Jacques Rousseau were instrumental in shaping the ideas of modern France, and the works of Jean Racine, MoliΦre, and other neoclassical playwrights are still widely performed. Victor Hugo, HonorΘ de Balzac, and Marcel Proust were among the literary giants of the 19th century. French authors have won 11 Nobel prizes for literature, far more than those of any other nation.
\par \tab Painting has also long been a vital art form in France. Artists often enjoyed the patronage of the nobility, producing works of quality and variety. During the 1800s the impressionist movement was largely the inspiration of such French artists as Edgar Degas, Pierre Auguste Renoir, and Claude Monet, and many art trends of the 20th century also originated in France. In addition, the atmosphere of free inquiry and artistic integrity that generally has been present in France has attracted many artists and writers from other countries. Leonardo da Vinci, from Italy, spent his later years in France, and Pablo Picasso, from Spain, is an outstanding 20th-century example. Many American writers, including F. Scott Fitzgerald, Ernest Hemingway, and Gertrude Stein, lived in Paris during the 1920s and 1930s. Music has always been important in the French culture, which has also supported many avant-garde works. Poetry, sculpture, ballet, and other arts have flourished in France, as have such newer art forms as photography and motion pictures.
\par \tab {\b Architecture.}
\par \tab Through the centuries architecture has been the visible, enduring record of the peoples who have inhabited France, of their cultural influences, and often of the historic currents that have swept across Europe. Prehistoric stone monuments are abundant, particularly in Brittany, where the famous alignments at Carnac may have astronomical, as well as religious and cultural, significance. Arenas, theaters, triumphal arches, and other evidence of Roman colonization may be widely seen. Many of them have been restored in recent years.
\par \tab During medieval times preoccupation with defense and nation building led to the construction of strong fortresses. Although most of them suffered during the centuries of warfare that followed, some survived or have been restored, including La CitΘ, the vast walled city at Carcassonne. Religious fervor found expression in architecture at the same time, and most of the famous churches and cathedrals of France were built then. Many examples of the earlier Romanesque style remain, but the soaring beauty of such Gothic cathedrals as those in Paris, Reims, Amiens, Chartres, and Beauvais place them among the most treasured French buildings. The majority of these cathedrals were begun in the 13th century.
\par \tab During the Renaissance the unity, power, and wealth of France were expressed in the impressive, often extravagant creations of the monarchy. Near Paris, such palaces as the ones at Versailles, Vincennes, and Fontainebleau still rank among the leading architectural masterpieces. The valleys of the Loire River and its tributaries are dotted with such sumptuous ornamental chΓteaux, or castles, as those at Chambord, Chenonceaux, and Blois.
\par \tab During the 18th and 19th centuries the zenith of French military and colonial power gave rise to grandiose architecture, much of it in Paris. The Arch of Triumph celebrates the victories of Napoleon I, and urban renovation of the mid-1800s provided such buildings as the OpΘra and such broad streets as the Champs-╔lysΘes. The Eiffel Tower, which has come to symbolize Paris and even all of France, was built as a supposedly temporary exhibit for the World's Fair of 1889.
\par \tab French architecture has continued to be vital and imaginative. Le Corbusier was one of the most famous of all modern architects. Such buildings as the controversial but successful Georges Pompidou Center in Paris, designed by architects Renzo Piano and Richard Rogers, continue to attract notice.
\par {\b Science and Medicine}
\par \tab In much the same way that the intellectual climate of France has stimulated cultural and artistic achievement, progress in scientific research has also been encouraged. During the 18th and 19th centuries such scientists as the marquis de Laplace and the Broglie family in physics, Antoine Laurent Lavoisier and Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac in chemistry, and the conte de Buffon and the chevalier de Lamarck in biology contributed significantly to their fields. Toward the end of the 19th century the husband-and-wife team of Marie and Pierre Curie began the research into radiation and nuclear physics that made them famous.
\par \tab French science has also been notable during the 20th century, and French scientists have received many Nobel prizes in chemistry and in physics. Marie Curie was the only person to be awarded both prizes.
\par \tab Medical research in France has kept pace with the other sciences. Such well-known figures as Louis Pasteur and Claude Bernard highlight the history of French medicine, and many 20th-century French researchers have been honored by Nobel prizes in physiology or medicine.
\par {\b Education and Health}
\par \tab {\b Education.}
\par \tab Schooling, both to instill appropriate citizenship values into the nation's youth and to prepare them for useful roles in a changing national economy, has been a special concern of the government since the French Revolution. Until that time, education was largely controlled by the Roman Catholic church, and the question of private or public education is still troublesome because religious feeling runs deep despite official separation of church and state. About 15 percent of French elementary schoolchildren and 20 percent of those at secondary levels go to church schools. Education is free in both the public schools and universities of France.
\par \tab Another characteristic of public education in France is its highly centralized structure. The country is divided into 27 educational districts called acadΘmies, each headed by a rector who is responsible directly to the minister of education. This official controls about 17 percent of the national budget and directs more than 900,000 teachers and administrators. The French system ensures uniformity throughout the country, but it limits flexibility and offers almost no scope for local input regarding educational problems.
\par \tab A typical French student begins preschool activities as early as the age of 2 and enters elementary school at 6. After five or six years of the first educational cycle, called preparatory, elementary, or middle courses, the student enters collΦge (high school) for an additional four years. During the final year of this program, students of 15 or 16 are directed to the second cycle, which offers three years at a lycΘe (secondary school), or various technical and vocational courses. This is a controversial part of the French system because of the young age at which career decisions must be made and because children of workers and farmers appear to have fewer opportunities to attend a lycΘe.
\par \tab LycΘe graduates who pass a baccalaurΘat examination may be admitted to a university. The University of Paris--often called the Sorbonne, which is actually the name of one of its major units--once dominated higher education in France to an unusual extent. Meanwhile, well-known universities in such provincial centers as Montpellier, Rennes, Lille, Grenoble, and Aix-en-Provence remained comparatively small. In the 1960s, however, student protests about the unavailability of university places for their increasing numbers, together with concern for the nation's growing educational needs, led to a restructuring of the university system and a great increase in financial resources. The University of Paris was divided into 13 distinct university units, and provincial universities expanded rapidly in number and size.
\par \tab Unique to the French system is a parallel educational network of grandes Θcoles, schools that compete with and partly reduce the importance of the universities. These elitist institutions, founded by Napoleon, were designed to provide France with a steady stream of superbly qualified civil servants and administrators, a function they still perform. The best known grande Θcole is the National School of Administration, from which most of the high officials of all modern French governments have graduated.
\par \tab {\b Health.}
\par \tab The French have high-quality health care that is generally available to all citizens. The social security system covers all hospital and maternity expenses and about 80 percent of all other medical, pharmaceutical, and dental bills. These benefits have helped raise the average life expectancy in France to 78.5 years for women and 70.2 years for men.
{\b THE ECONOMY}
\par {\b Agriculture}
\par \tab France is the most important agricultural nation of Western Europe. Its extensive areas of rich soils, especially in the Paris Basin, plus generally moderate climates and vast extents of flat to gently rolling terrain help provide an agricultural industry that has always been a mainstay of the country's economy. In addition, the unusual variety of climates, from the cool, wet plains of the north to the dry-summer warmth of the Mediterranean, makes possible a great diversity of crops and agricultural products. France lacks only a suitable climate for purely tropical crops. France also is the only major European nation to be generally self-sufficient in basic food production, and one of the few with an excess of agricultural export income over import expense. The importance of agriculture to the French economy is reflected by the 8.4 percent of the labor force employed in farming, a relatively high figure for the industrially developed European nations. The chief agricultural region of France is the Paris Basin, where such productive districts as the Beauce, Picardy, and ╬le-de-France form the nation's traditional breadbasket. Wheat has always been the leading crop on the comparatively large farms here, although it is grown throughout the lowlands. In most years France produces almost 5 percent of the world's wheat, and it ranks fifth among the wheat-growing nations. France grows more than twice as much wheat as does Italy, the second most important European producer, and wheat is a major export.
\par \tab Other grains grown by French farmers include barley, which is especially important to the brewing industry, and oats and rye. These crops tend to be raised in poorer soils or in areas where the climate is less well suited for wheat. Since World War II corn has become a very popular crop in the Paris Basin and nearly everywhere else in France. Traditional types of corn have been grown in Aquitaine and the Pyrenees in southwestern France, and in the Rh⌠ne-Sa⌠ne Valley, since the 16th century. However, the recent introduction of new hybrid varieties from the United States, and the greatly increased demand for animal fodder as meat consumption has risen, have made cornfields a common sight in France.
\par \tab On the northern edge of the Paris Basin, where the flatlands of the North Sea plain lead into Picardy and Flanders, sugar beets and potatoes have been important crops since Napoleonic times. The cool, moist regions of Normandy and Brittany are noted for dairy products; early spring vegetables, which are highly prized in the Paris markets; and apples.
\par \tab After the Paris Basin, the principal French agricultural regions are in the south and southwest, particularly Aquitaine and Languedoc, and the Rh⌠ne Valley. The generally good soils and warm, dry summers of these regions make them ideal for cultivating grapes, and they are the nation's major wine producers. Europe produces about three fourths of the world's wine, with France and Italy each accounting for slightly more than 20 percent. The relatively high value of wine has led many farmers in the south to substitute grapes for other crops, resulting in overproduction and bitter competition with Italy, Spain, and other nations. Other fruits, such as peaches, plums, and apricots; and vegetables, particularly tomatoes, are also widely grown in these regions. The basis of canning and processing industries there, they are also sold fresh in city markets.
\par \tab Better-quality wines, many with famous names and high prices, are also the basis of agricultural prosperity in such regions as Burgundy, Bordeaux, Alsace, Champagne, and the Loire Valley. These wines, together with wheat and other crops, often create a more balanced rural economy. In the Alps, the Pyrenees, and the Massif Central, where the soils and climate are less suited to agriculture, many low-producing farms have been abandoned.
\par {\b Forestry and Fishing}
\par \tab The land that became France was covered by thick forests before people lived there, but most of the original forest was cleared for agriculture or for domestic and industrial uses at the beginning of the 19th century. Today, economically important forests thrive in remote regions that are difficult to reach, notably the Alps, the Pyrenees, the Jura, and the Vosges mountains, and in many regions with reforestation programs. These programs were established to reclaim abandoned lands, provide watershed protection and wildlife habitats, and create a commercial alternative to marginal agriculture. The tendency to plant conifers such as pines and firs has created landscapes that differ greatly from the original ones. Production does not meet national demands for wood pulp, paper, lumber, and other forest products, and so France must import these items.
\par \tab With its lengthy coastline on the Mediterranean Sea, Atlantic Ocean, and English Channel, France has historically supported a flourishing fishing industry that provided an important food resource, as well as employment for thousands of people living in the coastal areas. Today, the fishing industry is a declining employer as large, more efficient ships squeeze out small independent fishermen, but it continues to provide food to the nation. Refrigeration, quick freezing, and rapid transportation combine to bring fresh seafood to all sections of the country. The leading fishing ports are in northern France at Boulogne, where the catch of the highly productive North Sea is landed; in Normandy and Brittany at Douarnenez, Lorient, Concarneau, and La Rochelle, from which fishermen depart to ply the Atlantic waters of the Grand and Georges banks off North America; and along the African coast. The catch consists mainly of cod, sardines, tuna, herring, halibut, and mackerel.
\par \tab The Mediterranean, though the base of many traditional fishing economies, is a poor fishery compared with the Atlantic. Important Mediterranean fishing ports in France include SΦte and Marseilles, where the variety of the catch compensates somewhat for the small volume. Shellfish, such as oysters, clams, and mussels, are profitably raised along the Atlantic coast from Brittany to Bordeaux.
\par {\b Energy Resources}
\par \tab Before 1700 France, like most other European nations, relied on animals, windmills, and water mills to supply power, and wood was used as its common fuel. The Industrial Revolution called for more concentrated sources of energy, and France was among the countries with abundant coal resources. Coal became the principal fuel during the industrial expansion of the 19th century, and French coal-mining regions were the centers of heavy industry.
\par \tab The coalfields of northern France, especially in the Nord-Pas-de-Calais region, were the most important ones at first and resulted in this region's becoming heavily industrialized. Although their reserves are largely depleted, these fields still account for about one fourth of France's coal production. Half of the national total comes from the fields of Lorraine, the north Paris Basin, and the Nord-Pas-de-Calais area, where coal is particularly important for the nation's steel industry.
\par \tab The remainder of the nation's domestic coal production is provided by a number of minor fields in the central and southern regions and is used primarily to generate electricity. France imports more than half of its coal supply, principally from Germany, South Africa, and the United States.
\par \tab The invention of the internal-combustion engine, and the consequent increase in the importance of petroleum as the primary fuel of the 20th century, eventually required France to import almost its entire supply. Minor production in Aquitaine and the Paris Basin accounts for less than 2 percent of its oil needs. France is also seriously deficient in natural gas, another hydrocarbon fuel of special value because it burns cleanly. The field in the Aquitaine Basin and other minor sources provide less than a third of the nation's needs. Most of France's imported natural gas comes from The Netherlands. The nation depends so heavily on imported fuels that as much as 65 percent of its total energy supply comes from other countries, including Saudi Arabia, Iraq, and Nigeria.
\par \tab Because of its dangerously high dependence on imported energy, France has long sought to develop alternative sources that would be competitively priced and ensure greater energy independence. Most significant has been generation of electricity by nuclear power plants. In the 1990s there were more than 50 nuclear reactors in France capable of generating some 53,000 megawatts. France has been working to reduce its heavy dependence on imported energy sources. This nuclear program involves economic and environmental challenges, but the French are determined to attain greater self-sufficiency in energy. Nuclear plants appear presently to be the best way to accomplish this.
\par {\b Mining}
\par \tab France also uses a large number of metallic minerals in its industrial economy. The country still has small deposits of several of these minerals, but centuries of mining have largely depleted its reserves, and France today imports most metals. Several regions once had small deposits of iron ore, the basis of the iron and steel industry, but nearly all French production now comes from Lorraine, in the northeast. Among the nations of Western Europe only Sweden produces more iron ore, but France must still import nearly half of the iron ore that it needs for industry, chiefly from Brazil, Sweden, Mauritania, Australia, and Liberia.
\par \tab France is the fourth leading Western European producer of bauxite, or aluminum ore, and only Germany produces more finished aluminum. The French must import nearly all their supplies of copper, lead, zinc, tin, and other industrial metals, but many of the refining and processing industries for these metals are in France.
\par \tab Mining long has been an important source of employment in France, especially for the major coal and iron ore districts in the north and east. However, mining employment has declined steadily in recent years as coal has lost its dominant position. Iron ore production has decreased as the iron and steel industry has faced difficult times, and all mining activities have turned increasingly toward automation.
\par {\b Manufacturing}
\par \tab Despite the prosperity of French agriculture, manufacturing remains the primary base of the French economy, and the chief source of export income. Manufacturing is highly diversified and extends into most regions of the country. Much of it is built on local resources and traditional skills. Under the reigns of the Bourbon monarchs, especially Louis XIV and his financial minister, Jean Baptiste Colbert, the French developed a policy of manufacturing and trade aimed at making France preeminent among the nations of the world. France based its economic policy on producing enough to meet nearly all its own needs and selling surplus products for gold. For example, Colbert established the silk-weaving industry at Lyon so that France would not have to import this highly prized material. Ever since this period, France has been a major producer and exporter of luxury goods. These products have usually been highly profitable, but their luxury status has meant that sales decline quickly in times of world economic depression.
\par \tab The Industrial Revolution, spreading from its origins in Great Britain, soon had a powerful influence on French manufacturing. The iron and steel industry, vital to any nation that sought economic power during the 19th century, became concentrated in the coalfields, particularly in northern France. There, such cities as Lens and Valenciennes grew into centers of heavy industry, and Lille, noted for textiles, was for a time the second largest city in France. Steelmaking also developed in the iron ore fields of Lorraine, where Thionville, Metz, and other centers grew rapidly. Shipbuilding flourished at several coastal sites, notably St-Nazaire, and the availability of water power encouraged the growth of small industrial towns in the Alps, Jura, Vosges, and Massif Central. Many specialized in textiles, gloves, shoes, and other consumer goods. Agricultural processing, still one of France's most important industries, developed in hundreds of widely scattered towns and villages.
\par \tab The 20th century has brought the rise of new French industries, the decline of others, and the relocation of several more. Automobile manufacturing, in which France is a world leader, was at first concentrated in Paris but has spread to Brittany, the lower Seine Valley, and eastern France. Coastal sites for manufacturing have become more important in recent years, as France comes to rely more on imported resources. For this reason, oil refining is a major industry at Dunkirk, Rouen, and Fos-sur-Mer (near Marseilles); steelmaking based on imported iron ore is increasingly concentrated at Dunkirk and Fos-sur-Mer. Lorraine must struggle to stay competitive.
\par \tab The French long have been leaders in technological innovation, and these skills have recently been used to develop profitable new export-oriented industries. Examples of such French expertise, which is supported by large-scale government investment, include nuclear technology; rapid transit, such as public transport systems and the TGV, a high-speed train; and aircraft design, as in the Mirage military plane and the supersonic Concorde. Similar types of new industries are located in the Rh⌠ne-Alpes region or along the Mediterranean, the French "Sunbelt."
\par {\b International Trade}
\par \tab International trade plays a vital role in the French economy. Like many other European countries, France has to import a large portion of its energy supplies and industrial minerals, and thus must attempt to balance the budget by exporting agricultural and manufactured products. In 1993 French exports were valued at about 1.25 trillion francs, but imports amounted to 1.26 trillion francs, leaving a deficit of 10 billion francs. Expenses for imported energy totaled 205 billion dollars. Major export earnings came from such products as agricultural items and processed foods (including the country's world-famous wines), automobiles, other vehicles, and vehicle parts.
\par \tab France's most important trading partners are among the members of the European Union--Germany, Italy, Belgium, Luxembourg, the United Kingdom, Spain, Portugal, and The Netherlands--and the United States. Switzerland also ranks high in French trade, as do Japan, Norway, Sweden, and Saudi Arabia. French commerce is generally well distributed. The value of French trade exceeds 500 million dollars annually with each of at least 50 nations. Much of this trade is carried in the ships of France's merchant fleet, which ranks among the largest in the world. Marseilles, located on the Mediterranean coast, with its long history of association with Africa and the Middle East, is France's leading port. The largest portion of the merchandise handled by this port consists of oil and gas imports and product transshipments. Le Havre, Dunkirk, and Rouen are the major Atlantic ports connecting the manufacturing regions of northern France and the Paris Basin with the world. The port of Paris, linked to the Atlantic by the Seine River, is also a major port.
\par {\b Tourism}
\par \tab Tourism ranks as one of France's leading industries. The country has a variety of landscapes and climates unmatched in Europe. These features, together with an abundance of historical and cultural sites, artistic and architectural treasures, recreational facilities, and the nation's famous foods and wines, have made France a favorite of tourists from North America and other parts of Europe. Increasing numbers of travelers from Asia, Latin America, and the Middle East are visiting France. In 1991 foreign tourists spent some 9 billion dollars more in France than French travelers spent abroad.
\par \tab The French travel widely within their own country as well. The introduction of paid vacations for industrial workers, beginning in the late 1930s, led to a boom in family tourism. Today most French workers receive four or five weeks of paid vacation annually, and such regions as Brittany and Languedoc profit from low-budget family tourism. Many wealthier city residents have second homes, either in places from which their families once migrated or in desirable vacation districts. Many of these homes are used for retirement as well as for holiday sites during the owners' working years. For international travelers, as for many French people from throughout the country, Paris remains the greatest attraction. The capital's artistic and cultural attractions, its famous shops and restaurants, the color and animation of its many districts, and such world-famous symbols as the Eiffel Tower, the Louvre, the Cathedral of Notre Dame, the Latin Quarter, Montmartre, and the Georges Pompidou Center make Paris one of the most visited places in the world.
\par \tab Next to Paris in popularity is the Mediterranean coast, especially the Provence-C⌠te d'Azur section, which includes part of the French Riviera. Sheltered by the Alps, the Riviera first became popular in the 1860s as a winter resort for wealthy visitors, mainly tourists from England. Its fame grew steadily, and today it is known especially as a summer resort area.
\par \tab The mountainous areas of France, particularly the Rh⌠ne-Alpes region, have also had a dramatic rise in tourist income during recent years, largely because of increasing interest in winter sports. People once visited the mountains mainly in summer for health reasons, but these areas now benefit from almost a year-round season, and such resorts as Chamonix and Morzine are internationally famous.
\par {\b Transportation and Communication}
\par \tab {\b Transportation.}
\par \tab Transport systems have long been vital to France, serving to unite the nation in an administrative sense while promoting the growth of regional economies and linking the country to the rest of Europe and to the world. Paris has always been the hub of French transportation. The Industrial Revolution brought innovations in transportation to France. For example, a complex system of canals was built, connecting many navigable rivers and providing low-cost water transport for products of the mines and factories.
\par \tab The railroad age began while the canal-building era was at its height. The first French line began operating in 1827, between St.-╔tienne and AndrΘzieux, and steel rails soon linked most parts of the country. By 1934 France had 33,282 miles (53,561 kilometers) of railways. Most of the main lines were built in a radial pattern, with Paris at the center, thus reinforcing the importance of the capital. Paris continued to grow and prosper at a remarkable rate because people had difficulty traveling between any two points in France without passing through the capital. Also, rail lines made it easier for rural people displaced by the Industrial Revolution to migrate to Paris than to any other city.
\par \tab The appearance of the automobile just before 1900, and the airplane a few years later, added new perspectives to transportation. Highways, duplicating the earlier railway patterns, radiated in all directions from Paris, and the distance to any point in France was calculated from the front steps of the Cathedral of Notre Dame. Air transportation to and from the airfield at Le Bourget, near Paris, began in 1919. Today, French transportation systems are changing to cope with three problems: rapid technological change, the obsolete condition of many earlier systems, and increasing pressure to reduce the dependency of the entire nation on Paris. Although lagging behind several other European countries, France has, since about 1960, embarked on a major program of superhighway construction. Many of the new highways have necessarily duplicated the older ones centered on Paris, but engineers have made great efforts to enable travelers to go to and from other parts of France without passing through the capital.
\par \tab Rail traffic has declined, as it has in nearly every country, but is still important in France. The high-speed TGV travels between Paris and Lyon in only two hours, compared with four hours for conventional service, and the TGV service is being expanded to other lines as well. Air travel has also increased enormously. Traffic at Paris is divided among the airport at Orly, south of the city, and Charles de Gaulle, to the northeast, in Roissy. With Le Bourget, which today handles only charter flights, these airports accommodated a total of about 30 million passengers per year in the early 1980s, making Paris the second busiest European air travel center after London. Paris is also the airfreight capital of Europe, handling about 625,000 tons of cargo in 1981. Other major international airports include those at Marseilles, Nice, Lyon, Lille, and Strasbourg.
\par \tab {\b Communication.}
\par \tab There are about 80 daily newspapers in France. The government, which controls radio and television broadcasting, taxes owners of television sets and radios. One of the nation's television channels broadcasts educational and cultural programs, another features entertainment and sports, and a third also offers films, as well as other programs. The radio stations are France Musique, France Culture, and France Inter. The French motion-picture industry is also supervised by the government.
{\b GOVERNMENT}
\par {\b The National Government}
\par \tab France is governed under the constitution of the Fifth Republic, which went into effect on Oct. 4, 1958, and has since been revised. The chief of state, the president, holds an extremely powerful position, making the French government different from those in most European parliamentary democracies. Based on the conceptions of Gen. Charles de Gaulle, a World War II hero who later became president, the executive branch wields much of the effective authority in the country. The president is elected by the people to a seven-year term and can be reelected an unlimited number of times, assuring a certain stability for the government. The president appoints the prime minister, five ministers of state, 29 other ministers, and nine secretaries of state. The numbers of ministers and secretaries of state may vary. The legislative branch of the government is a parliament that consists of two houses, the National Assembly, also called the Chamber of Deputies, and the Senate. The National Assembly, the more important house, has 491 members, called deputies, and there are 316 senators. Both houses include representatives from overseas dependencies.
\par \tab {\b Administrative divisions.}
\par \tab The basic administrative units of France are its 22 metropolitan regions, many of which have the names of the historical provinces whose areas they often approximate, and the 96 departments within the regions. The departments, generally named for rivers, mountains, and other local natural features, were established at the time of the French Revolution to replace the provinces of the monarchy. Executive powers at the regional and departmental levels are in Regional Assemblies and General Councils, respectively. The people elect the members of both these units. Departments are divided into arrondissements (wards), cantons (districts), and the smallest units of government, called communes (parishes). There are about 36,400 communes, many with extremely small populations.
\par \tab The French Republic also includes five overseas departments--French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Martinique, RΘunion, and St. Pierre and Miquelonand four overseas territories--French Polynesia, the French Southern and Antarctic Territories, New Caledonia, and the Wallis and Futuna Islands. Mayotte is a special collectivity.
\par \tab In recent times the French have become aware that perhaps they have too many levels of administration for responsive government and that the sizes of the units are often too small to respond effectively to modern demands. As a result, many of the functions of the arrondissements and cantons are gradually being eliminated, and the smallest communes are being urged to merge into larger units.
\par \tab {\b Regional policy.}
\par \tab The major goal of French government policy through the centuries has been the centralization of power. Faced with constant threats and challenges from rebellious dukes and other members of the nobility in various provinces, the monarchy strove to concentrate authority and to control the two keys to success, military power and economic decision making. Because Paris has been the capital since the 13th century, much of this drive for centralization has tended to promote the growth and prosperity of that city at the expense of outlying regions and provincial cities.
\par \tab Although the French Revolution specifically aimed to destroy the ancient provincial system, it retained the concept of a strongly centralized administration, establishing the departments, each with a governing official called a prefect, that were controlled by Paris. The result of this system, which is still in effect, has been that Paris became an unwieldy city with about 20 percent of the national population, while many outlying regions remained provincial backwaters. They relied on Paris for the smallest decisions and lacked a voice in their own destinies.
\par \tab In response to increasing regional demands for greater autonomy in local matters, the government in 1970 created the 22 administrative regions. Although still forced to deal with the traditional tendency of the Parisian bureaucracy toward centralization, the regions have become strong units with many local powers. Most importantly, they can establish policies involving many financial considerations. An increasing number of activities in France are based on decisions made by regional authorities.
\par \tab {\b Political parties.}
\par \tab Political life in France is as colorful and varied as most other aspects of the national culture. Major parties range across the political spectrum from liberal to conservative, parties change their names and often their directions, and new ideas often generate new parties, rather than simply being absorbed by existing ones.
\par \tab France has four major political alliances. On the right are the conservative Gaullists, associated mainly with the Rally for the Republic. A more centrist, or moderate, group, whose factions are grouped in the Union for French Democracy, promotes the programs of former President ValΘry Giscard d'Estaing. On the left, the Socialist party is the more moderate group. The French Communist party, with traditional support from industrial workers, takes more radical positions. Some smaller parties fill the gaps between the major ones, and others represent the extreme left and extreme right. Special interest groups, such as environmentalists and women's rights advocates, have their own parties.
\par \tab The Fifth Republic was dominated by the basically conservative political philosophies of its founder, Gen. Charles de Gaulle, and his successors Georges Pompidou and ValΘry Giscard d'Estaing until 1981. That year the Socialists won a majority of seats in the National Assembly and Franτois Mitterrand became president. This was the first time since the 1930s that the Socialists had been in power in France. They governed with the help of the Communists and the Movement of the Radicals of the Left.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by James R. McDonald, Professor of Geography, Eastern Michigan University.
\par \tab {\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR FRANCE}
\par \tab Ardagh, John. France Today (Penguin, 1990).
\par \tab Banfield, Susan. The Rights of Man, The Reign of Terror (HarperCollins, 1989).
\par \tab Bender, Lionel. France (Silver Burdett, 1988).
\par \tab Dunford, Mick. France (Thomson, 1994).
\par \tab Goubert, Pierre. The Course of French History (Routledge, 1991).
\par \tab Hazareesingh, Sudhir. Political Traditions in Modern France (Oxford Univ. Press, 1994).
\par \tab Moss, Peter, and Palmer, Thelma. France (Children's, 1986).
\par \tab Price, Roger. A Concise History of France (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1993).
\par \tab Wright, Gordon. France in Modern Times, 4th ed. (Norton, 1995).\par \tab The notorious Devil's Island--where France once confined political prisoners and wartime spies--is off the Atlantic coast of French Guiana. The French overseas dΘpartement (administrative district) lies between Brazil and Suriname on the northeastern coast of South America. It has an area of 34,750 square miles (90,000 square kilometers). Its political status and administrative organization are like that of a dΘpartement in France, and it is represented in the French Parliament by one deputy in the Senate and two in the National Assembly. French Guiana has its own elected General and Regional councils.
\par \tab The climate is tropical and humid, with temperatures averaging about 80░ F (27░ C) throughout the year. Rainfall is heaviest from December to July. The northeast trade winds blow constantly inland from the ocean. Storms are rare, and there are no hurricanes. Vegetation is mostly tropical rain forest, which covers 90 percent of the land surface. Animals include tapir, ocelot, sloth, great anteater, armadillo, and several kinds of monkey. There are also fish, snakes, rodents, insects, and birds, especially parrots, in the dΘpartement of French Guiana.
\par \tab French Guiana is mostly underdeveloped and sparsely populated. Roads are only in the coastal region, and communication with the largely uninhabited interior is by river or by air. It is economically dependent upon France, and the value of imports is nearly ten times that of exports. Sugarcane is the major cash crop. Food products, mainly shrimp, are the chief exports. There are reserves of hardwood timber, gold, and bauxite to be developed.
\par \tab The main port is at Degrad des Cannes at the mouth of the Mahury River. Radio and television programs are broadcast in French and Creole. Cinemas, libraries, museums, and tropical research institutes are all in Cayenne, the capital.
\par \tab French Guiana has had a stormy history since the site of Cayenne was established in 1637. The French, British, and Dutch made various attempts at colonization, and France finally took control in 1817. In 1848 the inhabitants of French Guiana received full French citizenship and the right to vote. Slavery was abolished in that year, bringing ruin to the plantations. When gold was discovered in 1855, adventurers arrived with immigrant groups as laborers. Severe problems led to the establishment of the famous penal colonies (abolished in 1945). In 1870 French Guiana received representation in the French Parliament. The territory became a dΘpartement in 1946. Population (1990 estimate), 117,000.\par \tab French Polynesia (formerly French Settlements in Oceania), overseas territory of French Community, in s. Pacific Ocean; composed of Marquesas Islands, Tuamotu Archipelago, Gambier Islands, Society Islands (including Tahiti), and Tubuai Islands; total area 1,544 sq mi (4,000 sq km); cap. Papeete, on Tahiti; pop. 188,814.\par \tab The nation of Gabon straddles the equator on the west coast of Africa. It covers an area of 103,347 square miles (267,668 square kilometers). It is bordered by Equatorial Guinea and Cameroon to the north, Congo to the south and east, and the Atlantic Ocean to the west. Libreville, the capital city, has a population of 352,000 (1988 estimate) and is located near the coast on the Gabon Estuary.
\par \tab A plateau that ranges from about 1,000 to 2,000 feet (300 to 600 meters) high spreads over most of the country. Several mountain ranges rise above the plateau. The highest peak is Mount Iboundji at 3,215 feet (980 meters). Coastal lowlands extend inland for 20 to 120 miles (30 to 190 kilometers). Much of Gabon is covered by a dense rain forest. The largest river, the OgoouΘ, flows in an arc through the center of the country and empties into the ocean near Port-Gentil. Temperatures are warm and humid year-round. Rainfall varies from an annual average of 120 inches (305 centimeters) at Libreville to 150 inches (380 centimeters) in the northwest.
\par \tab There are more than 40 ethnic groups or tribes in Gabon, including the large Fang tribe and the Mpongwe. Many Bantu languages are spoken, but French is the official language because the country was for many decades a colony of France.
\par \tab Forestry was the main industry until mineral exploitation began in the 1960s. The chief timber export is okoume, or Gabon mahogany, a hardwood that long was the major factor in the economy. Other valuable woods include ebony and kevazingo. Gabon has large reserves of manganese, iron ore, petroleum, natural gas, and uranium. In the 1970s petroleum became the major mineral for export, but, after oil prices began dropping in the 1980s, it became a less reliable source of national income. Food crops include cassava, plantains, sugarcane, corn (maize), peanuts (groundnuts), bananas, palm oil, and cacao. Coffee and cacao are raised for export.
\par \tab Manufacturing accounts for less than 5 percent of Gabon's gross national product, though light industry has been expanding since the opening in 1967 of an oil refinery near the capital. A great increase in the annual production of electricity resulted from the construction of the country's first hydroelectric plant at KinguΘlΘ near the capital.
\par \tab Like most of tropical Africa, Gabon is plagued by poor health conditions. Provision of adequate health care has been a top government priority. This probably stems from the example set by Albert Schweitzer, the 20th century's most famous medical missionary, who established a hospital at LambarΘnΘ in Gabon.
\par \tab The coast of Gabon was explored by Portuguese traders in the 15th century. Gabon became part of the colony of the French Congo in 1886. In 1910 it was made a territory of French Equatorial Africa. It gained full independence on Aug. 17, 1960. From 1968 to 1990 Gabon had a one-party political system, which gave executive power to a president elected on an unopposed ballet. Since 1967, the country's leading political figure has been President Omar Bongo. Following numerous riots and several attempts over the years to overthrow him, Bongo lifted the ban on a multiparty system in April 1990. Thousands of demonstrators took to the streets in April 1993, demanding the installation of running water and electricity and the paving of roads. On Dec. 5, 1993, Gabon finally held its first multiparty elections. Bongo was returned by 51 percent of the vote, but opposition leader Paul Mba Abessole claimed victory, saying the election was disorganized, and he formed a rival government. Population (1992 estimate), 1,253,000.\par \tab When The Gambia obtained full independence from Great Britain in 1965, it became Africa's smallest self-governing nation. The Gambia occupies a narrow strip of territory cut in two by the Gambia River. The nation extends inland for about 295 miles (475 kilometers) and ranges from 15 to 30 miles (24 to 48 kilometers) in width. Its total area is 4,127 square miles (10,689 square kilometers). Except for its short coastline on the Atlantic Ocean, it is completely surrounded by Senegal, a former French colony. The capital city is Banjul.
\par \tab The country is mostly flat. Along the winding river are swamps where rice is grown and cattle graze. Farther away from the river the soil is sandy and is used for raising peanuts, the chief crop and main export of the nation. The Gambia's climate is tropical. The country has a hot, wet season and a cool, dry season that lasts from November to April.
\par \tab The largest tribal group in the population is the Malinke (Mandingo). Others are the Fulani, Wolof, Dyola, and Soninke. The most widely spoken languages are Mandingo and Wolof, but English is the official language. About 95 percent of the people are Muslims. The great majority are farmers. The men grow peanuts, sorghum, and millet and practice crop rotation. The women who farm raise rice and garden crops. Corn and cassava are also grown for domestic use, as are mangroves, oranges, other fruits, and various vegetables.
\par \tab Next to peanuts, The Gambia's most important exports are peanut oil, palm kernels, and dried fish. Industry is largely confined to plants that process peanuts. No minerals have been discovered to supplement these very limited sources of income.
\par \tab After slavery ended in the British Empire in 1807, Britain founded Bathurst (now Banjul) as a fort to block slave trade on the river. Many freed slaves were resettled in The Gambia. The boundaries between The Gambia and Senegal were agreed upon in 1889. In 1894 Britain formally declared a protectorate over the outer areas, and Bathurst and the nearby area were governed as a colony. Constitutional revisions in 1946, 1954, 1959, and 1961 led a steady advance toward self-rule. Independence came on Feb. 18, 1965. The country became a republic within the Commonwealth in 1970.
\par \tab Sir Dawda Kairaba Jawara was the country's first president. The president and 36 members of the House of Representatives are elected every five years. The 50-member legislature also includes five indirectly elected tribal chiefs and nine nonelective seats. In 1965 The Gambia and Senegal agreed to cooperate on matters of defense, foreign policy, and economic development. A confederation between the two countries formed in 1982 was dissolved in 1989. Population (1993 estimate), 1,033,000.\par \tab Gaza Strip, area about 5 by 25 mi (8 by 40 km) at extreme s.e. shore of Mediterranean between Israel and Egypt; named for ancient town of Gaza; strategic location; occupied by Egypt 1949-56 after armistice; by Israel Oct. 1956; evacuated March 1957, occupied by UN Emergency Force (UNEF); that same month, administration taken over from UN by Egypt, but UNEF continued to police border with Israel; retaken by Israel 1967; pop. est. 500,000, mostly Muslim Palestinians; overcrowding and poverty led to uprising, or intifada, 1987; Sept. 1993 peace accord between Israel and Palestine Liberation Org. promised limited self-rule.\par \tab South of the main ridge of the Caucasus, between the Caspian and Black seas, is an area of mountains and plateaus called Georgia. It has an area of 26,900 square miles (69,670 square kilometers). Georgia is bounded on the north by Russia, on the east and southeast by Azerbaijan, on the south by Armenia, on the southwest by Turkey, and on the west by the Black Sea. Until 1991 Georgia was part of the Soviet Union. Soviet dictator Joseph Stalin was born in Georgia. Tbilisi is the nation's capital.
\par \tab Most of Georgia is mountainous. It has many peaks higher than 15,000 feet (4,500 meters). The lower western slopes and plateaus have a subtropical climate of the Mediterranean type. Citrus orchards, tung trees for oil, vineyards, tea plantations, and tobacco fields grow here. East of the mountainous divide between the Black and Caspian seas, a section of drier land is irrigated to grow cotton, rice, wheat, and barley.
\par \tab Georgia has a well-developed industrial base, together with its diversified and mechanized agriculture. The republic has some of the world's major manganese reserves. Other deposits include iron ore, arsenic, marble, molybdenum, tungsten, mercury, and gold. There are also fine clays for ceramics, and there is some coal for fuel. The chief manufacturing centers are Tbilisi, Kutaisi, and Batumi.
\par \tab The wide array of industrial products includes railway locomotives, heavy motor vehicles, earth-moving equipment, tea-gathering machines, lathes, and precision instruments. The chemical industry produces mineral fertilizers, synthetic fibers, and medicines. Georgia is also famous for its production of commercially sold wines, and it cures tobacco and tea and produces canned goods. Cotton, wool, and silk fabrics are also manufactured.
\par {\b History}
\par \tab The origins of human society in Georgia can be traced to prehistoric times. The Caucasus was regarded by ancient peoples as the home of metallurgy. By 65 BC the region was part of the Roman Empire. Georgia was converted to Christianity in AD 337, and for the next three centuries it was involved in conflicts between the Byzantine and Persian empires. After 654 local authority was exercised by Arab caliphs, who established an emirate at Tbilisi.
\par \tab During the centuries of close association with the Byzantine Empire, the church grew in strength until it became independent as the Georgian Orthodox church. The church was a leading influence in creating a rich cultural heritage, including works of literature, architecture, and painting. Georgian architecture, in turn, played a large role in developing the Byzantine style.
\par \tab Invasions by the Mongols from 1220 onward, coupled with the destruction caused by Timur Lenk's hordes between 1386 and 1403, ruined the cultural and economic life of Georgia for centuries. The fall of the Byzantine Empire in 1453 and successive invasions by Turks and Persians further depressed the area. Between 1801 and 1864 Georgia was gradually annexed by Russia. In the second half of the 19th century, traditional ways declined, Western influences grew, education spread, and industrialization began.
\par \tab In 1918 the Georgians set up an independent republic and put themselves under German protection. Early in 1921 the Soviet Army invaded Georgia, and a Soviet regime was installed in Tbilisi. Georgia was incorporated into the Transcaucasian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic. On Dec. 5, 1936, the Transcaucasian republic was dissolved and the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic was established.
\par \tab Riots took place in Tbilisi in April 1989 when demonstrators called for greater autonomy for the republic, and violent suppression by riot-control troops fueled nationalist sentiment. October 1990 elections were won by non-Communists favoring autonomy for the republic. On April 9, 1991, the parliament voted to take steps toward independence and created the office of executive president. On May 26, 1991, Zviad Gamsakhurdia became the first freely elected president of any former Soviet republic. He was overthrown in January 1992. Eduard Shevardnadze, former Soviet foreign minister, became head of a fragile coalition government. In August 1992 the Abkhazia region of Georgia rose in revolt, aided by Russian forces. As this civil war progressed into 1993, Shevardnadze declared martial law and ordered a general mobilization. Population (1991 estimate), 5,464,200.\par \tab One of the great powers of the industrial world, Germany rose from a collection of small states, principalities, and dukedoms to become a unified empire in 1871. The German empire was strategically located between France and Russia, and it clashed with both nations as it attempted to expand its borders. This rivalry resulted in World War I, in which Germany was defeated. Germany, however, emerged again as a major force in Europe in the 1930s under the leadership of Adolf Hitler.
\par \tab Germany's second defeat in a world war not only ended the period of expansion but also resulted in its division into two states. The role of the two Germanys in European and world politics was greatly reduced, but West Germany remained a major economic power.
\par \tab The borders that isolated the German Democratic Republic, in the east, from the Federal Republic of Germany, in the west, remained closed until late 1989, when Communism was successfully challenged by pro-democracy demonstrations in the Soviet satellites. The ultimate symbol of the East-West division had been the Berlin Wall--a massive structure erected in the Cold War atmosphere of 1961 to divide Germany's most important city. On Nov. 9, 1989, the East German government bowed to increasing demands for reform: the wall was opened and families on each side of it were reunited. On Aug. 31, 1990, the two republics signed a unification treaty that detailed the legal and social foundations for German unification, which took place officially on Oct. 3, 1990.
{\b LAND}
\par \tab Germany is located in north-central Europe. There have been few changes during the last two centuries on the western border with France, Belgium, and The Netherlands, but the border in the east with Poland has been redrawn several times in the same period and now lies along the Oder and Neisse rivers. Part of Germany's eastern border is shared with Czechoslovakia. The southern German borders with Austria and Switzerland are more clearly defined by the ranges of the Alps and by Lake Constance. The boundary between West and East Germany did not follow natural features to any extent but was a result of the division of Germany into zones of occupation after World War II.
\par \tab Germany's total area is about 138,000 square miles (357,000 square kilometers). It extends about 500 miles (800 kilometers) from north to south and about 400 miles (640 kilometers) from east to west at its widest.
\par {\b Natural Regions}
\par \tab Germany can be divided into four natural regions. The largest consists of part of the great plain that extends across Europe from The Netherlands to the Ural Mountains in Russia. The North German Plain is largely flat, but in the east there are chains of small hills consisting of glacial deposits. In the west there are areas of marshes along the coasts with sandy heath and moorlands inland.
\par \tab Farther south a complex region of hills and valleys forms the Mid-German Uplands. These hills are partially of volcanic origin. The major ranges of hills in the west are the Eifel, Hunsrⁿck, Westerwald, Taunus, and Hardt mountains, which are located on both sides of the Rhine River. In the center are the Harz Mountains and the Thⁿringer Wald, and in the east the Erzgebirge, which form part of the border with Czechoslovakia (known there as KrunΘ Hory). The western hills are not high, but Brocken in the Harz reaches 3,747 feet (1,142 meters) and Fichtelberg in the Erzgebirge, 3,980 feet (1,213 meters).
\par \tab South of the Mid-German Uplands a region of plateau and lowlands stretches across the country. It contains a chain of hills known as the Swabian and Franconian Jura, which extends from southwest to northeast. These hills are formed from limestone and present steep scarp slopes to the north. They are not high but are scenically attractive. To the west the Black Forest, or Schwarzwald, follows a north-south direction. The Rhine River flows through a deep valley to its west. Its highest summit is Feldberg at 4,898 feet (1,493 meters). As the name Wald, or "forest," suggests, this range is covered in dense forest. This region of southern Germany also contains a central area of plains and low hills crossed by the Neckar and Main rivers, both tributaries of the Rhine. To the east the range of the Bohemian Forest forms part of the border with Czechoslovakia. It rises to more than 4,700 feet (1,430 meters).The southern region consists of the Bavarian Alps and the Bavarian Plateau. The plateau contains small hills and valleys formed by the tributaries of the Danube River, which fringes the plateau in the north. The Bavarian Alps contain the highest mountain in Germany--Zugspitze at 9,721 feet (2,963 meters)--and form a region of great natural beauty.
\par \tab Most of Germany's rivers flow northward to the North Sea. The longest is the Rhine--820 miles (1,320 kilometers) long--with its tributaries, the Main, Neckar, and Mosel rivers, followed by the Elbe, Weser, and Ems. The Oder flows to the Baltic Sea, and the Danube--with its tributaries, the Iller, Lech, and Isar rivers--flows to the Black Sea. Most of these are navigable and are connected by a system of canals that cross Germany from east to west.
\par \tab There are few lakes of any size, the largest being Lake Constance, or Bodensee, which forms part of the border with Switzerland and Austria. North of the Alps there is a chain of small lakes, including the Chiemsee, Ammersee, and Lake Starnberger, or Wⁿrmsee. In the north the Mⁿritzsee and Schwerinersee are the largest of a group of small lakes between the Oder and Elbe rivers. South of Berlin there are small chains of lakes formed by the Spree and Havel rivers.
\par \tab There are several islands along the German North Sea coast. The East Frisian Islands are a continuation of the string of islands that stretches along the coast of The Netherlands, and the North Frisian Islands are located to the south of the Danish border. The main island is Sylt, which is connected by a causeway with the mainland. Between the two groups of islands is the small rocky island of Helgoland. The Baltic coast has few islands, the largest being the flat island of Rⁿgen.
\par {\b Climate}
\par \tab The climate of Germany is transitional between a maritime climate in the northwest and a continental climate in the east. Air masses from the Atlantic Ocean and the North Sea bring moderate temperatures in winter and cool temperatures in summer to much of western and northwestern Germany. They also bring plentiful moisture. Cologne has an average January temperature of 34░ F (1.1░ C) and an average July temperature of 64░ F (17.8░ C) with 27 inches (69 centimeters) of annual precipitation. Farther south winter temperatures drop by a degree or two, while summer temperatures rise. In the foothills of the Alps, Munich has an average temperature of 28░ F (-2.2░ C) in January and 64░ F (17.8░ C) in July, with annual precipitation of 36 inches (91 centimeters). These temperature and precipitation figures reflect the higher altitudes of this region of Germany. The Alps are snow-covered from January to March in most years.
\par \tab Eastern temperatures in January are generally below freezing, while summer temperatures are above 65░ F (18.3░ C) on the average. Berlin, with an average temperature of 30░ F (-1.1░ C) in January and 66░ F (18.9░ C) in July and with 23 inches (58 centimeters) of average annual precipitation, is typical of the region's more continental and somewhat drier climate. The Elbe River is generally covered with ice for several months in the winter, a rare occurrence on the Rhine. The mixture of plains, hills, and mountains affects local temperatures and precipitation.
\par {\b Vegetation and Animal Life}
\par \tab The Germans have taken good care of their forests, though acid rain caused some damage. The predominant species is pine, followed by beech and oak. Spruce trees are found in the Black Forest and on the Bavarian Plateau. Much of this forest has been planted, and cutting is carefully controlled to prevent the depletion of timber resources. With heather, gorse, and grass as the typical vegetation, the northwestern region is mostly covered with heath. Some of these areas, as well as marshes, have been reclaimed and turned into pasture.
\par \tab The animals of Germany are similar to those of most of Northern Europe. Birds include thrushes, starlings, sparrows, owls, woodpeckers, herons, and falcons. The largest animals are various species of deer, while wildcats, pine martens, muskrats, mice, and hamsters are common. In some areas wolves, wild boars, and beavers are still found.
\par {\b Minerals}
\par \tab Germany has a relatively small variety of mineral resources. The most important by far is coal. The Ruhr is the largest bituminous, or soft, coalfield in Europe and accounts for more than 80 percent of Germany's coal production. Other coal deposits exist in the Saar and Aachen regions and near Zwickau. The deposits near Zwickau have large reserves of lignite, or brown coal, however, which is used primarily for the production of electric power. They are located mainly in the south of the country, though small amounts of lignite are also found in the west. Potash is found in large deposits, mostly in the east, while rock salt is an important resource of the north. Both are used in the chemical industry. There are some scattered deposits of low-grade iron ore, along with some copper, lead, zinc, tin, and uranium. Zinc and lead production is of considerable value to the economy.
\par \tab Apart from coal and lignite, energy resources are small. There is a little petroleum in the northwest but not enough to provide more than a fraction of the country's requirements. Some of the rivers of the Bavarian Alps are used to generate electric power.
{\b PEOPLE}
\par \tab The population of Germany is about 78 million people. About 84 percent of Germans live in cities. The largest city of Germany as well as its capital is Berlin, which is located in northeastern Germany and has more than 3 million inhabitants. The second largest city is Hamburg, with about 1.6 million inhabitants, followed by Munich, Cologne, Essen, Frankfurt am Main, Dortmund, Dⁿsseldorf, Stuttgart, Leipzig, Dresden, and Hanover.
\par \tab Germans are of mixed racial origins. In northern Germany many people have the long heads, fair hair, and blue eyes that are characteristic of the Nordic racial type. In central and southern Germany people of the Alpine racial type predominate. They have broad heads, fair to dark hair, and gray eyes, and they tend to have a short and stocky build. A darker element comes from earlier populations of Celtic peoples.
\par \tab After World War II the population distribution was affected by large movements of refugees from East Germany to West Germany. At the end of the war some 12 million Germans left territories incorporated into Poland, Czechoslovakia, and East Germany. In the 20-year period after the war, more than 12 million more refugees settled in West Germany. Between 1955 and 1961 alone, more than 2 million East Germans arrived. From 1961 to 1989 the number of arrivals dwindled because of the barrier of the Berlin Wall and stringent border control by East Germany.
\par \tab The new policies of glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring) promoted by the Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev brought great political changes in the other countries of the Soviet bloc. On Sept. 10, 1989, Hungary opened its border with Austria to allow the departure of East German refugees. (More refugees fled East Germany across the frontiers with Poland and Czechoslovakia.) Two months later the borders that had divided Germany for 28 years were opened. Some 2,000 East Germans passed each day into West Germany, straining the housing and employment sectors and devastating the East German economy.
\par \tab In the 1980s the growth rate of the German population as a whole slowed to an annual decrease in West Germany and zero growth rate in East Germany. By the early 1990s the birthrate in Germany was among the lowest in Europe. With an increasing number of older people and fewer young people to support them, the problem of maintaining a pension and welfare system for the elderly became a major economic and social problem. Added to this problem was the growth of the non-German population of Germany--in particular the Turks, who numbered about 1.4 million of the total 4.2 million foreign born.
{\b CULTURE}
\par \tab Germany is a country of regional differences in the culture and character of the people. Although one can speak of a German culture in general--which is reflected in the literature, poetry, and art of the German people as a whole--there are considerable differences in the way of life from region to region.
\par {\b Language}
\par \tab Although schools teach a standard form of language called High German, and most Germans use it for writing and reading, many people speak local dialects in everyday life. Germans from Munich and from Berlin have considerable difficulty in understanding one another if they speak their local dialects. In northern Germany in particular, a form of German that is known as Low German is very different from standard German, and it has been used by some writers and poets. The influence of television, radio, and other mass media, however, has helped to spread the use of standard German.
\par \tab Differences in dialect point to other regional variations. In spite of political unity, many Germans view people from outside their own region as being different--sometimes disapprovingly. The cheerful and easygoing Rhinelanders are contrasted with the sterner and more disciplined Prussians, while the people from Hamburg are regarded as stiff and unfriendly by the more outgoing Bavarians. In general the north and south of Germany are divided by noticeable cultural as well as physical differences. These differences are also seen in the various folk costumes. The regional architecture of farmhouses is also varied--from the long houses of northern Germany, with inhabitants and livestock under one roof, to the farms built around a central courtyard in central Germany and the chalets of the Alpine region.
\par {\b Religion}
\par \tab Germans are also divided along religious lines. Much of northern and eastern Germany is Protestant, with the exception of the Rhineland area. Most belong to the Evangelical Lutheran church. The south is predominantly Roman Catholic, with the greatest concentration in Bavaria. In Germany about 66 percent of the people are Protestant and 27 percent Catholic. The celebration of Christmas is very important for the average German family. Various special forms of food and confectionery are prepared for the occasion. The Christmas tree is a German idea that has spread to many other countries.
\par {\b Literature}
\par \tab German culture--especially in the areas of music, literature, and poetry--has made a great contribution to Europe and the world. During the Nazi period there was a stagnation of German literature in particular, as many writers--such as Thomas Mann, Heinrich Mann, Bertolt Brecht, and Alfred D÷blin--left the country, and others were imprisoned. The revival of German culture after World War II followed a somewhat different direction. In particular, there was a strong reaction to Nazism and a tendency for literature to be more political and more critical of both past and present.
\par \tab The German people have always been lovers of poetry, and some of their greatest poets--such as Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and Heinrich Heineare read throughout the world. Since World War II German poetry has been of less significance. Two poets whose works reflect the experiences of the war are Paul Celan and Nelly Sachs. Others, such as Rolf Dieter Brinkmann, have experimented with new forms. In general modern German poetry has been overshadowed by the novel.
\par \tab During Germany's division, literature in East Germany was subject to strong political control, and its quality therefore suffered. Because of their political content, few people in the West read East German novels, and most authors were little known outside their own country. One exception was Christa Wolf. Until 1979, when the state control over writers tightened, some East German authors had their works published in West Germany to avoid censorship. This stricter control followed the expulsion to the West of the poet Wolf Biermann, whose antiestablishment songs and poems had antagonized the regime. Several well-known writers protested Biermann's forced emigration, resulting in further government oppression. Some fled to the West and continued writing there.
\par \tab Among modern German writers of note are Bruno Apitz, Hermann Kant, Monika Reichmann, Arno Plack, Marlene Reidel, and Stefan Heym. Poets include Stefan George, Johannes Bobrowski, Gⁿnter Kunert, Karl Mickel, Volker Braun, and Sarah Kirsch. Ulrich Plenzdorf, Peter Weiss, Franz Xaver Kroetz, and Heiner Mⁿller are prominent modern playwrights.
\par {\b Motion Pictures}
\par \tab One of the most notable contributions to German culture was made in the 1970s by motion pictures. From 1919, when the film 'The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari' was made, the German cinema was one of the most important in Europe. After World War II, production of films began again, and by 1955 the industry was producing more than 100 films a year. These films were produced mainly for mass entertainment. They carried no political or social messages. In the 1970s, however, the situation changed with the rise of a group of new directors. Rainer Werner Fassbinder, Werner Herzog, Werner Schroeter, and Wim Wenders were the most notable. Fassbinder, who died in 1982 at the young age of 36, was the most active of this group known as the Young German Cinema. His films had a strong political and social message that often did not appeal to the German public. Although his films were praised by critics and were shown in many countries, they were not box office successes. The group was critical in general of modern German society, which it considered very materialistic.
\par \tab In the late 1970s a more conservative trend began to appear in the German cinema as a reaction against the terrorist activities of the extreme left. Films based on literary classics and other less controversial topics began to appear. Although good German films are still produced, the period of experimentation seems to be over. Now a large proportion of films shown in German theaters and on television are of American or other foreign origin.
\par \tab Before the reunification of the two Germanys, the film industry in East Germany was state-owned, and writers and directors were under strong political control. Few films of note were produced. Because of the few films produced by domestic studios, many films were imported, mainly from the Soviet Union and other Eastern European countries. Some Western films were shown but were in general selected from those that show some unfavorable aspect of Western society. Most East Germans, however, were able to receive West German television programs on sets in their homes and thus had exposure to Western films and other programs with a view of life and society that was not approved by their government. East German cinema and television competed with up-to-date and interesting Western programs, which resulted in a somewhat higher level of production and content than was found in most Soviet-bloc countries.
\par {\b Painting}
\par \tab German painting has never had the international fame accorded to German literature and music. During the Nazi period little art of value was produced, and the war destroyed many galleries and museums. After the war artists found that they virtually had to start afresh. Rather than create a specifically German art, they tended to follow international trends. The works of such painters as Willi Baumeister, Joseph Beuys, Julius Bissier, Hans Hartung, Franz Walther, and others reflect the strong influences of modern American and European painters. East German art before reunification was strongly affected by the necessity of following the Soviet model of "socialist realism." Only in the 1970s was permission given to artists to experiment with new ideas.
\par {\b Music}
\par \tab Modern German music is relatively unimportant on the world scene in contrast to the great contribution made in the past by such composers as Bach, Beethoven, Brahms, Schumann, Wagner, and Mahler. Conductors such as Wilhelm FurtwΣngler, Otto Klemperer, Herbert von Karajan, and Kurt Masur and the singers Elisabeth Schwarzkopf and Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau, however, achieved international fame.
\par {\b Sports}
\par \tab As a source of national pride, sports play a major role in Germany. Favorite activities include track and field, volleyball, basketball, skiing, and ice and field hockey. Until the late 1980s the most popular sport in western Germany was association football, or soccer--particularly in cup competitions with other European countries. In international competition the coveted World Cup was won by West Germany in 1954, 1974, and 1990 (runner-up in 1966, 1982, and 1986). Tennis became the status sport when a couple of charismatic teenagers dominated the world tours. At 17 in 1985 Boris Becker was the youngest player to win Wimbledon. Teams led by Becker won West Germany's first Davis Cups in 1988 and 1989. At 18 in 1987 Steffi Graf took over the top ranking in women's tennis and a year later won the first Grand Slam since 1970. They were named the top players of 1989. In 1990 Graf set a record for most weeks as the number one player (male or female). In tribute to these remarkable talents, tennis clubs more than doubled, and regional training centers were expanded. Beginning in 1990 the men's tennis association moved its championship finals from New York City to Frankfurt. Sports were used by the East German government to gain international recognition. In the 1960s young Communist athletes began to win medals in a variety of sports--most notably track and field, swimming, and winter games. Their achievements were sometimes tarnished by criticism for the use of drugs like anabolic steroids to improve performance. Their great success usually resulted from a highly organized system in which children were selected at an early age for sports potential and then specially groomed in state-of-the-art training centers. Sports facilities for the ordinary East German citizen, however, did not compare with those available in West Germany.
\par \tab East Germany first competed as a separate national team at the 1972 Olympics in Munich. Usually a top competitor, it was the highest-scoring country in the 1980 Winter Games. After the East-West borders reopened in late 1989, sports federations in the two Germanys initiated cooperative training camps.
\par {\b Education}
\par \tab In Germany the states control the individual educational systems. A permanent commission strives for a certain uniformity in curriculum, requirements, and standards, the implementation of which may vary. Books and study materials are usually free, and financial assistance and other forms of support are available in cases of hardship. Free and compulsory elementary schooling for eight to ten years, beginning at age 6, is followed by a two-year apprenticeship in a trade or a grant for technical or vocational training or secondary schooling. Several universities--such as G÷ttingen, Tⁿbingen, Freiburg, Heidelberg, and Marburg--are of ancient origin and famous for their scholarship, but the largest number of students attend big city universities such as Munich, Berlin, Leipzig, Hamburg, Cologne, Rostock, Jena, Greifswald, Halle, Potsdam, and Bonn. There are many universities and a large number of colleges of technology, fine arts, music, physical education, and other specialties.
{\b ECONOMY}
\par \tab Germany is one of the leading industrial countries on both European and world scales. Although severely damaged in World War II, the economy of West Germany was rapidly rebuilt and by 1960 had become one of the strongest in Europe.
\par \tab {\b Agriculture.}
\par \tab Industry is the backbone of the economy, but agriculture is also important. Some 36 percent of all land is planted with crops, while about 16 percent is pasture. Germany produces about 80 percent of its food requirements. Almost 6 percent of the working population is involved in farming. About half the cropland is used to grow grain crops. The main grain crops are wheat, barley, rye, and oats. Wheat and barley production is not sufficient to meet needs, and some must be imported. Potatoes (for both human and animal consumption and for industrial use) and sugar beets are also important crops. Sugar beets provide sugar for all the country's own requirements as well as for export. The growing of grapes for wine is a major activity in southwestern Germany. The Rhineland and the valleys of the Neckar, Main, and Mosel are the main wine-producing areas. Various types of white wine are exported around the world. Hops for brewing beer are grown mainly in Bavaria. Barley is also an ingredient of beer, which is the most popular alcoholic drink in Germany, and is also exported.
\par \tab The raising of livestock is the major branch of German farming, and the country is mostly self-sufficient in meat and dairy products. It has the largest number of pigs of any country in Western Europe, and pork is a popular meat in German cooking.
\par \tab German farms are in general small and owned by families, many of whose members also have nonfarming jobs. Many farms are highly mechanized.
\par \tab {\b Fish.}
\par \tab Fish, particularly herrings, are much eaten by Germans, and Germany maintains a sizable fishing fleet. About half the catch comes from the North Sea, with the rest from the Atlantic Ocean. The main fishing ports are Bremerhaven, Rostock, and Sassnitz, where canneries are located. Inland waters are also fished, mainly for carp. Because of the demand for fish, considerable quantities are imported.
\par \tab {\b Forestry.}
\par \tab Forestry and the conservation of forests make up a traditional occupation in Germany. In spite of the care given to the control of cutting and to reforestation, the great demand for timber for such purposes as construction, pulp and paper, and cellulose production requires imports.
\par \tab {\b Industry.}
\par \tab Industry supplies a great variety of products but is dominated by the engineering and chemical industries. Industry was formerly based primarily on coal, of which western Germany has large supplies. The coal of the Ruhr basin was used as a basis for German industrial development in the late 19th century. An iron and steel industry arose, which became the largest in the world next to that of the United States by the 1930s. Supplies of iron ore, however, were not adequate, and ore was imported from Lorraine in France and from Luxembourg.
\par \tab The iron and steel industry is still largely located in the Ruhr area, which accounts for about 80 percent of the output of these metals. Iron ore comes from Sweden, Brazil, Liberia, and Canada by way of the Rhine. Germany is the fourth largest producer of steel in the world. It has been able to maintain a competitive position on the world market because of its modern plants and production methods. With the drop in the demand for steel in the 1980s and the rise of less expensive Japanese and Korean steel, however, the German industry is not as prosperous as it was in the past. There are also iron and steel plants in the Saar and at Salzgitter, Osnabrⁿck, Bremen, Eisenhⁿttenstadt, Brandenburg, Riesa, Gr÷mitz, Thale, and Sulzbach-Rosenberg. Engineering employs about a quarter of the work force and accounts for about half of the country's exports by value. The industry produces a variety of goods, including locomotives and railroad stock, automobiles, machine tools, heavy industrial and electrical equipment, optical and precision instruments, cameras, hardware, mining equipment, farm machinery, nails, and cutlery. Almost every city has an engineering plant, but the largest centers are in the Ruhr cities of Essen, Dortmund, and Duisburg as well as in Mannheim, Magdeburg, Chemnitz, Kassel, Solingen, Berlin, and Leipzig. Electric motors, radios, and television sets are produced in Dresden. Optical instruments and cameras are exported around the world. The electronics industry is concentrated primarily in Munich, Nuremberg, Frankfurt am Main, and Stuttgart.
\par \tab The automobile industry is located in several cities. Located in Wolfsburg near Brunswick, Volkswagen is the largest. Daimler-Benz, which manufactures Mercedes-Benz cars, is in Stuttgart, and Ford and General Motors have plants in Cologne and Rⁿsselsheim near Frankfurt. Automobiles are also produced at Eisenach and Zwickau and trucks at Chemnitz and Zittau. Many cars are exported.
\par \tab The shipbuilding industry gained considerable importance in the 1960s when it competed favorably with other European countries and Japan. In recent years, however, it has suffered greatly from Japanese and Korean competition. It is located mainly in Hamburg, Kiel, and Rostock. Barges for use on the international waterways are also built on the Elbe River.
\par \tab The chemicals industry is more than 100 years old. It was first based on the use of coal, lignite, and rock salt and produced fertilizer and artificial dyes. It is now located mainly in the Ruhr and in a number of large plants along the Rhine such as Leverkusen and Ludwigshafen and at H÷chst on the Main River. There is a large petrochemicals industry at Cologne and petroleum refineries at Hamburg and Ingolstadt in Bavaria. In recent years the petrochemical industry has been developed using petroleum brought by pipeline to plants at Schwedt on the Oder River and to Luena near Halle. Both petroleum and natural gas are imported, the latter coming by pipeline from The Netherlands and Norwegian fields in the North Sea.
\par \tab A major industry centered in eastern Germany is the manufacture of textiles. Cotton and woolen textiles are produced in Zittau, Leipzig, Chemnitz, Cottbus, and elsewhere.
\par \tab Electric power production comes mainly from coal, and there are large generating plants in the Ruhr that supply much of the country's needs. There are a few hydroelectric plants on Alpine rivers such as the Inn. Nuclear power has been developed in recent years, and there are 30 nuclear power plants in operation.
\par \tab {\b Transportation.}
\par \tab Parts of Germany have highly efficient transportation networks. Railroads are state-owned and well run and constitute one of the densest networks in Europe. Of the 50,226 miles (80,829 kilometers) of track, about 30 percent is electrified. In spite of their important role in the development of the country's economy, the railroads in the west carry much less freight and passengers than do highways. However, the railroads in the east carry more than twice the amount of freight that moves by highway.
\par \tab The highway system in western Germany is the best in Europe. The construction of the Autobahn, or four-lane expressway, system began in the 1930s, and it totals some 34,400 miles (55,360 kilometers), linking the major cities and regions of the country. Most German families own automobiles, and highways are often extremely busy, especially during holiday periods.
\par \tab The largest German airline, Lufthansa, is 75 percent owned by the government. It offers both domestic and international flights. On Oct. 28, 1990, Lufthansa began flying to Berlin for the first time since 1961. Interflug, the former national airline of East Germany, became a potential competitor of Lufthansa following reunification, and at the end of 1990 Lufthansa and Interflug were negotiating possible mergers and compromises regarding routes. Interflug flies to most of Eastern Europe and to some Western European and Middle Eastern countries. There are several international airports, such as Berlin-Sch÷nefeld in Berlin and those in Frankfurt (one of the busiest in Europe), Dresden, Erfurt, and Leipzig. By the end of the 1990s a new airport is scheduled to be completed south of Berlin. It would make Berlin-Sch÷nefeld and three other airports obsolete.
\par \tab The German merchant marine is not very large by world standards. The major ports are Hamburg and Bremen off the North Sea and Lⁿbeck, Rostock, and Wismar on the Baltic Sea. The movement of freight by internal waterways, however, is of great importance. The length of navigable rivers and waterways is 2,690 miles (4,330 kilometers). Dresden and Magdeburg are important ports. Apart from the Rhine and its tributaries and the Danube, there are such major canals as the Mittelland Canal from the Ruhr to the Elbe, the Dortmund-Ems Canal, and the Rhine-Main-Danube Canal, which is scheduled for use by 1992. There are several canals in a system that connects the Oder and Elbe rivers. It is thus possible for coal and other bulky raw materials to be moved cheaply by barge between the major industrial centers of the country. About 20 percent of total freight moves by the inland waterway system.
\par \tab {\b Communications.}
\par \tab Postal and telecommunications services are managed by the federal government. The post office also runs a savings bank and maintains a service of post buses, which carry passengers as well as mail. Television and radio stations are financed by individual states, and programs often reflect local issues or the views of the political party in power in that particular state. There is an organization that promotes cooperation between the various broadcasting stations and that also broadcasts its own television programs throughout the country. There are numerous daily and weekly publications, and many more began appearing when the Communist government fell in East Germany and the press was given greater freedom.
\par \tab {\b East German economy before reunification.}
\par \tab Following World War II and the Soviet occupation of East Germany, a Communist-style planned economy was introduced. At first the Soviets ran their occupation zone solely for their own requirements. Factories were dismantled and machinery moved to the Soviet Union, and other factories were used to produce goods as payment for reparations. All land holdings of more than 250 acres (100 hectares) were seized without compensation. The result was a large-scale flight of people to West Germany. After the Berlin Wall opened in November 1989 thousands of East Germans fled to the West, causing economic problems in both countries and a heavy loss of skilled labor in the East.
\par \tab From the 1960s to 1989 the East German economy became more stable and was one of the most advanced in Eastern Europe, though its economic problems were still great. It could not be compared, however, with that of West Germany, Western Europe's leading economic power. With reunification and the bringing of East Germany up to Western standards, a united Germany would be even stronger.
\par \tab During Communist rule, most farmers worked on collective and state farms organized on the Soviet model. East Germans had more success with their socialized agriculture than most of the other Communist countries, partly because of greater efficiency and organizational ability and partly because of the greater amount of farm machinery, fertilizer, and other modern technology available. After 1960 production of crops increased rapidly. After reunification was completed, agricultural reforms, including private ownership of land, were instituted.
\par \tab The role of industry was important in the East German economy, and the country supplied a variety of industrial products to the rest of Eastern Europe. Before World War II the eastern part of Germany was marked for special development of chemical and electric power industries, using the large lignite deposits that are now Germany's major resource. The chemical industry used large quantities of electric power, and large power stations were built on the lignite fields.
{\b GOVERNMENT}
\par {\b Before Reunification}
\par \tab West Germany was a federal republic established in 1949. It officially became a sovereign, independent state in 1955 when the military occupation ceased. It consisted of 10 LΣnder, or states, plus the territory of West Berlin. The city sent delegates to the federal legislature only on a consultative and nonvoting basis. The constitution was known as the Grundgesetz, or Basic Law. The legislature consisted of two houses, the Bundestag, or Federal Diet, whose members were elected by the public, and the Bundesrat, or Federal Council, composed of representatives of state governments. The number of deputies from each state varied from three to five according to size and population. The head of state was the president, who was elected for a term of five years by an appointed Federal Assembly. The president's main task was to represent the country in matters concerning international relations. The head of the government was the chancellor, who was advised by a cabinet of ministers. The capital was Bonn.
\par \tab Most state governments were headed by a minister-president or prime minister. The states had diets with elected representatives. The main political parties were the Christian Democratic Union, Social Democratic Party of Germany, Free Democratic Party, Christian Social Union, and the Greens (a party devoted to environmental issues).
\par \tab From 1949 to 1989 the German Democratic Republic was a unitary, one-party state. The Communist regime was toppled in late 1989, and the country's first democratic elections were held on March 18, 1990.
\par \tab East Germany's first freely elected parliament declared the country a democracy on April 5, 1990, and began rebuilding the government and rewriting the constitution to resemble that of West Germany.
\par \tab The 500-member parliament, or Volkskammer (People's Chamber), was elected by the people. The ceremonial head of state was the chairman of the Council of State (president), who was elected by the parliament. The head of government was the chairman of the Council of Ministers (prime minister), who was the leader of the party that held the most seats in parliament. The prime minister was advised by a cabinet of ministers. The main political parties were the Christian Democratic Union, German Social Union, Democratic Awakening, and the Social Democratic party. The Party of Democratic Socialism was the renamed Socialist Unity, or Communist, party. The capital was East Berlin.
\par {\b After Reunification}
\par \tab In mid-1990 the borders of the five historic LΣnder, or states, of East Germany--Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania, Brandenburg, Saxony-Anhalt, Saxony, and Thuringia--were restored, and on Oct. 3, 1990, the states became part of a united Germany. In addition, the Basic Law went into effect in the five newly reconstituted LΣnder and Berlin on October 3. All laws of the European Communities also were extended to apply to the entire country. Old East German laws that were compatible with those of West Germany and the European Communities remained in effect with two noteworthy exceptions: the liberal abortion law of East Germany was retained for two years after reunification in the five new LΣnder, and the strict drunk driving law is still enforced in this area.
\par \tab On Dec. 2, 1990, former West German chancellor Helmut Kohl, representing the Christian Democratic Union party, was elected Germany's new chancellor in the first free all-German parliamentary elections to be held in 58 years. During the newly-elected parliament's first session, held in Berlin on Dec. 20, 1990, a vote on whether to move the seat of government and parliament permanently back to Berlin was delayed. Although the unification treaty had set Berlin as the capital of unified Germany, coalition talks to be held in 1991 were expected to divide governmental functions between Bonn and Berlin.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by Ian M. Matley, Professor of Geography, Michigan State University.
\par \tab {\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR GERMANY}
\par \tab Ayer, Eleanor. Germany (Rourke, 1990).
\par \tab Baedeker's Germany (Prentice, 1981).
\par \tab Burdick, Charles, and others, eds. Contemporary Germany: Politics and Culture (Westview, 1984).
\par \tab Childs, David. The GDR: Moscow's German Ally (Unwin, 1988).
\par \tab Dolan, Sean. West Germany: On the Road to Reunification (Chelsea House, 1991).
\par \tab Einhorn, Barbara. West Germany (Bookwright, 1988).
\par \tab Germany (Time-Life, 1985).
\par \tab Koch, Karl, ed. West Germany Today (Routledge, 1989).
\par \tab McKenna, David. East Germany (Chelsea House, 1988).
\par \tab Mellor, R.E.H. The Two Germanies: A Modern Geography (P. Chapman, 1978).
\par \tab Michelin Travel Publications Staff. Michelin Green Guide to Germany, 7th ed. (Michelin, 1987).
\par \tab Pfeiffer, Christine. Germany: Two Nations, One Heritage (Dillon, 1987).
\par \tab Pond, Elizabeth. After the Wall: American Policy Toward Germany (Priority, 1990).\par \tab On March 6, 1957, Britain's Colony of the Gold Coast became the independent nation of Ghana. It was the first British African colony to gain independence, and it became the model for others to follow. Ghana was named for a powerful African empire that flourished along the upper Niger River from the 4th to the 13th century.
\par \tab Ghana has a 300-mile- (500-kilometer-) long coast on the Gulf of Guinea between Togo and C⌠te d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast). Burkina Faso (formerly Upper Volta) borders on the north.
\par {\b Land and People}
\par \tab Ghana is a country of 92,100 square miles (238,500 square kilometers). The Volta Basin, a vast saucer-shaped plateau averaging from 990 to 1,980 feet (300 to 600 meters) above sea level, occupies the north-central part of the country. The Gambaga escarpment is to the north, and the Kwahu Plateau follows the basin's southern rim. A highly dissected plain surrounds the basin and slopes southward to the coastal plain. The Akwapim-Togo Mountains border the Volta Basin on the east. Mount Afadjato, which reaches 2,905 feet (885 meters), is the highest point in Ghana. The Volta River forms the Accra plains in the southeast.
\par \tab The Volta River system drains three quarters of the country. The Black Volta and White Volta flow southward from Burkina Faso and form the Volta River in central Ghana. The Volta and its tributary, the Oti, feed Lake Volta. The lake has a surface area of 3,270 square miles (8,480 square kilometers). It was formed in 1966 behind the Akosombo Dam, which supplies hydroelectric power for Ghana. In the southwest the Pra, Tano, and other small rivers flow from the Kwahu Plateau to the Gulf of Guinea.
\par \tab In the south rainfall averages from 50 to 83 inches (127 to 211 centimeters) annually. Rain is concentrated in the spring and fall. Tropical forests are in the southwest and the Akwapim-Togo Mountains. The principal trees are silk-cotton, mahogany, ebony, and camwood. In the north rainfall averages from 43 to 50 inches (109 to 127 centimeters) annually and is concentrated in the spring and summer months. Severe droughts occurred in 1976, 1977, and 1982. Savannah grasslands and light woods with scrub underbrush cover the Volta Basin and northern Ghana. The mean annual temperature ranges from 80░ F (27░ C) at Accra to 82░ F (28░ C) at Tamale.
\par \tab Demands for food and fuel have degraded the natural vegetation. Deforestation is widespread in the south. In the north grasslands and scrub vegetation are burned to clear the land for cultivation. Recent droughts have worsened chronic food shortages, especially among rapidly growing urban populations. In 1984 the level of Lake Volta fell sharply, reducing the supply of electricity from the Akosombo Dam.
\par \tab Two thirds of the population live in small rural agricultural villages. English is the official language. Five other languages have official status in different regions. The Ashanti, who speak Akan, are the largest group. They make up 52 percent of the total population. Most live in Ashanti Province, of which Kumasi is the capital. Other major groups are the Moshi-Dagomba (16 percent), Ewe (12 percent), and Ga-Adangme (8 percent). About 63 percent of the people are Christians who live in the south and its major cities. Another 21 percent believe in traditional religions. Muslims in the north form another 16 percent of Ghana's population.
\par \tab An estimated 30 percent of the adult population are literate. Public education is compulsory through the secondary level. Private church schools operate by agreement with local authorities. The University of Ghana at Accra, the University of Science and Technology at Kumasi, and the University of Cape Coast are the leading institutions of higher learning.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab Sixty percent of the people depend on subsistence agriculture for a living. The principal food crops are corn (maize), millet, sorghum, rice, cassavas, taros, yams, and bananas (plantains). Cattle are raised in the north and on the Accra plain. Recent increases in food production have not met domestic demands. Ghana imports staple food supplies and livestock.
\par \tab Cocoa is produced for export. Private cacao farms occupy more than half of the cultivated land, primarily in Ashanti and the southwest. The government-controlled Cocoa Marketing Board purchases cacao and markets cocoa, which supplies the majority of the country's export earnings. During the 1960s Ghana was the world's leading producer of cocoa. Output has declined steadily since the early 1970s, but in 1983 the government instituted a program to revitalize its production. Other cash crops for export are coffee, bananas, palm kernels, copra, limes, kola nuts, rubber, cotton, oil palms, and kenaf.
\par \tab Ghana has few industries. In addition to food processing, textiles, vehicles, cement, paper, and chemicals are manufactured. A petroleum refinery and an aluminum smelter are located at Tema. The Volta River Authority's Akosombo hydroelectric generating plant and a smaller plant located downstream at Kpong supply Ghana's electricity. Exports of electricity to Benin and Togo ceased in 1984 because of low water levels on Lake Volta.
\par \tab Gold is the principal mineral export. Although it accounted for 15 percent of total export earnings in 1981, gold production has declined steadily. Industrial diamonds and some bauxite also are mined, but the aluminum smelter at Tema uses bauxite imported from Jamaica. Petroleum from offshore deposits in the Gulf of Guinea has been produced since 1978. Ghana imports most of its crude petroleum from Nigeria and Libya.
\par \tab Accra is the capital and largest city, with a population of more than 1 million. Kumasi and Sekondi-Takoradi are also major urban centers. Takoradi and Tema are the leading ports and industrial centers. A 592-mile (953-kilometer) railway network links Accra, Kumasi, and the port cities. One fourth of the 20,000 miles (32,200 kilometers) of roads are paved. The Kotaka international airport is near Accra. Four smaller airports serve internal flights.
\par {\b History and Government}
\par \tab Ghana, or the Colony of the Gold Coast, was the primary source of gold for the large medieval West African empires that engaged in trans-Saharan trade. In 1487 the Portuguese established a fort at Elmina as headquarters for the gold trade. Competition among European powers for gold and slaves led to the establishment of numerous bases on the Gulf of Guinea coast. The British gained control of the Gold Coast. Inland the Ashanti Union of Akan States with the capital at Kumasi controlled commerce in gold and slaves. Ashanti expansion southward brought them into conflict with the British. In 1807 the British abolished slave trading.
\par \tab The British extended control inland by treaties and wars with the Ashanti. After sacking Kumasi, the British made the Gold Coast a crown colony in 1874. Protectorates over the Ashanti and Northern Territories were established in 1901 as European nations claimed all of Africa following the Berlin Conference of 1884-85. Economic development of the new colony focused on cocoa, forest resources, and gold. Education was central to social development.
\par \tab Opposition to British control increased after World War II. Dr. Kwame Nkrumah led the movement for independence. Faced with growing protests, a national constitution was drafted that provided for broad suffrage and elections in 1951 of a ministerial type of government under the British Crown.
\par \tab Nkrumah's Convention Peoples' party (CPP) won a majority of seats in the National Assembly, and Nkrumah became the first prime minister. Nkrumah agreed to a transitional period of government, and the British set an early date for independence. Following CCP victories in the parliamentary elections of 1954 and 1956, the Gold Coast Colony merged with British Togoland to become the independent Republic of Ghana on March 6, 1957. Ghana joined the Commonwealth as a republic in 1960.
\par \tab Nkrumah and the CPP ruled Ghana as a one-party socialist state from 1957 to 1966. Nkrumah was elected president in 1960. In 1962 he was made president-for-life, an honor he lost after he suppressed the civil liberties of the opposition and the economy headed toward collapse. The army and police seized control in February 1966, and Ghana was only gradually returned to civilian government.
\par \tab A stringent austerity program was instituted by Prime Minister Kofi A. Busia, who was elected in October 1969. Widespread discontent led to a second military coup in January 1972. The presidency was abolished and the National Assembly dissolved under the regime of Lieutenant Colonel Ignatius Kutu Acheampong. The Supreme Military Council, which assumed power in 1975, ousted him in 1978. The new military government, headed by General Fred W.K. Akuffo, was overthrown in June 1979 by rebel air force officers led by Flight-Lt. Jerry Rawlings.
\par \tab Ghana returned again to civilian government following elections in June 1979. Dr. Hilla Limann was president. Dissatisfaction with the administration and failure of economic reforms led to a second coup headed by Rawlings in December 1981. The constitution was again suspended and the National Assembly dissolved. The Provisional National Defense Council, chaired by Rawlings, assumed control of the government. Population (1984 census), 11,205,574.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab Gary L. Fowler\par \tab Near the southern tip of Spain a peninsula forms a finger of land that points to the coast of Africa, 14 miles (23 kilometers) away. That peninsula is Britain's crown colony of Gibraltar. It includes the famous Rock of Gibraltar, which stands at the western gateway to the Mediterranean. Since 1704 when the British captured it, Gibraltar has been a fortress. It is Great Britain's chief naval base on the route through the Suez Canal to the Far East.
\par \tab The peninsula is about 3 miles (5 kilometers) long and less than a mile wide. Its area is 2.25 square miles (5.8 square kilometers).
\par \tab The rock is mostly limestone with cliffs and sandy slopes. Its greatest height of 1,396 feet (426 meters) is reached near the southern end.
\par \tab The city of Gibraltar, mostly on level ground on the west of the rock, lies on the deep Bay of Gibraltar. The harbor is a port of call where ships take on fuel, stores, and water. Vast reservoirs for rainwater have been blasted out of solid rock, and artesian wells have been drilled in the rock's tunnels.
\par \tab Gibraltar was considered one of the Pillars of Hercules by the Greeks. The Pillars were the limits beyond which they dared not sail. The name Gibraltar is derived from the Arabic Jabal Tariq (Mount Tarik). Tarik, a Muslim, captured and fortified the peninsula in AD 711. It was retaken by Spain in 1462. Since 1704 it has been a symbol of British naval strength and, in that context, is known as "the Rock."
\par \tab During World War II Gibraltar was a naval base for the Allied forces and an air base for the invasion of Africa in 1942. Strained relations led Spain to close its road to Gibraltar from 1969 to 1985. This closing cut off land access, but fortunately access by sea and air remained undisturbed. In 1981 Gibraltarians were at last granted full British citizenship. Population (1984 estimate), 30,000.\par \tab The birthplace of Western civilization, the small country of Greece has had a long and eventful history. At one time a major center of science, philosophy, and art, it is today a country with political and economic problems. These problems exist in part because of the mountainous nature of its land, poor soil, and few natural resources--and in part from the four centuries of foreign rule that resulted in little economic development. During the 20th century, wars and frequent changes of government have contributed to the political instability of the country. In spite of these problems, modern Greece and its people have achieved much, particularly in the area of commerce.
\par {\b Land and Climate}
\par \tab The area of Greece is about 51,000 square miles (132,000 square kilometers). Because of its shape and the number of islands, Greece gives the impression of being smaller than its actual area. There are few countries where the meeting of land and sea creates such a complex pattern of islands, inlets, gulfs, and bays. The sea presses deep into the land with hundreds of arms separated by the rocky spines of peninsulas, and only a small, wedge-shaped portion is more than 50 miles (80 kilometers) from the sea. The contrasts between the deep blue of sea and sky, the white of limestone crags and whitewashed buildings, and the burnt-orange of tiled roofs contribute dramatically to what strikes all visitors--a quality of light that is unique.
\par \tab Greece is divided into several regions that have been recognized as such since ancient times. The provinces of Macedonia and Thrace form a relatively narrow area lying along the northern coast of the Aegean Sea. To the west lies Epirus, which forms the northern boundary with Albania. East of Epirus and south of Macedonia is Thessaly. The southern half of Greece consists of the provinces of Central Greece and Euboea and the Peloponnesus. The islands of Greece are divided into the Aegean Islands, including the Northern Sporades, the Cyclades, and the Dodecanese; the large island of Crete (also Krφti); and the Ionian Islands off the west coast.
\par \tab About 70 percent of the country consists of mountains, the highest being Mount Olympus at 9,570 feet (2,917 meters) in Thessaly. There are several ranges, which tend to run in a northwest to southeast direction. The most important are the Pindus Mountains, which form the backbone of the Greek mainland, dividing Epirus from Thessaly. These mountains reappear in the south on the large peninsula of the Peloponnesus, where they divide into several smaller ranges. One of these ranges vanishes under the sea but appears again in the east as the mountains of the islands of Crete, Kßrpathos, and Rhodes.
\par \tab Between the main ranges there are valleys and depressions, some quite large. The largest plains are found in Macedonia and Thrace. These were former lakes and at one time contained swamps that have now been drained. In eastern Greece the Plains of Thessaly form the second largest lowland area. In other areas there are some smaller plains along the coast and a few that are large.
\par \tab The islands make up about 20 percent of the total area of Greece. They form complex patterns that generally follow the trends of the mainland mountain ranges. The Ionian Islands, from Corfu (also KΘrkira) to Zßkinthos, lie along the west coast. To the east in the Aegean Sea, the largest island is Euboea (╔vvoia), with the Northern Sporades, a group of smaller islands, located to the north. To the east are the islands of Limnos, Lesbos (LΘsvos), and Chios (Khφos), which lie close to the coast of Turkey and are detached parts of the mainland of Asia Minor. The large group of islands to the southeast, known as the Cyclades, are of volcanic origin and still show occasional volcanic activity. The main island is Nßxos. Farther east the islands of the Dodecanese group lie along the coast of Turkey. To their south is the large island of Rhodes, the most easterly of the Greek islands. The long island of Crete is located to the south, somewhat apart from the Greek mainland and the other islands. It is very mountainous, its highest point being Mount ═dhi (also Ida) at 8,058 feet (2,456 meters).
\par \tab The mountains of Greece are young from a geological standpoint, and they are still in the building stage. This results in much earthquake activity. The whole country is affected to some extent, but the Ionian Islands in particular are subject to severe earthquakes.
\par \tab The rivers of Greece have a complex pattern. The northern rivers--the Axios, Strim≤n, NΘstos, and ╔vros--rise in the mountains of Bulgaria and Macedonia and flow only a short distance on Greek territory until they reach the Aegean Sea. The longest river in Greece is the Alißkmon, which begins in the Pindus Mountains and flows eastward for 185 miles (298 kilometers) to the Aegean Sea as do the two major rivers of Central Greece and Thessaly--the Pini≤s and the Sperkhi≤s. Several smaller rivers flow westward from the Pindus Mountains to the Ionian Sea. The rivers of the Peloponnesus flow outward to the coast from the central mountains. Much surface water in Greece disappears down cracks in the large areas of limestone rocks, where they form underground river systems. There are few lakes of any size, the largest being Lake Trikhonis in western Greece. In general the nature of the land and the dry summers lead to water shortages in many areas.
\par \tab The soils of Greece are of mixed fertility. In the highlands and limestone regions, which cover large areas, the soils are in general thin and poor. In the valleys and hollows is found a type of red clay soil called terra rossa, which can be used for farming. The lowland areas along the rivers and the coastal plains have clay and loam soils that are the most fertile in Greece. In many cases these soils require drainage before farming can take place.
\par \tab Greece lacks most of the resources required by a modern industrial country. There are no deposits of good grade coal and little petroleum or natural gas. The main sources of energy are lignite, a type of coal of poor quality, and water power. The lignite deposits are mainly in northern Greece, with others on Euboea and the Peloponnesus. The region with the greatest potential for water power development is the Pindus Mountains to the west. Rivers in other areas have an irregular flow from summer drought. A small amount of oil and natural gas is extracted in the northeast.
\par \tab On the other hand, Greece is more fortunate in its supplies of metallic minerals. Bauxite, the raw material for the production of aluminum, is found in large quantities and is exported. Magnesite, which is used in the chemical and metallurgical industries, and chromite and manganese are also important. Lead, zinc, copper, uranium, and iron ore are also mined. Many of these minerals have not yet been fully exploited, and it is possible that more remain to be discovered. Of the nonmetallic minerals, the most important are asbestos and gypsum.
\par \tab The climate of Greece is typically Mediterranean, with hot, dry summers and mild, rainy winters. Along the coasts and on the islands, summer temperatures average around 80░ F (27░ C), and winter temperatures rarely drop below 50░ F (10░ C). In summer, rainfall is very low, but by November and December it reaches its maximum, which can be more than 8 inches (20 centimeters) a month in western districts.
\par \tab In the interior of Greece, including that of the Peloponnesus, winters are colder than along the coast, and snow can lie on the mountains for several months. Northern Greece has a more continental climate than the south and has lower winter temperatures and some rain in summer.
\par \tab The weather is affected by local winds. In summer, winds from the north, known as Etesian winds, blow with considerable force and cause problems for shipping. In the winter, cold winds bring low temperatures to northern Greece, but at the same time winds from Africa bring warmth to Crete.
\par {\b Plants and Animals}
\par \tab Plant life in Greece is very rich with many different species. Most are typically Mediterranean such as evergreen oak, cypress, and pine and shrubs such as juniper, myrtle, and oleander. The northern mountains have forests of deciduous trees such as oak, chestnut, ash, and beech, with fir and pine on the upper slopes. Human activity has greatly affected the plant life of Greece, and much of the original forest has vanished. About 20 percent of the area of the country is at present forested. Where goats and other livestock have grazed, the forests have been replaced by areas of scrub and undergrowth known as maquis.
\par \tab In the mountain forests of central Greece, bears, wolves, wildcats, martens, wild boars, lynxes, and deer can be found. In the south and the coastal areas, Mediterranean animals such as the jackal, wild goat, and porcupine are common. Greece has a variety of birds, including the heron, stork, and pelican. Reptiles include snakes, lizards, and turtles. The subtropical climate encourages a variety of insects, of which the most harmful are the mosquito, which transmits malaria, and the sandfly, which carries sandfly fever.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab The population of the country is more than 10 million, of which more than 98 percent is Greek. The only minority groups of note are Turks, Macedonians, Albanians, Pomaks, Vlachs, and Armenians. The Pomaks are Slavic Muslims, while the Vlachs are nomadic mountain herders. All these groups are small in size and receive little recognition from the Greek government. Most of them speak Greek as well as their native language. Apart from the small group of Muslims, the majority of the population belong to the Greek Orthodox Church. There are very few Christians of other denominations or Jews.
\par \tab The Greek language comes directly from that of the ancient Greeks. In particular, the modern literary language has kept many features of ancient Greek, but the spoken language includes words and grammar borrowed from other languages. At present the spoken form of the language is recognized as the official form for government and education.
\par \tab The Greeks have a typical Mediterranean way of life. In both towns and villages the taverna, which generally has a terrace or seats on the sidewalk, is the focus of male activities. There the men meet to talk about various topics, of which politics is the most important and the most fervently discussed. Although women in cities go to tavernas, those in rural areas rarely do. In general, Greek society is dominated by men.
\par \tab Because of people leaving the country, especially after the two World Wars, there are large communities of Greeks living abroad. Many are in other eastern Mediterranean areas such as Cyprus, Egypt, Lebanon, and other Middle Eastern countries. Some have settled in Africa, especially South Africa. Others have established communities in the United States and Canada. Most of these groups center their activities around the Orthodox church and maintain their customs and language to a greater degree than many other immigrant groups. They still retain their love for their homeland, and in times of crisis many Greeks abroad have returned to fight in the Greek Army.
\par \tab About 70 percent of the population of Greece lives in cities. The largest city by far is the capital, Athens. With its suburbs the city has about 4 million inhabitants, or about 40 percent of the total population of Greece. Athens has grown at a rapid rate since 1950. Most of the present population are country people who migrated to the capital for work.
\par {\b Culture}
\par \tab Modern Greek art has developed along European lines rather than following the classical model. Among the best of modern painters are PericlΘs Pantaφzis, Ioßnnis Altamo·ras, Nφcolas Ghφka, and Ioßnnis Tsaro·chis.
\par \tab It is as writers and poets, however, that the Greeks have excelled. Kost∞s Palamαs and Angelos Sikelian≥s laid the foundations for modern Greek poetry in the 1880s by using the popular spoken form of the language. Konstantinos Kafaves used classical themes in his poems, which were internationally acclaimed. Since World War II, poets have followed more modern European trends. In 1963 Giorgios Seferiades won the Nobel prize for poetry.
\par \tab In 1888 Ioßnnis Psycharis first used the spoken language in a novel. He was followed by such writers as Alexandros Papadiamantes, one of the best Greek short-story writers. In the 1930s Stratis Myrivilis and Kosmαs Politis emerged as important novelists. More recently, the most influential writer has been the internationally famous Nikos Kazantzakis, one of whose novels was made into the film 'Zorba the Greek'.
\par \tab Greek popular music has roots in the past and has been influenced by Turkish music. The most popular folk instrument is the bouzouki. Bouzouki music has become internationally known through the composers Manos Hadjidakis and Mikis Theodorakis, who also has set modern Greek poetry to music. The singer Nana Mouskouri has achieved fame abroad by her renditions of Greek songs.
\par \tab A nationalist school of Greek music, inspired by Greek folk music, was led in the first half of the 20th century by the composer Manolis Kalomiris. Nikos Skalkottas and Dimitri Mitropoulos were among the first to move toward modern trends and the use of atonality. Mitropoulos became better known as a pianist and conductor with an international career. Gina Bachauer was an internationally acclaimed pianist.
\par \tab The revival of ancient Greek drama after World War I resulted in its wide popularity and its presentation at international festivals by Greek companies. The most famous Greek stage and screen actresses are Irene Pappas and Melina Mercouri, who became minister of culture and sciences under the socialist regime.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab From the 1960s Greece was no longer a mostly agricultural country. Some 30 percent of the population, however, is still involved in farming, and rural life is still characteristic of much of the country. Because of the limitations of the environment, only 30 percent of the country is farmed. Much of this farmland is in the north, where the main crops are wheat, barley, and corn, with sugar beets, cotton, and tobacco as the main industrial crops. The last two are important export crops. The coastal areas and the islands have typical Mediterranean crops such as olives, citrus fruits, and currants and grapes.
\par \tab Greece is a major producer of olive oil and also exports oranges and lemons. Grapes are used in the production of wine.
\par \tab The mountain regions are used mainly for pasture, which occupies about 40 percent of the land area. Much of this land is suitable only for raising sheep and goats. Greece has more goats than any other country in Europe. Overgrazing by goats has led to serious soil erosion in many areas. The eroded soil washes down the slopes to the valleys and chokes rivers, causing flooding and the formation of marshes. The number of cattle is relatively small, and Greece imports meat and dairy products as well as leather.
\par \tab In addition to environmental limitations, Greek farming faces other problems. Partly because of the pressure of overpopulation on the land, farms tend to be very small. There are thousands of farms smaller than 3 acres (1.2 hectares). Much of this farmland, however, is being abandoned or is rented to other farmers because many owners of these dwarf farms have left them to seek work in the cities. The average size of an active Greek farm is about 15 acres (6 hectares), which is small by European standards. Many farms are broken up into a number of scattered pieces of land. This small size and fragmentation lead to problems in using modern machinery and effective farming methods. Consequently, Greek farms are not very productive.
\par \tab The government has encouraged the joining of scattered land holdings and has invested in new irrigation schemes. The farmers themselves have formed cooperatives for both marketing their products and buying seed, fertilizer, and machinery. Because of the lack of good farmland, the more successful Greek farmers concentrate on growing such luxury crops as tobacco and currants, which get good prices and can be exported.
\par \tab Ready access to the sea makes fishing an important source of food. The Greek fishing industry is mainly of local importance, and few fish or fish products are exported. Sponges, however, are exported.
\par \tab The lack of forests and the uncontrolled cutting of trees for firewood has resulted in a forest industry that can supply only 30 percent of the country's timber needs. Reforestation of mountain areas where grazing is not permitted may help to improve the situation.
\par \tab The lack of both energy resources and raw materials--with the exception of cotton--has hindered the development of industry in Greece. The cotton textile industry is therefore the most important, followed by food and tobacco, chemicals, and engineering. About 80 percent of manufactured products come from factories in Athens and its port of Piraeus (also PiraiΘvs). There are an iron and steel plant, shipyards, chemical plants, and a small aircraft industry--all in the Athens region. A large plant near Delphi (Delfi) uses local bauxite to produce aluminum for export. Most Greek companies, of which about one third are state-owned, are small, and few compete effectively on the world market.
\par \tab The Greek merchant marine is one of the largest in the world, and several families--notably the Onassis, Niarchos, and Livanos--have made fortunes in shipping. Shipping is a major source of foreign currency. In particular, Greeks have been active in shipping oil by tanker.
\par \tab The main port is Piraeus, near Athens, while Thessalonφki (also Salonika) serves the north of the country. Other ports are Pßtrai (Patras) on the Peloponnesus, PrΘveza on the Ionian Sea, V≤los on the east coast, and Irßklion (Candia) on Crete.
\par \tab Tourism is a very important source of foreign currency. Its good climate, beautiful scenery, and long coastline make Greece an ideal country for vacationers. More than 5 million tourists arrive each year, about three quarters from other European countries. New hotels and other facilities have been built recently, but the large number of tourists--equaling about half the total population each year--places a great strain on facilities and often results in overcrowding. The Greek islands--including Rhodes, Crete, and Corfu--are particularly popular, though the classical ruins of Athens, Corinth, and other places attract many to the mainland. Cruises among the islands are organized for tourists.
\par \tab In 1981 Greece was admitted as a member to the European Economic Community. Greek farm products thus have free access to the West European market, but they face considerable competition from similar products from Italy, Spain, Portugal, and France. Because of its agricultural and other economic problems, Greece receives much financial help from the community. Further Greek demands for special treatment have not been favorably received by the community, but it is unlikely that Greece will withdraw its membership. With a high level of inflation and serious trade problems, Greece faces an uncertain economic future.
\par {\b Transportation, Communication, and Education}
\par \tab Greece has only a small railroad network. The most important line runs from Athens to Thessalonφki. There are few other lines of note, and some are narrow-gauge. The highway network is more extensive and offers good connections with many parts of the country. Athens is the starting point for major toll highways to the north and west.
\par \tab Greece has a national airline, Olympic Airways, that handles all internal flights and also has many international routes. Because of the fragmented nature of the country, air transportation is particularly suitable for Greece. The main international airport is at Athens, which is well located as an intermediate stop for flights between Europe and the Middle East. Radio and television broadcasting is controlled by the government, as is the telephone and telegraph service.
\par \tab Education is required and free until the age of 15. After attending primary school for six years, children go to a "gymnasium" for three years and then may attend a lyceum for college preparatory work after passing the necessary examinations. After four years at a lyceum, students may take examinations for admission to a university or technical college. The University of Athens is the oldest and largest in Greece, but there are also universities at Thessalonφki, Pßtrai, Ioßnnina, Thrace, and Crete. The National Technical University is in Athens, and schools of commerce, agriculture, industry, and fine arts are in various locations. In spite of recent reforms, the Greek educational system is strictly organized and run by the state, and private universities are banned by the constitution.
\par {\b Government}
\par \tab Greece is a republic with a democratic form of government based on a parliament with a prime minister and elections by secret ballot. Under the constitution approved in 1975, there is a president who nominates the prime minister, generally the leader of the party with the most seats in parliament. The real political power in fact rests with the prime minister and his cabinet, though the president can dismiss a government after consultation with the Council of the Republic. The council consists of former presidents, the prime minister, and the leaders of the major political parties.
\par \tab There are many political parties in Greece, a situation that causes considerable political instability. Because one party usually manages to obtain a majority of seats in parliament, however, the problem of forming coalition governments of several parties rarely arises. The Socialist party, which is officially the Panhellenic Socialist Movement (PASOK), and the New Democracy were the leading parties in the 1980s. The Communist party gained a foothold in the government in the 1989 and 1990 elections, and it also wielded power in the trade union movement.
\par \tab There is a group of 20 Orthodox monasteries located on Mount ┴thos on the most easterly of the three prongs of the Khalkidhikφ Peninsula in the northern Aegean Sea. This monastic community has self-government, a situation legally recognized by treaty with the government of Greece.
\par {\b History}
\par \tab After the fall of the Roman Empire, Greece became part of the Byzantine Empire with its capital at Constantinople (now Istanbul). The Byzantine Empire was constantly under attack, and during the 13th century Greece was annexed by the rising power of Venice. The Turkish conquest of the empire in 1453 resulted in the absorption of Greece into the Ottoman Empire. There was little economic development during the period of almost 400 years under Turkish rule. Many Greeks fled the country, and there were periodic revolts. During the 18th century, however, the Greeks began to build their own economy and develop an organized resistance to the Turks. In 1770 the people of the Peloponnesus rose in revolt, but this was quickly stopped by the Turks. In 1821 the Greeks began a seven-year war of independence, which resulted in the liberation of the country. Supported by Great Britain, France, and Russia (called the Great Powers), Greece was declared an independent country in 1829, and Prince Otto of Bavaria was placed on the throne. In 1843 he was deposed by a revolutionary group but was replaced by King George I, who came from Denmark and was supported by the Great Powers. The king ruled as a constitutional monarch with an elected parliament.
\par \tab Greece was not yet a united country, as many Greeks lived in regions ruled by Turkey, such as Thessaly, Epirus, Macedonia, and Crete. In 1864 the British gave the Ionian Islands to Greece, and Thessaly was obtained between 1881 and 1897. The Balkan War of 1912--when Greece, Serbia, Bulgaria, and Montenegro attacked Turkey--enabled Greece to obtain control over Crete, Macedonia, and Epirus.
\par \tab In 1913 King George was assassinated, and his son Constantine came to the throne. Constantine supported the German side at the beginning of World War I but was forced to give up the throne in 1917 by his prime minister, EleuthΘrios VenizΘlos. Constantine's son Alexander became king, and Greece entered the war on the Allied side. In order to assure Greek participation in the war, the Allies promised Greece territory on the mainland of Turkey, which was fighting on the side of the Germans and was thus an enemy. In 1919 not only did the Greeks obtain control of the Dodecanese Islands from Turkey but also landed troops at Smyrna (now Izmir) on the Turkish mainland. Smyrna had a large Greek population and was claimed by Greece.
\par \tab At this time Greek politicians supported the so-called Megali Idea, meaning "great idea," which involved the expansion of Greek control over all areas where Greeks lived and their incorporation into a large Greek state with the former Byzantine capital Constantinople as its capital. The Turks naturally opposed this idea, for it meant Greece would take parts of their territory. In order to achieve its aims, Greece attacked Turkey in 1921 but suffered a humiliating defeat. In 1922 the Turks recaptured Smyrna. The city was burned, and many of the Greek inhabitants were killed.
\par \tab The war was followed by the Treaty of Lausanne, which gave Turkey parts of Thrace and all Greek-occupied territory on Asia Minor. An exchange of population was negotiated and resulted in about 1.3 million Greeks leaving Turkey and about 350,000 Turks leaving Greece. The population of Greece increased suddenly by about 20 percent, creating serious economic problems. This population increase was offset somewhat by a high rate of emigration.
\par \tab King Alexander had died in 1920, and Constantine was brought back to the throne. As a result of the Greek-Turkish war, however, Constantine gave up the throne, and his son George II became king. During the upheavals after the war, an antiroyalist revolution took place, and in 1923 George II also abandoned the throne. The leaders of the revolution, eager to restore constitutional government, held an election and resigned. The prime minister, Theodoras Pangalos, declared himself dictator in 1926, but the following year he was forced out and VenizΘlos returned to office. After a period of relative political stability, VenizΘlos was defeated in the 1932 elections. King George was recalled to the throne, but in 1936 political chaos enabled General Ioannis Metaxas to seize control of the government. He ruled as a right-wing dictator until his death in 1941.
\par \tab In 1940 the Italians under Benito Mussolini launched an attack on Greece through Albania, but they were driven back by stubborn Greek resistance. In 1941 the Germans invaded Greece and took Thessalonφki and then Athens. Crete was captured by German paratroopers. Britain had sent troops to Greece before the invasion, but they were forced to withdraw. Greece was occupied by German, Italian, and Bulgarian troops, and the government fled to England. In 1944 the Germans withdrew from Greece, and the government returned under British protection.
\par \tab A serious problem arose when the Communists, who had led guerrilla activities against the Germans during the war, refused to disband their forces. A civil war broke out in Athens, which the British forces managed to suppress with difficulty. The Communists were powerful enough, however, to control most of the country outside of Athens and Thessalonφki. For the moment, the Communists accepted the restoration of democratic government and the return of King George II. The king died in 1947 and was succeeded to the throne by his brother Paul. In the meantime, in 1946 the Communists had begun a major drive to seize power. A civil war began that did not end until 1949. During this period the Communists formed a provisional government in the mountains of the north, but they were ultimately defeated with United States aid. The end of the Communist rebellion was decided by Yugoslavia's closing its border with Greece and preventing Soviet-supported guerrilla groups from using Yugoslavia as a base and sanctuary.
\par \tab United States aid enabled Greece to recover from the war, but a period of unstable governments slowed the rebuilding of the country. By 1955, however, under the leadership of Prime Minister Alexandros Papagos, Greece was well on the road to recovery. In that year Konstantinos Karamanlis took over control of the government. He faced a problem that had concerned Greeks for some time--the British control of the island of Cyprus. More than 75 percent of the population was Greek, but there was a large Turkish minority. Agitation for enosis, or union with Greece, broke out in 1955 and 1956. The Turks objected to any political union with Greece, and an agreement was arrived at by Britain, Greece, and Turkey by which Cyprus became an independent republic in 1960. In 1963 Karamanlis resigned, and his place was taken by Georgios Papandreou. In the following year King Paul died, and his son Constantine became king.
\par \tab In 1965 the king dismissed Papandreou for encouraging left-wing activities within the armed forces. In April 1967 a group of army officers seized power in the name of the king, though the king himself was not involved. Of this group, Col. Georgios Papadopoulos emerged as the key figure. Several left-wing politicians were arrested, including Papandreou and his son Andreas. The son was sentenced to nine years in prison for treasonable activities. Opponents of the new regime in the civil service, armed forces, and the universities were also removed. In December 1967 the king fled the country after appealing to the Greeks to overthrow the regime. Papadopoulos made himself prime minister and declared an amnesty under which some political prisoners, including Andreas Papandreou, were released. Papandreou went abroad, where he organized opposition to the Papadopoulos regime. In 1971 the United States government announced it would continue only military assistance to Greece. Greece had joined the NATO alliance in 1952 and played a major role in the defense of the eastern Mediterranean by providing bases for NATO forces.
\par \tab In 1973 the military regime abolished the monarchy and declared Greece a republic with Papadopoulos as president. Bloody riots broke out in Athens as left-wing students challenged the government. In the chaos that followed, Brig. Gen. Dimitrios Ioannidis led a coup against the government and seized power. Ioannidis was active in the organization of an attempted coup in 1974 against President Makarios of Cyprus that involved Greek officers serving in the Cypriot National Guard. On learning of this attempt, Turkey invaded Cyprus and established a zone of Turkish control in the northern part of the island.
\par \tab This event returned Greece to democratic rule. Former prime minister Karamanlis was asked to form a civilian government, and politicians in exile returned to take part in elections that resulted in the victory of Karamanlis and his center-right New Democracy party.
\par \tab In 1974 Greece withdrew from NATO military activities. At the same time relations with Turkey worsened with a dispute over territorial claims in the Aegean Sea, where prospecting for offshore petroleum had begun. In 1975 a new constitution was adopted, and in 1977 Karamanlis was reelected to office. A new agreement was made with the United States for naval and military bases in Greece. Relations with Turkey improved somewhat, and in 1980 Greece again took up its military role in NATO. Also in 1980 Karamanlis resigned as prime minister and was elected president. The following year Greece became a member of the European Communities (EC).
\par \tab The political situation changed dramatically that year with the election of the Panhellenic Socialist Movement (PASOK) to power on Oct. 18, 1981. Andreas Papandreou became prime minister. He encouraged left-wing, anti-American, and anti-Turkish feeling in Greece. At first he threatened to withdraw Greece from both the EC and NATO and to close United States bases. In 1983, however, he resumed defense and economic cooperation with the United States and signed a further agreement on bases that expired in 1988. The lapsed agreement was extended for eight years in 1990.
\par \tab Relations with Turkey remained poor, especially after the Turkish recognition in 1983 of a Turkish republic on Cyprus. Papandreou made friendly gestures toward Eastern Europe and supported a nuclear-free Balkan zone. In 1985 Karamalis resigned as president, and the socialist government was reelected. The poor state of the Greek economy and the strict terms laid down for loans by the EC resulted in the introduction of austerity measures. A dispute over petroleum rights in the Aegean Sea in 1987 brought Greece and Turkey to the verge of war. No war ensued, but relations remained strained. In the early 1990s Greece refused to recognize the former Yugoslav province of Macedonia, because the latter did not change its name upon gaining its independence. Greece feared that its own Macedonians might seek to unite with the new Macedonian state. Greece closed their mutual borders and instituted a blockade. Difficulties also developed with Albania over refugee problems.
\par \tab A financial scandal in Crete in the late 1980s cost many politicians their jobs. Papandreou was eventually cleared of corruption changes in 1992. By that time, however, his party had been out of office for three years. In an election of Oct. 10, 1993, Papandreou and his Socialists were voted back in.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by Ian Matley, Professor of Geography, Michigan State University.
\par \tab {\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR GREECE}
\par \tab Harris, Nathaniel. Alexander the Great and the Greeks (Watts, 1986).
\par \tab Lye, Keith. Take a Trip to Greece (Watts, 1983).
\par \tab Rutland, Jonathan. An Ancient Greek Town, rev. ed. (Watts, 1986).
\par \tab Stein, R.C. Greece (Childrens, 1987).\par \tab More than four fifths of Greenland, the largest island in the world, lies buried under an ice sheet that has an average depth of 5,000 feet (1,500 meters). The area of Greenland is about 840,000 square miles (2,175,000 square kilometers). It is about 1,650 miles (2,650 kilometers) long, with a maximum width of some 650 miles (1,050 kilometers). Its people, however, live only on the rocky coastal fringe, chiefly in the southwest.
\par \tab Lying to the northeast of continental North America and almost wholly within the Arctic Circle, Greenland is subject to intense cold and terrible blizzards. Glaciers flow from Greenland's icy mountains and discharge a billion tons of ice into the sea every year. Many of these enormous icebergs are carried into the lanes of ocean travel.
\par \tab Some sections of Greenland have enough soil and warmth to support tundra vegetation and small trees. Potatoes and other hardy vegetables are grown. Greenlanders, who are Eskimo with a mixture of European blood, live chiefly by hunting and fishing. They must import much of their food, clothing, and other necessities. Sheep raising and fish canning are growing industries. Exports include cryolite, a scarce mineral used in separating aluminum from its ores; fish and fish products; and hides and skins. Recently lead and zinc have been mined and molybdenum and large uranium deposits discovered.
\par \tab In spite of hundreds of years of Scandinavian influence, many of the island's people continue to practice traditional cultural activities. Their houses were formerly of stone and sod, but wood, which must be imported, is the modern material. A few Eskimo build igloos for the winter or when traveling. Nearly all settlements have schools, and all children are required to have elementary education.
\par {\b History}
\par \tab Migrations of Eskimo peoples into Greenland began about 3000 BC. In AD 982 Eric the Red, a Norwegian, sailed to Greenland and in 986 founded a colony. He called the frozen wasteland Greenland in order to encourage immigration. Here lived his son Leif Ericson, who discovered the coast of North America. In 1261 the colony came under Norwegian rule. Contact with the colony ended in the 15th century. The island was rediscovered late in the 16th century by English explorers. In 1721 Hans Egede, a Scandinavian missionary, began a modern colony. When Norway and Denmark dissolved their union in 1814, Greenland was not mentioned, so Denmark kept it.
\par \tab In 1917 Denmark sold the Virgin Islands to the United States in exchange for recognition of Danish claims to Greenland. Denmark officially proclaimed sovereignty over Greenland in 1921. Norway continued to press its case and, in 1931, formally annexed the coastal region north of Scoresby Sound. In 1933 the World Court decided in favor of Denmark.
\par \tab After the Germans invaded Denmark in World War II, the United States took responsibility for Greenland's defense. In 1951 Denmark and the United States signed an agreement for the common defense of the island. The United States built Thule Air Base.
\par \tab In 1953 Denmark made Greenland part of the Danish kingdom, with two representatives in the Folketing, or parliament. Full home rule was granted in 1979. The capital is Godthaab. Population (1984 estimate), 53,000.\par \tab Known as the Isle of Spice, oval-shaped Grenada is the most southerly of the Windward Islands at the eastern end of the Caribbean Sea. It has a total land area of 133 square miles (345 square kilometers), including the dependency of the southern Grenadines to the north-northwest. A thickly forested ridge of mountains runs down the center of the island. Rivers and springs cut through the central highlands. The southern coast is indented with many beaches, bays, and natural harbors. The island is volcanic in origin.
\par \tab The tropical maritime climate has only two seasons. It is wet from June through December and dry from January through May. Vegetation is tropical and includes teak, mahogany, saman, and blue mahoe, a tree noted for its strong fibers. The country is well known for such spices as nutmeg, cinnamon, pepper, cloves, ginger, and vanilla and for cocoa. Bananas, limes, mangoes, and coconuts are abundant. Animal life includes the mona monkey, the agouti, a variety of turtles and land crabs, and domesticated livestock.
\par \tab Grenada's economy depends heavily on agricultural exports and tourism. Bananas, cocoa, nutmeg, and mace are produced for export. Fishing was developed with assistance from Cuba and the Soviet Union. Stimulated by the growing tourist industry, traditional Caribbean culture has flourished.
\par \tab Warlike Carib Indians dominated Grenada in 1498 when Christopher Columbus sighted the island. In 1650 the French governor of Martinique purchased the island. It was ruled by France from 1672 until British forces captured it in 1764. The island became a self-governing state in association with the United Kingdom in 1967.
\par \tab On Feb. 7, 1974, Grenada became an independent state. In 1979 the New Jewel Movement (NJM) staged a bloodless coup, suspended the 1967 constitution, and dissolved Parliament. Although Grenada remained within the Commonwealth, it was ruled as a Marxist state by a group called the People's Revolutionary Government (PRG). The PRG named its leader, Maurice Bishop, as prime minister. Relations between the new Marxist government and Western-oriented Latin American countries became strained as Grenada grew ever closer to Cuba and the Soviet bloc. Disagreement within the PRG led to the execution of Bishop in a coup led by Gen. Hudson Austin in mid-October 1983. On October 25 United States troops invaded Grenada with support from members of the Organization of Eastern Caribbean States. United States combat forces were withdrawn by mid-December. Austin was arrested, and Cuban workers and soldiers that had been in the country were sent home. Nicholas Brathwaite led a 13-month interim government until general elections were held in December 1984. Herbert A. Blaize of the New National party served as prime minister until his death in December 1989. Following inconclusive general elections in March 1990 Brathwaite again became prime minister.
\par \tab The capital of Grenada is St. George's. Population (1990 estimate), 110,000.\par \tab In the Lesser Antilles island chain of the West Indies is Guadeloupe, which is officially an overseas department of France. The total land area is 687 square miles (1,780 square kilometers), consisting of the twin islands of Basse-Terre to the west, Grande-Terre to the east, and several smaller islands.
\par \tab Guadeloupe's economy depends heavily on subsidies from the French government, and its greatest source of income is tourism. Manufacturing industries are underdeveloped and center on the processing of domestic raw materials. Products include refined sugar, liquors, wheat flour, and machinery. Imports greatly exceed exports. Sugar and bananas are grown and exported.
\par \tab Music and dance are especially prominent among the surviving folk arts. Guadeloupe is noted for its distinctive creole cuisine and unique costumes worn by women on special occasions. Most of the population is black or mulatto except on the ╬les des Saintes, where the inhabitants are mostly white descendants of the French. French is the official language, but a creole dialect is widely spoken.
\par \tab Guadeloupe is represented in the French National Assembly by four deputies and in the French Senate by two senators. The monetary unit, as in the home country, is the franc. The General Council, composed of 42 members, and the Regional Council, with 41 members, have legislative authority over local matters.
\par \tab Columbus reached Guadeloupe in 1493. A French colony was founded in 1635. England and Sweden both gained brief possession of the islands. In 1946 France raised its status from that of a colony to a department. Population (1990 census), 378,178.\par \tab The rugged, tropical island of Guam rises in the Pacific Ocean about two thirds of the way between Honolulu and Manila. This strategic position makes Guam significant as an air and naval base.
\par \tab Guam is the southernmost and the largest of the Mariana Islands. It was one of the first of the Pacific islands discovered by Europeans. The Portuguese navigator Ferdinand Magellan landed on one of the Marianas, probably Guam, on March 6, 1521.
\par \tab The kidney-shaped island has an area of 209 square miles (541 square kilometers), about that of Chicago. It is 30 miles (48 kilometers) long and 4 to 8 1/2 miles (6 to 14 kilometers) wide. Its underlying coral limestone is thinly covered with rich soil. Beautiful coral reefs ring the coasts. In the north high cliffs rise abruptly into a plateau that is about 500 feet (150 meters) above the sea. The southern half has rolling savannas, and on its west coast are hills. Here is the highest point, Mount Lamlam, rising to 1,332 feet (406 meters). The temperature ranges from 70░ to 90░ F (21░ to 32░ C). Rainfall averages 70 inches (178 centimeters) a year. Banana, coconut, breadfruit, and rubber trees are among the tropical growth of the lowlands. Taros, cassavas, corn, and sweet potatoes are the main crops. Chickens, pigs, and cattle are raised. Water buffaloes are the chief work animals.
\par \tab Apra Harbor is one of the world's great naval bases. There are also facilities to handle foreign cargo. Agana, the capital, is 5 miles (8 kilometers) northeastward. Nearby is the naval and commercial air base. Andersen Air Force Base is on the northeastern corner of the island. The American military bases are the island's main economic support.
\par \tab The people native to Guam are Chamorros. They are of Indonesian descent, but they have so intermarried with other peoples that there are no pureblood Chamorros left in Guam.
\par \tab Guam was officially claimed by Spain in 1565. Missionaries arrived in 1668, financed by Queen Marie Anne, who was regent of Spain and for whom the Marianas are named. The United States cruiser Charleston captured Guam in 1898, and Spain ceded it to the United States on Dec. 10, 1898. In 1899 Spain sold the rest of the Marianas to Germany. After World War I Japan gained them under a mandate.
\par \tab Guam became a United States naval station and was thereafter governed by the Navy. In 1903 an ocean-cable relay station was built at Sumay. Under Spanish rule the population had declined from about 50,000 to only 10,000. Aided by the Navy's health program, the native population gradually increased. Agricultural and trade schools were built. Guam was demilitarized in 1922 by the Washington Conference on Limitation of Naval Armaments.
\par \tab In 1941 Guam stood as the only break in Japan's island barrier that reached 3,000 miles (4,800 kilometers) to the equator. When the Japanese attacked, Guam fell. After a bitter campaign, American forces won it back in 1944. The Navy made Guam into a major air base.
\par \tab In 1950 Guam was made a United States territory. It is now self-governing, and in 1970 the governorship became an elected, rather than appointed, office. Population (1990 estimate), 134,000.\par \tab Of the seven nations in Central America, Guatemala is by most measures the most important. It contains one third of the region's population and surpasses other Central American countries in commerce and manufacturing. With more than 1 million inhabitants, its capital city--also called Guatemala--is by far the largest urban center in Central America. That Guatemala was equally distinguished before the arrival of the Spanish is revealed by the widespread distribution of major Mayan archaeological sites.
\par \tab Bordering on Mexico, Guatemala is the westernmost nation in Central America. To the east lie Belize, Honduras, and El Salvador, and a narrow strip of land faces the Caribbean Sea. Guatemala's southern boundary is marked by the Pacific Ocean. With the greatest distance of 275 miles (443 kilometers) from north to south and 250 miles (402 kilometers) from east to west, this compact nation contains more than 40,000 square miles (100,000 square kilometers).
\par {\b Land and Climate}
\par \tab The highly varied landscape of Guatemala is oriented from east to west. The southern third is of volcanic origin. An imposing row of active and dormant volcanoes starts at the Mexican border and extends southeastward into El Salvador. The 13,845-foot (4,220-meter) volcano Tajumulco is the highest peak in Central America. Lakes Atitlßn and Amatitlßn add to the spectacular beauty of this landscape. To the south of the volcanic row is a narrow Pacific coastal plain known for its rich volcanic soils.
\par \tab An older volcanic plateau lies to the north of the geologically more recent volcanic peaks. It averages about 5,000 feet (1,500 meters) in elevation, though a higher area known as Los Altos occupies the more western part.
\par \tab Within the volcanic landscapes of southern Guatemala are located seven of the country's eight largest cities. The nation's economic activity is also concentrated there.
\par \tab Across the central portion of Guatemala, mountain ridges and valleys extend side by side from Mexico eastward into Belize and Honduras. To the west the Cuchumatanes range provides the most extensive area above 10,000 feet (3,000 meters) in Central America. Eastward are the lower ranges of the Chuacus, Chama, and Las Minas.
\par \tab The central ranges and valleys possess forest and mineral resources, but they remain isolated and sparsely populated. The Motagua River flows through one of the major eastern valleys and provides a convenient passageway from Guatemala City to the port of Puerto Barrios on the Caribbean.
\par \tab The northern third of Guatemala is known as the PetΘn. This area is remote and sparsely populated with little access by way of roads.
\par \tab Most of the PetΘn is covered with thin limestone soils that are poorly suited for agriculture. The area is heavily forested and well known for its magnificent Mayan ruins.
\par \tab Although the Caribbean shoreline and most of the PetΘn receive rainfall throughout the year, Guatemala is characterized by a wet and dry climate. Rains occur between May and November. The remainder of the year is dry. Nevertheless, the mountains contribute to wide extremes in rainfall as well as temperatures. Along the southern volcanic slopes facing the Pacific Ocean and the northern flanks of the Cuchumatanes, rainfall may total 150 inches (380 centimeters) annually. Flanked by high mountains, Motagua Valley receives less than 20 inches (50 centimeters).
\par \tab Low-lying coastal plains are hot. Guatemala City, at 5,000 feet (1,500 meters), has mild temperatures throughout the year and is sometimes called the land of "eternal spring." Above 8,000 feet (2,400 meters) in Los Altos and in the Cuchumatanes, temperatures are cool, averaging 60░ F (16░ C) throughout the year.
\par \tab Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and tropical storms--hurricanes and rainstorms known as temporales--have repeatedly dealt deathly blows to the people and economy of Guatemala. In 1902 an earthquake destroyed the city of Quezaltenango, and the eruption of the volcano Santa Marφa destroyed coffee farms and killed and left homeless thousands of people. In 1917 Guatemala City was partially destroyed. It was badly damaged by another earthquake that killed 23,000 persons throughout Guatemala in 1976.
\par {\b Plant and Animal Life}
\par \tab Forests and woodlands cover about a quarter of the country. These are concentrated in the PetΘn of northern Guatemala and the high ranges of the central region. In southern Guatemala forests tend to be restricted to higher elevations of the volcanic uplands.
\par \tab Oak and pine forests are found at higher elevations. Tropical rainforests are largely in the lowlands of the north. Except for mangrove swamps along the shoreline, natural vegetation is nearly nonexistent on the Pacific coastal plain. Although there is a program of reforestation, slopes continue to be cleared as migrant farmers search out crop land.
\par \tab Forests are sources of charcoal, firewood, and lumber. Spanish cedar and mahogany provide fine woods for cabinetmaking. The sacred ceiba, which yields the fiber kapok, is the national tree.
\par \tab Wildlife habitats are destroyed as forests are cleared. For this reason it is primarily in the northern regions that jaguars, monkeys, parrots, and other wildlife are still found. The brightly feathered quetzal is the national bird of Guatemala.
\par \tab Although inland waters, lagoons, and the bordering seas contain abundant supplies of marine life, commercial fishing is not well developed. Champerico serves as the main Pacific port for the shrimp fleet.
\par {\b People and Culture}
\par \tab When the Spanish arrived in Guatemala in 1524, they found a dense population organized into a number of small kingdoms. Within a century after the Spanish conquest, the population declined from about 2 million to 300,000, where it remained until the late 1700s. Thereafter the population grew slowly, finally returning to 2 million during the early 1930s.
\par \tab Of the 8 million people in Guatemala today, nearly two thirds live in rural areas. With the current high birthrate, there will be 12 million people by the year 2000. Guatemalans are flooding into cities. Nearly 1.5 million dwell in the metropolitan area of the modern and bustling capital, Guatemala City.
\par \tab Throughout the country there is a strong contrast between old and new. In Guatemala City there are skyscrapers, supermarkets, and streets crowded with cars and buses. In nearby Antigua, a favorite attraction for tourists, its past is reflected in cobblestone streets, colonial churches, and one-story buildings with white walls and red tile roofs. In Los Altos the city of Totonicapßn was constructed according to Spanish colonial city plans, but crude whitewashed adobe huts, colorful costumes, and an open-air market where Indians speak in a Mayan dialect are reminders of the contributions of an older Indian culture.
\par \tab While Indians have a diet mostly of corn and beans, Ladinos (Westernized citizens) are more likely to consume wheat and meat. Although Protestantism is making inroads, Roman Catholicism is the dominant religion. Among Indians ancient non-Christian traditions are incorporated into their Catholic faith. Spanish is the official language of the country, but many Indians speak their native dialects.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab More than half of all workers are employed in farming, but agriculture only contributes 25 percent to the nation's income. This is explained by the fact that many farmers practice subsistence agriculture--producing corn and beans for household use.
\par \tab The creation of coffee and banana plantations between 1860 and 1918 was the first attempt to establish commercial agriculture in Guatemala on a large scale. After World War II commercial farming expanded into the raising of cotton, sugar, and livestock. Except for bananas, which are produced in the lower Motagua Valley near the Caribbean, most major commercial agricultural activities are concentrated along the Pacific coast and the lower, southern volcanic slopes.
\par \tab Guatemala has a relatively advanced manufacturing sector, one of the most developed in Central America. Industry and manufacturing involve a wide range of activities carried on in both modern and old ways. Sugar may be processed in large factories called centrales or in primitive family mills known as trapiches. Plastic and metal kitchenware is made in factories in Guatemala City, but pots and tableware are also made of clay in Indian villages. Craft activities include making crude wooden furniture, textiles, grinding stones, candles, and other items for wear or household use. Tires, pharmaceutical and petroleum products, beverages, fabrics, clothing, and other consumer goods are produced in modern factories--usually in larger centers such as Guatemala City, Quezaltenango, or Escuintla. Manufacturing has grown rapidly since 1960, when the markets of other Central American nations were opened to the exports of Guatemala.
\par \tab Although minerals are present in the central mountain ranges of Guatemala, the mining of lead, zinc, or silver has never been significant. Antimony, copper, nickel, and tungsten are also mined. Petroleum fields came into production in the PetΘn in 1978. Output remains small, and petroleum is a major import.
\par \tab Until 1950 the value of coffee and bananas made up 90 percent of Guatemalan exports. Thereafter rapid increases in the production and export of cotton, sugar, beef, and manufactured products led to a decrease in the reliance on coffee and bananas, whose share has dropped to a third of all exports.
\par \tab Imports of machinery, transportation equipment, and construction materials come primarily from the United States, other Central American nations, Western Europe, and Japan. Most of the petroleum comes from Venezuela, some by way of refineries in the Netherlands Antilles.
\par \tab During the 1970s Guatemala made significant economic progress. During the 1980s depressed prices for its exports, internal political struggles, and the loss of tourist trade led to increased unemployment, inflation, and a decline in the value of goods and services produced within the country.
\par {\b Transportation, Communication, and Education}
\par \tab Between 1880 and 1930 railroads were constructed to carry coffee and bananas to seaports for export. Since 1950 the spread of a paved highway network has resulted in a sharp decline in rail freight and passenger traffic. Some rail lines have been abandoned, but Guatemala City is still linked by rail to the ports of San JosΘ on the Pacific and Puerto Barrios on the Caribbean.
\par \tab The road network is concentrated in the more heavily populated area of southern Guatemala. The Inter-American Highway, crossing the volcanic plateau, is a major east-west route linking Quezaltenango and Guatemala City. It is paralleled by a Pacific coast highway that runs from Mexico to the El Salvador border. These two highways are linked by numerous roads that wind through the chain of volcanoes. Good roads also lead to ports on the Pacific and the Caribbean. The road to the PetΘn is not paved and is not always passable. Today there are 486 miles (782 kilometers) of railroad in service and about 11,200 miles (18,000 kilometers) of roads, of which fewer than 3,000 miles (4,800 kilometers) are paved. Most of the people use bus transportation.
\par \tab Guatemala's two international airports are in Guatemala City and in Santa Elena PetΘn. With the improvement in highways, commercial air flights within the country have become limited to those between the capital and the PetΘn. All foreign trade that is carried by sea passes through the ports of Matias de Gßlvez and Puerto Barrios on the Caribbean and San JosΘ and Champerico along the Pacific.
\par \tab Major television stations and newspapers are all concentrated in Guatemala City. Telephone and telegraph service is operated by the government.
\par \tab About 60 percent of Guatemalans over the age of 15 can read and write. In general, Ladinos living in cities are more literate than rural Indians, and men are more likely to be able to read and write than are women. Schools through at least the third grade are generally available for all children, and primary education is compulsory. Educational supplies are limited, however, and many parents cannot afford them. Attendance is poor among Indian children because they are needed to tend fields or work at home.
\par \tab Only a third of school-age children attend classes at the secondary level. There are five universities in Guatemala City. The national University of San Carlos has an enrollment of nearly 50,000 students, the largest of any university in Central America.
\par {\b Government}
\par \tab Guatemala is made up of 22 departments divided into municipios, or townships. The president and vice-president are directly elected for a single five-year term, and the president is responsible for appointing departmental governors. Leaders of military revolts are prohibited from holding office.
\par \tab A new constitution came into effect in 1986 that divides the government into legislative, judicial, and executive branches. The single legislative house, the National Congress, is made up of 116 members. The ultimate judicial authority is the Supreme Court.
\par {\b History}
\par \tab When the Spanish forces under Pedro de Alvarado invaded Guatemala in 1524, they defeated the armies of three major kingdoms: the QuichΘ, the Cakchiquel, and the Mam. A capital city, today known as Ciudad Vieja, was founded in a basin between the volcanoes of Agua and Fuego. It was destroyed in 1551 by a mudslide down the slopes of Agua.
\par \tab Transferred to a nearby valley, a new city now known as Antigua was established. It became the capital of the Audiencia, or Kingdom, of Guatemala, which included the neighboring Mexican province of Chiapas and all of Central America except Panama.
\par \tab The city of Antigua was repeatedly damaged by earthquakes during the colonial period. In 1773 a severe earthquake left many of the churches and other buildings in ruins. It was determined that the capital should be moved to the safer location of present-day Guatemala City.
\par \tab The Kingdom of Guatemala joined Mexico in declaring its independence from Spain in 1821. In 1824 Guatemala was governed as a member of the United Provinces of Central America. In 1839 Guatemala declared its independence from the Central American federal union.
\par \tab Between 1839 and 1944 the control of government in Guatemala shifted back and forth between conservative and liberal forces. Four long-term dictatorships ruled for a total of 73 years during this period. Under Rafael Carrera between 1839 and 1865, the power of landowners and the church was confirmed, but Indians were generally permitted to rule their own lives. Under Justo Rufino Barrios from 1873 to 1885, the power of the church was greatly curtailed.
\par \tab Manuel Estrada Cabrera's rule from 1898 to 1920 proved to be very harsh for Indians. Foreign investment led to the expansion of railroads and the establishment of banana plantations by the United Fruit Company. Jorge Ubico, who governed between 1931 and 1944, continued the tradition of tight and sometimes harsh political control; but he attempted to lessen the burdens previously imposed upon the Indians.
\par \tab From the mid-1940s to the early 1990s there was a succession of governments. Following the election of liberals Juan JosΘ ArΘvalo in 1945 and Jacobo Arbenz Guzmßn in 1950, there occurred an uprising in 1954 against a government that was accused of being infiltrated by Communists. Carlos Castillo Armas, who led the uprising, became president and was followed in office by a succession of military leaders or civilians under their control. Since 1954 Guatemala has been caught up in a civil war between conservative and liberal forces. Many thousands of civilians have been killed, and tens of thousands have fled to Mexico and elsewhere. Jorge Serrano Elφas was elected president in a 1991 runoff. It was the first time in Guatemalan history that a civilian succeeded a civilian.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by Oscar H. Horst, Professor Emeritus of Geography, Western Michigan University.\par \tab Until it became independent in 1958, the Republic of Guinea was the overseas territory of French Guinea in the Federation of French West Africa. It lies north of the equator on the Atlantic coast of West Africa. Guinea has 200 miles (320 kilometers) of coastline between Guinea-Bissau and Sierra Leone. It is also bordered by Senegal, Mali, C⌠te d'Ivoire, and Liberia. It has an area of nearly 95,000 square miles (246,000 square kilometers).
\par {\b Land and People}
\par \tab Guinea has four distinct geographic regions. A narrow coastal plain borders the Atlantic Ocean. It has an average annual rainfall of 170 inches (432 centimeters), and the average temperature at Conakry, the capital, is 79░ F (26░ C). The Fouta Djallon plateau, which has elevations of more than 3,000 feet (900 meters), makes up more than half of the country's area. It is cooler and drier than the coastal plain. The sandstone plateau is crossed by deep river valleys that contain rich agricultural lands and have a potential for producing hydroelectric power. Northern Guinea is a relatively dry, hot lowland that includes the plains of the Niger River. Along the Liberian border, highlands covered by tropical forests rise to 5,748 feet (1,752 meters) at Mount Nimba. The headwaters of the Niger River are in these highlands.
\par \tab The major ethnic groups are the Fulani, Muslims who raise livestock in northern Guinea and make up nearly 39 percent of the population; the Malinke, farmers on the Fouta Djallon plateau who make up 23 percent; and the Susu, also farmers, who make up 11 percent. About 85 percent of the people are Muslim and 1.5 percent Christian. In addition to the official language of French, eight official national languages are taught in the schools.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab Agriculture is the mainstay of the economy. It employs 76 percent of the labor force and produces 28 percent of the national income. The principal staple crops are paddy rice, cassavas, sweet potatoes, yams, and corn (maize). Guinea imports approximately one third of its annual food grain requirements. Large herds of cattle, sheep, and goats also are raised for domestic use. The major cash crops are bananas, coffee, pineapples, oil palms, groundnuts, and citrus fruits. Timber resources are used mainly for fuel.
\par \tab The mineral wealth includes large deposits of high-grade bauxite, iron ore, and diamonds. Bauxite is mined at Fria, where the ore is converted to aluminum, and at BokΘ, from which it is shipped to Kamsar for refining. Bauxite is Guinea's principal export. Iron ore from the Kaloum peninsula, near Conakry, and high-grade deposits at Mount Nimba are being developed. The government has joined with international partners for mineral development. Offshore exploration for petroleum has not been successful.
\par \tab Guinea has about 17,650 miles (28,400 kilometers) of roads, 95 percent of which are unpaved, and some 400 miles (650 kilometers) of railways. A narrow-gauge line links Conakry with Kankan, and a heavy-gauge line links BokΘ with a deepwater port at Kamsar. Conakry, with about 705,000 people, is the capital and largest urban center. Kankan, which also is a major port, LabΘ, and BokΘ are major towns.
\par {\b History and Government}
\par \tab Guinea was a French colony until 1946, when it was made an overseas territory in the Federation of French West Africa. The Guineans became French citizens but had their own territorial assembly as well as representation in the French National Assembly. In 1957 the territory held its first general election with universal suffrage. Both Africans and Europeans were on a single election roll.
\par \tab Guinea gained full independence in a unique way. Voters rejected the new French constitution submitted to the territories in a referendum on Sept. 28, 1958. All other French West African territories voted to become members of the French Community. On October 2 the Territorial Assembly proclaimed an independent Republic of Guinea. It drafted a constitution and elected SΘkou TourΘ as the first president. TourΘ had been secretary general of the Democratic party of Guinea, which was established as the country's only political party.
\par \tab Under the constitution the 150 members of the one-house National Assembly have been elected by universal suffrage for five-year terms and the president for a seven-year term. TourΘ--known as the Elephant for his toughness--was the only candidate in the first four presidential elections. He died on March 26, 1984. On April 5 the army overthrew the government and the Military Committee for National Recovery took official control. The constitution was suspended, the National Assembly dissolved, and political organizations banned.
\par \tab The officers who led the coup--Lansana ContΘ and Diarra TraorΘ--became the president and the prime minister. In the power struggle that ensued between them, President ContΘ abolished the post that TraorΘ held. On July 4, 1984, while ContΘ was out of the country, TraorΘ led an unsuccessful military coup. Associates of both TourΘ and TraorΘ were sentenced to death in 1987. In January 1991 ContΘ dissolved the Military Committee and appointed a Transitional Committee to lead Guinea to democracy within five years. Population (1993 estimate), 7,418,000.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab Gary L. Fowler\par \tab When the former colony of Portuguese Guinea won its independence in 1974 after more than ten years of warfare, it became the Republic of Guinea-Bissau. It is a poor, small, West African nation covering an area of 13,948 square miles (36,125 square kilometers). The Bijag≤s Archipelago, lying off the coast to the southwest, forms part of the country. Guinea-Bissau is bounded on the north by Senegal, on the east and south by Guinea, and on the west by the Atlantic Ocean. The capital is Bissau.
\par \tab Although small, the country can be divided into three regions: coastal lowlands, the interior plain, and the northeastern highlands. Rainfall is highest along the coast, averaging 100 inches (254 centimeters) per year. It diminishes to less than 50 inches (130 centimeters) in the highlands. In the coastal area tropical crops such as sugarcane and rice are raised. In the savannas, or grasslands, of the interior there are dryland crops such as millet, sorghum, and cotton.
\par \tab The four major ethnic groups in the population are the Balante, Fulani, Mandyako, and Malinke. The official language is Portuguese, but Crioulo, a mixture of Portuguese and national dialects, is spoken throughout the country. More than half of the population practices traditional religions, but many others practice Islam.
\par \tab Guinea-Bissau is underdeveloped. About 52 percent of national production comes from agriculture, which employs more than 70 percent of the labor force. Because the country is located in the Sahel region, an undependable area for agriculture, crop production depends on uncertain amounts of rainfall. The leading crops are rice and various fruits. Others include peanuts, cassavas, sugarcane, bananas (plaintains), sweet potatoes, and coconuts. Most grains must be imported. Livestock is raised by the Balante nomads. Cattle, pigs, sheep, and goats are the principal animals, but most dairy products must be imported.
\par \tab Since forest covers about 38 percent of the land, wood is the most common fuel. Much lumber is also used for industrial purposes, and some is exported.
\par \tab The main industry is food processing, especially of fish, palm oil, copra, palm kernels, shelled peanuts, and peanut oil. There is some textile and clothing manufacturing, automobile assembly, and the making of beer, rum, and soft drinks. Nuts and frozen fish are the country's top exports.
\par \tab The poor performance of the economy has led to a variety of social ills. Health conditions are among the worst in the world. Illiteracy is extremely high.
\par \tab Although Portugal had long claimed it, control over the colony was not achieved until 1915. Resistance to Portuguese rule erupted in 1961, and independence was won in 1974.
\par \tab Guinea-Bissau was a socialist dictatorship until May 1991, when the parliament legalized opposition parties, ending 17 years of one-party rule. Under a new constitution in 1984 the Council of State replaced the Revolutionary Council that had taken over the country four years earlier. The military coup was staged in protest against provisions of the 1980 constitution that promoted Cape Verde domination of its projected unification with Guinea-Bissau. The leader of the coup, Joπo Bernardo Vieira, became head of state. Population (1993 estimate), 1,036,000.\par \tab Although located in northern South America, Guyana is culturally and historically tied closely to the former British colonies of the Caribbean. Guyana was known as the colony of British Guiana until 1966, when it received full political independence.
\par {\b Land}
\par \tab The country covers about 83,000 square miles (215,000 square kilometers). Most of Guyana inland from the coastal zone is forested with a rainy tropical climate. Georgetown, Guyana's capital city, has an average annual rainfall of 90 inches (230 centimeters).
\par \tab West Indians often refer to the Guyanese as mudlanders because more than 90 percent of the residents inhabit the country's narrow, wet, sea-level, coastal plain. The mud and silt that make up the coastal zone are brought from the mouth of the Amazon River by an equatorial ocean current. The resulting soils support the cultivation of rice, sugarcane, and other crops in the villages and plantations.
\par \tab Nearly every coastal community has a seawall to prevent ocean flooding at high tide, and every village and plantation is crossed by numerous drainage and irrigation canals. Traveling the extent of the coastal plain involves crossing, on large public boats, the sizable rivers that divide the mudlands. The Essequibo, Demerara, and Berbice rivers, for which Guyana's three counties are named, all flow northward from the southern highlands into the Atlantic Ocean.
\par \tab Guyana's backlands are hilly and forested. The country's highest mountain, Mount Roraima at 9,094 feet (2,772 meters), is at the point where the boundaries of Guyana, Venezuela, and Brazil come together. Valuable tropical hardwoods from the back country form the basis of the Guyanese timber industry.
\par \tab In the extreme southwestern part of the country lie the Rupununi savannas, an area of tropical grasses. A few thousand Amerindians, descendants of Guyana's first human inhabitants, herd cattle in the region. Jaguars, giant anteaters, and tapirs (which are pig-size plant eaters distantly related to the elephant) are among the animals native to the Guyanese rainforest.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab Guyana's population is about 837,000. Georgetown, the country's only real city, has about 200,000 people when its suburban zones are included. Although Guyanese birth rates are high, especially among the rural Indians, Guyana's population has not increased greatly in recent decades. Thousands of Guyanese, along with other West Indians, have left--mainly for London during the 1950s and early 1960s and to the New York City and Toronto areas since the mid-1960s.
\par \tab Guyana's ethnic groups are economically and environmentally distinct. The largest group, numbering slightly more than half of the population, are the East Indians. They are descended from the 240,000 laborers brought to Guyana from India between 1838 and 1917 as sugarcane estate workers. Their descendants now dominate the country's coastal village areas, where they produce rice--Guyana's principal foodcrop--as well as a variety of other tropical crops and livestock. They are also the most numerous among the sugarcane estate workers. Semi-refined sugar is the principal agricultural export of Guyana.
\par \tab The Georgetown area is dominated by black Afro-Guyanese, whose ancestors were African slaves brought by the Dutch and the British. After gaining their freedom in 1838, black freedmen established independent farming villages on the coastal plain, but there has been a steady drift of Guyanese blacks from the countryside to Georgetown ever since. Guyanese blacks comprise somewhat more than one third of the population. They are mainly laborers, government workers, policemen, and teachers.
\par \tab Georgetown also has small Chinese and Portuguese communities. These groups, along with small numbers of others, are involved in shopkeeping and in businesses such as banking and insurance.
\par \tab With several motion picture theaters, Georgetown is Guyana's entertainment and communications center. The country's two newspapers and two radio stations are located in Georgetown and are controlled by the government. There is no television.
\par \tab Timehri international airport is 30 miles (50 kilometers) south of Georgetown on a paved highway. There are daily flights from Guyana to the West Indies, North America, and England.
\par \tab Farther south from Georgetown along the Demerara River in a slightly elevated, sandy zone is Linden, Guyana's principal mining center. Bauxite, or aluminum ore, produced in the area, is the chief export. Almost all of the miners are black. Some manganese is produced, and small quantities of gold and diamonds are mined in the Guyanese backlands.
\par \tab Primary education in Guyana is compulsory. In 1976 the government assumed responsibility for all education, some of which had been church-supported. Although the village schools are crowded and ill-equipped by modern standards, Guyanese education has produced a population in which more than 80 percent of the people can read and write. The University of Guyana is at Turkeyen, east of Georgetown.
\par \tab Christianity and Hinduism are the main religions. Islam is the religion of about 20 percent of the country's rural Indians.
\par {\b History and Government}
\par \tab Carib- and Arawak-speaking Indians probably were Guyana's first human inhabitants. The swamps and forests of the coastal zone inspired explorers to refer to the region as "the wild coast," and European settlement came comparatively late. The Dutch established upriver settlements in the 17th century. In the following decades Dutch planters imported African slaves and began to move their plantations downriver to take advantage of the fertility of the coastal soils. By the early 19th century, Dutch and British planters--using European water-control technology and an African labor force--were reclaiming polders, or large blocks of coastal land along the shoreline. The three Dutch colonies of Essequibo, Berbice, and Demerara passed into British hands in 1814.
\par \tab After the British freed the slaves in 1838, indentured Indians were brought to Guyana to help do the plantation work. Smaller numbers of indentured Chinese and Portuguese came as well, all contributing to Guyana's present diversity of peoples. The formation of labor unions in the early 20th century prepared the way for greater measures of local political autonomy. Local self-government emerged in 1953, and independence was granted in 1966.
\par \tab Guyana's first two decades of nationhood were marked by bitter political strife between its two principal ethnic elements. The People's National Congress (PNC) is the black, urban political party, which was led by Forbes Burnham, a lawyer trained in London, until his death in 1985. The People's Progressive party (PPP), the party of the rural East Indians, was headed by Cheddi Jagan, a dentist who attended Northwestern University in Evanston, Ill. The PNC first came to power in 1964 as part of a coalition government, and it won later elections amid widespread accusations of vote fraud and corruption.
\par \tab The nation has been troubled economically as well. The PNC government nationalized local bauxite holdings--formerly held by a Canadian company--in 1971 and the sugar industry--formerly owned by the British--in 1976. Mismanagement and external market problems led the Guyanese government to declare the country bankrupt in 1982. Severe currency restrictions were instituted, and imports were reduced. Serious food shortages are a recurring problem in Georgetown. Guyana's difficulties are compounded by long-standing territorial disputes with Venezuela to the west and Suriname to the east.
\par \tab A tragedy that was sensationalized by the press of the world occurred in Jonestown in 1978. In it 900 members of a United States religious community committed mass suicide in a Guyanese settlement only a few miles from the Venezuelan border.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab Bonham C. Richardson\par \tab Located in the Caribbean Sea, Haiti covers an area of 10,360 square miles (26,832 square kilometers) and occupies the western third of Hispaniola, the second largest island of the Antilles. It shares the island with the Dominican Republic, but the two neighbors have little in common. Haiti's population of about 7 million has French and African cultural roots and lives in an overpopulated environment that is mainly barren and impoverished. Haiti is the second oldest republic in the Western Hemisphere, after the United States.
\par {\b Land and Climate}
\par \tab Haiti possesses some of the most rugged terrain of the Caribbean islands. Its mountain systems and the parallel ribbons of lowland that separate them are oriented in an east-west trend. To the north there is the Massif du Nord, which belongs to the main mountain backbone of Hispaniola (called the Cordillera Central in the Dominican Republic). To the south there is a long and relatively narrow mountainous peninsula formed by the Massif de la Hotte and Massif de la Selle. The latter contains the country's highest peak, Pic La Selle, 8,793 feet (2,680 meters) above sea level. Between the mountain regions, central Haiti is characterized by alternating uplands (Chaine des Mateux and Montagnes Noires) and lowlands (the Cul de Sac, the valley of the river Artibonite, and the Plaine Centrale). The nation's capital, Port-au-Prince, is located in the Cul de Sac depression. In the northeast around Cap-Ha∩tien there is a patch of lowland called the Plaine du Nord.
\par \tab The complexity of terrain is matched by a wide variety of climatic conditions. Tropical conditions resulting from the low latitude of between 17░ and 20░ N. are modified by the trade winds, the surrounding ocean, and high elevations. In most areas, however, temperatures are moderately high and vary little from season to season. Rainfall is normally higher on mountain slopes that receive the northeasterly trade winds and decreases on leeward slopes and in the major valleys, especially in the Cul de Sac and the Artibonite Valley. The lowlands of central Haiti are so dry that fields must be irrigated for crops. Prolonged droughts in 1965, 1975, 1977, and 1980 affected coffee and sugar exports and led to a severe food shortage. Hurricanes also had a devastating effect on Haitian agriculture in 1979 and 1980. Earthquakes are another hazard. Port-au-Prince was destroyed twice in the 18th century, and Cap-Ha∩tien had a similar fate in 1842.
\par {\b Plant and Animal Life}
\par \tab Haiti was once almost entirely covered with pine, hardwood, and mixed pine-hardwood forests, but fire, uncontrolled cutting, and the conversion of woodland to agriculture destroyed most of the trees. Firewood is still the principal source of energy. Some pines, mahogany, cedar, and rosewood still exist in the humid upper mountain ranges. There are also wild varieties of coffee, cacao, and coconut trees with many native tropical fruits, including avocado, orange, lime, and mango. The vegetation of subhumid areas such as the Artibonite Valley is generally savanna with scattered palms. The Cul de Sac and other arid zones are characterized by cactus and thorn scrub. Many species of insects are found, but there are no large mammals or poisonous snakes. Ducks, guinea hens, flamingos, and wild pigeons are common.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab With a population density of about 666 persons per square mile (257 per square kilometer), Haiti is one of the most densely populated nations in the world. Opportunities for employment are scarce, and nearly 80 percent of the people still live in the countryside. Like the capital cities of most Third World nations, however, Port-au-Prince has grown rapidly and now has about a million inhabitants, many in shanty towns surrounding the city. Other major towns are Cap-Ha∩tien, Gona∩ves, Les Cays, and Jeremie.
\par \tab The inhabitants of Haiti are descendants of African slaves brought by French colonists to grow sugar in the 17th and 18th centuries. Ten percent still speak French, and most are nominally Roman Catholics, but the culture retains African roots. Ninety percent speak a Creole patois that is basically a mixture of French, Spanish, and English. Most Haitians practice voodoo, a combination of African and Roman Catholic beliefs that involves rituals of dance, music, magic, and cults of the dead.
\par \tab The staple elements of the diet are corn, cassavas, millet, rice, and fruits. As the average annual income of rural Haitians is less than 100 dollars, people rarely eat meat, fish, or eggs. Malnutrition among the rural poor is high, and malaria, tuberculosis, and hepatitis are endemic. Most physicians live in Port-au-Prince, resulting in a ratio of only one for every 30,000 rural inhabitants. The rate of literacy is 39 percent. For every teacher in the countryside there are 550 school-age children, and only 5 percent of those who begin school complete primary studies.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab Haiti is the poorest country in the Western Hemisphere. The economy is heavily dependent on farming, which employs 60 percent of the labor force. Only 30 percent of the territory is considered suitable for cultivation, but population growth has forced many farmers to occupy marginal areas, and about half of the land is actually in agriculture. Ever since the French sugar plantations were destroyed in the struggle for independence, Haitian agriculture has been carried out mainly on small peasant farms that become increasingly fragmented through inheritance. Cultivation is principally by hand, using such simple tools as hoes or machetes. Few farmers can afford fertilizers or insecticides. The low productivity is not keeping up with the annual population growth rate of 1.7 percent, and at least 15 percent of food requirements is imported. The entire population of pigs was destroyed in 1983 by African swine fever.
\par \tab The principal cash crops are coffee, sugar, sisal, and essential oils. Coffee generates a third of Haiti's income from exports. Sugar production has fallen dramatically because of growing local consumption and the production of rum.
\par \tab The industrial sector is small and concentrated in Port-au-Prince. There are a few medium-sized factories, which produce cement, vegetable oil, flour, refined sugar, canned goods, and matches. The most significant development from the 1960s has been the rapid growth of light industry, which produces at least 25 percent of Haiti's export revenues. More than 200 foreign companies have been attracted to Haiti by the low cost of labor, the absence of employment legislation, and exemption from taxes. Most light industries specialize in the labor-intensive assembly of components shipped from the United States to produce sports goods, clothing, toys, and electrical goods. Haiti's industry now employs 7 percent of the labor force. Additional revenue once came from bauxite mines, but resources are exhausted, and the aluminum company closed its Haitian plant in 1983. Another major source of income, the tourist industry, has had severe difficulties since 1980.
\par \tab The nation's road system consists of 2,000 miles (3,200 kilometers) of main roads, of which only 20 percent are paved. Most unpaved roads are impassable in the rainy season, and produce for local markets is largely transported by burro or by humans.
\par {\b History}
\par \tab Christopher Columbus made his first landing in 1492 on an island in The Bahamas, but the first part of America to be settled by the Spaniards was Hispaniola. At that time there were more than a million native inhabitants on the island. Within 50 years most had died from overwork in the gold mines, lack of food, and epidemics of such European diseases as measles and smallpox. This is why there is no significant indigenous population in present-day Haiti and the Dominican Republic. The gold that could be obtained using 16th-century placer-mining techniques was exhausted by 1530, and Spain lost interest in Hispaniola with the discoveries of Mexico and Peru. The Spaniards who remained on the island turned to cultivating sugarcane, using black slaves brought from Africa.
\par \tab In 1697 Spain ceded the western third of Hispaniola to France. By the end of the 18th century, the new French possession, known as St-Domingue, was one of the world's richest colonies, producing vast quantities of sugar and cotton. Of its 524,000 inhabitants, 88 percent were African slaves. France eventually gained control of the whole island in 1795.
\par \tab After many futile revolts, the black population united in 1798 under Toussaint-Louverture, a freed slave. Captured by trickery, Toussaint died in a French prison, but his successor, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, "The Tiger," drove out the French in 1803. In 1804 Dessalines proclaimed the colony's independence and massacred almost all the remaining white inhabitants. The plantations, sugar mills, irrigation works, and roads fell into ruins.
\par \tab In 1806 Dessalines was assassinated and was succeeded by his general in chief, Henry Christophe. Declaring himself emperor, Christophe attempted to reconstruct the ravaged country. His ornate palace of Sans Souτi near Cap-Ha∩tien and his vast citadel, though now in ruins, are marvels of massive masonry. After Christophe's suicide, a succession of military despots seized power.
\par \tab By 1915, revolutions and banditry had reduced Haiti to misery. Under the Monroe Doctrine, the United States Marines intervened, remaining until 1934. In 1957 Franτois Duvalier was elected president. He became a dictator, enforcing a reign of terror with his secret police, the Tontons Macoutes, until his death in April 1971. During his dictatorship, Haiti's already weak economy deteriorated even more. Extreme poverty caused civil unrest.
\par \tab In 1971 the Haitians voted to approve Duvalier's 19-year-old son, Jean-Claude, as his successor. The Tontons Macoutes continued to terrorize the population, and corruption was rampant among public officials. Annual per capita income was less than 350 dollars. In July 1985 Duvalier held a fraudulent election that showed him with 99 percent of the popular vote. Anti-Duvalier riots broke out in several towns, and he and his family fled Haiti in February 1986.
\par \tab For the next four years Haiti was ruled by its generals, except for the six-month presidency of Leslie Manigat in 1988. He was deposed by General Henri Namphy in June 1988. Namphy was ousted in September by General Prosper Avril, who held power until forced to resign in March 1990 because of antigovernment protests. Supreme Court Justice Ertha Pascal-Trouillot was appointed acting president, becoming the first woman to lead Haiti.
\par \tab In December 1990 Jean-Bertrand Aristide became Haiti's first democratically elected president. He was a defrocked Roman Catholic priest of the Salesian order who had become an ardent Marxist.\par \tab The Republic of Honduras occupies a prominent pivotal position in the seven-country Central America land bridge that connects North and South America. Stretching 175 miles (282 kilometers) across the isthmus from the Caribbean Sea to the Gulf of Fonseca on the Pacific Ocean, Honduras borders Guatemala on the northwest, El Salvador on the southwest, and Nicaragua on the southeast. In area Honduras, with more than 43,000 square miles (112,000 square kilometers), is the second largest country in Central America, only a bit smaller than neighboring Nicaragua.
\par {\b Land and Climate}
\par \tab Throughout western and central Honduras rugged mountains of moderate height, reaching 9,000 feet (2,750 meters) above sea level in a few places, are interspersed with many upland valleys. The mountain ranges are generally from west to east, but some valleys trend northward and southward, as around the 112,000-acre (45,000-hectare) Comayagua Valley of central Honduras. These well-watered zones of little slope have been the most favored sites of human settlement in both aboriginal and modern times.
\par \tab Temperatures in Honduras are not as high as might be expected from its tropical location only 15 to 16 degrees north of the equator. Near the lowland coastal plains the onshore winds are a moderating influence, and the increased elevation of the mountainous interior brings cooler temperatures.
\par \tab The seasons are expressed not so much according to temperatures, as in most of North America, but more according to the distribution of rainfall throughout the year. Between January and May the verano, or dry period, occurs, and invierno, the wet season, extends from June to December. In the Pacific coast lowland departamentos, or departments, of Choluteca and Valle, droughts are occasionally severe.
\par \tab Winds normally flow over the country from the east and northeast toward the west--the famous Trade Winds renowned for their consistency of direction. The strongest winds, those coming with the Caribbean hurricanes, are not a yearly threat, but on occasion a disastrous tropical storm strikes the offshore islands and adjacent mainland lowlands. Fifi, the worst hurricane, passed over the length of the north coast in the fall of 1974, blowing down the banana plants and producing floods and mudslides that destroyed the town of Choloma and left multitudes homeless.
\par \tab Almost all of the major rivers flow into the Caribbean Sea, reflecting the distribution of the highest mountains in the west and the origins of the moisture-laden winds from the east coast. They are the Ul·a, Agußn, Negro, Platano, Patuca, and, on the Nicaragua border, the Rφo Coco, the largest in Central America. The downstream portions of these rivers are navigable to shallow-draft vessels, but upstream from the first rapids only dugout canoes can be used for local travel and commerce. Lake Yojoa, a large highland lake 10 miles (16 kilometers) long, is remarkable for its beautiful mountain landscapes and world-class largemouth bass.
\par \tab Honduras can be partitioned into three grand regions according to physical geography, population composition, and local attitude. The largest of these subdivisions is the western and central highlands, where Spanish-speaking people of Indian-Spanish heritage comprise the bulk of the population. A second large zone in the east is Costa de Mosquitos, or Mosquito Coast, also known as La Mosquitia, which is a region of pine savannas, coastal lowlands, and shallow lagoons. The slight population of less than two persons per square mile (0.8 per square kilometer) is primarily Indian and they are speakers of creole English. A third region is La Costa Norte, the north coast, including the Islas de la Bahφa (Bay Islands) just offshore. Minority cultures make up a considerable proportion of the population. They include the Garφfuna (Black Caribs), the English-speaking Bay Islanders, whose ancestors once occupied the Cayman Islands, and the black English creoles, who have worked the coastal banana plantations.
\par \tab In spite of serious deforestation from the mid-1960s, Honduras remains a wooded land. The central and western highlands are pine covered, and the eastern lowlands and the north coast grow tropical hardwoods. A vibrant forest products industry and the desire to clear lands for pasture often produce conflicts over the best policy for forestry developments. A government agency has the responsibility of overseeing the exploitation and conservation of this major renewable resource.
\par \tab As might be expected in such a lush tropical environment, variation in habitats, as well as plant and animal communities, is enormous. The lands surrounding the mouth and lower course of the Platano River in Mosquitia are designated as a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve, a protected refuge for an unusually diverse plant and animal community.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab Among themselves Hondurans are known affectionately as catrachos. Generally they live concentrated in the central and western upland valleys and along La Costa Norte. Population decreases to the south and east. Almost two thirds of the people live in rural settlements. The largest urban centers are the capital, Tegucigalpa; San Pedro Sula, the center of the industrial and commercial agriculture complex of the lower Ul·a Valley; La Ceiba, home of the former Standard Fruit Company; and Choluteca, the focus of activities in southern Honduras.
\par \tab Perhaps 93 percent of the population can be classified as ladinos or mestizos--Spanish-speaking persons of Indian-Spanish heritage. Another 5 percent come from six Indian groups: Chortφ, Lenca, Tol (Jicaque), Paya, Sumu, and Miskito. While many remnants of the native cultures still exist, very few Honduran Indians retain their original languages.
\par \tab Afro- and Anglo-Antilleans who migrated to Honduras more than 100 years ago from Caribbean islands occupy the north coast and the Bay Islands. The largest component of this community are the Garφfuna, or Black Caribs, who live in 44 coastal villages. Very small groups of German and Middle Eastern ancestry are also prominent in the business activities of the north coast.
\par \tab In the 1970s and 1980s a new population--approximately 50,000 "legal" refugees--arrived in Honduras to escape the civil unrest in surrounding countries. Most are housed by the United Nations in camps relatively near the borders, but numerous uncounted "illegal" refugees are scattered throughout the country. More than 20,000 Salvadoran mestizos live in four camps in western Honduras; a similar number of Miskito and Sumu Indians from Nicaragua are in eastern Honduras.
\par \tab Roman Catholicism is the predominant religion of Honduras. Ornate churches, some dating from the early colonial period, are often found in sparsely settled rural areas.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab The country is normally regarded as the poorest in Central America, but the annual per capita income of about 1,400 lempiras (700 United States dollars) does not reflect the value of the large amount of foodstuffs produced for immediate consumption by the farmer and his family. Honduras was once considered the most typical of the so-called "banana republics" in which foreign investors, especially those associated with large American-owned fruit companies, often attempted to direct the internal affairs of the country. During the first half of the 20th century, bananas by far dominated the export economy. Today agricultural production is more diversified. Foreign fruit companies no longer own and operate the plantations or manage the docks and railways. The north coast towns of Tela, La Ceiba, and Trujillo, which grew because of the fruit company investments and transshipments of bananas, no longer provide the only outlets to shipping abroad. Today Puerto CortΘs is the site of a large new port that serves as the Caribbean terminus of the transisthmian route across the country. Honduras still produces more bananas than any of its Central American neighbors, but coffee, cattle, sugarcane, lumber, tobacco, and seafoods are significant contributors to regional economies.
\par \tab Small-scale agriculture in corn (maize), beans, and rice has long been the major economic activity, but the trend is toward more crop diversification and commercialization. Industrialization has also begun. The leading products are soft drinks, beer, cement, cooking oil, light textiles, seafood, and rum.
\par \tab Tourism has great potential for producing much-desired foreign capital. The clear, warm Caribbean waters are ideal for sport diving, and the coral-sand beaches and climate contribute to a setting favorable for international tourism. The famous Mayan ruins at Copßn, which date from the Classic period of AD 300 to 900, and the well-preserved colonial fort at Omoa attract many visitors.
\par {\b History and Government}
\par \tab Honduras was first brought to the attention of Europeans in 1502 during the fourth and last voyage of Christopher Columbus. He sailed along the north coast and made at least two stops to meet the Indians and to take possession of the land for the Spanish crown. After inspecting the Islas de la Bahφa and stopping at the large protected bay at Trujillo, the little fleet of four ships sailed around the eastern shore into more favorable weather. The exclamation "Gracias a Di≤s!" (Thanks to God) is now the name of the easternmost cape in Honduras.
\par \tab Hernando Cortez, Pedro de Alvarado, and Francisco Montejo were among the early colonial administrators who directed the conquest and settlement by Europeans. The ports of Trujillo and Puerto Caballos were the first centers. As the Spaniards penetrated the interior and subjugated the native Indians, regional towns of Spaniards grew at San Pedro, Gracias, Choluteca, Olancho, and Comayagua, the colonial capital. After the first century more than 100 Spanish-controlled villages had been formed for the purposes of religious conversion and economic tribute. Most of the natives, however, had died. They had no immunities to Old World diseases.
\par \tab Spain organized colonial Honduras primarily for the exportation of gold and silver, but indigo, sarsaparilla, and dyewoods also found their way into European markets. During the 17th and 18th centuries English, French, and Dutch pirates had occasional successes in stealing the colonial produce of the Spaniards.
\par \tab Emerging from the domination of the Spanish in 1821 and withstanding the internal wars of the 1830s, Honduras became one of those Latin American countries that is only now escaping the cycle of frequent disruptive changes in national government. Since 1821 the country has averaged almost one presidential change per year. The United States has often been criticized for interfering in its political affairs.
\par \tab The Honduran army has played a dominant role in the selection of civilian leadership. In the 1980s, however, the armed forces allowed civilian politicians to dominate the government. In 1981 the Liberal party candidate, Roberto Suazo C≤rdova, a physician from a small city, was elected president. The election of 1985 was peaceful, remained unusually democratic, and brought JosΘ Azcona, also a Liberal candidate, to the presidency.
\par \tab Political stability was a critical factor in the completion of such development projects as the El Cajon hydroelectric dam in central Honduras, the opening of new agricultural lands in the lower Agußn Valley, a land entitlement program under the agrarian reform agency, a road-building program, and the construction of schoolhouses in almost all rural communities.
\par \tab In March 1988 the United States sent 3,200 troops to Honduras after it was reported that Nicaraguan forces had crossed into Honduras. The American troops held training exercises but saw no military action. In presidential elections held in November 1989, Rafael Leonardo Callejas of the National party defeated the ruling Liberal party's candidate; he took office on Jan. 27, 1990. For the previous eight years Honduras had been a sanctuary for Nicaraguan rebels opposed to the Sandinista government in that country. The victory of the opposition in Nicaragua's 1990 elections eased the way for the dismantling of the rebel bases in Honduras.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by William V. Davidson, Associate Professor of Geography and Anthropology, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, and author of 'Historical Geography of the Bay Islands, Honduras' (1974).
\par \tab {\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR HONDURAS}
\par \tab Anderson, T.P. The War of the Dispossessed: Honduras and El Salvador (Univ. of Neb. Press, 1981).
\par \tab Berryman, Phillip. Inside Central America (Pantheon, 1985).
\par \tab Newson, Linda. The Cost of Conquest (Westview, 1986).
\par \tab Peckenham, Nancy, and Street, Annie, eds. Honduras: Portrait of a Captive Nation (Praeger, 1985).
\par \tab Rosenberg, M.B., and Shepherd, P.L., eds. Honduras Confronts Its Future (Lynne Rienner, 1986).\par \tab Located on the southeast coast of China at the mouth of the Pearl River delta 80 miles (130 kilometers) southeast of Canton, Hong Kong is centered around one of the world's largest natural deepwater harbors. The congested metropolis is actually several cities that are part of a territory measuring more than 400 square miles (1,000 square kilometers)--Hong Kong Island, the Kowloon peninsula, and the New Territories. The New Territories in turn make up the larger peninsula from which Kowloon extends and more than 230 surrounding islands. Tall mountains rise from the sea and create a topography of rugged beauty and dramatic vistas.
\par \tab The heart of the metropolis is the capital on Hong Kong Island, Victoria, which climbs almost vertical streets halfway up Victoria Peak. Rising to a height of 1,825 feet (556 meters), the top of the peak has most of the territory's few detached houses and mansions. The island shelters the harbor from the South China Sea. Major government buildings and the headquarters of banks and powerful hongs, or commercial trading houses, are located at the foot of the peak in Central Hong Kong Island--on land largely reclaimed from the harbor. The major commercial center is the city of Kowloon directly across the harbor. Most industrial property is in skyscraper "new towns" in the New Territories to the north. Except for the huge island of Lantau, most of the remaining islands are small and sparsely populated. A few have bedroom communities with inhabitants who ferry to work on Hong Kong or Kowloon. A large floating population of boat dwellers dock in the territory's typhoon shelters.
\par \tab Steep terrain has forced about 90 percent of Hong Kong's population to congregate in just 15 percent of the land area, creating the highest population density in the world. With no place to expand but upward, it has some of the world's tallest buildings outside New York City. Much of the territory, however, is uninhabited government parkland, and some of it is still wild. It has many snakes, and the bird population on Hong Kong Island includes a large community of escaped domestic parakeets and their offspring.
\par \tab Hong Kong's tropical latitude produces high temperatures most of the year and a short, mild winter. Spring is extremely wet, often causing dangerous landslides and floods. Autumn is extremely dry. Hill fires have burned entire communities of crowded squatter huts put up by refugees. The most significant weather event is the typhoon season of late summer.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab The major spurt in Hong Kong's population growth was in the latter part of the 1970s, when it swelled from about 4 million to 5 million. This was the result of an influx both from China and from Vietnam following the fall of Saigon in 1975. With little room left and diminishing public resources, the government severely restricted immigration in 1980. By 1990 there were more than 56,000 Vietnamese in Hong Kong; only about 12,000 were considered refugees, awaiting resettlement in a third country. A program of forced repatriation to Vietnam began in 1991.
\par \tab Ninety-eight percent of Hong Kong's population is Chinese--mostly Cantonese. Former Shanghai businessmen, boat people, fishermen, and New Territories farmers represent other Chinese ethnic groups. Britons make up a narrow majority of the non-Chinese, followed by Indians and Americans. Both the Cantonese dialect of Chinese and English are official languages, with English favored in commerce.
\par \tab The violent suppression of the democracy movement in Beijing in June 1989 ended the perception that China would exert only minimal authority after Britain transferred sovereignty in 1997. Thousands of educated professionals were emigrating, at a rate of 1,000 a week in 1990, mostly to the United States, Canada, and Australia. In an effort to keep key job holders in place, Britain offered full passports to 50,000 Hong Kong families to provide them legal refuge in 1997 if they need it. China, however, announced it would not recognize the British passports.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab Hong Kong's international significance accelerated in the second half of the 20th century--not only from the explosive growth of its industry but also from the reemergence of China as a participant in world trade and politics. It is strategically positioned at the center of the most rapidly growing area of the worldthe Pacific rim. A philosophy of free trade and minimal taxes and regulations attracted investment from around the world. Its location in respect to the trading day made it the center of world trading while London and New York City sleep. It is also the gateway for trade with the most populous nation on Earth. China depends on the territory to provide the bulk of its foreign exchange and investment.
\par \tab Hong Kong has no substantial natural resources, and 90 percent of what it needs is imported. Much of its income is from services it provides as a transshipment and warehousing gateway between China and Southeast Asia and the rest of the world. Manufacturing is led by the textile industry, followed by toys and electronics. Hong Kong exports more watches, clocks, and radios than any nation in the world. China and the United States are its major customers.
\par \tab Hong Kong is the shopping, eating, fashion, and entertainment mecca of Asia. It is the movie capital of the world, with more feature films and videos produced in the territory than anywhere else.
\par \tab Hong Kong is one of the world's busiest shipping centers and is upgrading its port facilities with a new airport and container port on an island in the harbor. About 12,000 oceangoing vessels call at the port each year. These and hundreds of Chinese sampans, sailing junks, ferryboats, hydrofoils, and pleasure craft create a bustling and exciting atmosphere.
\par {\b Government and History}
\par \tab Despite problems caused by severe congestion, Hong Kong is one of the world's most efficiently administered territories. A governor is appointed by the British monarch and is advised by an appointed Executive Council and a Legislative Council--both predominantly Western but becoming more Chinese.
\par \tab There is archaeological evidence of settlement as early as the 3rd century BC. A few rural Chinese villages in the New Territories have been inhabited since the 11th century. Before the British flag was placed on Hong Kong Island in 1841 by merchant-adventurers expelled from Canton, the island harbored only a few Chinese pirates, vagabonds, and stonecutters.
\par \tab The Chinese were forced to cede the island to the British in 1842 following their defeat in the First Opium War. According to one legend, the Chinese named the settlement Heung Keung, or "Fragrant Harbor," because of the scent of Indian opium that hovered in the air from the British clipper ships waiting to make their run up the Pearl River to Canton. Beginning with the Taiping Rebellion in 1850, Hong Kong grew rapidly. Civil wars and economic and social changes in China drove various waves of refugees into the territory. At the end of the Second Opium War in 1860, the British forced the Chinese to cede part of the Kowloon peninsula. In 1899 the British took a 99-year lease on the New Territories. China has always considered the agreements to be "unequal treaties."
\par \tab At the outbreak of World War II, Hong Kong was occupied by Japan. The occupation and bombing by the Allies decimated the territory's population.
\par \tab The Communist victory in mainland China in 1949 drove more refugees into Hong Kong, and it became the base for Western "China watchers." Many Chinese lost their lives trying to swim over the border through shark-infested Mirs Bay. In 1963 and 1967 Communist terrorists instigated riots in the territory.
\par \tab With the death of Mao Zedong in 1976, the new Chinese government moved to negotiate a peaceful solution to the "unequal treaties" problem and to arrange a return of the territory to China's jurisdiction at the expiration in 1997 of Britain's 99 year lease of the New Territories. Under the Sino-British Agreement ratified on May 27, 1985, China will resume sovereignty over Hong Kong on July 1, 1997. It will become a Special Administrative Region of China but will maintain autonomy over commercial and domestic affairs for 50 years. A new constitution, called the Basic Law, was approved in 1990. It provides for direct election of up to half of the 60-member Legislative Council but does not guarantee an independent judiciary. Many persons holding foreign passports chose to emigrate by mid-1990. In 1991 Hong Kong held its first direct elections for the Legislative Council in 150 years of British rule. Pro-democracy forces won most of the contested seats. Population (1994 estimate), 5,979,000.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab Francine Modderno\par \tab In the spring of 1989 the Hungarian government symbolically opened its frontier by removing stretches of the barbed wire that formed the Iron Curtain. After more than 40 years of one-party Communist rule and Soviet domination, in October 1989, during a period of broad political and economic liberalization in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, the Hungarian parliament amended its constitution to pave the way for multiparty elections. The country changed its name to the Republic of Hungary and proclaimed itself to be a free democratic republic.
\par {\b Land and Climate}
\par \tab The area of Hungary is 35,921 square miles (93,036 square kilometers). It is bounded on the north by the Czech Republic and Slovakia; on the northeast by Ukraine; on the east by Romania; on the south by Slovenia, Croatia, and Yugoslavia; and on the west by Austria. It is 328 miles (528 kilometers) from east to west and 167 miles (269 kilometers) from north to south.
\par \tab Much of Hungary consists of the Great Alf÷ld, which is part of the Mid-Danube, or Pannonian, Plain. In the northwest a range of low hills separates the Great Alf÷ld from the Little Alf÷ld. In the southwest are the Transdanubian Mountains, and the western edge contains a small part of the Alps. A chain of hills extends along the northern borders. The highest summit is KΘkes Peak in the Mßtra Hills, which reaches 3,330 feet (1,015 meters) in height.
\par \tab The major river is the Danube, which flows for 255 miles (410 kilometers) in Hungarian territory. The Tisza flows from the northeastern corner to the south for 360 miles (580 kilometers). The largest lake is Lake Balaton, about 45 miles (70 kilometers) long and very shallow.
\par \tab The soils of Hungary show considerable variety. The plains contain areas of fertile black-earth and alluvial soils, though some less fertile sandy soils occur in places. The hill country has brown forest soils of medium fertility.
\par \tab The climate is relatively uniform as a result of the flatness of most of the country. It is continental in type, having cold winters and hot summers. In January the whole country has average temperatures below freezing, while in July the plains have average temperatures of over 68░ F (20░ C). Budapest, in the center of Hungary, has an average January temperature of 31░ F (-0.6░ C) and an average July temperature of 72░ F (22.2░ C), with a yearly average of 25 inches (63.5 centimeters) of precipitation.
\par \tab Hungary's resources for industry are modest. Coal is the major energy resource. Black coal is found in the southwest but is not sufficient for domestic requirements. Scattered deposits of brown coal and lignite are located on the flanks of the northern hills. In the west and south small deposits of petroleum and natural gas are found. There is also a natural gas field in the east. Bauxite is the most abundant metallic ore and is exported.
\par {\b Plants and Animals}
\par \tab The natural vegetation of Hungary can be divided into three groups. The Great Alf÷ld was once a grassland with scattered trees, but now most of the trees have vanished. In some areas acacias, oaks, and beeches are found along with brushwood. The main vegetation consists of varieties of grass. In the Transdanubian Mountains beech forests occur. The most densely forested region is the northern ranges of hills, where beeches, oaks, hornbeams, and maples grow.
\par \tab The animals of Hungary include deer, foxes, hares, and squirrels. Wild boars, wolves, jackals, lynxes, and beavers are also found. Lake Balaton supports a variety of birds, while storks are common. Carp, pike, perch, and other fish are found in rivers and lakes.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab The population of the country approaches 11 million, of whom about 97 percent are Hungarians. There are small numbers of Germans, Slovaks, Croats, Romanians, and Gypsies.
\par \tab The Hungarians are descended from the ancient Magyars, who came from an area near the Ural Mountains more than a thousand years ago. The Hungarian language belongs to the Finno-Ugric group and is distantly related to Finnish.
\par \tab About 60 percent of the people are Roman Catholics and about a quarter are Protestants, mainly Calvinists. The Protestants live mainly in eastern Hungary. Most of the rest of the people do not actively practice any particular religion.
\par \tab About 62 percent of the population live in cities, of which the largest is Budapest, the capital. Its more than 2 million people make up nearly 20 percent of the country's total population. Smaller cities include Miskolc, Debrecen, Szeged, and PΘcs.
\par {\b Culture}
\par \tab Among the major contributions of the Hungarians to European culture are literature, science, music, and painting.
\par \tab It was not until the 19th century that Hungarian literature flowered. During the early part of the century, the best-known poets were Dßniel Berzsenyi and Mihßly Csokonai VitΘz, while Andrßs Dugonics wrote the most successful novel of the period. They were followed by the novelists Mikl≤s J≤sika, J≤zsef E÷tv÷s, and Mihßly V÷r÷smarty, who also wrote poems. Kßroly Kisfaludy edited a literary magazine and wrote plays. The greatest lyric poets of the century were Sßndor Petfi and Jßnos Arany. M≤r J≤kai was one of Hungary's most popular novelists, while Imre Madßch's dramatic poem 'The Tragedy of Man' was translated into many languages and is still performed.
\par \tab The greatest Hungarian novelists of the early 20th century were Zsigmond M≤ricz, MenyhΘrt Lengyel, Dezs÷ Szab≤, and Margit Kaffka, the country's first significant woman novelist. Ferenc Molnßr wrote popular plays. The major 20th century poets were Attila J≤zsef, Gyula IllyΘs, and Endre Ady. Later writers include Lßszl≤ NΘmeth, Tibor DΘry, Peter Veres, and Ferenc Juhßsz.
\par \tab Hungarian-born scientists have won several Nobel prizes. Among these are Georg von BΘkΘsy, Albert Szent-Gy÷rgyi, Edward Teller, and Eugene Wigner.
\par \tab Hungary has a rich heritage of folk music. This music is interpreted by the Gypsies, who make up the traditional folk orchestras. The Hungarian composers BΘla Bart≤k and Zoltßn Kodßly transformed this folk music into more modern forms, though both are also known for their piano and chamber music, concerti, operas, songs, and choral works. The great 19th-century composer Franz Liszt, though born in Hungary and inspired by Hungarian folk music, lived most of his life abroad. In the 20th century a number of Hungarian orchestra conductors had notable careers abroad, including Fritz Reiner, Antal Dorati, Georg Solti, and Istvßn KertΘsz.
\par \tab Hungarian painting is less renowned than its literature and music. The best Hungarian artist of the 19th century was Mihßly Munkßcsi. French influence on Hungarian art is seen in the paintings of such artists as Pal Szinyei Merse, Istvßn Sz÷nyi, and Istvßn Cs≤k. Hungarian folk culture is also rich in art, costumes, dances, and cookery.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab After 1949 farmland was collectivized and divided between cooperative and state farms. Although originally based on the Soviet model, the Hungarian authorities introduced reforms after 1965, permitting considerable family participation in the operation of cooperative farms. About 18 percent of the labor force is employed in farming and forestry.
\par \tab About 70 percent of the total area of Hungary is used for farming. More than 75 percent of this area is in field crops. Major crops are corn and wheat, with some barley, rye, and oats. Fodder crops, sugar beets, and vegetables are also grown. Onions and paprika are exported. Fruit and wine production are significant. Apples, pears, apricots, plums, cherries, figs, and almonds are grown, and many of these are exported to Western Europe. Vineyards produce a number of good wines. Livestock production equals field agriculture, and cattle, pigs, and sheep are kept throughout the country.
\par \tab In general, Hungarian agriculture is successful because of good climate and soils and relatively good organization. The country does not need to import much food and provides surpluses for export.
\par \tab Industry has become a significant part of the Hungarian economy. The iron and steel industry is concentrated mainly at Duna·jvßros on the Danube, using mostly imported raw materials. An aluminum industry, based on domestic bauxite deposits, is located in a number of production centers. Most industry is located in the Budapest area. Major products are machine tools, transport equipment (especially buses), chemicals, pharmaceuticals, and textiles. In early 1989, final agreements on commercial and economic cooperation were signed between the European Union members and both Hungary and Poland, marking a new stage in the evolution of those countries toward a more market-based economic system.
\par \tab An extensive network of long-distance bus lines, railways, and roads are used to transport both passengers and freight throughout Hungary. The main internal waterway route is the Danube, with Budapest as the major port. The national airline is MalΘv, which is based in Budapest.
\par \tab Radio and television broadcasting were controlled by the state until 1990. Postal, telephone, and telegraph services were also state owned. Several Hungarian newspapers were purchased in 1990 by groups of private investors outside Hungary.
\par \tab Education is compulsory between the ages of 6 and 16. Students can attend secondary, vocational, or technical schools from age 10 to 18. There are universities at Budapest, PΘcs, Szeged, and Debrecen in addition to 10 technical universities and a number of other institutes of higher education.
\par {\b Government and History}
\par \tab The Hungarian People's Republic was established in 1949. The supreme organ of government is the National Assembly. Until 1989 members of the Hungarian Socialist Workers', or Communist, party held all political power, which was exercised through the Politburo of the Central Committee. On Oct. 7, 1989, the party renounced Communism and renamed itself the Hungarian Socialist party. Later that month the country's parliament ended the party's monopoly on power. Parliament also put into law an accord agreed to by the regime and opposition groups that Hungary would become a democratic republic with a legislature elected by universal suffrage, a relatively weak president to be chosen by parliament, and a constitutional court. The name of the country was changed to the Hungarian Republic.
\par \tab The settlement of the Magyar tribesmen under their leader ┴rpßd on the Mid-Danube Plain in the 10th century marked the beginning of the Hungarian state. In 1000 Stephen was crowned as the first Christian king of Hungary. For the next 300 years the house of ┴rpßd ruled Hungary, but in 1308 the crown passed to Charles Robert of Anjou as Charles I. His son Louis I conquered much of the surrounding territories, but most of these were lost by Sigismund of Luxembourg, who was king of Hungary from 1387 until 1437. He was followed by the Hunyadi family. Jßnos Hunyadi defended Hungary against attacks by the Turks, and his son Matthias Corvinus annexed Bohemia and Austria to the Hungarian state. Matthias was one of Hungary's greatest kings and improved the administration and economy of the country. He did little, however, against the increasing threat of the Turks, who in 1526 defeated the Hungarians at Mohßcs.
\par \tab The Turks occupied the central area of Hungary, including Budapest. Much of the population left the region. Western Hungary came under the control of the Austrians, while the province of Transylvania in the east became a princedom, largely independent of the Turks. The failure of the Turks to take Vienna in 1683 led to their retreat from Hungarian territory. In 1699 the Hapsburg ruler of Austria, Leopold, also became king of Hungary. Under the Austrian empress Maria Theresa (1740-80), conditions for the Hungarians improved.
\par \tab A long period of relative peace enabled Hungarian culture to flourish. Count Istvßn SzΘchenyi not only encouraged the development of the Hungarian language around 1830 but urged political reforms. He believed in maintaining a strong link with the Hapsburgs. Non-Hungarian peoples, such as the Croats and the Romanians, resisted Hungarian rule, however, and local revolts took place.
\par \tab In 1848 the Hungarian patriot Lajos Kossuth took advantage of the general unrest in the Austrian territories to declare an independent Hungarian state. In 1849 a Russian army, sent to aid the Austrian emperor Franz Joseph, defeated the Hungarians and reestablished Austrian control. In 1867, realizing that the Hapsburg empire could not exist without Hungarian support, the Austrians arrived at a compromise (Ausgleich) whereby Hungary was given control of its internal affairs and the emperor was crowned as king of Hungary. This dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary lasted until 1918. In 1918 most members of minority groups became citizens of such new states as Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia. The province of Transylvania was given to Romania. By the Treaty of Trianon in 1920, Hungary lost more than 10 million of its population and about two thirds of its territory.
\par \tab In the next two decades there was considerable political unrest and economic instability. At the outbreak of World War II, Hungary hoped to remain neutral, but in 1941 Hungarian troops were sent to join the Germans on the Soviet front. Attempts to break away from German control were unsuccessful, and Germany occupied Hungary in 1944. By April 1945, however, Hungary was in the hands of Soviet troops.
\par \tab A provisional government set up by the Soviets was replaced by a Communist-dominated government in 1947. The leader of the Communist party, Mßtyßs Rßkosi, tried to make Hungary a model state in the Soviet sphere of influence. With the death of Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin in 1953, Imre Nagy, a more moderate Communist, became the leader. But in 1955 Rßkosi regained power. In October 1956 a full-scale uprising against the Communists took place, and Nagy again became national leader. Soviet troops put down the revolt after several days of bitter fighting, mainly in Budapest. Nagy was executed two years later. Many thousands died, and 200,000 people fled the country.
\par \tab After the revolt Jßnos Kßdßr became first secretary of the Hungarian Socialist Workers' party. He introduced liberal reforms and declared a general amnesty for political prisoners in 1962. Beginning in 1968 economic reforms were introduced, resulting in the development of some aspects of a free-market economy. In May 1988 Kßdßr was ousted for failing to keep pace with the party's desire for more economic and political changes. By the spring of 1989 a large number of political parties had come into being. They formed the Opposition Round Table to negotiate with Communist party leadership for an orderly transition from Communism to democracy. In December parliament voted to dissolve itself on March 16, 1990, and scheduled elections for March 25. In the first free elections in 45 years, Hungarian voters split their vote between two newly formed anti-Communist parties. J≤szef Antall, president of the Hungarian Democratic Forum, became prime minister. ┴rpßd G÷ncz, a founder of the Free Democrats party, was chosen as president by the parliament. In June 1990 the parliament voted to leave the Warsaw Pact and establish diplomatic ties with the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. Later that year Hungary became the first former Soviet-bloc country to join the Council of Europe.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by Ian M. Matley, Professor of Geography, Michigan State University.
\par \tab Lye, Keith. Take a Trip to Hungary (Watts, 1986).
\par \tab Nemeth, Sy. Hungary: A Comprehensive Guide (Hippocrene, 1986).
\par \tab St. John, Jetty. A Family in Hungary (Lerner, 1988).\par \tab The island of Iceland is one of the stepping-stones of land between the North American and European continents. It is located just south of the Arctic Circle about 180 miles (290 kilometers) south east of Greenland, 620 miles (1,000 kilometers) west of Norway, and 500 miles (800 kilometers) northwest of Scotland. Over 80 percent of the island is unpopulated because the land is covered either with permanent snow and ice fields (glaciers) or has a volcanic surface, which has poor soils that are not suited to crop growing, sheep grazing, or other agricultural activities. It is one of the world's smaller nations with a population of about 256,000. More than 50 percent of the people live in or near the capital city of Reykjavφk in the extreme southwestern portion of the island. It is located on major shipping and air lanes of the North Atlantic Ocean, and it occupies a unique position in the world as one of the first independent, democratic republics.
\par {\b The Land and Resources}
\par \tab The geological origin of Iceland is volcanic in nature and the surface has been formed by lava flows and other volcanic materials that come from numerous erupting volcanoes, some of which are still active. Hot lava is near the surface, and many geysers or hot springs are formed when water comes into contact with the lava-heated rocks. The steam or hot water created by this contact is used to heat the homes and buildings of Reykjavφk as well as greenhouses, which produce flowers and vegetables. Active volcanoes, such as the 4,891-foot (1,491-meter) Hekla, erupt occasionally and sometimes cause considerable damage. The volcanic island of Surtsey off the southern coast was formed by eruptions that began in 1963.
\par \tab The extensive lava plateaus are largely covered by ice caps from which many glaciers move outward toward the sea. Rugged mountains are characteristic of the coastline, except for the plains area near Reykjavφk in the southwest. Hvannadalshn·kur along the southern coast is the highest peak (6,952 feet; 2,119 meters). The irregular coast is indented by many fjords and bays except in the southwest.
\par \tab The Icelandic climate is rather moderate despite the island's northerly latitude because of the relatively warm North Atlantic Drift waters that bathe the southern and western coasts. Nevertheless, the climate is cool throughout the year. The mean temperature at Reykjavφk in January is 31░ F (-0.6░ C) and 52░ F (11.2░ C) in June. The northern coasts have colder water offshore for most of the year and the temperature there is normally 5.5░ F (3░ C) colder than the southern coast temperature in summer and 9░ F (5░ C) colder in winter. Along the northern coast drift ice and foggy conditions sometimes prevail during winter. The frost-free growing period is short, however, and snow remains at higher altitudes for six months or more. The average annual precipitation varies from 40 to 60 inches (1,000 to 1,500 millimeters) in the populated southwest. Extremes that range from less than 20 inches (500 millimeters) in the north to about 120 inches (3,000 millimeters) in the highlands have been measured.
\par \tab The country's lava soils, climate, and poor drainage conditions are not favorable to tree growth. Most of the lower parts of the island were covered with trees that were either burned off by early settlers, cut for timber, or killed by sheep gnawing at the bark for food during winter. The present vegetation consists of cotton grass and other sedges and rushes in the marshy areas; small forested areas consisting of dwarf willows, birches, and mountain ash; and grass, moss, and lichens in the coastal valleys, the plains of the southwest, and the lower elevation lava plateaus.
\par \tab The fox is the only native four-legged animal. The reindeer was introduced from Norway about 1770. About 100 species of birds, including many types of waterfowl, inhabit the island. Whales and seals are found along the coast. Trout and salmon inhabit the inland lakes and streams, and several commercial fish species are located in the surrounding waters. Especially numerous are herring and cod.
\par {\b The People--Their Way of Life and Culture}
\par \tab Irish monks established early isolated settlements in Iceland, but Norwegians arriving from AD 874 were primarily responsible for the island's continuous occupation and population growth. In addition to the Norwegian stock, large numbers of the early settlers came from the British Isles. Traders from the Black Sea and Mediterranean areas also culturally influenced the island.
\par \tab Icelandic culture is similar to that of the Scandinavian countries, especially Norway. The Icelandic language is primarily Old Norse or old Norwegian in character, although it varies considerably from modern Norwegian. The Evangelical Lutheran church is the state church, but the people are free to worship as they please. Education levels are high in Iceland, where more books and newspapers are published per person than in any other nation. The University of Iceland in Reykjavφk, founded in 1911, is free to citizens. Schooling is required through age 16.
\par \tab Despite the problems presented by Iceland's natural environment, the standard of living is relatively high. The people receive a variety of social services from the government, including medical care, unemployment insurance, pensions for the elderly and handicapped, and free schooling. The homes in the cities are equipped with modern conveniences, such as refrigerators, stoves, radios, televisions, and indoor running water and plumbing. Most houses are constructed from concrete rather than wood, which is scarce. Fish and mutton, available locally, are leading foods. Most fruits and vegetables have to be imported, except for those grown in greenhouses. The cost of living is relatively high in Iceland because so many foods, other raw materials, and most manufactured products must be imported.
\par \tab Literary works called sagas and Eddas provide Icelanders with a rich literary background dating back to the 12th and 13th centuries. The sagas are about Icelandic and Scandinavian heroes, and the Eddas are the stories of gods and heroes of the pre-Christian era in Northern Europe. Icelandic people in modern times have been important contributors of novels, poems, and musical compositions. In 1955 Halld≤r Laxness was awarded the Nobel prize for literature.
\par {\b The Economy}
\par \tab The few resources available in Iceland place limits on the economy. Fishing is a dominant occupation because of the rich fishing grounds for cod and herring in the waters that surround the island. Nearly 900 fishing vessels bring to shore about 1,500,000 metric tons of fish. Fish and whale products account for 75 percent of the value of exports from Iceland. Much of the processing--such as salting, freezing, and canning--of fish is done in Reykjavφk, the principal port and population center. The fishery limits were extended to 200 nautical miles (370 kilometers) in 1975 in order to protect this crucial industry. The British raised strong objections to the extension of the fishery zone, because they have long regarded the waters off Iceland as an important fishing ground for their own fishing fleet.
\par \tab Agriculture is based primarily on sheep and dairy cattle. Sheep graze the open, highland pastures during summer and are rounded up each fall. The cattle feed on lowland coastal pastures during summer and stored hay during winter. Less than 1 percent of Iceland is under cultivation. Hay, potatoes, and turnips are the chief crops. Some vegetables and grain grow in the more suitable areas. The threat of summer frosts, the cold summer temperatures, and the short growing season severely limit the variety and success of crop production.
\par \tab Various manufacturing and service industries have become increasingly important to Iceland as the population has become more urban. About 90 percent of the people live in cities and 13 percent are employed in manufacturing. The Reykjavφk area is the leading industrial center. In addition to fish processing plants, Icelanders work in textile and clothing factories, printing and publishing activities, food processing, chemical industries, and electrical equipment plants. All oil and coal must be imported to Iceland, but hydroelectric plants produce more than 90 percent of the country's electricity. Tourism has made a significant contribution to the economy of Iceland. Many airline passengers visit the country while en route between the United States and Europe.
\par {\b Transportation, Communication, and Trade}
\par \tab Iceland has no train transportation, so motor vehicle traffic is important. The country has more than 128,000 registered cars, or about one vehicle for each two people, which is almost as high as the ratio in the United States. A highway parallels the coast, but heavy traffic occurs only in the area of greater Reykjavφk, which has morning and evening rush hours. The country has domestic air services and an international airline that regularly carries passengers to and from Scandinavia, the United Kingdom and other European countries, and the United States. Communications are well developed. Iceland is served by radio and television stations, and there are six daily newspapers in Reykjavφk.
\par \tab Iceland depends upon foreign trade to bring in needed food and manufactured wares and to market its fish and other products. The leading imported products by value are fuel oil, motor vehicles, gasoline, ships, animal feed, fishnets and other gear, and cereals. Fish products completely dominate the exports. Iceland's trade is primarily with Western industrialized countries, such as Germany and the United States.
\par {\b Government and History}
\par \tab Iceland is a social democracy led by a president who is elected every four years. Cabinet officers, headed by the prime minister, administer the following areas: foreign affairs, justice, agriculture, education, fisheries and communications, trade and commerce, health and social security, finance, and energy and industry. The Althing, or parliament, consists of 63 members and is made up of an Upper House and Lower House. The political parties are the Independence, Progressive, Social Democrat, People's Alliance, Citizen's, Women's Alliance, and the Association for Equality and Social Justice. The voting age is 18 years.
\par \tab The earliest permanent settlers came to Iceland in AD 874, most of them from Norway. A representative form of government was established in 930 at Thingvellir with the Althing as the deliberating body. Norwegian missionaries introduced Christianity, which was adopted as the state religion in about 1000. The country existed as an independent republic until 1262, when the Althing voted that Iceland should come under the rule of Norway.
\par \tab In 1380 Iceland and Norway were taken over by Denmark, and when Norway was separated from Denmark in 1814, Iceland remained a Danish possession. Home rule was obtained in 1904. Iceland became self-governing in 1918 but still was a protectorate of Denmark. In 1944 Iceland proclaimed itself an independent republic.
\par \tab The island was occupied by British and then American troops during World War II in order to prevent German entry after the Germans had occupied Denmark. The American forces were withdrawn in 1946. Iceland became a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) defense plan in 1949 and American troops returned in 1951. Membership in NATO is especially important because Iceland has neither an army nor a navy. An American air base operates at Keflavφk in southwestern Iceland.
\par \tab The country has endured many difficult periods. In the 1400s a plague reportedly killed a large percentage of the population. Volcanoes caused much destruction in Iceland in the 1600s and 1700s. In 1973 a volcanic eruption on the island of Heimaey necessitated the evacuation of 5,000 people.
\par \tab Despite many problems, Iceland maintained a high level of economic development through the 1970s. In the 1980s the country was set back somewhat by a recession due mainly to a decrease in the fish catch.
\par \tab Vigdφs Finnbogad≤ttir was elected president on June 30, 1980. She became the world's first elected woman president. She was reelected in 1984 and again in 1988. Worldwide attention was focused on Iceland in October 1986 when the country hosted arms-reduction talks between United States President Ronald Reagan and Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev in Reykjavφk. Pope John Paul II visited Iceland in June 1989; it was the first visit ever by a pope to this largely Lutheran country.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by Lawrence M. Sommers, Assistant Provost and former Chairman, Department of Geography, Michigan State University.
\par \tab {\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR ICELAND}
\par \tab Evans, J.O. Iceland (Chelsea, 1988).
\par \tab Jacobsen, Peter and Kristensen, Preben. A Family in Iceland (Watts, 1986).
\par \tab Magnussen, S. Iceland: Country and People (Vanous, 1987).\par \tab Nearly one sixth of all the human beings on Earth live in India, the world's most populous democracy. Its borders encompass a vast variety of peoples, practicing most of the world's major religions, speaking scores of different languages, divided into thousands of socially exclusive castes, and combining the physical traits of several major racial groups. A civilized, urban society has existed in India for well over 4,000 years, and there have been periods when its culture was as brilliant and creative as any in history.
\par \tab India's leaders have played a prominent role in world affairs since the country became independent in 1947. Nevertheless, the standard of living of most of its citizens is low. The huge population strains the nation's limited resources. Fertile, cultivable land is scarce, yet more than two thirds of the people depend directly on agriculture for their livelihood. Many millions of Indians are inadequately nourished, poorly housed, and lacking in basic educational, medical, and sanitary services.
\par \tab The modern nation of India (also known by its ancient Hindi name, Bharat) is smaller than the Indian Empire formerly ruled by Britain. Burma (now Myanmar), a mainly Buddhist country lying to the east, was administratively detached from India in 1937. Ten years later, when Britain granted independence to the peoples of the Indian subcontinent, two regions with Muslim majorities--a large one in the northwest (West Pakistan) and a smaller one in the northeast (East Pakistan)--were partitioned from the predominantly Hindu areas and became the separate nation of Pakistan. East Pakistan broke away from Pakistan in 1971 to form the independent nation of Bangladesh. Also bordering India on its long northern frontier are the People's Republic of China and the relatively small kingdoms of Nepal and Bhutan. The island republic of Sri Lanka lies just off India's southern tip.
{\b LAND AND NATURAL RESOURCES}
\par \tab Much of India's area of almost 1.3 million square miles (3.3 million square kilometers--including the Pakistani-held part of Jammu and Kashmir) is a peninsula jutting into the Indian Ocean between the Arabian Sea on the west and the Bay of Bengal on the east. There are three distinct physiographic regions. In the north the high peaks of the Himalayas lie partly in India but mostly just beyond its borders in Nepal, Bhutan, and Tibet. South of the mountains, the low-lying Indo-Gangetic Plain, shared with Pakistan and Bangladesh, extends more than 1,500 miles (2,400 kilometers) from the Arabian Sea to the Bay of Bengal. Finally, the peninsular tableland, largely the Deccan, together with its adjacent coastal plains, makes up more than half of the nation's area.
\par \tab {\b The Himalayas.}
\par \tab The northern mountain wall consists of three parallel ranges. The highest of these ranges is the Greater Himalayas, which include several peaks that rise above 25,000 feet (7,600 meters). Even the passes through these mountains are farther above sea level than the highest summits of the Alps. India has the world's largest area under snow and glaciers outside the polar regions.
\par \tab Lower mountain ranges branch off from both ends of the Himalayan system, running along the border with Myanmar toward the Bay of Bengal in the east and--mainly through Pakistan--toward the Arabian Sea in the west. Thus, the low-lying country to the south is relatively isolated from the rest of Asia. This accounts for its recognition as a subcontinent.
\par \tab {\b The Indo-Gangetic Plain.}
\par \tab The Indo-Gangetic Plain, with an area of about 270,000 square miles (700,000 square kilometers), varies in width by several hundred miles. It is the world's most extensive tract of uninterrupted alluvium. These deep, river-deposited sediments give rise to fertile soils. In addition, they are rich in groundwater for well irrigation. The flat terrain also makes the area ideal for canal irrigation.
\par \tab The greater part of the Indo-Gangetic Plain is drained by the Ganges River, which rises in the southern Himalayas and flows in a generally south to southeast direction to the Bay of Bengal. Its principal tributary, the Yamuna, or Jumna, flows past New Delhi, the capital of India, to join the Ganges near Allahabad. North of Goalundo Ghat in Bangladesh, the Ganges is joined by the Brahmaputra. The Indus and its tributaries drain the western and southwestern parts of the plain. The northern part of this area, now divided between India and Pakistan, is traditionally known as the Punjab, or Land of the Five Rivers, for the five major tributaries of the Indus--the Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Sutlej, and Beas. Also on the India-Pakistan border and considered part of the plain is the arid Thar, or Great Indian, Desert.
\par \tab {\b The Deccan.}
\par \tab The so-called tableland of India is actually a more complex landform region than that word suggests. Most of the 735,000 square miles (1.9 million square kilometers) of the Deccan are relatively flat, with elevations ranging from 1,000 to 2,000 feet (300 to 600 meters) above sea level. However, the terrain also includes numerous ranges of hills, as well as several long, prominent escarpments. Anai Mudi (8,842 feet, 2,695 meters), in the Southern Ghats, is the highest peak in peninsular India.
\par \tab The coastal plains flanking the Deccan are relatively narrow, ranging from 6 to 80 miles (10 to 130 kilometers). The eastern plain is drained by several large deltas, including, from north to south, those of the Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri rivers.
\par \tab India is rich in nonenergy mineral resources and moderately well endowed with coal, but it is poor in proven reserves of petroleum and natural gas. The principal mineral deposits lie south of the Indo-Gangetic Plain. Foremost among mineral-rich regions is the Chota Nagpur Plateau. This area contains India's main coal deposits as well as large quantities of high-grade iron ore, copper, bauxite, limestone, mica, and chromite. At more than 100 billion tons, the country's coal reserves are the fifth largest in the world. However, most of the coal is of poor quality because of its high ash and moisture content. Proven on-land petroleum reserves are insufficient to meet current demand. There has been some success with offshore exploration. Many of India's rivers are potential sources of hydroelectric power.
{\b CLIMATE, VEGETATION, ANIMAL LIFE}
\par \tab In general, India's climate is governed by the monsoon, or seasonal, rain-bearing wind. Most of the country has three seasons: hot, wet, and cool. During the hot season, which usually lasts from early March to mid-June, very high temperatures are accompanied by intermittent winds and occasional dust storms.
\par \tab Strong, humid winds from the southwest and south usually bringing very heavy rains that fall almost daily in the middle or late afternoon--the "burst of the monsoon"--herald the start of the wet season. It may begin as early as late May in the south. Eventually, the rains taper off, and by late October cool, dry, northerly air has replaced the humid marine air over all of India except the southeastern third of the peninsula. This "retreat of the monsoon" marks the start of the cool season.
\par \tab Average annual precipitation varies widely. Cherrapunji in the Shillong Plateau just north of Bangladesh receives 450 inches (1,143 centimeters), making it the second rainiest place on Earth, after Mount Waialeale in Hawaii (460 inches, 1,168 centimeters). At the other extreme, the western Thar Desert averages only 4 inches (10 centimeters). In the driest parts of India, however, the rainfall is highly variable.
\par \tab Temperature varies as does rainfall in different parts of India. Hill stations in the Himalayan region, such as Darjeeling and Simla, record the lowest temperatures, with annual averages of between about 54░ and 57░ F (12░ and 14░ C). In the Indo-Gangetic Plain, Delhi and Allahabad register an average of 79░ F (26░ C).
\par {\b Plant and Animal Life}
\par \tab Most of the far northeast (north and east of Bangladesh), northern West Bengal, and the west coast from Cochin to somewhat north of Bombay get more than 80 inches (200 centimeters) of rainfall annually. This is usually enough to keep the soil moist throughout the year. The natural vegetation associated with these regions is an exceedingly varied, broadleaf, evergreen rain forest, typically tall and dense. Much of the rain forest, however, is in hilly regions that have been repeatedly burned over and cleared for slash-and-burn agriculture, a type of farming particularly associated with India's tribal population. As a result, the soil has become less fertile. Where the forest has grown again, it is generally lower and less open than the original vegetation.
\par \tab Areas with from 40 to 80 inches (100 to 200 centimeters) of rainfall (enough to grow at least one crop of rice) include almost the whole northeastern peninsular region, the eastern Gangetic Plain, a narrow belt on the plains and hills just south of the Himalayas as far west as Kashmir, another belt just east of the crest of the Western Ghats, and most of the southeastern, or Coromandel, coast. In these areas, as average rainfall declines the forests become progressively shorter, less dense, and less varied.
\par \tab In addition, as rainfall declines from 80 to 60 inches (200 to 150 centimeters) evergreens gradually give way to deciduous species, which in these regions lose their leaves during the cool, dry season. Where government protection from slash-and-burn agriculture has kept forests intact, they include good stands of teak, sal, and other excellent timber species.
\par \tab Most of the rest of India averages from 20 to 40 inches (50 to 100 centimeters), enough to grow one crop of grain other than rice. The natural vegetation consists of low, open forests, intermixed with thorny shrubs and grasses. Little of the original vegetative cover remains.
\par \tab A wide variety of distinctive vegetation types occurs as a result of special ecological conditions. Tall grass savannas, with scattered acacias, grow on the moist soils of the Terai, the fringe of plains bordering the northern mountains. Mangrove forests are found in the brackish deltas of the east coast, and many types of palms grow in sandy or salty soils. Often impenetrable stands of bamboo sprout up in fields formerly given over to slash-and-burn cultivation.
\par \tab The alterations in India's vegetation over the centuries have brought about many changes in the animal life. Today the dominant forms are cattle, goats, buffalo, sheep, and, in the drier regions, camels. While cattle are essential to the nation's economy, there is a religious taboo against their slaughter.
\par \tab In the forests and the high, rugged areas where wild species are still dominant, the array of animals remains rich. Among large mammals are the Indian elephant, still regularly rounded up and domesticated in several areas; the rhinoceros, living almost exclusively in game sanctuaries; over a dozen species of deer and antelope; and wild cattle, sheep, goats, and boars.
\par \tab Carnivores, or meat eaters, include tigers and leopards; lions, once wide-ranging but now confined to the Gir Forest on the Kathiawar Peninsula; the nearly extinct cheetah; and a variety of bears. Monkeys, especially langurs and rhesuses, are common even in cities. The cobra is the best-known reptile. Three species of crocodiles are found. There are about 1,200 species of birds, among them vultures, parrots, mynas, quail, and bustards.
{\b PEOPLE AND CULTURE}
\par \tab It is not certain which racial group first occupied India. The assumption is often made that the first inhabitants had characteristics in common with the small-statured, dark, aboriginal population of Australia, as well as with other tribal groups still found in isolated, forested regions of Southeast Asia. Therefore, the term proto-Australoid has been applied to the racial type represented by a number of tribes still living in India, mainly in the states of Bihar, Orissa, and Madhya Pradesh. Other early arrivals were the ancestors of the peoples, now living mainly in southern India, who speak languages of the Dravidian family. The Mongoloid peoples have also been in India a long time. Their present-day descendants include several tribal groups living along the frontiers with Myanmar, China (Tibet), Bhutan, and Nepal.
\par \tab Not later than the middle of the 2nd millennium BC, a wave of migrants of inner Eurasian origin began to filter into India through passes on the northwestern frontier of the country. These invaders, known as Aryans, had relatively light skin and spoke languages of the Indo-European family.
\par \tab Throughout recorded history new groups have continued to penetrate India, mainly from the northwest: Persians, Arabs, Turks, Mongols, Afghans, and, since the 16th century, small numbers of Western Europeans. Over the millennia all these peoples have interbred in varying degrees. The resulting mixture is so highly complex that it is virtually impossible to draw clear racial distinctions among the people of India today.
\par {\b Language}
\par \tab Linguistic differences are much clearer than those of racial groupings. Two linguistic groups, the Indo-Aryan and the Dravidian, account for all but a tiny proportion of the population. Of the Indo-Aryan languages, Hindi, the official national language, is the most important. In its standard form and its many dialects, it is spoken by about 43 percent of the population and is understood by a large number of others. It is predominant in the northern and central regions. Included among the Hindi variations is Urdu, referred to until 1947 as Hindustani or Khari Boli, which is recognized as a separate "official" language in the Indian constitution. Urdu is also the official language of Pakistan and is spoken by most Indian Muslims (except in the far south and east).
\par \tab Other important Indo-Aryan languages are Bengali (the official language of the state of West Bengal and also of Bangladesh), Panjabi (the official language of the state of Punjab and the most widely spoken language of Pakistan), and Marathi, Gujarati, Oriya, Assamese, and Kashmiri (respectively, the official languages of the states of Maharashtra, Gujarat, Orissa, Assam, and Jammu and Kashmir). Two other languages of the Indo-Aryan family are among the 15 regarded as official languages by the constitution: Sanskrit, a classical literary language, and Sindhi, spoken largely in the Sind province of Pakistan and also by Hindu refugees who came to India after partition in 1947. The list of official languages includes four Dravidian tongues: Telugu, Tamil, Malayalam, and Kannada, which predominate, respectively, in the southern states of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and Karnataka.
\par \tab English is understood by most educated persons. While it is not one of the 15 languages, it is officially recognized and is used, for example, for correspondence between Hindi-speaking and non-Hindi-speaking states. It is also the language shared by the Dravidian-speaking south and the Hindi-speaking north. Of the scores of languages not officially recognized, many are spoken almost exclusively by tribal peoples, known collectively as Adibasis.
\par {\b Hinduism}
\par \tab Though a number of religions flourish in India's tolerant social climate, four fifths of the people are Hindus. Hinduism evolved from Vedism, the religion of the early Aryan invaders. While it recognizes innumerable gods, they are widely regarded as diverse manifestations of one great universal spirit. Hinduism has no standard orthodox form. It is, in effect, what people who call themselves Hindus do in carrying out their dharma, or religious obligations. This varies considerably from one region and social group to another.
\par {\b Caste}
\par \tab The social groups with which Hindus identify most strongly are their jatis, or castes. A caste is a hereditary group whose members intermarry only among themselves. Each has its own origin myth, traditional occupation, rules relating to kinship, diet, and various forms of behavior. Castes are graded in a social and ritual hierarchy in which each expects respect from inferior groups and gives respect to superior ones. While obviously creating disparities, the caste system is not regarded by most Hindus as unjust. According to generally accepted beliefs associated with reincarnation, or rebirth after death, the caste into which one is born depends on one's karma--that is, one's accumulated good and bad deeds in previous existences. The way to achieve higher status in future incarnations is to accept one's station in life and live accordingly. This is the path that may eventually lead to salvation, called moksha, freedom from the continuous round of rebirths.
\par \tab There are thousands of jatis, but most may be grouped into four great social classes called varnas. The highest are the Brahmans, the priestly castes that traditionally dominated the learned professions and still wield great influence. Next are the Kshatriyas, traditionally warriors, rulers, and large landowners. Third are the Vaishyas, once mainly farmers but now chiefly associated with commerce. Lowest are the Shudras, who today constitute the mass of India's artisans and laborers.
\par \tab Below the Shudras are a number of castes with no varna designation. Traditionally these outcastes were regarded as "Untouchables" because their association with unclean occupations, such as scavenging and leatherworking, made them ritually impure and able to convey pollution to others. These groups have always been subject to considerable prejudice. The nationalist leader Mohandas K. Gandhi, who tried to ensure that they were treated humanely, bestowed on them the name Harijan, or children of God, by which they are now popularly known.
\par \tab Officially they are recognized as "scheduled castes." The Indian constitution, which outlaws untouchability, requires that a "schedule" of such groups be prepared in every state as an aid to providing them with special benefits. The aim is to help them overcome their disadvantaged position. Thus, they are guaranteed seats in the national and state parliaments, at least in proportion to their 15 percent of the population, as well as minimum quotas for placement in universities and government, and various other benefits. Similarly, the tribal peoples, 7.5 percent of the population, are designated as "scheduled tribes" and given corresponding benefits.
\par {\b Islam}
\par \tab Muslims, who constitute 11 percent of the population, are the largest religious minority. Many of these followers of the monotheistic faith of Islam are descendants of invaders from the Middle East and Central Asia who began entering the subcontinent as early as the 8th century. Most, however, are descendants of converts from Hinduism and other faiths. The majority belong to the Sunnah branch of Islam, though the Shi'ah sect is well represented among Muslim trading groups of Gujarat.
\par \tab Although Islam, unlike Hinduism, stresses the equality of people, the institution of caste is so strong in the subcontinent that it has affected the communities professing Islam and most other faiths. Thus, most Indian Muslims intermarry within graded, castelike groups, many of which have traditional occupations. Muslims form a majority of the population in Jammu and Kashmir and substantial minorities in the states of Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Assam, and Kerala.
\par {\b Other Religious Minorities}
\par \tab Sikhs, with 2.6 percent of the population, are predominant in the state of Punjab. Their faith, which dates from the early 16th century, combines aspects of Hinduism, such as belief in reincarnation, with ideas borrowed from Islam, in particular strict belief in only one God. A militant brotherhood, they are recognizable by their distinctive beards and turbans. Sikhs form a prominent part of India's army and are influential in many professions and in government.
\par \tab Two ancient and related faiths, Buddhism and Jainism, each have several million followers in India. Though Buddhism originated in India, it became virtually extinct there and remained so until 1956, when a renowned leader of the scheduled castes, B. R. Ambedkar, converted to it. Millions of his followers subsequently followed suit. Jainism, never very popular, has contributed enormously to Indian art, architecture, and religious thought. For centuries the small Jaina community has been especially prominent in commerce. Both Jainas and Buddhists practice ahimsa, or nonviolence, one of many religious beliefs they share with the Hindus. The Zoroastrians, known as Parsis, form another small (barely 100,000) but highly educated and influential religious community. Members of a religion founded in the 6th century BC by the Iranian prophet Zoroaster, they are descendants of Zoroastrians who fled to India from the 10th century onward to escape Muslim persecution.
\par \tab Christianity claims to date back to AD 52, when St. Thomas, one of the 12 apostles, is said to have landed on the west coast of India. He is recognized as the founder of the Syrian Christians. Roman Catholics, including many descendants of 16th-century converts, are the most numerous Christian group, especially on the west coast and in the far south. During the last two centuries, Protestant missionaries have been especially successful among tribal and scheduled caste groups. Collectively, Christians make up nearly 3 percent of India's population. A small percentage follows Judaism, which was introduced by early Jewish traders who established settlements in coastal towns, notably Cochin.
\par \tab Recent Indian censuses have reported only a few million of India's large tribal population as practicing animistic religions. Nevertheless, there is a strong element of spirit worship in the religious practices of most of India's tribes, blended in varying degrees with forms borrowed from Hinduism.
\par {\b Ways of Life}
\par \tab Three fourths of India's people live in villages. These settlements may contain a thousand or more households, but one hundred to several hundred families is typical. In northwestern India villages tend to have an almost urban appearance, with tightly clustered dwellings that often form parts of high-walled compounds with few windows facing the street. In the eastern and southern regions the villages are less cramped. The various castes within a village are residentially segregated. The higher and more powerful castes generally have their homes near the center of the village, while the scheduled castes and Muslims, if any, live on its outskirts. In southern India scheduled-caste hamlets half a mile or more from the main village are not uncommon.
\par \tab In much of India the typical village dwelling is a modest one-story mud hut of one or several rooms. Roofs are generally flat in the dry regions and peaked in areas of heavier rainfall. Most houses have no windows, but many have a shaded veranda where social activities take place. A cubicle or a corner of the yard is set aside for the kitchen hearth, normally containing an earth stove fueled by cow dung or firewood. Furniture is scarce, indoor plumbing is virtually unknown, and electricity is uncommon. Water, brought home from wells, is stored in large clay jars, which are also used to keep perishable foods.
\par \tab {\b The family.}
\par \tab Households often consist of more than one married couple. These joint families are usually headed by a senior male, whose wife, mother, or another related senior female assigns domestic chores to the women and girls. Generally the extended family may include his unmarried children, his younger brothers and their wives and unmarried children, his unmarried sisters, and his married sons and grandsons and their wives and unmarried children. In practice, however, brothers commonly separate and form new households soon after the death of their father.
\par \tab Over most of India (though not in the south or northeast), a girl marries outside her village, usually while still in her teens. Even where a female marries within the village, she moves to the husband's household. Widow remarriage is frowned upon. Married couples display a marked preference for male children. Boys are desired not only because of their anticipated contribution to the family income but also because sons are needed to perform certain rites at a parent's cremation. Girls, on the other hand, are seen as a liability because they require expensive dowries when they are married. Various state governments have tried to discourage this practice, but often families still go into debt to provide dowries; a family with several daughters and no sons may face financial disaster. Boys are expected to help in the fields and girls in the home. The freedom that girls enjoy is restricted after they reach the age of puberty; in northern India, even among the Hindus, female seclusion is common.
\par \tab {\b The village economy.}
\par \tab Most villagers are farmers. The majority own some land, usually in scattered parcels, but a substantial number must rent all or part of the land they farm, either for cash or for an agreed-upon share of the harvest. The amount depends on whether the cultivator or the landlord pays for seed and irrigation water, and on who provides the animals for plowing. Shares typically range from one third to one half the harvest. Many families, especially among the scheduled castes, have no land at all, and both adults and children must sell their labor to the larger farmers.
\par \tab The simple tools used by most Indian farmers are generally made in the villages. Plows are wooden, with short iron tips. They furrow but do not turn the soil. Draft animals are mainly oxen in the drier regions and water buffalo in the wetter, rice-growing areas. Both cattle and water buffalo are milked, but yields are low. Transport is still largely by oxcart or buffalo cart, though the use of trucks is gaining as a result of road improvement. Tractor cultivation is rare except in Haryana and the Punjab.
\par \tab Goods and services that are not available locally are obtained from nearby villages, at weekly outdoor markets, in towns and cities, and at fairs, usually held in connection with religious holidays. Payment for goods and services provided within the village may be either in cash or in kind. The latter type of payment, usually a portion of grain at the time of harvest, used to be the customary rule. Most specialized-caste families catered to a particular set of patron families, known as jajmans, with whom they were linked by hereditary ties. This jajmani system is breaking down over most of India, but patron-client alliances among various castes remain a common feature of village life.
\par \tab Most villages have at least a primary school offering up to six years of instruction. Some also offer adult education classes in the evening. While few villages can support a well-trained doctor, many have practitioners of traditional medicine. Government-aided dispensaries are increasingly common.
\par \tab For entertainment men join their fellow caste members or those from castes at levels close to their own to pass the evening hours smoking and chatting. Women and girls talk at the village well and may join groups to sing religious songs. Male youths sometimes form sports clubs or drama groups. Village-owned radios set up in public spaces are common, but television is rare. Traveling storytellers, musicians, acrobats, and snake charmers relieve the drabness of life, as do weddings, religious celebrations, trips to local fairs, and occasional religious pilgrimages.
\par \tab {\b Local government.}
\par \tab Village government is in the hands of a democratically elected council, known as a panchayat, presided over by a village headman. In former days virtually all panchayat members were men of the upper castes, usually those who owned the most land. Now many states require that a certain number of women and members of scheduled castes be included. Increasingly, elections are held by secret ballot. The panchayats are expected to work closely with the government-sponsored Community Development Program, which has divided the entire country into community development blocks, averaging about a hundred villages each. Village-level workers within each block are the chief links between the government and the villagers. They bring news to the villagers of developments that might benefit them and report back the sentiments of the people.
\par \tab {\b Urban life.}
\par \tab Approximately one fourth of all Indians live in urban places. Of these, more than half live in settlements of more than 100,000 people, officially defined as cities. The 1981 census listed 11 cities with over one million people. The three largest--Calcutta, Bombay, and Delhi (including the capital, New Delhi)--had populations of more than five million each.
\par \tab Indian cities are generally poorly planned and are much more crowded than those of Europe or North America. Streets are narrow, the number of people in residential dwellings is high, and buildings with more than two stories are relatively scarce. The principal activity is retail trade, mainly carried out in small shops in specialized bazaar streets. Many shops combine a handicraft activity, often in a back room, and a sales outlet. The family of the shopkeeper normally lives just behind or above the shop.
\par \tab Open spaces within larger cities and on their outskirts are likely to contain makeshift squatter settlements, occupied by recent immigrants from the countryside who have come to the city in search of employment. Many people lack any shelter at all and simply resort to sleeping in the streets, especially near railway stations where temporary day laborers are recruited each morning.
\par \tab In the last few generations, many cities have spawned satellites located a considerable distance away from the densely settled cores. Some housed members of the civil administration during the period of British rule and are still known as civil lines. Others, designated as cantonments, included residences and special areas such as parade grounds set aside for the army. Since India achieved independence, many planned modern suburbs have sprung up. Modern factories, sometimes grouped in government-sponsored industrial estates, have increasingly been located outside the cities.
\par \tab Like cities everywhere, those of India are centers of education, cultural activities, political ferment, and social change. In the urban setting, the caste and religious barriers that loom so large in the villages are considerably relaxed. Thus, there is somewhat more opportunity for talented individuals to rise in government, modern business, factories, and universities.
\par {\b Art and Literature}
\par \tab The artistic and literary heritage of India is exceptionally rich. Probably most renowned are the country's architectural masterpieces. These date from many different ages. The ancient Buddhist domed stupa, or shrine, at Sanchi was probably begun by the emperor Asoka in the mid-3rd century BC. The Kailasa Temple at Ellora was carved out of solid rock in the 8th century. The enormous, elaborately sculptured Sun Temple at Konarak dates from the 13th century, and the Minakshi Temple in Madurai, with its striking outer towers and inner Hall of 1,000 Pillars, from the 16th century. The sublime Taj Mahal at Agra was built in the 17th century by the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan as a mausoleum for his favorite wife. Every major region and religious group of India has produced works of extraordinary merit. Hindu and Jaina temples are usually richly embellished by sculpture. Because of the Islamic opposition to representative art, mosques are comparatively austere and rely for adornment largely on inlaid stonework, decorative tiles, geometric designs in stone, plaster, or wood, and ornate calligraphy.
\par \tab Painting is relatively less developed, and much of the work of the past has fallen victim to weather. However, the well-preserved, sensuous cave paintings at Ajanta, dating from the 1st century BC to the 7th century AD, demonstrate great technical proficiency at an early date. Altogether different is the lyric and romantic style of the various schools of miniature painting that flourished in the courts of the Mughals and the Rajput princes in the 16th and subsequent centuries. Modern painting, inspired by both European and Far Eastern models, has had several internationally recognized exponents.
\par \tab Classical Indian music, dance, and drama are closely linked. Their roots go back nearly 2,000 years. Their mastery calls for great discipline and intensive practice. Each has a conventionalized "language" that demands considerable sophistication on the part of the audience. As with architecture, a number of regional styles have developed. Folk music and dance also show wide regional variations.
\par \tab The literature of India covers many fields of knowledge, but religious and philosophical texts are particularly numerous. The oldest religious texts, the Vedas (beginning with the 'Rig-Veda' around 1500 BC), were transmitted only by word of mouth for many centuries before being committed to writing. For most Hindus the two best-known texts are the great epics, the 'Ramayana' and the 'Mahabharata', composed roughly 2,000 years ago. The former recounts the adventures of the god-king Rama and provides models of proper conduct for both men and women. The latter, the longest poem ever written, relates a great mythical war involving all the peoples of ancient India. The most important portion of that epic, the 'Bhagavadgita', is the principal Hindu tract on morality and ethics.
\par \tab Indian Muslim literature covers a wide range of practical subjects. However, the authority of the Koran, Islam's holy book, leaves little room for religious speculation. Poetry is particularly admired.
\par {\b Education}
\par \tab Although India can boast the world's third largest pool of scientifically and technically trained persons, the majority of its people--64 percent of the total population--are still illiterate. The literacy rate for females (25 percent) is much lower than for males (47 percent), but the gap between the sexes is being reduced steadily. Similarly, the rural literacy rate is considerably lower than that for urban areas. The central and state governments are attempting to eradicate illiteracy. Thanks to a recent rapid increase in the number of schools, especially in the villages, around five sixths of the children aged 6-11 are now enrolled. However, the proportion falls to roughly two fifths for the 11-14 age group and only one fifth for those aged 14-17.
\par \tab India's first three universities, at Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras, were chartered only in 1857. By independence the number of universities in what is now India had risen to 20, and today there are well over 100 with a combined student body of more than 3 million. Most universities have affiliated colleges scattered over a rather wide area. There are few towns of more than 20,000 population that do not have at least one such college.
\par \tab The colleges have shown a gradual shift toward instruction in the official state languages. This makes higher education accessible to many more people, but it has also meant a decline of proficiency in English. Since postgraduate education is almost entirely in English, this may present a major problem in the future. Another problem, already serious, is the large number of graduates who are unemployed because college and university education has expanded much more rapidly than the economy.
\par {\b Health}
\par \tab In general, the level of health among the Indian population is far from good. Because of impure drinking water and lack of public sanitation, diseases such as dysentery and typhoid are fairly common. Cholera, malaria, filariasis, and other illnesses associated with wet, tropical climates are serious problems. Although few people now starve to death in times of scarcity, many millions are improperly nourished and afflicted by various deficiency diseases.
\par \tab The government is making considerable efforts to meet the health needs of the people. Thus, the average life expectancy at birth rose from around 32 years in 1951 to 53 years in 1981 and to 58 years in 1991. Immunization programs have greatly reduced the incidence of certain diseases, and smallpox, once a major killer, has been eradicated. A vigorous anti-mosquito campaign came close to wiping out malaria as well, but with the emergence of DDT-resistant strains of mosquitos, the spread of malaria has continued virtually unabated.
\par \tab The number of government-paid doctors in the countryside has increased substantially, and a network of rural primary-health-care centers is being established. These centers are staffed by "multipurpose health workers" who have taken a short medical course, enabling them to treat many common health problems that do not really need a doctor's attention. Throughout India there are also practitioners of traditional Indian systems of medicine that are reasonably effective for a number of ailments.
\par \tab Apart from treating illnesses, the medical profession has been called on to play a major role in implementing India's family planning program. This involves giving advice to women or married couples who wish to practice birth control and performing sterilization operations on willing men and women. However, a controversial effort to enforce compulsory sterilization in the mid-1970s failed, and the Indian public has been slow to accept the desirability of limiting family size. While the birthrate has fallen significantly in recent decades, it is still dangerously high. At the current growth rate of approximately 2 percent per year, the population of India could double every 35 years.
{\b THE ECONOMY}
\par \tab Because of low levels of productivity, both per worker and per acre of agricultural land, average incomes in India are among the lowest in the world. Almost all production must go to meet the subsistence needs of the population, and savings and investment are difficult to promote. Hence, the nation finds it difficult to escape from a vicious cycle of poverty. Nevertheless, by a combination of careful economic planning and foreign economic aid India has managed to make remarkable progress since independence. Major sources of aid have been the United States, the Soviet Union, and the World Bank and other international agencies. Because the growth rate of agricultural production has substantially exceeded that of the population, acute famine no longer appears to be a serious threat. Growth in manufacturing has been impressive, and India now ranks among the world's ten largest industrial nations.
\par {\b Agriculture}
\par \tab {\b Crops.}
\par \tab The pattern of Indian agriculture varies greatly from one region to another. Almost everywhere, grains form the principal crop: rice in the wetter portions of the east and south, wheat in the north and northwest, sorghum and millets over much of the peninsular interior. Leguminous crops such as gram, often grown with grain, are also widely cultivated, as are various oil seeds. Sugarcane is a highly profitable crop where modern crushing plants are accessible. Certain fruits, especially mangoes, are exceedingly abundant in season. Nevertheless, the total area given over to fruits and vegetables is insufficient to provide most Indians with a balanced diet.
\par \tab Since the late 1800s Indian agriculture has become much more intensive as efforts were made to obtain the best yield from every piece of land. The first major changes resulted from the development of giant canal irrigation projects, especially in the western Indo-Gangetic Plain and on the Indus Plain, which now is largely in Pakistan. Following independence the government of India accelerated this effort. Multipurpose river basin development projects were established in all parts of the country. As the opportunities for additional surface water projects became limited, the emphasis shifted to irrigation from groundwater, usually by means of deep, cement-lined, power-driven tube wells.
\par \tab {\b The Green Revolution.}
\par \tab Another major change has been the spread of new, high-yielding varieties of hybrid seeds. In some areas use of these seeds has multiplied wheat yields several-fold. There have also been impressive gains in rice production. However, these varieties require large inputs of fertilizers, irrigation water, and pesticides. Thus, a whole new technology, popularly called the Green Revolution, is needed. States such as Punjab and Haryana, where the new methods have been practiced on a large scale, have prospered greatly. Other states that have been unable to adapt them are still struggling.
\par \tab Traditional Indian agriculture was overwhelmingly for subsistence, but from the 19th century onward there has been a great increase in commercial farming. Chief among the cash crops is cotton, which is grown mainly on the black lava soils of the Deccan. Jute, grown for fiber, is important in the Ganges delta area of West Bengal. Plantation crops include tea, grown in the highlands of the far south and northeast; coffee, a southern highland crop; and rubber and coconuts, produced mainly along the southwestern coast. Important specialty crops include tobacco, chilies, various spices, cashew nuts, and betel leaf (pan).
\par \tab {\b Livestock.}
\par \tab Because of the scarcity of land and the widely held taboos against eating meat, especially beef and pork, little livestock is raised for slaughter. Mutton from sheep and goats is widely consumed, however, as are poultry and eggs. Animals are economically important for plowing and transportation; for milk and milk products; for leather, skins, and wool; and as sources of dung for fuel and fertilizer.
\par {\b Fishing and Forestry}
\par \tab There are some taboos against eating fish, but they are less prevalent than those against meat. Hence, fishing at sea and in rivers provides a modest supplement to a diet generally poor in protein. Increasingly, rice paddies are being stocked with carp and other fishes. Shrimp have become a significant export.
\par \tab Forestry is not well developed. Most of the nation's forests--about 23 percent of the total area--are owned and managed by the state governments. Commercial exploitation is generally carried out by licensed companies. The principal timber species are sal and teak. However, much of the legal cutting and considerable poaching is for firewood and the manufacture of charcoal. Other forest products include wood for pulp, paneling, and matches; aromatic sandalwood; bamboo canes; medicinal plants; lac, which is used in shellac; resins; and tanning and dyeing materials. In a country where paper is scarce, leaves often serve as wrappers.
\par {\b Mining}
\par \tab A great variety of minerals are mined and quarried. Foremost in importance and in value of production is coal, which is mined at many sites but chiefly in the Chota Nagpur Plateau. Coal supplies more than half of India's energy needs. Petroleum production, from small fields in Assam and Gujarat and the promising offshore Bombay High field, is expanding fairly rapidly, but domestic production meets only a third of the demand for petroleum products. Hydroelectricity, an important supplementary source of energy, provides nearly two fifths of the nation's electrical power requirements. India is a major producer and exporter of iron ore. It also produces several important minerals used in ferroalloys, such as manganese and chromite. Other metals include copper, gold, zinc, lead, bauxite, and silver. Limestone, phosphorite, dolomite, and gypsum are used in the manufacture of cement, fertilizers, and other products. High-quality building stones, gems, mica, and kaolin, or china clay, are produced in significant quantities.
\par {\b Manufacturing}
\par \tab Indian handicraft industries, especially those producing textiles, have been renowned for centuries. Before the Industrial Revolution the products of these industries were avidly sought for European markets. Subsequently, however, millions of artisans in India found it virtually impossible to compete with the cheap products of British mills and lost their traditional forms of livelihood. Before independence attempts were made to boycott British imports, as advocated by Mohandas K. Gandhi. This, together with official support for small-scale industry after 1947, led to some resurgence of handicrafts. In India as elsewhere, however, the economic advantages of large-scale production have forced ever greater reliance on factory production.
\par \tab The oldest factory industry--and the most important as a source of employment--is the manufacture of cotton textiles. Though mills are found in most parts of the country, they are concentrated along the west coast, from Bombay north to Ahmadabad. India ranks among the world's principal manufacturers and exporters of cottons. Other textile industries include the manufacture of jute for burlap bags and other uses, concentrated in cities on the Hooghly River north of Calcutta; woolens, in Kanpur (Uttar Pradesh), Amritsar (Punjab), and Srinagar (Jammu and Kashmir); and rayon. In the widespread leather industry, as with textiles, modern factories offer severe competition to traditional craftsmen. In general, modern food industries are poorly developed, mainly because low incomes limit effective demand for their products. Among the exceptions are sugar refining and the processing of vegetable oils, tea, and coffee.
\par \tab India's modern metallurgical industry got its start in 1907, when the Tata Iron and Steel Company was established at Jamshedpur (Bihar) on the Chota Nagpur Plateau. In addition to steel, India produces aluminum and copper for further processing. Other major products include machine tools, automobiles, motorcycles, bicycles, railway cars, diesel engines, pumps, and sewing machines, many of them produced for export. The country's electrical and chemical industries are expanding rapidly.
\par {\b Transportation and Communication}
\par \tab India's railway system, begun in the mid-19th century, is an important inheritance from the period of British rule. With approximately 38,000 miles (61,000 kilometers), the government-owned network is the fourth largest in the world. Although the volume of freight carried is not impressive, the number of passenger-miles per year in the late 1980s was surpassed only by those of the Soviet Union and Japan. Trains on main lines offer frequent and efficient service. Few places are more than a day's walk from a railroad line.
\par \tab Since independence there has been a great spurt of road building. By the early 1990s the road network had grown to approximately 1,250,000 miles (2,000,000 kilometers), about 42 percent of which was surfaced. Most villages can now be reached by automobile, at least in the dry season. The use of motor vehicles rose correspondingly, but the total was still small: 1,433,000 trucks and buses, 2,284,000 private cars, and more than 12 million motorcycles.
\par \tab India has the largest merchant shipping fleet among the world's less developed countries. In the early 1990s it totaled 10.5 million gross registered tons and operated out of ten major and 170 minor ports. Companies engaged in overseas and coastal trade are both publicly and privately owned. Inland water traffic on the several thousand miles of navigable rivers and canals is no longer very important.
\par \tab Air India, the government-owned international airline, flies to many parts of the world from Delhi, Bombay, Calcutta, and Madras. The Indian Airlines Corporation, also a state monopoly, serves virtually all the nation's cities. For most Indians, however, air travel is no more than a distant dream. A typical family is happy to own a single bicycle. In the countryside, transportation of goods by cart and pack animals is still the general rule. Human porters are common in the cities, where every conceivable mode of ground transport exists on the crowded streets.
\par \tab The communications system of India is not well developed. Postal and telegraphic services reach all parts of the country, but service is slow. The telephone system is overburdened and inefficient. The main radio and television services are government operated and noncommercial. Service to the cities is generally adequate, but many villages do not have a single radio. Television is virtually unknown in rural areas, except in the vicinity of a few major cities. Plans are under way, however, for satellite transmission that will reach more parts of the country.
\par \tab Motion pictures are an especially powerful and popular communications medium. Open-air cinemas are features of fairs, and no town of any size is without a movie house. In some years India is the world's leading film producer. Several hundred feature films are released annually in a variety of regional languages. Most are escapist adventures and love stories, in color, with a number of dance and song sequences. However, some Indian filmmakers, like Satyajit Ray, have achieved international acclaim.
\par \tab The vigorous Indian press provides about 16,000 newspapers, including more than 2,000 dailies. The English-language press is still the most prestigious and influential, but newspapers in Indian languages have been gaining rapidly in readership.
{\b GOVERNMENT}
\par \tab India's present constitution went into effect on Jan. 26, 1950. At that time, the nation changed its status from a dominion to a federal republic, though it remained within the Commonwealth. The governor-general, appointed by the British Crown, was replaced by a president, chosen by an electoral college. The president is the official chief of state, but the office is largely ceremonial.
\par \tab Laws are enacted by a Parliament consisting of two chambers--the popularly elected Lok Sabha, or House of the People, with not more than 545 members and the Rajya Sabha, or Council of States, with not more than 250 indirectly elected members. The prime minister is elected by the majority party or coalition in Parliament and then formally appointed by the president. Executive power is exercised by the appointed Council of Ministers, or cabinet, under the leadership of the prime minister. Elections to the Lok Sabha are held at least every five years; if there is a vote of no-confidence in the prime minister's government, the president must call for new elections. The Supreme Court decides on the constitutionality of federal laws, handles disputes between the central government and the states or between the states themselves, and judges appeals from lower courts.
\par \tab India consists of 25 states and seven union territories. The governments of the states are organized in much the same way as the central government. The federal constitution gives the states control over certain issues, such as agriculture, and retains control over almost 100 others, such as foreign affairs. There is a third list of subjects, such as price control, on which both the central and state governments may pass laws. The union territories are controlled directly by the central government. The most important of these territories is Delhi, which includes the capital, New Delhi, and the rest of the Delhi metropolis.
\par \tab The federal constitution includes a lengthy list of fundamental rights. It guarantees freedom of speech and religion, among many other rights, and abolishes untouchability. It also specifies a set of Directive Principles of State Policy, designed to guide the government in the interests of the people. In periods of national emergency, which only the president can declare, the government may legally suspend certain rights for a limited period. Such an emergency was in force in India from June 1975 to March 1977.
\par \tab Party politics are energetically pursued at both the national and state levels. There are many parties, and their orientations are diverse. The Indian National Congress, or its dominant faction, has governed India since independence except for the three years from 1977 to 1980. It has been committed to a form of democratic socialism, with a mixture of private and state enterprise. Several other Socialist and Communist parties are ideologically to the left of Congress, while other parties are to its right. In addition, there are a number of parties that represent the interests of particular regions, language groups, and religions. With so many parties contesting Parliamentary elections, independent candidates have a fairly good chance of being elected. Despite the high level of illiteracy, voter turnouts in Indian elections are normally large.
\par \tab In foreign affairs India tried to maintain a policy of nonalignment in the political rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union during the Cold War. It supported independence movements in areas subject to colonial rule, opposed racism in South Africa and elsewhere, and championed the nations of the Third World in their economic dealings with the affluent countries of Europe, North America, and Japan. India has played a prominent role in the United Nations and in many of its specialized agencies.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was written by Joseph E. Schwartzberg, Professor and Chairman, Department of Geography, University of Minnesota, and Editor of 'A Historical Atlas of South Asia'.
\par \tab {\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR INDIA}
\par \tab Ashton, Stephen. The British in India (Batsford, 1988).
\par \tab Caldwell, J.C. India (Chelsea House, 1990).
\par \tab Forster, E.M. A Passage to India (Harcourt, 1984).
\par \tab Jaffrey, Madhur. Seasons of Splendour: Tales, Myths and Legends from India (Puffin Books, 1987).
\par \tab Karan, P.P., ed. India in the Global Community (Gateway, 1988).
\par \tab Kipling, Rudyard. The Jungle Book (Viking Kestrel, 1987).
\par \tab Kipling, Rudyard. Kim (Penguin, 1987).
\par \tab Lerner Publications Company, Department of Geography Staff, ed. India in Pictures (Lerner, 1989).
\par \tab Mason, Philip. The Men Who Ruled India (Norton, 1985).
\par \tab Ogle, Carol and Ogle, John. People at Work in India (Batsford, 1988)
\par \tab Scholberg, Henry. The Encyclopedias of India (Promilla, 1986).
\par \tab Thapar, Romila. A History of India (Penguin, 1985).
\par \tab Traub, James. India: The Challenge of Change, rev. ed. (Messner, 1985).
\par \tab Wolpert, Stanley. A New History of India, 3rd ed. (Oxford, 1989).\par \tab Two thousand years ago mariners would venture on only the most cautious coastal voyages along the Atlantic coast. The Indian Ocean, however, had well-established trade routes. Sailors struck boldly across the Arabian Sea from Arabia to India. Arabian merchants traded with the east coast of Africa. Indian traders, colonists, and priests carried their civilization to the East Indies.
\par \tab The dependable monsoon winds made these voyages possible. The northeast monsoon blew out from Asia in the winter, and the strong southwest monsoon roared up from the Indian Ocean in the summer.
\par \tab The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the oceans but covers only about 20 percent of the total ocean area. Its shores are Asia on the north; Antarctica on the south; Africa on the west; and the East Indies, Australia, and Tasmania on the east. Its length from north to south is more than 6,200 miles (10,000 kilometers); its breadth, 4,000 to 6,000 miles (6,400 to 9,700 kilometers); and its area, about 28,400,000 square miles (73,600,000 square kilometers). The average depth is about 13,000 feet (3,960 meters). Its greatest verified depth is 24,442 feet (7,450 meters).
\par \tab At the southern tip of India, the Indian Ocean forks into the Bay of Bengal on the northeast and the Arabian Sea on the northwest. The Arabian Sea branches again into the Persian Gulf. Beyond the Arabian Peninsula the Indian Ocean connects with the Red Sea. From Asia several great rivers enter it--the Ganges, Brahmaputra, Irrawaddy, Indus, and the junction of the Tigris and Euphrates known as the Shatt al 'Arab. From Africa flow the Zambezi and the Limpopo.
\par \tab The greater part of the Indian Ocean lies within the tropical and temperate zones. In the tropical zone the warm shallows are characterized by numerous corals that, with red algae, are capable of forming islands and atolls. The larger islands in the Indian Ocean are Madagascar, Sri Lanka (formerly Ceylon), Socotra, and the Seychelles. The volcanic islands of RΘunion, Kerguelen, Crozet, Prince Edward, Nouvelle (New) Amsterdam, and St-Paul lie to the southwest and south. Coral atolls predominate in the tropical belt and include the Maldives, Lakshadweep, Amirante, Cocos (or Keeling), and the Chagos Archipelago. There are also volcanic islands ringed by coral reefs such as the Comoros and Mascarenes.
\par \tab The Indian Ocean is home to sponges, worms, crabs, mollusks, brittle stars, small coral fish, flying fish, dolphin, tuna, various sharks, and poisonous sea snakes. Sea turtles and large sea mammals are widespread. The most common birds are the albatross and frigate birds. Several species of penguins inhabit the African and Antarctic coasts and some islands.
\par \tab Indians, Egyptians, and Phoenicians first explored the Indian Ocean from 3000 to 1000 BC. European penetration into the basin of the ocean dates back to the 16th century. Colonies of France, the Netherlands, and Portugal were formed, but during the 19th century the ocean and most of its islands were under the rule of Great Britain. After World War II many island territories became independent republics.\par \tab The largest country, both in area and population, in Southeast Asia is the Republic of Indonesia. It consists of 13,677 islands that cover 741,101 square miles (1,919,443 square kilometers) of land along the equator between the Indian and Pacific oceans. With a population of more than 150 million, it ranks as the world's fifth most populous country. The nation is poor, with a low standard of living, even though it has many valuable natural resources. These include large onshore and offshore petroleum and natural gas deposits, huge tracts of tropical hardwood forests, and a variety of minerals, including tin, nickel, and copper. However, only about 10 percent of the land can be used for raising crops.
\par \tab The islands of Indonesia, of which 6,044 are inhabited, spread out over about 3,300 miles (5,300 kilometers) from east to west, and 1,300 miles (2,100 kilometers) from north to south. The country's total land and sea area is more than 3 million square miles (7.7 million square kilometers). Despite the vast number of islands, five of them account for nearly 92 percent of the land area. These are Sumatra; Java; Celebes (Sulawesi); two thirds of Borneo (Kalimantan); and the western portion of New Guinea, Irian Jaya. Almost 95 percent of the people live on those main islands, and more than 62 percent make their homes in Java. Under international law, the waters between the islands of an archipelago have not traditionally been regarded as part of a country's territory. However, Indonesia claimed them as such, which led to international disagreements. The Law of the Sea Convention, approved by the United Nations in 1982, established the concept of archipelagic waters, supporting Indonesia's claim.
\par \tab From the start of its history, Indonesia was divided in various ways among a number of rulers. The Netherlands ruled the islands for nearly 350 years, until Indonesia declared its independence in 1945.
\par {\b The Land, Climate, Animal Life}
\par \tab {\b The land.}
\par \tab Most of the islands of Indonesia are mountainous. The lowlands, with a few exceptions, are relatively small. Most of Indonesia's mountains are the products of mountain-building forces associated with the intersection of two blocks, or plates, of the Earth's crust--the Pacific Plate and the Indian Ocean Plate, which meet in Indonesia. These plates have long been moving slowly into the Eurasian Plate. The resulting pressure pushed up mountain ranges and created the numerous volcanoes of Indonesia, the contorted shapes of islands like Celebes, and the ocean deeps, such as the Java Trench. This trench, located south of Java, is about 24,000 feet (7,300 meters) deep.
\par \tab Indonesia has more than 60 active volcanoes. They are in a zone that runs mainly through western Sumatra and its offshore islands, central and southern Java, Bali, and Lombok, and into the Lesser Sunda Islands. A smaller zone of volcanoes lies in the northern parts of Celebes and the Moluccas. The nonvolcanic areas of western Indonesia are on a southerly extension of the Eurasian landmass known as the Sunda Shelf. In eastern Indonesia, such nonvolcanic areas are on the northerly extension of the Australian landmass called the Sahul Shelf. The land areas of the shelves are alluvial lowlands or eroded uplands.
\par \tab The soils of the volcanic uplands are relatively fertile. However, frequent eruptions of volcanoes in Java and Bali not only cause much loss of life and property, but also take large areas out of cultivation temporarily, especially on the middle and upper slopes of the volcanoes themselves. Areas with fertile volcanic soils are cultivated intensively despite the threat of disaster. Stretches of fertile alluvial soils lie along the coasts of the main islands, but many are swampy and difficult to drain. Most of the eastern lowlands of Sumatra are virtually uninhabited for that reason. Upland soils, such as those in most of Borneo, are infertile, although they may have a cover of lush rain forest vegetation.
\par \tab About two thirds of the land area of Indonesia lies under tropical rain forests, only a small portion of which has never been cut or burned. Mangrove tree swamps are common along the shores of alluvial lowlands, including most of Sumatra's east coast.
\par \tab {\b Climate.}
\par \tab Since all of Indonesia lies near the equator, the country has a year-round growing season. Frost occurs only at the peaks of the highest mountains. Rainfall near the equator is abundant and well-distributed throughout the year. Away from the equator, however, the rainfall becomes seasonal, with a summer maximum and a winter minimum. In eastern Java and the Lesser Sunda Islands, the dry season is accompanied by severe water shortages. This season is associated with the so-called southeast monsoon of May through September. The climates of the lowlands are hot and humid almost all year. In the mountains, the temperatures are somewhat lower and the climate is more agreeable.
\par \tab {\b Animal life.}
\par \tab The animals in Indonesia are largely of Asian origin. They include monkeys, orangutans and other apes, tigers, elephants, water buffalo, a variety of birds, a rare species of rhinoceros found in Java, and a giant monitor lizard, the Komodo dragon. However, eastern Indonesia reflects a relationship with Australasia through marsupials (mammals with pouches) and birds of non-Asian origin.
\par {\b The People}
\par \tab Most Indonesians are of Mongoloid stock with strong East Asian influences. Only a small number reflect Melanesian origins, as in Irian Jaya. The majority of the people are Malays (also called Malaysians) and speak Malayo-Polynesian languages. The nation has more than 300 ethnic groups, and about 250 languages are spoken. The Javanese, the most important group, make up about half of the population and live chiefly in central Java. Large Javanese populations also dwell in southern Sumatra. Western Java is inhabited mostly by Sundanese, and eastern Java and the island of Madura by Madurese. Northern Sumatra has Achinese, Bataks, and Minangkabau peoples. In the eastern Outer Islands are a number of groups, such as the Ambonese of the Moluccas, the Minahasans of northern Celebes, and the Bugis and Makasarese of southern Celebes. These groups also include the peoples of the Lesser Sundas to the east of Java, of whom the Balinese are the most numerous. Among the non-Malay people of Indonesia are approximately 4 million Chinese. Many of them have adjusted to Indonesian ways, and most live in the larger cities and towns. The Chinese residents have, however, often been persecuted by the Malaysian majority. Dayaks inhabit the Borneo highlands, and small numbers of Papuan peoples of Melanesian origin live in Irian Jaya.
\par \tab Indonesia developed an official national language because of the great variety of tongues spoken in the country. All Indonesian schoolchildren are required to learn this language, called Bahasa Indonesia. It was developed from Trade Malay, one of the most widespread hybrid languages used by Indonesians. Bahasa Indonesia also contains elements borrowed from the ethnic languages, particularly Javanese. English is taught in the schools as well.
\par \tab Most Indonesians live in rural areas and are farmers, though they generally raise only enough food crops to feed their own families. About 78 percent of the population is classified as rural, and about 60 percent of the labor force works directly in agriculture. The rest of the rural population earns a living through fishing, forestry, handicrafts, and the processing of agricultural products.
\par \tab The most common type of settlement, typified by the Javanese village, is a concentration of large thatched-roof houses on stilts. These villages, called kampongs, are surrounded by fruit trees and various kinds of palm trees, which contribute substantially to the family food supply. A kampong, normally provides shelter for about 500 persons, but many of the structures blend into neighboring settlements and form what appear to be towns of several thousand people, most of whom are engaged in agriculture. Rural population densities in these areas are extremely high, reaching 3,000 per square mile (1,160 per square kilometer) in parts of Java. Densities tend to be much less in the Outer Islands.
\par \tab Only about 22 percent of Indonesia's population lives in cities, but the country has a number of large urban centers. The urban population growth of the 1960s and 1970s was more then twice as rapid as the total population growth. Indonesia has more than 30 cities with populations of over 100,000, and five with over 1 million--Jakarta, Surabaya, Bandung, and Semarang, all on Java; and Medan on Sumatra. Jakarta, the nation's capital, was developed by the Dutch as the commercial and administrative center of the islands, then called the Dutch East Indies; its population increased to more than 6.5 million in the early 1980s. Many Indonesian cities reflect their colonial origins. Old colonial architecture, modern buildings, and kamponglike areas stand next to one another.
\par \tab About 90 percent of the people are Muslims, but the intensity of their observance varies. The most ardent are the Achinese of northern Sumatra, who converted to Islam at the end of the 13th century. The Javanese are much less intense, and their culture reflects the influence of Buddhism and Hinduism, which originated in India and preceded the Muslim conquests. The more than 2.5 million Balinese practice Hinduism, and many of the hill peoples in Borneo and Irian Jaya, as well as in other remote areas, observe animist tribal religions.
\par \tab About 13 million Christians live throughout the country in the larger cities, especially in northern Celebes. Most of the Chinese follow Buddhism, Taoism, or Confucianism.
\par {\b The Arts, Education, and Health}
\par \tab The arts in Indonesia have their roots largely in the pre-Islamic cultures, especially of Java and Bali. An oral tradition of storytelling, particularly of epic tales of Indian origin, continues to be important. Puppet shadow plays associated with the same themes are common in most rural areas. There also is a formal dance tradition, similarly based on themes and movements in the Indian manner. The dancing is accompanied by an orchestra, called a gamelan, consisting of such percussion instruments as drums, gongs, and xylophones, together with flutes and stringed instruments. Weaving is another high art, and each region has distinctive patterns of largely cotton fabrics. A fabric, called batik, created in Java, is particularly well-known in other countries, and some is exported. A contemporary literature in Bahasa Indonesia has begun to appear.
\par \tab More than 60 percent of adults can read and write, a vast improvement since Indonesia became independent in 1945. The government has promoted education at all levels, and almost all children now receive some elementary-school education. However, the dropout rate is high, particularly in rural areas, and the quality of instruction at all levels is poor. There are more than 20 million students in elementary school, but only about 4 million in high school. Each province has a university, and there are several hundred teacher-training institutes and private colleges. Only a few of the universities--those in Jakarta, Bandung, Surabaya, Bogor, and Yogyakarta--are of high quality, however.
\par \tab In general, social welfare standards are also low. People in the larger cities receive fair medical care. But the rural areas, despite government-sponsored efforts to raise standards, have an acute shortage of doctors and paramedics. Life expectancy at birth was only 53 years in 1980, and the infant mortality rate, though declining, was 93 per 1,000.
\par {\b The Economy}
\par \tab Indonesia is a poor country. In 1980, according to the World Bank, it had an estimated gross national product of $430 per person, which placed it just above the very poorest nations. In comparison, its neighbors, the Philippines and Malaysia, had a per capita gross national product of $690 and $1,620. As in most developing countries, agriculture is the basis of the economy. For generations, agriculture has accounted for more than half the value of the economic output and for at least 60 percent of the labor force. The percentage of agricultural workers has remained about the same. However, the agricultural share of the economic output dropped to about 26 percent in 1980 because of rapid increases in the value of oil production during the 1970s and the resulting major rise in productivity of the mining and related industries. Trade, finance, and other services account for about a third of economic production.
\par \tab {\b Agriculture.}
\par \tab About 10 percent of Indonesia's land can be farmed, the majority of it for rice. The nation's agriculture is based on wet-paddy cultivation, chiefly in Java, Madura, and Bali. The country has about 13.3 million acres (5.4 million hectares) of wet-paddy fields, most of which are wholly or partially terraced and all of which are irrigated. In addition, there are about 3.2 million acres (1.3 million hectares) of dry-paddy fields and another 15 million acres (6 million hectares) of permanent dry fields in other annual crops. Most fields produce two crops a year. About 22 million acres (9 million hectares) of rice were harvested in 1980. Dry or upland crops also are frequently double-cropped. They include corn, of importance chiefly in drier areas, such as Madura and eastern Java and the Lesser Sundas; cassava; sweet potatoes; soybeans; sugarcane; and peanuts; as well as vegetables grown primarily near the larger cities.
\par \tab There also are about 2 million acres (800,000 hectares) of estates, chiefly in Sumatra, about half of which produce rubber, and the remainder such crops as coffee, tea, oil palm, tobacco, bananas, cotton, and sugarcane. Under the Dutch, estate agricultural production was the mainstay of the export economy. The nationalization of the Dutch-owned estates in 1958 and the encroachment of squatters on estate lands have diminished estate production. Many commercial crops are also grown by smallholders. These growers account for about 60 percent of the rubber production, which reached 1 million tons (907,000 metric tons) in 1981. Indonesia ranks second only to Malaysia as a rubber producer. Smallholders also produce large quantities of copra (from coconut palms), and spices, such as cloves, cinnamon, and pepper, for which the area was famous for centuries.
\par \tab In the mountainous and remoter areas of the Outer Islands, the people carry on shifting cultivation. They clear the fields for brief periods by cutting trees and burning the waste. Then they cultivate cassava, corn, and other food crops on small plots for a year or two before abandoning the land. Several commercial crops, including rubber, are grown in this way. This method affects vast areas of forest.
\par \tab Indonesian agriculture has done well to provide the growing population with food. However, the food supply has had to be augmented by importing about 2 million tons (1.8 million metric tons) of rice annually. Until the mid-1970s, food production barely kept pace with the population growth, but productivity has grown faster than the population since then as a result of government programs. These programs have raised rice yields through the use of high-yielding varieties of rice, improvements in irrigation, and providing fertilizers, pesticides, and credit to farmers at reasonable rates.
\par \tab {\b Fisheries and livestock.}
\par \tab Fishery production has risen steadily, and Indonesia, with a production of about 1.5 million tons (1.4 million metric tons) of marine fish in 1980, ranks 12th in the world. Most of the catch comes from waters near the shore and is harvested by fishermen using small boats, despite government-sponsored attempts to modernize the fishing industry. In addition, aquaculture in both brackish and fresh waters, including some paddy fields, contributes to the fish catch.
\par \tab Other sources of food include domestic poultry--chickens, ducks, geese, and turkeys--which are raised in every village. Pigs have less importance because Muslims do not eat pork, but goats and sheep are numerous. Beef comes from cattle and water buffalo, which are used primarily as work animals.
\par \tab {\b Forestry and mining.}
\par \tab About two thirds of Indonesia is forest and woodland, but many of the forests consist of second-growth trees. Such trees are used primarily for fuelwood, as are the mangroves of low-lying coastal marshes that provide immense quantities of charcoal, the chief domestic fuel in rural areas. Productive stands of virgin rain forest, especially in Borneo, have come under intensive exploitation for sawlogs and veneer logs.
\par \tab Minerals are the most important Indonesian exports. The country produces several important metallic minerals primarily for export--tin and bauxite chiefly from the islands south of Singapore, nickel ores from Celebes, and copper from Irian Jaya. Salt, sulfur, asphalt, and coal are mined largely for domestic use. Indonesia also is a major producer of oil and natural gas, as well as petroleum products, and these account for 73 percent of the value of all its exports. About 587 million barrels of crude petroleum are produced annually, depending on the international demand. Production and refining are controlled by a government corporation, though various international oil companies participate as contractors. The chief market for hydrocarbon fuels is Japan, but the United States and Singapore are also important customers. Indonesia's first geothermal power station, which opened in 1983 in western Java, harnesses natural heat from the Earth. The government has given high priority to geothermal and hydroelectric development to conserve oil supplies for export.
\par \tab {\b Manufacturing.}
\par \tab About 9 percent of the gross domestic product comes from manufacturing, other than processing oil and agricultural raw materials. Textile production is the most important industry, but Indonesia also has shipyards, cement and paper works, and glass plants. The production of fertilizers, chemicals, plastics, and tires has become increasingly important. Indonesian workers assemble more than 40,000 vehicles annually from imported parts, and bicycle assembly is also important.
\par {\b Transportation and Communications}
\par \tab As a multi-island country, Indonesia depends particularly on interisland shipping for commerce and communication. The Dutch developed highly efficient shipping services to all the islands and ports, and the company that provided those services was nationalized by the Indonesian government in 1958. Since then, regular shipping services by more than 300 modern vessels have been sporadic and inefficient. Some of the demand for interisland transport has been met by thousands of small native craft. The major deepwater ports are Tanjung Priok in the area of Jakarta, Surabaya, and Cilacap on Java; Belawan, Dumai, and Palembang on Sumatra; Balikpapan on Borneo; and Ujung Pandang (Makassar) on Celebes.
\par \tab Overland transportation consists of an expanding highway system, chiefly on Java, of about 81,000 miles (130,000 kilometers), of which about half is paved. Recent road construction has been concentrated in the Outer Islands, principally on Sumatra. Railroads cover about 4,300 miles (6,900 kilometers), mainly on Java and Sumatra.
\par \tab A government airline serves most of the major cities. Postal service covers the entire country, and telegraph service is available in all the cities. Telephones are concentrated chiefly in the larger cities and in the areas that produce minerals for export. Government radio broadcasts reach most of Indonesia, but television is available mainly on Java.
\par {\b Government and Politics}
\par \tab Indonesia is a republic in which the president has the primary executive power and serves as leader of the legislature. The People's Consultative Assembly, consisting of 920 members, is the nation's highest authority according to the constitution, but the supremacy of the president is generally accepted. The president appoints the members of the assembly, which meets only once every five years, when it elects the president. The House of People's Representatives is composed of 460 members, of whom 360 are elected by the people to five-year terms and the remainder are appointed by the president. In theory presidential policies are subject to approval by the house, but it is actually a rubber-stamp parliament whose elected members represent primarily an alliance of special-interest groups. These groups are mobilized into the government party, called Golkar, and two other parties reflecting Muslim, Christian, and nationalist interests. An extremist Muslim party and the Communist party are outlawed.
\par \tab The country is divided into 24 provinces, two special districts, and a metropolitan district, Jakarta, each with an appointed governor. The central government has 37 ministries, many headed by military officers.
\par \tab Indonesia regards itself as one of the so-called unaligned nations. It helped organize and served as host for the Bandung Conference of 1955, which helped give identity to the concept of a Third World in international affairs. Indonesia was also one of the organizers of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) in 1967, designed to promote regional integrity and collective welfare in Southeast Asia. In the United Nations, Indonesia has consistently voted with the developing countries. Its relations with China have been strained since 1965, the year of a pro-Communist rebellion in Indonesia, and the two countries do not have formal diplomatic ties. Relations with neighboring Australia also were weakened by Indonesia's occupation in 1976 of the eastern half of Timor, then a Portuguese colony.
\par {\b History}
\par \tab The recorded history of Indonesia begins in references by the Roman scholars Pliny and Ptolemy, in Chinese texts, and in carved inscriptions dating from about the 6th century. Even in those early times, much of Indonesia had come under Indian cultural influences brought by Brahman priests called to the courts of various states and by traders who established themselves in coastal settlements.
\par \tab The group of islands was often highly fragmented politically, but from the early 7th century to the 13th century, most of western Indonesia, as well as Malaya and the Strait of Malacca, came under the control of the Srivijaya Kingdom based in Palembang. Srivijaya extended its influence eastward into Java as well, but consisted primarily of a number of small principalities linked into a trading network. This network tapped the riches of the Indies and acted as distribution centers for trade between China and the Indies, and China and southern India.
\par \tab About the same time, other Buddhist kingdoms developed in central Java. From them arose the Majapahit Kingdom, which controlled most of Java from the 14th to the 16th centuries.
\par \tab Control of the Strait of Malacca passed from the declining Srivijaya Kingdom to Malacca by the 15th century. Also by that time, Islam had spread from northern Sumatra down along the strait and eventually dominated Java and other islands by means of forcible conversion, which continued through the 17th century. The Portuguese had come to the Moluccas seeking spices in 1510, and Malacca fell to them in 1511. European expansion controlled Indonesian history for the next several hundred years.
\par \tab From the beginning of the 17th century, the Dutch were the dominant foreign power in Indonesia. They gradually extended their control over Java, completing the process by the late 18th century, and then more slowly over the Outer Islands, despite a period of British rule from 1811 to 1815. The Dutch originally operated through a private trading company, the Dutch East India Company, but the Dutch government took over the firm's affairs and territorial holdings in 1799. Some remote areas did not come under Dutch control until the beginning of World War II.
\par \tab Japan conquered the Dutch East Indies, as the islands were then called, in 1942 and ruled until surrender to the Allies in 1945. Indonesian nationalism grew rapidly during that period, and independence was proclaimed on Aug. 17, 1945, following the Japanese surrender. The Dutch tried to regain Indonesia but finally transferred sovereignty to the United States of Indonesia on Dec. 27, 1949. The new nation, under President Sukarno, retained a formal association with The Netherlands until 1954, when an independent Republic of Indonesia came into being. In 1959 the Dutch were expelled from the country and their assets confiscated. The Dutch handed over western New Guinea (Irian Jaya) to the republic in 1962.
\par \tab Meanwhile, regional forces continued to threaten the new state. A major rebellion, based in central Sumatra and northern Celebes, occurred in 1958 but was soon put down. In 1959, Sukarno proclaimed a policy of "guided democracy," which featured a return to the preliminary constitution of 1945 and the centralization of authority in the president. Another major revolt took place in 1965. It was associated with the rise to power of the Indonesian Communist party, which reportedly had Sukarno's support. This uprising forced Sukarno to surrender power to General Suharto of the Indonesian army, who had fought the rebellion. Hundreds of thousands of Communists and Chinese were massacred, and the Communist party was outlawed. Suharto became acting president; in 1968 the assembly elected him president.
\par \tab Under Suharto, the government encouraged economic development, foreign investment, and exploitation of natural resources. After 1975 progress sped up greatly. The stagnation in agricultural productivity characteristic of the Sukarno period ended, and food supplies increased faster than the population for the first time since independence.
\par \tab In the 1980s the economic outlook for Indonesia improved as petroleum and other mineral exports financed the nation's development. However, the food supply remained a difficult problem to solve with Indonesia's rapid population growth. The country's natural resources also required careful management. Such organizations as the World Bank and the United Nations assisted in the creation of programs for Indonesia's development. These programs are based on improvements in agriculture and fisheries, curtailing population growth, and expansion of domestic and export markets for manufacturing. Suharto was reelected president for a fifth term in 1988.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by Norton S. Ginsburg, Director, Environment and Policy Institute, East-West Center, Honolulu; former Professor of Geography, University of Chicago.
\par \tab {\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR INDONESIA}
\par \tab Bangs, Richard and Kallen, Christian. Islands of Fire, Islands of Spice: Exploring the Wild Places of Indonesia (Sierra, 1988).
\par \tab Bunge, F.M., ed. Indonesia: A Country Study (U.S. Government Printing Office, 1983).
\par \tab Cummings, Joe, and others. Indonesia: A Travel Survival Kit, 2nd ed. (Lonely Planet, 1990).
\par \tab Dalton, Bill. Indonesia Handbook, 4th ed. (Moon, 1988).
\par \tab George, Margaret. Australia and the Indonesian Revolution (International Scholarly Book Services, 1980).
\par \tab Lyle, Garry. Indonesia (Chelsea House, 1988).
\par \tab Neill, W.T. Twentieth-Century Indonesia (Columbia Univ. Press, 1973).
\par \tab Palmier, Leslie, ed. Understanding Indonesia (Gower, 1985).
\par \tab Stewart, I.C. Indonesians: Portraits from an Archipelago (Routledge, Chapman & Hall, 1984).
\par \tab Wilhelm, Donald. Emerging Indonesia (International Specialized Book, 1986).\par \tab The Middle Eastern nation of Iran was once the heartland of the ancient Persian Empire. About 2,500 years ago the empire extended from the Indus Valley, in what is now Pakistan, to the Nile River and parts of present-day Libya in northern Africa. The state was popularly known as Persia, a name first used by the ancient Greeks, after the ancient province of Parsa. The people of this land, however, always called their country Iran, or the land of the Aryans. In 1935 the government adopted the name Iran in order to draw attention to the Aryan origin of the people. This was part of a nationalistic movement that was being promoted at that time. Since the religious revolution that took place in 1979, the country officially has been called the Islamic Republic of Iran.
\par {\b Land and Climate}
\par \tab Iran lies in southwestern Asia and borders Armenia, Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan, and the Caspian Sea to the north; Turkey and Iraq on the west; the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman on the south; and Pakistan and Afghanistan to the east. It covers 636,000 square miles (1,647,000 square kilometers) but is sparsely populated. Iranian territory includes several islands in the southern Persian Gulf.
\par \tab The, dry, barren, triangular-shaped Plateau of Iran dominates most of the country. The plateau lies at heights of from 3,000 to 5,000 feet (900 to 1,500 meters) above sea level. The lofty Elburz Mountains extend from east to west along the northern frontier. The highest peak in Iran--the snowclad volcanic cone of Qolleh-ye Damavand, which rises 18,386 feet (5,604 meters)--is in this range.
\par \tab The Zagros Mountains, which run from northwest to southeast along the western border, are much broader than the Elburz. The Zagros separate the narrow coastal plains of the Caspian Sea and Persian Gulf from the rocky highlands and deserts of central Iran. Several parallel, alternating ridges lie between Iraq to the west and the Plateau of Iran in the east. The country is subject to severe earthquakes.
\par \tab Most of Iran has an elevation of more than 1,500 feet (450 meters). The mountainous regions are extremely rugged, difficult to reach, and inhabited largely by pastoral nomads. The country has three large rivers, but only one, the Karun in western Iran, is navigable. The swift-flowing mountainous rivers serve as excellent sources of hydroelectric power. Lake Urmia, a shallow saline lake in the extreme northwest corner, is the largest lake.
\par \tab About one sixth of Iran's land area consists of desert. The desert region is covered partly by loose sand and stones, which are called dasht, and partly by large, sharp-edged salt masses, known as kavir. The kavir make up a desolate region that is practically uninhabited and unexplored.
\par \tab Forests cover about 11 percent of Iran, most extensively in the Caspian region, which has widespread areas of oak, maple, beech, elm, walnut, and ash trees. Scattered oases, which are watered by underground springs, are found at the bases of most of the mountains. The oases support tamarisk, poplar, date palm, myrtle, oleander, acacia, and mulberry trees, and grape vines. Bears thrive in the mountains, and other animal life includes sheep, goats, gazelles, wild pigs, leopards, and foxes.
\par \tab The Plateau of Iran has a continental climate, with cold winters and hot summers. Winter rain and snow provide annual precipitation of about 15 inches (38 centimeters) in the west and 5 inches in the east. The Caspian coastal region, the most densely populated part of the country, receives up to 80 inches (200 centimeters) of rain yearly. Rainfall diminishes toward the Persian Gulf region, where it is less than 5 inches. The mountains receive heavy winter snow, which is the principal source of water for irrigation in spring and summer. Temperatures on the Plateau of Iran drop as low as 20░F (-7░ C) during the winter and soar above 100░ F (38░ C) in summer.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab The population of Iran is more than 57 million (1991 estimate), with an average annual growth rate of 3.1 percent. About 96 percent of the people belong to the Indo-Iranian language group, and the rest have Turkic, Arab, or other Semitic ethnic backgrounds. Farsi, the national language, is written in Arabic script.
\par \tab The vast majority of the Iranian people are Muslims of the Shi'ite sect. They regard Mashhad, in the northeast, as a holy city because it is the site of the tomb of 'Ali ar-Rida, the eighth imam, or leader, of the sect. Another holy city is Qom. A small number of Iranians still practice Zoroastrianism, the religion of ancient Persia. The country also has small numbers of Christians, Jews, and Baha'is.
\par \tab Certain ethnic groups predominate in various areas of Iran's provinces. For example, the Kurds, Bakhtiari, and Lurs, all descendants of old Persian peoples, live in the western mountains. The Turkomans and Baluchis make their homes in the east, the Azerbaijani in the northwest, and the Arabs in the southwest. Many of these peoples tend herds of sheep and goats on desert ranges and in the mountains, moving up the slopes during the summer and down into the lowlands in winter.
\par \tab Traditionally, the farmland in each Iranian village belonged to a landlord, who collected rent from the peasants who worked it. During the 1960s the government distributed some tracts to farm workers, but large landholders continued to control many of the most fertile areas.
\par \tab Crop irrigation is vital on most of the Plateau of Iran. Farmers must obtain water from underground springs because of the small number of rivers. The farmers prevent evaporation by tapping the springs near the base of the mountains and bringing the water down through underground tunnels, called qanaats.
\par \tab Iranian cities were traditionally enclosed by high mud walls that gave access through colorful patterned gateways made of glazed tiles. The practitioners of each craft occupied their own section in the bazaar, or market district. An Iranian house, no matter how poor the occupants were, had a garden enclosed by a mud wall. The garden was a miniature landscape, laid out formally with a tiled pool in the center. Tehran, the capital, is the largest city and the commercial center of Iran. It lies on the Plateau of Iran, about 70 miles (110 kilometers) south of the Caspian Sea. Tehran's wide, treelined streets are crowded with traffic. The city still has some of its traditional character, but large Western-style apartment buildings and other structures have given it a mostly modern appearance. Esfahan, the 17th-century capital, is the art shrine of Iran. Tabriz, in the northwest, is the trade center for the rich agricultural region of Azerbaijan. Abadan, on the Persian Gulf, served as the chief Iranian oil port, but it was severely damaged in the Iran-Iraq war. Little remains of the great Persian Empire except the lonely ruins of Persepolis, in the south.
\par \tab The government provides free elementary and secondary schooling, but classroom facilities in many villages are inadequate. Iran's main institution of higher learning is the University of Tehran, founded in 1934. There are other universities in Tehran and in such major cities as Mashhad, Shiraz, and Esfahan.
\par \tab Before the establishment of the Islamic republic, most women in Iranian cities had begun to discard their traditional clothing of black trousers and an all-covering black veil and wore European-style clothes. Since that time, the social and professional activities of women have been limited, and a traditional dress code, including the veil, has been reintroduced.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab On the plateau, the peasants raise wheat, barley, corn (maize), cotton, sugar beets, poppies for opium, grapes, Persian melons, and vegetables. Along the coast of the Persian Gulf, dates are the chief crop. The warm, rain-drenched Caspian coast, Iran's most fertile area, produces sugarcane, rice, tea, tobacco, and many kinds of fruit. Its forests furnish excellent timber and charcoal for fuel. Iran, Russia, Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan, and Kazakhstan share the Caspian Sea fisheries. The Caspian is famous for its sturgeon, whose eggs provide caviar of especially high quality. Petroleum is Iran's leading natural resource, and the chief oil fields lie east of the head of the Persian Gulf. Pipelines carry the oil to refineries and to loading terminals on the gulf. Iran's reserves of natural gas, its second most valuable resource, are among the highest in the world. Other mineral resources include iron ore, chromite, copper, lead, zinc, sulfur, uranium, and low-grade coal.
\par \tab The Iranian government has attempted to revive the beautiful handicrafts of old Persia--miniature painting, silver inlay work, and carpet weaving. Major industries include sugar refining and food processing; cotton and woolen cloth weaving; and the manufacture of cement, bricks, tiles, and chemicals. The government owns most larger factories and regulates foreign trade. Iran's principal exports are petroleum, carpets, cotton, fruits, nuts, and skins and leather.
\par {\b Transportation and Communication}
\par \tab Highways connect the major cities of Iran. In the early 1970s the country had about 27,000 miles (43,450 kilometers) of all-weather roads, of which about 7,000 miles (11,270 kilometers) were paved and about 13,000 miles (20,900 kilometers) were gravel. Two decades later the country had some 87,000 miles (140,000 kilometers) of roads, of which about 42,000 miles (68,000 kilometers) were paved. The railroad system has about 2,900 miles (4,700 kilometers) of track and links Iran with Turkey and with Europe. Iran's major ports are located on the Persian Gulf. The largest petroleum outlet was at Abadan until that city and its refinery were destroyed in the war with Iraq. Airports serve domestic and international flights.
\par \tab About 17 daily newspapers are published in Iran. The government operates a national television and radio network. Most of the country's cultural institutions are concentrated in Tehran.
\par {\b Government}
\par \tab Since the days of Cyrus the Great, during the 6th century BC, Iran has been ruled by absolute monarchs. The shah-in-shah, king of kings, or emperor, decided the fate of the empire. Even the Islamic rulers of the Safavid and Qajar dynasties, which governed the country during most of the period from the 16th century to the 1920s, considered themselves the Shadow of God, the vice-regent of God on Earth. The Safavids, because of their descent from a saintly family, enjoyed a degree of spiritual authority that the Qajars did not have.
\par \tab A modern type of government was finally introduced in Iran after the Persian Revolution of 1906, during which about 16,000 people took refuge in mosques until the shah agreed to give the nation a constitution and a legislature. The constitution of 1906 was supplemented in 1907 and amended in 1925, 1949, 1957, and 1967. It provided for an elected parliament, called the Majlis, which became bicameral in 1949. At first representatives were elected every two years, but their terms were increased to four years. By 1971 the number of representatives had reached a total of 268. Only males at least 21 years old could participate in the elections until 1963, when women were also given the right to vote. The Senate, or upper house, first met in 1950. It had 60 members, 30 elected and 30 appointed by the shah for four-year terms. Senators had to be at least 40 years old.
\par \tab Deputies in parliament could propose legislation if it was sponsored by at least 15 members; otherwise the shah and his cabinet proposed the laws. Parliament controlled the actions of the cabinet if vital national interests were at stake. Before World War II about 60 percent of the members of parliament were landowners, about 20 percent were merchants, and fewer than 20 percent were professional people.
\par \tab The shah had great power in the constitutional monarchy proclaimed in 1906. He named the prime minister and the members of the cabinet, convened and dissolved parliament, appointed judges, commanded the armed forces, conducted foreign relations, and had the power to declare war and make peace. The shah's signature was required on all bills.
\par \tab Western legal codes, modeled after the French system, were adopted. During the 1920s commercial, criminal, and civil codes were established. Between 1928 and 1935 Western dress and headwear became acceptable and former titles were abolished.
\par \tab The constitution provided that no laws could conflict with the Shari'ah, the religious law based on Islam. In addition, a council of five members of the highest clergy was to be set up to determine constitutionality of legislation. However, Reza Shah Pahlavi, who ruled from 1925 to 1941, and his son, Mohammed Reza, who succeeded him as shah and governed until 1979, never permitted the council to operate. Because of this and other factors, Iranian religious leaders were hostile toward both shahs.
\par \tab As a result of the Islamic Revolution, a new constitution was adopted in December 1979, and the Islamic Republic replaced the monarchy. The new constitution guaranteed individual rights, but it gave absolute power to the supreme leader of the government, who for ten years, until his death in 1989, was the Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini. The ayatollah was given unlimited power because he was believed to represent the infallible Twelfth Imam in the line of successors to the Prophet Muhammad.
\par \tab The supreme leader rules through the Islamic Consultative Assembly, which consists of elected representatives. The people also elect the president for a four-year term. The president chooses the prime minister and signs all laws passed by the assembly. The prime minister has the power to appoint and remove members of the cabinet. The Islamic Consultative Assembly has 270 members as well as one representative from among the nation's Zoroastrians, Jews, and Assyrian/Chaldean Christians and two representatives of the Armenian Christians. They are elected to four-year terms. The parliament is supervised by a Council of Guardians, composed of 12 members who serve for six years. Six members of this council are Islamic jurists who are appointed by the supreme leader, and six are jurists specializing in various branches of the law who are nominated by the High Legal Council and elected by the Islamic Consultative Assembly. They are empowered to decide whether laws are in accordance with the spirit of Islam and the constitution.
\par \tab The judiciary consists of the Supreme Judicial Council, which includes the head of the Supreme Court, the prosecutor general, and three elected judges. The council supervises Iran's courts.
\par {\b History}
\par \tab Iran has more than 2,500 years of recorded history. Yet its foundations as a modern state were not laid until the beginning of the 20th century. Politically, Iranian history can be divided into eight periods: the Achaemenian Dynasty (559-330 BC), the Parthian Dynasty (247 BC-AD 224), the Sassanid Empire (225-640), the Islamic Caliphate (640-1501), the Safavid Dynasty (1502-1736), the Qajar Dynasty (1779-1925), the Pahlavi Dynasty (1925-1979), and the present-day Islamic Republic.
\par \tab During the Achaemenian period, the Persian Empire extended from the Indus Valley to the Nile River. Cyrus the Great founded the first dynasty and Zoroastrianism became the national religion. The empire was destroyed by Alexander the Great, who swept through Persia to the Indus Valley.
\par \tab During the Parthian Dynasty, Persia was again united under Turco-Persian rule. The Sassanid Empire revived old Persian culture. The language of this empire was Pahlavi. The Islamic Caliphate began with the Arab conquest and ended with the Mongol invasion. As the Mongols became assimilated, other Turco-Mongol invaders ruled parts of Iran.
\par \tab The Safavid Dynasty marked the beginning of the Iranian state in an area that had about the same boundaries as present-day Iran. The Safavid rulers were the descendants of the famous Shi'ah saint Safi al-Din, and they had both religious and secular powers. This dynasty was almost destroyed in 1722 by Afghan invaders, and the country was then taken over by Qajar tribes from the north.
\par \tab The Qajar Dynasty brought the start of a new, modern era. The government was moved from Shiraz back to Tehran, which became the permanent capital in 1788. The Iranian people challenged the divine right of absolute and arbitrary rule. The rulers were also confronted by pressure from Russia and Great Britain, which were vying for influence in Iran at each other's expense. Wars with Russia led to a loss of territory in the Caucasus, and the 1828 Treaty of Turmanchay established what is now Iran's northern border. Britain meanwhile gained control of the ports on the Persian Gulf in order to assure its control of the sea routes to India, its chief colony.
\par \tab Modernization began in Iran with the establishment of telegraph lines, along with administrative and military reforms. These steps were taken with the help of foreign advisers and were financed by loans from Russia and Britain. Eventually, however, the people resented the process of Westernization, the influx of foreigners, Iran's increasing indebtedness to European powers, and the arbitrary authority of their government. In 1890 Naser od-Din Shah gave an English major a monopoly for the production, sale, and export of tobacco. The people revolted, boycotting tobacco; even the wives of the shah refused to smoke. When Naser od-Din canceled the tobacco concession, the people realized their power for the first time. This was the prelude to the Persian Revolution of 1906, when the shah was forced to grant a constitution and representative government. The Qajar Dynasty ruled, however, until 1925.
\par \tab In 1907 the Russians and the British divided Iran into spheres of influence, with Russia controlling the north and Britain the southeast. During World War I both powers occupied their respective spheres of influence in the fight against Germany and its allies. Political parties emerged in Iran at this time, with members of the Majlis dividing into constitutionalist and conservative factions. As a result of the Russian Revolution near the end of the war, the British hoped to establish a controlling influence over the whole country, but the Iranian parliament rejected their offer of financial and military assistance. The Pahlavi Dynasty was founded by Reza Khan, a man of humble origin who had gained control over the elite Cossack Brigade and used it to unify the country under his command. He became minister of war, commander of the army, and, in October 1923, prime minister. Ahmad Shah, the last of the Qajar rulers, left the country a few months later, and Reza Khan was proclaimed king in 1925. He adopted the name of Pahlavi.
\par \tab Reza Shah, a reformer who wanted to modernize his country, established Western-style schools, including the University of Tehran. He freed women from their obligation to wear a veil. He also built the country's first railroad, from northern Iran to the head of the Persian Gulf, which he financed with revenues from taxes that were levied on the consumption of tea and sugar.
\par \tab At the outbreak of World War II in 1939, Reza Shah favored the German side. As a result, the Soviet Union and Great Britain began occupying the country in 1941 to obstruct German operations there and to maintain a link for shipping American supplies to the Soviet Union. Reza Shah was soon forced to abdicate in favor of his son, Mohammed Reza, and the power of the Iranian government was limited to domestic affairs that did not interfere with the interests of the occupation powers. Nevertheless, modern political parties emerged, including the Tudeh Communist party. When the Allies left Iran after the war, the Soviet-influenced Azerbaijan Republic and Kurdish Republic were established. However, these two independent republics could not maintain themselves without Soviet support, and they soon collapsed.
\par \tab The postwar struggle to restore Iran's autonomy hampered Mohammed Reza Shah's efforts to assert his power. The Majlis tried to force him into the position of a constitutional monarch, and Mohammed Mossadegh, who headed the government as prime minister, nationalized Iranian oil in 1951 and forced the withdrawal of the British Oil Company. The political conflict with Mossadegh led to the shah's departure from Iran in 1953. With overt support from the government of the United States the army returned him to power within a few days, and Mossadegh was arrested.
\par \tab From then on Mohammed Reza Shah ruled with increasing power. He outlawed all political parties and set up a one-party government loyal to him. In order to win support from the masses of impoverished peasants and to undermine the power of the large landowners and the clergy, the shah proclaimed a White Revolution. This program, which was endorsed by the voters in 1963, called for abolition of the peasant-landlord tenure system; nationalization of the forests; public sale of state-owned industries; profit sharing for industrial workers; the right to vote for all citizens; formation of a corps to fight illiteracy, a health corps, and an agricultural extension corps; establishment of local courts; nationalization of water resources; urban and rural reconstruction; and modernization of the government.
\par \tab The White Revolution broke the powers of the large landholders and led to the distribution of land to many people who had never owned any before. In October 1967 a spectacular coronation ceremony for the shah and the queen took place in Persepolis, the ancient capital of Cyrus the Great. Guests from throughout the world were invited to the ceremony, which was held to emphasize the stability of the shah's regime.
\par \tab In 1973, with a sudden increase of income from the sale of oil, the government began an extensive building program. Skyscrapers rose in Tehran, and urban development proceeded rapidly. The country's newly attained wealth was unevenly distributed, however, and the high-paying jobs went to members of the educated upper classes. There were great differences between the standards of living of the urban and the rural populations. Inflation brought greater hardships to the rural areas, and the cultural gap widened between the Westernized elite and the peasants. More than 60 percent of the people remained illiterate, and many of the seminomadic tribes continued to live as their ancestors had hundreds of years before.
\par \tab As resentment arose against the government's failure to guarantee civil and political rights, the shah's secret police kept a close watch on political dissidents. Iran's religious leaders, together with their rural supporters, resented what they considered measures that were hostile to Islam. For example, the shah changed the Islamic calendar to begin with the rule of the Achaemenid Dynasty. He also deprived the clergy of land that had been under its control in the form of religious foundations and was not to be taxed or sold. On the other hand, the shah spent billions on modernizing the armed forces, and he brought in thousands of foreigners, including Americans, to train his soldiers and to help build a modern state. By 1977 discontent had led to widespread demonstrations against the shah's policies. Many people were killed, and Mohammed Reza imposed martial law in 1978. The Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, who had been expelled from Iran in 1964 after he led the opposition to the White Revolution, called for the shah's abdication. Finally, on Jan. 16, 1979, the shah left the country. A council led by a longtime opponent of the shah took control of the government, but the protests continued. Shortly after the shah's departure, the ayatollah (a title given to the most distinguished scholars of Islamic law) returned to Iran. During his exile, tapes of his sermons had been smuggled into Iran from Iraq and later from France; they were heard by shortwave radio in mosques throughout Iran. Khomeini's reputation was so great that he was able to take control of the government, ruling through the Islamic Revolutionary Council. After a landslide victory in a national referendum, Khomeini proclaimed Iran an Islamic republic on April 1, 1979.
\par \tab The people rallied to Khomeini in hopes of greater freedom, fairer distribution of wealth, and a type of government that conformed with the teachings of Islam. However, the broad coalition of political forces that had agreed upon the overthrow of the shah began to collapse soon after Khomeini became chief of state. In the struggle for power that followed, the peasants and urban lower classes, under the leadership of the clergy, became the dominant force. The nationalists and their leaders--including Abolhassan Bani-Sadr, who had been elected president by a large majority of the Iranians--were ousted from office, and militant Islamic revolutionaries took over the country. Hundreds of Iranians were executed for political or religious reasons. On Nov. 4, 1979, shortly after the shah was admitted into the United States for medical treatment, Iranian militants seized the United States Embassy in Tehran and took 66 Americans as hostages. This action helped the ruling Iranian conservatives consolidate their power. The revolutionaries released 13 of the captives and said they would free the remaining prisoners if the United States returned the shah for trial. The United States refused the demand and imposed economic sanctions. The Iranian government had earlier condemned the shah to death.
\par \tab The United States met failure in its attempt to rescue the hostages in April 1980. The shah died in Egypt in July. The revolutionaries finally freed the hostages in January 1981 after the United States had agreed to a number of economic and other concessions. In September 1980 Iraq canceled a 1975 treaty with Iran that had given both nations navigation rights through the Shatt al 'Arab waterway. In the ensuing war both Iran and Iraq suffered casualties numbering more than 1 million. Severe damage was sustained by petroleum installations and power stations. Major cities were bombed with missiles and chemical weapons. A cease-fire was declared in August 1988.
\par \tab Khomeini ousted successor-designate Ayatollah Ali Montazeri and other moderates in 1989. Khomeini died on June 3, 1989. Ayatollah Ali Khamenei was elected caretaker president. In July Hashemi Rafsanjani was elected president. Khamenei was appointed spiritual leader. During the Gulf crisis and Persian Gulf War of 1990-91 Iran opposed Iraq's invasion of Kuwait but opposed any intervention by outside forces. The country attempted to play a role as peacemaker, failed, and thereafter kept out of the Gulf conflict. In January and February 1991, 142 Iraqi aircraft fled into Iran and were seized by authorities.
\par \tab Iran tried to end its involvement in the civil war in Lebanon with the release of Western hostages in 1991 and 1992. The releases helped warm relations with some Western governments.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by Sheila A. Scoville, former Lecturer, Middle East History, and Outreach Coordinator, Near Eastern Center, University of Arizona, Tucson.
\par \tab {\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR IRAN}
\par \tab Cooley, J.K. Payback: America's War with Iran (Pergamon, 1991).
\par \tab Department of Geography, ed. Iran in Pictures (Lerner, 1989).
\par \tab Heikal, Mohamed. The Return of the Ayatollah (David & Charles, 1986).
\par \tab Kennedy, Moorhead. The Ayatollah in the Cathedral: Reflections of a Hostage (Hill & Wang, 1987).
\par \tab Mannetti, Lisa. Iran & Iraq: Nations at War (Watts, 1986).
\par \tab Miller, W.M. Tales of Persia: A Book for Children (Presbyterian & Reformed, 1988).
\par \tab Pahlavi, M.R. Answer to History (Stein & Day, 1982).
\par \tab Smith, Anthony. Blind White Fish in Persia (Viking Penguin, 1990).\par \tab In ancient times Iraq was called Mesopotamia, a Greek word meaning "land between the rivers." This Middle Eastern country lies partly between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, a fertile area often regarded as the cradle of civilization. Its history dates back some 5,000 years. Today the Republic of Iraq, located at the headwaters of the Persian Gulf, is a leading producer of petroleum.
\par {\b Land and Climate}
\par \tab Iraq is bordered by Turkey on the north, Iran on the east, the Persian Gulf on the southeast, Kuwait and Saudi Arabia on the south, and Jordan and Syria on the west. The country has an area of 167,975 square miles (435,053 square kilometers). The Great Zab River flows into Iraq from Turkey and eventually merges with the Tigris 30 miles (48 kilometers) southeast of Mosul. The country consists primarily of lowlands that seldom exceed 300 feet (90 meters) in elevation. The hills in northeastern Iraq rise into the Zagros Mountains, which extend along the border with Iran and reach an elevation of 12,001 feet (3,658 meters) at Rawanduz. To the south and southwest, Iraq shares desert steppe with Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and Jordan. Part of the Syrian Desert extends into the country in the northwest. A region unique to Iraq is the marshy lowlands that surround the Shatt al 'Arab waterway and the union of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers just below Al Qurna. Palm trees and reed marshes cover the land here. The climate varies widely, according to region.
\par {\b Plant and Animal Life}
\par \tab Iraq has more than 25 million date trees. Two vegetable plants, colocynth and licorice, grow naturally in Iraq, and the people have traditionally used licorice for fuel. Crops include barley, wheat, watermelons, tomatoes, dates, grapes, cucumbers, and oranges.
\par \tab Wild animals of Iraq include gazelles, pigs, jackals, foxes, and rabbits. Among the many varieties of birds are ducks, partridges, and snipes as well as herons and others native to the marshes. Various species of water buffalo are bred in the marshlands, and rural people raise sheep, goats, and cattle.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab Iraq had a population of more than 19 million in 1993, of whom about 77 percent were Arabs and 19 percent Kurds. A small percentage were Turkmen, Persians, and Assyrians. Almost all Iraqis are Muslims; about 62 percent are followers of Shi'ah Islam and 34 percent follow Sunnah Islam. About 3 percent are Christians.
\par \tab The majority of Iraqis live in urban areas, including Baghdad, the capital and by far the largest city. In recent years many rural people have moved to the larger urban centers, straining the government's ability to provide social services and causing unemployment, particularly among men 20 to 25 years old.
\par \tab The Kurds, who inhabit the area north and northwest of Mosul, are followers of Islam and share a similar cultural heritage with the Arab population of Iraq. They have a distinctive history, however, and speak Kurdish, a member of the Indo-Iranian, rather than Semitic, family of languages. They have tried to assert their national identity and have demanded cultural and political autonomy, but the government has put down their protests with brutal force.
\par \tab Until the creation of the State of Israel in 1948, Jewish merchants directed a major part of the trade in Basra and Baghdad, often in partnership with local Muslim merchants. Today, however, most of the Jews have gone to Israel, the United States, or Europe, and few Jews remain in Iraq.
\par \tab Rural Iraqis have a tribal heritage dating back two or three generations. Most of them have farmed the land or raised livestock in one place all their lives. The number of nomads who migrate to different grazing lands with their flocks in spring and fall has decreased greatly, largely as a result of social welfare programs started by the government since 1958. Traditional Arab-Muslim values predominate in the rural areas, but people in the cities and towns lead lives similar to those in the West.
\par \tab Islam plays a major role in the lives of most Iraqis, both rural and urban. They visit the mosque on Friday for the weekly reading of the Koran and prayers, and they observe religious holidays.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab The first commercial oil field in Iraq was developed in Kirkuk in 1927 by the Iraq Petroleum Company. This largely British-owned firm obtained an exploration agreement from the Iraqi government for the provinces of Mosul and Baghdad. Other companies obtained similar agreements, and Iraq became one of the major petroleum-producing countries of the Middle East. The industry was fully nationalized by 1975. Exports of crude oil have been supplemented in recent years by the production of natural gas, and refineries have been built for oil used locally.
\par \tab Other major manufactures that Iraq exports include dates and cement, which go mainly to Arab and European countries. These shipments help balance Iraq's expenditures for foods, consumer goods, and other imports. Iraq's trade balance was upset by the Persian Gulf War of 1991 and the trade sanctions that lasted long after the war.
\par {\b Transportation, Communication, and Education}
\par \tab Iraq's development as a modern, industrial society has been aided by a network of highways and railroads between the major cities and the outlying provinces. Pipelines for oil exports run to the Mediterranean Sea and Turkey, and to the port of Basra. In 1914 Iraq had only two main roads, one from Baghdad across the desert to Al Fallujah on the Euphrates and the other, used mainly for produce, from Mosul to Mardin, Turkey. Roads and railways were built to meet the transportation needs of the Allied forces during the two world wars. These became the nucleus of the nation's present system, which includes more than 28,300 miles (45,500 kilometers) of roads, of which some 23,800 miles (38,300 kilometers) are paved. Iraq has an international airport near Baghdad and major port facilities at Basra, Umm Qasr, and Al Faw on the Persian Gulf.
\par \tab Education is controlled and subsidized by the government at all levels, and women are encouraged to attend school through the university level. Before World War I most schools were part of the neighborhood mosques. During the British occupation of Iraq from 1917 to 1932, the English curriculum became the model. Instruction has become even more westernized since the establishment of the republic in 1958. The University of Baghdad, founded in 1958, had campuses in Basra and Mosul that became separate universities in 1964 and 1967, respectively.
\par {\b Government}
\par \tab The government of Iraq is headed by a president who also serves as chairman of the Revolutionary Command Council, which sets government policies; as prime minister; and as commander of the armed forces. The people elect the legislature, which is called the National Assembly. All legislative and executive powers are in fact exercised by the Revolutionary Command Council. Political parties other than the Ba'th party were banned in the country from the overthrow of the monarchy in 1958 to 1991, when Saddam Hussein authorized other parties.
\par {\b History}
\par \tab The history of Mesopotamia began with the civilization of the Sumerians, who emigrated from the highlands of Iran and northern Anatolia in about 3000 BC. Two kingdoms, Sumer and Akkad, combined in about 2350 BC to form one nation under King Sargon of Akkad. In about 2000 BC the Amorites assumed control. Their king, Hammurabi, made Babylon a famous city, though he is best known for his code of laws. After his death came invasions by the Hittites and then by the Kassites, who formed the Kingdom of Assyria about 1350 BC. The Kassites originally had their capital at Ashur, but they moved it in 720 BC to Nineveh, or Mosul.
\par \tab Various tribal invasions weakened the Assyrian empire during the next century, and the Chaldeans under King Nebuchadnezzar II rebuilt Babylon and ruled for 40 years. The Persian ruler Cyrus the Great invaded in 539 BC, and Persia ruled Babylonia until Alexander the Great's conquests in 331 BC. His successors, the Seleucids, ruled for 175 years, during which Greek cultural influences became paramount. Persian invasions under the Parthians and, later, the Sassanids established a new capital at Ctesiphon near the midpoint of the Tigris. Persians constructed many irrigation systems and canals.
\par \tab A new era began with the Arab conquests in AD 637 when tribes from Arabia, bearing the message of Islam, conquered Mesopotamia. The early conquests outside Arabia by Muslim armies spread throughout the territory previously weakened by conflicts between the Sassanid Empire and the Byzantines to the west. The Muslims established their first dynasty, the Umayyad, with their capital at Damascus in Syria. By 750 conflicts over the succession of rulers and discord between Arab and Persian Muslims led to a change in rule, and the 'Abbasid dynasty in Iraq was established with its capital at Baghdad.
\par \tab The 'Abbasid dynasty ruled from 750 to 1258, a period during which Arab-Muslim culture and scholarship merged with Persian administration and arts. This was also a period when many Greek and Roman philosophical and scientific works were translated into Arabic and at times synthesized with Islamic values and concepts.
\par \tab The stories of Scheherazade as told in the 'Arabian Nights' give an idea of life in the court of one of the most famous 'Abbasid rulers, Caliph Harun ar-Rashid. The tales include those about Sinbad the sailor, 'Ali Baba and the forty thieves, and Aladdin and his magic lamp. They describe the clothing, court life, and government of the period. They show that the role of the grand vizier, or royal minister, in directing state affairs came from Persian administrative practices.
\par \tab The splendor of the 'Abbasid period began to dim as it came under the influence of the Seljuq Turkish empire, centered at Esfahan (now in Iran). Turks in the court at Baghdad assumed powerful administrative positions. The role of the grand vizier also grew, and by the beginning of the 12th century the 'Abbasid caliph was often only a figurehead. Although the Turks took authority from the caliph, they held his empire together until the Mongols conquered Baghdad in 1258. The 'Abbasid caliphate then ended, though a member of the 'Abbasid clan continued to reign in Egypt. Iraq became a land of small kingdoms.
\par \tab The Turkish family of Osman eventually gained a foothold in Anatolia and established a principality that became known as the Ottoman Empire. They pushed aside the last Byzantine influence. The Ottomans conquered Baghdad in 1534, sending administrators to deal with what was considered an outlying province of their empire. At times a neighboring dynasty in Iran, the Safavids, attempted to gain control of portions of Iraq, but the area remained under Ottoman control. The Ottoman sultan ruled all of Egypt, Syria, and portions of Arabia, including the holy cities of Mecca and Medina.
\par \tab Ruling Iraq involved maintaining peace with the local Bedouin tribes, many of whom held great power outside the more thickly settled areas. The Ottoman government followed a policy of supporting the principal tribes. Under this policy, Ottoman administrators gave payments to certain influential sheikhs, for which these tribal leaders were expected to keep the peace and not raid the cities. These payments maintained the system for hundreds of years.
\par \tab At the end of the 19th century some factions in the Ottoman regime began to support policies that alienated ethnic groups within the empire. One of these groups, the Young Turks, supported the supremacy of Turks and the Turkish language. When they came to power, they sent administrators--who often treated non-Turks as second-class citizens--to the various provinces, including Iraq. Both urban and rural Iraqis opposed these policies, and some of the country's intellectuals began making plans to break away from the Ottoman Empire.
\par \tab The Ottomans sided with the Germans in World War I. The British, who wanted to protect their lifeline to India through the Middle East, established a protectorate over Egypt and supported the Hashemite sharifs in Mecca and Medina in their revolt against the Ottomans. The British also sent an expeditionary force from India to Iraq, not only to ensure their position in the Middle East, but also to protect their interests in the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company. The British force landed at Al Faw in November 1914 and advanced to Al Kut, where it was surrounded by Turkish troops and urged to surrender. T.E. Lawrence, later known as Lawrence of Arabia, made an unsuccessful attempt to buy the release of the besieged British force from the Turkish commander. The British troops finally surrendered to the Turkish force in April 1916. However, the British sent more troops and occupied Baghdad in March 1917.
\par \tab At the end of the war, the League of Nations gave Great Britain a mandate to administer Iraq until it established its own government. Many Iraqis resented the British, and tribal rebellions broke out in northern Iraq in 1920. The British reacted by placing a member of the Hashemite family, 'Ali ibn Husayn, on the throne as King Faisal I in 1921. Iraq gained independence in 1932, though certain special agreements with Great Britain for internal administration and foreign trade remained in effect. In 1945 Iraq became a founding member of the United Nations and the Arab League.
\par \tab As an independent nation, Iraq was a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system until 1958, when a group of army officers led a revolt that overthrew the government. The young Hashemite monarch, King Faisal II, and the regent, Crown Prince 'Abd al-Ilah, were both assassinated. Iraq was then declared a republic by its new leader, Brigadier Abdul Karim Kassem.
\par \tab Other members of the group that had led the coup also sought power. A new organization, the Arab Socialist Resurrection Party, known as the Ba'th party, persuaded the army that Kassem should be overthrown. In 1963 the leader of the Ba'th party, Ahmad Hassan al-Bakr, overthrew Kassem and established the rule of the National Council for Revolutionary Command with a non-Ba'thist president, 'Abd as-Salam 'Arif. Kassem was executed.
\par \tab In 1965 a conflict broke out between opposing groups of Ba'thists in the council. One group wanted a union with Egypt, and the other favored an alliance with Syria. An attempted plot against 'Arif failed, but he later died in a helicopter accident. The National Defense Council then elected his brother, 'Abd ar-Rahman 'Arif, president. Struggles between Ba'th government officials and the pro-Egyptian Unionists continued until 1968 when Bakr took over the presidency in a coup.
\par \tab Under Bakr conflicts intensified between the government and the Kurds. During the late 1920s Iraq and Iran had cooperated in controlling the Kurds, who lived on both sides of the border between the two countries. After the 1958 coup in Iraq, each country began to support Kurdish rebels in the other's territory. In 1974 the Iraqi army decided to move into the northern province against the Kurdish rebels, who wanted to overthrow the new Iraqi regime. In March 1975 Iraq reached an agreement with Iran to settle the conflict. Many Kurds fled to Iran. Bakr's regime strengthened Iraq's ties with the Soviet Union, which had provided assistance in the war against the Kurds.
\par \tab Relations with Iran remained strained, however. When the shah was overthrown in the 1979 revolution in Iran, Iraq at first supported the new regime, but the two countries went to war in 1980 after Iraq voided a treaty giving Iran passage rights in the Shatt al 'Arab waterway. Much discord also resulted from Iran's desire to extend its Islamic revolution to Iraq.
\par \tab Bakr resigned as president of Iraq in 1979, and Saddam Hussein at-Takriti immediately succeeded him. Saddam Hussein instituted the first legislative elections since the overthrow of the Hashemites in 1958. Despite the efforts of mediators, the war between Iraq and Iran escalated in the 1980s, and Iraq bombed several Iranian cities with missiles and chemical weapons. A cease-fire was declared in August 1988.
\par \tab In July 1990 Iraq accused Kuwait of overproducing and stealing petroleum from a disputed oil field. After talks failed in early August, Iraqi troops invaded Kuwait, stormed the capital, overthrew the government, and annexed the country. The United Nations Security Council imposed a ban on all trade with Iraq, and a massive buildup of troops and weapons began in Saudi Arabia, as a coalition of nations, led by the United States, prepared to defend Saudi Arabia if needed. When the Jan. 15, 1991, Security Council deadline for Iraq to withdraw from Kuwait expired, 37 nations had troops, planes, or ships in the allied military coalition. Operation Desert Storm began on January 16; Kuwait was liberated in a ground assault on February 27 after a 100-hour ground war. Iraq accepted the UN requirements to identify for destruction all chemical and biological weapons, ballistic missiles, and material usable in nuclear weapons but resisted UN inspection. International attention focused on the plight of the Kurds, whose uprising was crushed by Iraq and who were fleeing across the mountains
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by Sheila A. Scoville, former Lecturer, Middle East History, and Outreach Coordinator, Near Eastern Center, University of Arizona, Tucson.
\par \tab {\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR IRAQ}
\par \tab Lerner Publications Company, Department of Geography Staff, ed. Iraq in Pictures (Lerner, 1990).
\par \tab Marr, Phoebe. The Modern History of Iraq (Westview, 1985).
\par \tab Maull, Hans, and Pick, Otto, eds. The Gulf War: Regional and International Dimensions (St. Martin's, 1989).
\par \tab Smith, P.M. The Gulf War, Day by Day: An Illustrated History of Operation Desert Storm (Avery, 1991).
\par \tab Thesiger, Wilfred. Arabian Sands (Penguin, 1985).\par \tab The Republic of Ireland occupies about five sixths of the island of Ireland, which lies across the Irish Sea from Great Britain. The British controlled the area for about 750 years, until 1921, when they made southern Ireland a dominion. The link with Great Britain ended when Ireland became a republic in 1949. Northern Ireland, however, which occupies the rest of the island, has remained a political part of the United Kingdom.
\par \tab The Republic of Ireland covers 27,137 square miles (70,285 square kilometers). It measures a maximum distance of 273 miles (440 kilometers) from north to south, and 186 miles (300 kilometers) from east to west. The Republic of Ireland consists of four provinces--Leinster, Munster, Connaught (Connacht), and part of Ulster--which are divided into 27 counties. Six counties of Ulster make up Northern Ireland. In 1981 the Republic of Ireland had a population of 3,443,405, compared with 1,490,228 for Northern Ireland. Many people have left Ireland to live elsewhere during the last century because of rural overpopulation, few jobs, and poor harvests of potatoes, by far the most important crop. The population of the entire island decreased steadily from about 8,200,000 in 1841 to 4,200,000 in 1961. Today, as a result of the vast migrations, more Irish live outside Ireland than in it. More than 4,700,000 people have migrated from the island to the United States since 1820. Large numbers of Irish also live in Great Britain and in most of the Commonwealth countries.
\par \tab Since the early 1960s the population decline has been reversed, and Ireland's economy has changed rapidly from an agricultural to an industrial base. In the early 1980s about a fifth of the work force was employed in manufacturing, mining, and construction, and about a third in agriculture. The shift from agriculture to industry has been greater in Dublin, the capital and largest city, and in the eastern and southern sections of the country than in the west.
\par {\b The Land and Climate}
\par \tab Much of the interior is a relatively level plain surrounded by low mountains, particularly in the west and south. Most of the central plain is less than 500 feet (150 meters) above sea level, but the coastal mountains rise to more than 2,000 feet (600 meters) high. The highest point of 3,414 feet (1,041 meters) is in the mountains of Kerry in the southwest.
\par \tab The character of the land surface and soils are the result of early activity by glaciers. The central plain has glacial ridges, and the surrounding mountains were severely eroded during the Ice Age. The glaciers also indented Ireland's coasts into many bays and spectacular rocky headlands. Rocky islands fringe the bays in the west and south.
\par \tab The glaciers also left behind many heaths and bogs, which are poorly drained lands. The River Shannon, the longest in Ireland, flows sluggishly through the central plain on its way to the Atlantic Ocean. In many places the river has been dammed by nature or artificially to create loughs, or lakes. Small amounts of hydroelectric power are produced as a result of these dams. Peat from the heaths and bogs has long been used as fuel in Irish homes and industry. The other main rivers that drain the interior are the Blackwater and the Barrow in the southeast, the Boyne in the northeast, and the Corrib in the west.
\par \tab The soils of Ireland are generally infertile. They are more productive in the eastern sections, particularly near Dublin. Much of the country is grassland used by grazing herds of cattle and sheep.
\par \tab Ireland's maritime climate is moderated by prevailing southwesterly winds. These winds blow over the warm drifting waters of the North Atlantic Ocean, keeping the temperatures mild during the winter and cool in summer. Rain is frequent and relatively abundant. The highest peaks in the western mountains receive about 100 inches (250 centimeters) of rain annually. The driest areas, around Dublin in the east, have about 30 inches (75 centimeters). Temperatures average about 42░ F (5░ C) during the coolest month, February, and about 60░ F (15░ C) in the warmest month, August.
\par {\b Natural Resources, Plants, and Animals}
\par \tab Ireland lacks extensive mineral deposits, but important discoveries of lead and zinc created a small mining boom in the late 1970s. Small amounts of silver, sulfur, and barite are also produced.
\par \tab Exploration for natural oil and gas on the offshore continental shelf began in the late 1960s. One commercially exploitable natural gas field went into production in 1978. The country has some poor quality coal, but peat is widely used as a fuel. Peat comes from peat moss, which consists of undecayed or partially decomposed plant matter at or near the surface of bogs. Peat moss varies from a few inches to 50 feet (15 meters) deep, and it covers about a tenth of Ireland's land area. The nation produced about 4 million tons of peat annually in the early 1980s.
\par \tab The plant and animal life of Ireland has been influenced by both the climate and the island's separation from other land masses. Most of the island is covered by mosses, lichens, and grasses. There are relatively few trees. The original hardwood forests were cleared long ago for agriculture or cut for lumber, and most of the present softwood forests were planted by the government. Only about 5 percent of the land area consists of woodland, compared with 69 percent in permanent pasture and 14 percent in cropland.
\par \tab Waterfowl are abundant, and Ireland has rich fishing grounds, particularly off the west coast. Herring, whiting, and mackerel are common saltwater species, and salmon and trout live in the inland rivers and lakes. The moles and weasels of Great Britain are not found in Ireland, and the island has no snakes.
\par {\b The People}
\par \tab The Irish are descendants primarily of the ancient Celts, but the Vikings, Normans, and English contributed to the ethnic nature of the people. Centuries of English rule largely eliminated the use of the ancient Gaelic, or Irish, language. Since Ireland became independent in 1922, the government has attempted to revive Gaelic by requiring its use in schools. English is the dominant language in the educational system and is spoken throughout Ireland except in certain areas of the west coast. Government documents are printed in both Gaelic and English.
\par \tab About 96 percent of the people are Roman Catholics. Most of the rest are Anglicans and belong to the Church of Ireland. The nation has no official religion. Roman Catholic priests and nuns are commonly seen in cities and villages throughout the country.
\par \tab In the early 1980s about 56 percent of Ireland's people lived in urban areas. The importance of cities has grown, especially since the late 1950s when the government began to carry out policies promoting industrialization. The largest cities after Dublin are Cork and Limerick.
\par \tab The population of the area that now makes up the Republic of Ireland fell steadily from about 6,500,000 in 1841 to 2,800,000 in 1961. This decline had a major impact on the nature of the country and people, and it was caused largely by emigration from rural areas. About 1,200,000 people left Ireland soon after the terrible potato famine of 1846 to 1848, most of them to the United States. From 1853 to 1900 about 3,300,000 more left the country. Most of these people also went to the United States, but some settled in Great Britain. Young, unmarried adults made up a large percentage of those who emigrated, resulting in a significant decline in the nation's marriage and birth rates. This condition was reversed in the 1970s. During that period a slight decrease in the death rate, combined with more immigration than emigration resulted in considerable population growth.
\par \tab In Irish farm communities, houses were once made of dried peat or of stone, with thatched roofs. Today most of the farm homes are constructed of mortared stone or brick, with tile roofs. The house opens directly into the farmyard, where geese, chickens, pigs, and cattle are kept. The yard also has storage buildings for hay and other crops. A garden provides potatoes and other vegetables for the family, and dairy products are the chief items sold for income. Farm families cut peat to use as fuel for various purposes including heating and cooking, often over an open fire.
\par \tab The Irish have a rich literary and artistic heritage. Irish literature has been largely in English rather than Gaelic, however. The late 1800s and early 1900s, a period known as the Irish literary renaissance, produced such great writers as William Butler Yeats, James Joyce, George Augustus Moore, and Samuel Beckett. They presented Irish thought and life in a manner that gained international acclaim. Irish theater is well established, and the Royal Hibernian Academy of Dublin has developed many Irish painters. High-quality craftwork on jewelry and religious objects, such as Celtic crosses, reflects an ancient artistic tradition.
\par \tab Folk songs and dances, along with traditional storytelling, are featured at folk festivals that help to preserve Ireland's way of life. The island's colorful customs have spread wherever the Irish have settled throughout the world.
\par {\b The Economy}
\par \tab For centuries the Irish economy depended heavily upon agriculture, but industry has contributed an increasing share to the gross national product since the 1960s. In 1991 about 17 percent of the workforce was employed in manufacturing; 12 percent in agriculture, forestry, and fishing; 18 percent in commerce, insurance, and finance; 6 percent in construction; and 47 percent in all other fields.
\par \tab {\b Industry.}
\par \tab The Industrial Development Authority, established in the 1950s, encouraged new industry from abroad. It granted such incentives as cash grants, tax concessions, and ready-to-operate factories to attract such industries. Most of the foreign industries manufacture such products as electronic equipment, computers, word-processing machines, pharmaceuticals and chemicals, textiles, plastics, and recreational goods. Most of these products are exported, and the value of manufactured goods exported in 1991 was worth 40 percent of the gross national product.
\par \tab Ireland's entry into the European Communities in 1973 was a great boon to the nation's economy. By 1978 Irish exports had gained duty-free access to the European Communities population market of 270 million people. Foreign companies, especially from the United States, established businesses or branch firms in Ireland to gain tax advantages in exporting to the European market. By 1990 about 850 foreign firms, 300 from the United States, owned operations in Ireland, resulting not only in new products and jobs, but also in additional skills, markets, and technology.
\par \tab The new manufacturing plants now dominate economically the traditional Irish industries that emphasize the processing of agricultural products. Meatpacking, dairy products, grain milling, and brewing and malting are widespread throughout the better farming areas of Ireland. In 1991 about 22 percent of the value of exports came from the processing of agricultural products. Membership in the European Communities (now the European Union) has stimulated the agricultural-processing industries, and cooperatives have promoted agricultural production and marketing.
\par \tab {\b Agriculture.}
\par \tab Ireland's agricultural activities consist largely of the grazing of cattle and sheep. The moderate, moist climate favors the growing of grass and hay, and farm animals can be outside for most of the year because of the mild winter temperatures. About 68 percent of the agricultural land of Ireland consists of permanent pasture. Membership in the European Union has encouraged Irish farmers to increase their efficiency by using better management and fertilization techniques.
\par \tab Farmers grow mostly grains on the 14 percent of the land that can be farmed. Barley, wheat, potatoes, and sugar beets are the main crops. Barley is the principal crop in terms of acreage. It is used by the brewing and distilling industries and as feed for farm animals. The raising of oats, once significant as a crop for horse-feed, has fallen with the declining use of these animals due to the increasing use of machines. The country was once heavily dependent on the potato crop, but Irish farmers have increased their plantings of other crops, and potato production has declined. Tobacco is grown in limited areas.
\par \tab The small family farm has long been the backbone of Irish agriculture. About 67 percent of the farms cover fewer than 50 acres (20 hectares), and another 25 percent are smaller than 20 acres (8 hectares). Approximately 90 percent of the farms are owner-occupied, compared with 62 percent for all of Europe. The number of people employed in agriculture continues to decrease as mechanization increases and young men and women find better-paying occupations in the cities. The number of agricultural workers in Ireland declined by about 50 percent between the years 1960 and 1991. Despite this trend, the amount and value of farm production has increased with better fertilization and management.
\par \tab {\b Mining.}
\par \tab Mineral exploration during the 1960s and early 1970s led to the discovery of a large deposit of zinc ore at Navan in northeast Ireland. Mining of this deposit began in 1977. Small amounts of gypsum, lead, copper, sulfur, silver, and barite are sometimes mined, providing needed employment opportunities in some of the poorest areas of western Ireland. Only about 1 percent of the workforce was employed in mining in 1980.
\par \tab {\b Tourism.}
\par \tab The tourist industry ranks as an important source of income for Ireland. About 15 percent of the country's workforce is directly or indirectly employed in tourism. In 1981 about 2,200,000 long-staying tourists visited the country. Most of them came from Great Britain, followed by Northern Ireland and the United States. Many tourists are relatives or friends of the millions of Irish people who emigrated to other parts of the world. Increasing numbers of visitors are drawn by the relative lack of commercialization in Ireland, the low cost of touring, good highways, charming rural landscape, historical attractions, and generally uncrowded character.
\par \tab {\b Trade.}
\par \tab The increased export of manufactured goods led the growth of Ireland's economy during the 1970s and early 1980s. The chief imports are machinery and transportation equipment, followed by other basic manufactured items; and mineral fuels, mainly petroleum products. Food and livestock are important export items. The United Kingdom is Ireland's principal trading partner. Others include the United States, Germany, France, and the Benelux countries.
\par {\b Transportation, Communication, and Education}
\par \tab Ireland is well served by highways, railways, airlines, and water transportation. The network of Irish roads, almost all of which are paved, totals more than 54,000 miles (86,900 kilometers). Regular rural bus routes extend to many small, isolated communities. In 1981, Ireland had one private automobile for every 4.4 people. Railroads run between Dublin and the country's larger cities and towns.
\par \tab Aer Lingus, the Irish international airline, has flights to and from European and transatlantic airports. Dublin, Limerick, and Cork have international airports, and Shannon Airport, near Limerick, was the world's first duty-free airport.
\par \tab Dublin and Cork are the principal harbors for international shipping. Passenger ships provide frequent connections with Wales and England.
\par \tab The government operates Ireland's television and radio facilities. The country has two television channels and three radio stations, one of which broadcasts in Gaelic. Every owner of a television set or radio pays an annual license fee. There are seven daily newspapers, five of which are published in Dublin. All the newspapers are in English.
\par \tab Irish children from 6 to 15 years old are required by law to go to school. The elementary schools are free. The secondary schools are private institutions, and most are operated by religious orders of the Roman Catholic Church. Nevertheless, Irish secondary schools receive substantial government aid and are subject to inspection by the Department of Education. The administration of the nation's vocational schools resembles that of the secondary schools.
\par \tab The University of Dublin, or Trinity College, was founded in 1592, and the National University was established in Dublin in 1908. The National University also has branches in Galway and Cork. In addition, Ireland has ten regional technical colleges in the provincial centers of Athlone, Carlow, Cork, Dundalk, Galway, Letterkenny, Limerick, Sligo, Tralee, and Waterford. St. Patrick's College in Maynooth trains Roman Catholic priests but also admits other students. The National Institute for Higher Education, which offers mainly technological courses, has campuses in Dublin and Limerick. All the universities and colleges receive financial support from the government.
\par {\b Government}
\par \tab The nation's first constitution went into effect in 1922, when its name was changed to the Irish Free State. In 1937, after a number of amendments, a new constitution was approved by the parliament and the people. It restored the name Ireland, or ╔ire in Gaelic, and provided for a president, elected every seven years; a cabinet called "the government," headed by a prime minister; and a parliament. The Irish parliament consists of a House of Representatives, called the Dßil ╔ireann, and a Senate, called the Seanad ╔ireann. The 166 members of the Dßil are elected by the people and the 60 members of the Seanad are selected from representatives of education, agriculture, labor, industry, and public administration. Citizens who are at least 18 years old may vote. Local government is in the hands of 27 county councils and the five county boroughs of Dublin, Cork, Limerick, Galway, and Waterford. These councils are responsible for planning, taxing, and other local government activities but not education or police functions.
\par {\b History}
\par \tab The first inhabitants of the island of Ireland were hunters and fishers who arrived on the eastern coast from the European mainland in about 6000 BC. Later settlers brought knowledge of agriculture in about 3000 BC and skills in bronzeworking by about 2000 BC. Celts who came from Europe in about 300 BC dominated the earlier peoples, mainly because the Celts had ironworking knowledge.
\par \tab During its early period, Ireland had one of the more advanced civilizations of Western Europe. The people built hill forts and established minor kingdoms, and skilled artisans designed metalwork.
\par \tab Christianity had been established in Ireland by the beginning of the 5th century, before the arrival of the bishop Palladius from Gaul in 431 and the later arrival of St. Patrick. The monasteries established by St. Patrick and other missionaries enabled a world of classical learning to be introduced on the island, and this learning was later carried to many parts of Europe. During the 9th and early 10th centuries, Viking raiders overran the south and east coasts of Ireland. They ravaged the monasteries and churches and later became traders in the coastal towns. The Vikings were finally defeated in 1014 at Clontarf, near Dublin, but some remained in coastal settlements and were accepted by the Irish.
\par \tab {\b Conquest by England.}
\par \tab The English conquest of Ireland began when a local ruler asked King Henry II and his barons to help him regain his kingdom. Some of the barons arrived first, in 1169, and Henry followed in 1171. Henry encouraged his followers to seize parts of the island and hold them as fiefs of the crown. Henry's descendants intermarried with the local population and increasingly adapted Irish customs. However, the English did not control the island effectively, and they regarded the Irish and the English-Irish as their enemies. The authority of the English crown was eventually restored over the entire island during the 16th century by Henry VIII and Elizabeth I, who also attempted to suppress the Roman Catholic church.
\par \tab King James I settled English and Scottish Protestants in the northern province of Ulster. Roman Catholics in Ulster rebelled in 1641 and killed thousands of Protestant settlers. This revolt spread to the south but was put down by Oliver Cromwell from 1649 to 1650. He took much land and many rights away from Irish Catholics.
\par \tab James II, a Roman Catholic, tried to reverse the discriminatory policies of the preceding rulers. After being driven from the throne by the revolution of 1688, James went to France and then to Ireland. There he was welcomed by the Irish Catholics who hoped he could lead them in regaining their land. In 1690 James and the Irish were defeated by the Protestant forces of the English king William III in the battle of the Boyne. Protestants of the Church of England, or Anglicans, then dominated Ireland for about 150 years. Catholics and non-Anglican Protestants had few legal rights, and they could not vote or hold office. In 1801 the Act of Union joined Great Britain and Ireland into the United Kingdom.
\par \tab {\b Struggle for Home Rule.}
\par \tab In 1823 the Catholics, led by Daniel O'Connell, began agitating for emancipation. In 1829 Parliament passed an act giving the Catholics political equality for most purposes. O'Connell then began a struggle to eliminate the Act of Union. This struggle turned into a movement later called Home Rule. However, such efforts were stifled by famine and mass emigration that were the result of a blight that destroyed Ireland's vital potato crop in the mid-1800s.
\par \tab Several attempts to put through Home Rule bills for Ireland failed during the late 1800s. The Catholics in southern Ireland were determined to have the right to Home Rule, but the Protestants in Ulster insisted on maintaining the Act of Union with Great Britain. In 1914 the British Parliament passed a Home Rule bill setting up a separate parliament for all Ireland, but World War I soon broke out and the Home Rule act was suspended.
\par \tab On Easter Monday in 1916 armed Irish Volunteers and members of the Citizen Army staged an unsuccessful rebellion in Dublin. The British executed 14 of the leaders, which aroused public support for an independent Ireland. In the 1918 elections Sinn Fein, the Irish revolutionary party, won most of the Irish seats. Sinn Fein had earlier pledged not to take their seats in the English Parliament, however, and after the election they set up an Irish parliament, the Dßil ╔ireann, in Dublin. The Dßil issued a declaration of independence and was headed by Eamon de Valera, a surviving leader of the Easter uprising.
\par \tab The English attempted to suppress the new government, and violence erupted between British troops and the Volunteers, who became the Irish Republican Army. In 1920 Ireland was partitioned, and separate parliaments were set up for northern and southern Ireland. Fighting continued until a truce was called in 1921. The terms of the truce established the southern part of Ireland as the Irish Free State, which became part of the Commonwealth. Renewed fighting broke out between the Irish who accepted the dominion status and those who demanded complete independence. A new constitution went into effect in 1937.
\par \tab {\b The republic.}
\par \tab In 1948 ╔ire seceded from the Commonwealth. The new Republic of Ireland was proclaimed on April 18, 1949. In 1973 the republic acknowledged British sovereignty over Northern Ireland as long as this was the wish of the majority of the people in the north. But fighting continues in Northern Ireland between the Protestants and the Catholics. Over Protestant opposition in Northern Ireland, Britain and the Republic of Ireland signed an agreement in 1985 that gave the latter a voice in Northern Ireland affairs. The republic's first female president, Mary Robinson, was inaugurated in December 1990. In the early 1990s Ireland's economy still lagged behind those of the other nations of Western Europe; consequently, many wanted to immigrate to more prosperous countries.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by Lawrence M. Sommers, Assistant Provost and former Chairman, Department of Geography, Michigan State University.
\par \tab {\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR IRELAND}
\par \tab Bramsback, Birgit. Homage to Ireland (Coronet, 1990).
\par \tab Foster, R.F., ed. The Oxford Illustrated History of Ireland (Oxford Univ. Press, 1989).
\par \tab Hopkins, Michael. Green Against Green: The Irish Civil War (St. Martin's, 1988).
\par \tab Kumar, Karan. Ireland Today (International Info, 1991).
\par \tab Ranelagh, John O'Beirne. A Short History of Ireland (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1983).
\par \tab Uris, Leon, and Uris, Jill. Ireland: A Terrible Beauty (Bantam, 1978).\par \tab The State of Israel was established in 1948 as a homeland for the Jewish people. Israel lies at the eastern edge of the Mediterranean Sea. It is bordered by Egypt on the southwest, Jordan on the east, Syria on the northeast, and Lebanon on the north. Until the early 1990s Israel was in conflict with its Arab neighbors, including five wars from 1948 to 1982. Israel also has had to forge a nation from diverse Jewish people from all parts of the world, while trying to integrate a large Arab minority. While striving to perpetuate the religious and cultural traditions that contributed to the Zionist rebirth, the tiny nation was also forced to become a first-rate military power.
\par {\b Land}
\par \tab Israel has a diversity of landforms. The highest areas are found in the mountainous regions of Galilee in the north, where Har Meron at 3,963 feet (1,208 meters) is the highest point in the country. South of Galilee are the rocky limestone terraced hills and valleys of Samaria and Judea. The mountains of Galilee are separated from the hills of Samaria and Judea by the Plain of Esdraelon. Samaria's highest mountain is Mount Ebal at 3,084 feet (940 meters), while Judea's highest is Tall Asur at 3,333 feet (1,016 meters). The Negev, a partly mountainous triangular desert, makes up 60 percent of Israel's land area and extends southward from Judea to the Red Sea and the Sinai Peninsula.
\par \tab In the east the Jordan River flows southward through the Great Rift Valley from the Hula Panhandle through the Sea of Galilee (also called Lake Kinneret) and the central Jordan Valley to the Dead Sea. The Dead Sea, which is 1,315 feet (401 meters) below sea level, is the lowest place on Earth.
\par {\b Climate}
\par \tab The climate is Mediterranean--mild, moist winters and hot, dry summers. Its subtropical desert, the Negev, is hot and dry year-round. The northern mountainous areas have great temperature variations with some freezing and even occasional snow.
\par \tab Parts of the south may receive but 1 inch (2.5 centimeters) of rain annually. However, the coastal and Upper Galilee regions receive from 25 to 45 inches (64 to 114 centimeters).
\par {\b Plants and Animals}
\par \tab Israel's plant life is among the world's richest. The hills produce vegetation that includes six kinds of natural forests with pine and oak the most common. Citrus trees are grown along the coast and on the coastal plain. More than 1,000 plant species thrive in the Negev and Sinai deserts. In the Jordan Valley there are at least 40 varieties of tropical plants.
\par \tab Israel's animal life includes elements from several geographic regions and thousands of species, among them leopards, hyenas, polecats, wolves, jackals, coneys, ibex, porcupines, antelopes, and wild boars. Reptiles include agamas and gecko lizards and vipers. Birds include partridges, cuckoos, bustards, sand grouse, and desert larks. Eagles, ospreys, and vultures nest in the mountain crags. There are more than 500 rare tropical marine species.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab Population is unevenly distributed. The central and Tel Aviv coastal districts have 46 percent of the population, the northern hill and valley districts 16 percent, the Haifa district 14 percent, Jerusalem 12 percent, and the south 12 percent. Despite Israel's many small rural settlements, almost 90 percent of the people live in cities. In 1909 Jewish immigrants built Tel Aviv on the Mediterranean. In 1950 Tel Aviv and Yafo (also called Jaffa) to the south merged; the 1986 estimate of population was 322,800. Haifa, 50 miles (80 kilometers) to the north with a population of 224,600, is a seaport and heavy industrial center.
\par \tab Jerusalem has had a Jewish majority for the last century. The Jewish population now makes up more than 70 percent of the 1992 estimate of 544,200. In 1967 Israel reunited Jerusalem, which had been split into two parts--one controlled by Jordan, the other by Israel. Since then the Jewish population of the eastern section has grown to more than 50,000, compared to an Arab population of 117,000. Jerusalem has been proclaimed Israel's capital since 1967.
\par {\b Ethnicity and Religion}
\par \tab The 1993 population of Israel was 5,451,000, of which 82 percent was Jewish. The remainder was largely Arab. Although Judaism is the principal religion, Muslim, Christian, Druze, Sunni Muslim, Samaritan, and other religions have freedom of worship.
\par \tab The Chief Rabbinical Council, which is the highest Jewish religious authority, has two chief rabbis--one each for the Ashkenazic, or European, and Sephardic, or Eastern-Oriental, communities. About 77 percent of the non-Jewish population is Arab Muslim. The next largest grouping is Arab Christian, especially Greek Melkite and Greek Orthodox. The Druze, about 1.7 percent of the non-Jewish population, are an 11th-century non-Muslim Arab religious sect.
\par {\b Language, Arts, and Culture}
\par \tab Hebrew is the main language of Israel. Arabic is the second language, and English is widely used. Israel is a major publisher of books and has a growing motion-picture industry. There are 80 museums, 30 official archaeological and historical sites, 750 public libraries, six major theatrical companies, a number of orchestras and dance groups, and two music academies. Sports are a national pastime, with soccer and basketball the most popular.
\par \tab A national insurance system provides old-age pensions and industrial injury, maternity, and other benefits. The Histadrut, or General Federation of Labor, includes most Israeli workers. More than a trade union, its health system, called Kupat Holim, insures 83 percent of the population and, along with the government, runs most of the hospitals. It also owns factories, banks, and construction companies as well as wholesale and retail cooperatives.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab {\b Agriculture.}
\par \tab The three types of agricultural settlement systems are the kibbutz, or collective; moshav, or cooperative; and moshava, or private farmstead. Kibbutzim, the plural form of the word, total 270, with a population of 130,000. They are communal settlements with property owned in common, work done without direct payment, and all members' needs met from common income. Probably the world's most successful example of voluntary socialism, the kibbutz has achieved a high standard of living that provides group housing, dining, education, culture, recreation, health, child rearing, and other services. While the kibbutz began as a Zionist pioneering instrument of agriculture--and advanced scientific agriculture remains a mainstay--many kibbutzim now owe much of their prosperity to modern high-technology industry and tourism. Approximately 20 percent of Israel's industrial exports come from kibbutz-owned production facilities. The moshav, or cooperative system, consists of 410 moshavim, with a population of 155,000. Every family has a share of the village but owns its own home, farms its own plot, and manages its own budget. Machinery, purchase of supplies, and marketing are cooperatively organized.
\par \tab The moshava is a traditional farm village based on individually owned farmsteads. The total population of the moshavot is 10,600. Many moshavot have developed into towns and even cities.
\par \tab Israeli agriculture is highly intensive, based on irrigation, water recycling, hothouses, scientific experimentation, crop management, mechanization, and marketing. Only 3 percent of the nation's population work in agriculture, but yields are very high. Citrus fruits are the leading export. Flowers, subtropical fruits (both fresh and preserved), vegetables, and wines are also exported. The country is self-sufficient in cotton--the most extensively grown crop--and dairy products, poultry, potatoes, and olives. It is nearly self-sufficient in meat and fish.
\par \tab {\b Manufacturing.}
\par \tab Israel is a modern industrial country. Nearly 20 percent of its people work in manufacturing. The country is a leading international diamond center, accounting for one quarter of Israel's exports. Heavy industry is centered in Haifa: petroleum refining, cement, iron and steel, and petrochemicals. Tel Aviv-Yafo is the center for such industries as food processing, diamond polishing, and printing and publishing, as well as such manufactured goods as clothing, automobiles and transport equipment, and electronic equipment.
\par \tab {\b Tourism.}
\par \tab Tourism is one of the country's economic mainstays and sources of foreign exchange. More than 1.1 million tourists visit the country each year.
\par \tab {\b Mining and natural resources.}
\par \tab Israel's mineral deposits include phosphates, potash, clay, glass, sand, sulfur, manganese, and building stone. There are also small deposits of petroleum, natural gas, and copper, but Israel must import most of its raw materials. Dead Sea waters contain potash, bromine, and salt. Potash, the most important mineral, is a major export.
\par \tab Israel's petroleum and natural gas production are small. The country's two large refineries in Haifa and Ashdod depend mostly on imports. One quarter of all import expenditures are for fuel. To reduce dependency on imported oil, a large coal-burning electric power plant was built on the coast at Hadera. Nearly 300,000 homes have rooftop solar heaters. Water is a vital resource, and 75 percent of it is used in agriculture. The National Water Carrier, a system of pipelines and open canals, brings water from the Jordan River's headwaters and from the Sea of Galilee to the coastal plain and the northern Negev. The system supplies one quarter of Israel's needs. The remainder comes from groundwater, the Yarkon River, the storage of rain and floodwaters, and waste water reclamation. Israel also uses desalinated seawater. The economy is troubled because of war and defense burdens, heavy foreign debt, and an annual trade imbalance. Inflation is rampant, and defense expenditures and foreign debt repayment absorb a large portion of the government's annual budget. Debt per person is among the world's highest. For years Israel had nearly full employment and provided work for thousands of Arabs from the West Bank and the Gaza Strip, but the arrival of thousands of Soviet Jewish immigrants in the late 1980s and the 1990s swelled the labor force and caused widespread unemployment.
\par {\b Transportation and Communication}
\par \tab National and local governments maintain more than 8,000 miles (12,900 kilometers) of well-developed roads for use by the country's 1,013,000 trucks, buses, and automobiles. Taxis and jitneys, or small buses, compete with buses as the major forms of public transportation. Rail lines totaling 323 miles (520 kilometers) are government-operated.
\par \tab El Al, Israel's national airline, and foreign airlines provide international service at Ben-Gurion Airport at Lod. The airports at Elat and Jerusalem also handle international flights.
\par \tab Israel's merchant fleet of some 70 ships includes refrigerated vessels and tankers. The three major deepwater ports are Haifa, Ashdod, and Elat. The nation's 2.4 million telephones provide one telephone for every two people. There are 22 daily newspapers, five radio networks, and one television channel.
\par {\b Education}
\par \tab Israel has a high standard of education that begins with free and compulsory primary schools for ages 5 to 16. The state elementary school system has general and religious schools, the former enrolling 70 percent of the pupils. Arabs attend separate state schools.
\par \tab There are seven institutions of higher education: the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, the Israel Institute of Technology (also called Technion) in Haifa, Tel Aviv University, Bar-Ilan University, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, the Weizmann Institute of Science, and the University of Haifa. Total enrollment was almost 80,000 students in the 1990s.
\par {\b Government}
\par \tab Israel is a parliamentary state. The Knesset, or parliament, is the only legislative body. It has 120 members elected every four years through proportional representation. The Knesset elects the prime minister, who heads the cabinet, and the president, whose post is largely ceremonial. All local authorities are elected. The Supreme Court heads the civil and criminal judicial system. Judaism and Islam have independent courts with jurisdiction over religious matters, including marriage and divorce.
\par \tab Israel has no written constitution. A number of laws concerning various aspects of government are considered part of an evolving constitution. Political life is organized around parties. Until 1977 the Labor and allied Workers' parties dominated Israeli governments. In 1977 the nationalist Likud party, with religious and small right-wing allies, took control of the government. Likud is a coalition of which the backbone is the Herut party, or Zionist Revisionists, founded in 1948 by former Prime Minister Menachem Begin. It also includes Liberal parties plus smaller factions. The Labor and Likud parties are about evenly divided in popular appeal.
\par \tab Economically the Labor party stands for socialism and strong government intervention, the Likud for free enterprise. On Arab-Israeli relations, Labor generally seeks accommodation with the Palestinian Arabs through territorial compromise and linking the Arab West Bank with Jordan. Likud stands for an undivided land of Israel to the Jordan River based on Jewish historic claims to Samaria and Judea and for full-scale Jewish settlement there.
\par {\b International Relations}
\par \tab Israel's major political relationship is with the United States. Israel's continued dependence on United States military and economic aid serves mutual national strategic and ideological interests. Israel, the only Middle Eastern democracy, uses its powerful military forces to react swiftly to regional crises that affect its own and Western interests.
\par {\b Defense}
\par \tab Israeli armed forces are the strongest and best-equipped in the Middle East. All men over 18 must serve for 36 months, and unmarried women between 18 and 26 must serve for two years unless exempted on religious grounds. The Israel Defense Forces have highly sophisticated, battle-tested American weapons as well as Israeli-made defense products.
\par {\b History}
\par \tab The War of Independence in 1948 was the climax of the modern Zionist settlement that began in 1878 in Ottoman Palestine. Settlement continued under Great Britain, which controlled Palestine from 1920 to 1948. The immigration of Zionists led to waves of Arab rioting in 1920, 1921, 1929, 1936 to 1939, and to larger-scale battles in 1947. Palestinian Arabs and neighboring Arab countries rejected the United Nations (UN) resolution to partition Palestine into Jewish and Arab states; the Zionists accepted the resolution. Not until 1993, when Israel and the Palestine Liberation Organization recognized each other, did peace between Israel and the Arab states seem possible.
\par \tab {\b War of Independence.}
\par \tab On May 14, 1948, in Tel Aviv, Jewish leaders led by David Ben-Gurion, chairman of the Jewish Agency and head of the Zionist workers movement, proclaimed the State of Israel. The next day British troops withdrew, relinquishing the mandate. Surrounding Arab countries then invaded Palestine to help local Arabs and to crush the Jewish state. Fighting continued until late in the year. Cease-fire and armistice agreements in 1949 left Israel in control of three fourths of Palestine, twice as much land as proposed by the UN.
\par \tab No peace treaties were signed, however, and no Arab state granted Israel diplomatic recognition. In January 1949 David Ben-Gurion was elected the nation's first prime minister and Chaim Weizmann became president.
\par \tab Israel was admitted to the UN in May 1949. In 1952 the Arabs demanded Israel's withdrawal to the original UN boundaries though still refusing to recognize Israel's statehood. In 1955 Egypt concluded military pacts with Syria and Jordan, encircling Israel, and then blockaded the Straits of Tiran, cutting Israel off from East Africa and the Far East.
\par \tab {\b Sinai campaign.}
\par \tab Fighting broke out along the Gaza Strip in April 1956 against Egyptian-trained fidayun, or terrorist units. In July Egypt nationalized the Suez Canal and in October ignored a UN Security Council call for free passage. On October 29 Israel invaded Sinai, advanced to the canal, and captured the Gaza Strip. A cease-fire was arranged, and early in 1957 the troops were replaced by the UN Emergency Force. Israel received access to the Gulf of Aqaba but not the canal.
\par \tab During the 1950s and '60s Israel's economy expanded rapidly. In May 1965 Israel and West Germany established diplomatic relations. From 1965 to 1967 Arab terrorists launched attacks from Syria, Jordan, and Lebanon.
\par \tab {\b Six-Day War.}
\par \tab On May 18, 1967, Egypt ordered the UN to remove its force from Egyptian-Israeli border positions. On June 5 war broke out between Israel and Egypt. Israel bombed Egyptian airfields, knocking out the country's entire air force. Jordanian, Syrian, and Iraqi airpower was largely destroyed. After capturing all of the Sinai Peninsula, the Gaza Strip, East Jerusalem, and the West Bank in four days, Israel turned to the Syrian front and stormed the Golan Heights. UN-sponsored cease-fires went into effect on June 11. Israel declared Jerusalem an administratively united city on June 28. On November 22 the UN Security Council adopted Resolution 242, calling for Israeli withdrawal of armed forces from territories occupied during the war in return for a just and lasting peace. The Arabs rejected it.
\par \tab {\b Yom Kippur War.}
\par \tab The Israelis were caught by surprise in October 1973, first by a massive Egyptian attack across the Bar-Lev line guarding the Suez Canal and then by a Syrian sweep across the Golan Heights. Israeli forces recovered from initially very heavy losses to inflict crushing defeats to both Egypt and Syria. Israel signed accords with Egypt in January 1974 and September 1975 and with Syria in May 1974 and withdrew from parts of southern Sinai and eastern Golan.
\par \tab The war brought severe internal criticism in Israel. The findings of a commission of inquiry led to the resignation of Golda Meir's Labor government in April 1974. In 1977 the Likud, headed by Begin, scored a surprising electoral victory over the Labor party.
\par \tab During the mid-1970s terrorism by the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) inside and outside Israel continued. In July 1976 Israeli commandos rescued 110 Jewish hostages held by Palestinian guerrillas at Uganda's Entebbe Airport.
\par \tab {\b Peace with Egypt.}
\par \tab In November 1977 Egyptian President Anwar el-Sadat, the first Arab head-of-state to visit Israel, proposed a peace plan before the Knesset in Jerusalem. Menachem Begin, the Israeli prime minister, later met with Sadat in Ismailia, Egypt, but further talks lagged.
\par \tab President Jimmy Carter of the United States played a mediating role in September 1978, and Begin and Sadat agreed at the presidential retreat Camp David in Maryland to negotiate a peace settlement. On March 26, 1979, Israel and Egypt signed a peace treaty in Washington, D.C., ending a 30-year state of war, and established diplomatic relations. Israeli ships were again allowed to pass through the Suez Canal. Israel made a first-stage withdrawal from Sinai, which was completed in 1982. West Bank autonomy talks began, but soon became deadlocked.
\par \tab {\b War in Lebanon.}
\par \tab In the early 1970s southern Lebanon had become virtually a PLO ministate. PLO terrorist attacks from Lebanese bases sparked an Israeli onslaught in 1978, but most PLO forces escaped to the north. A PLO buildup into a more structured army, the introduction by Syria of Soviet-built missiles, and heavy PLO rocket fire on Israeli settlements, especially in the summer of 1981, led to war. An Israeli air strike destroyed the Syrian missiles in May 1981. In June the Israelis destroyed Iraq's nuclear reactor at Daura near Baghdad. Israeli air attacks on Palestinian bases in southern Lebanon and in Beirut followed. A year later Israel invaded Lebanon intending to destroy the PLO ministate to the Alawi River. Beirut was encircled by June 14. In August Israel entered East Beirut to try to reestablish Lebanon as an independent state under friendly Christian Falangist control. Israel took control of two Palestinian refugee camps, permitting Christian militia to enter. The resulting massacres of some 600 Palestinians and Lebanese evoked storms of worldwide protest.
\par \tab An Israeli-Lebanese agreement on May 17, 1983, was based on Israeli troop withdrawal, joint security patrols, and the normalization of relationships. Israel withdrew to the Alawi River, leaving the Beirut area and the Chouf Mountains, where conflict between Christians and Druzes erupted. Begin resigned in September 1983 and was replaced by Foreign Minister Yitzhak Shamir.
\par \tab After close elections in July 1984, a national unity government was established, with Labor party leader Shimon Peres as prime minister and Shamir as deputy prime minister and foreign affairs minister. They switched posts in 1986 for the second half of their four-year terms. In June 1985 Israel completed its phased withdrawal of combat troops from Lebanon.
\par \tab A Palestinian uprising, or intifada, in the Israeli-occupied West Bank and Gaza Strip began on Dec. 9, 1987. Curfews and other measures enacted by officials failed to quell the violence. Several hundred Palestinians were killed during the next few years. Arab anger was further inflamed by new arrivals in Israel.
\par \tab In the late 1980s and early 1990s, wave after wave of Jews immigrated to Israel from the Soviet Union. Israel was burdened with trying to find ways to house, employ, educate, and care for the more than 300,000 Soviet Jews, who were arriving at a rate of 800 to 1,200 per day. The situation in the occupied territories was further complicated by the construction of Jewish settlements to ease overcrowding in the cities.
\par \tab An agreement was reached in December 1988 to form another national unity government similar to the one that had governed since 1984. Shamir remained prime minister and Peres became deputy premier and finance minister. The shaky coalition fell in March 1990 after a vote of no-confidence. The collapse came after Shamir refused to accept a plan to start Arab-Israeli peace talks. Peres could not form a new coalition, but Shamir formed one with several small religious parties.
\par \tab The United States led a multinational coalition against Iraq in the Persian Gulf War of 1991. During this short war, Iraq fired Scud missiles at Israeli targets but Israel did not join the conflict. This act of Israeli restraint, urged by the United States, led to the beginning of face-to-face negotiations in Madrid, Spain, between Israel and its Arab neighbors later in the year. For the first time since 1948, a Middle East peace seemed possible.
\par \tab In Israel, Shamir's coalition government was defeated by the Labor party in June 1992. Yitzhak Rabin became prime minister, with a program to work for peace with the Arabs. Early in 1993 a series of secret meetings began between Israel and the PLO. The result was an Israeli-Palestinian peace accord signed in Washington, D.C., on Sept. 13, 1993. The pact gave Palestinians self-rule in the Gaza Strip and Jericho, with the mutual pledge to work for a permanent peace agreement and to extend Palestinian rule to most of the West Bank. Rabin, Peres, and PLO leader Yasir Arafat were awarded the 1994 Nobel peace prize for the accord. In 1995 Israel signed a peace treaty with Jordan. On Nov. 4, 1995, Rabin was assassinated by a Jewish extremist after attending a peace rally.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by Saul B. Cohen, President, Queens College of the City University of New York; former Director and Professor, Graduate School of Geography, Clark University, Worcester, Mass.
\par \tab {\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR ISRAEL}
\par \tab Cahill, M.J. Israel (Chelsea, 1988).
\par \tab David, Ron. Arabs and Israel for Beginners (Writers and Readers, 1993).
\par \tab Ferguson, Kathy. Kibbutz Journal: Reflections on Gender, Race & Militarism in Israel (Trilogy Books, 1995).
\par \tab Gilbert, Martin. Atlas of the Arab-Israeli Conflict (Oxford Univ. Press, 1993).
\par \tab Hare, William. Struggle for the Holyland (Madison Books, 1995).
\par \tab James, Ian. Israel (Watts, 1990).
\par \tab Melman, Yossi. The New Israelis (Birch Lane Press, 1992).
\par \tab Peres, Shimon. From These Men: Seven Founders of the State of Israel (Simon & Schuster, 1980).\par \tab Although Italy became a united country only in 1861, it has one of the oldest cultures in Europe. Italy's eras of greatness and artistic brilliance and the variety of its natural environments have attracted many travelers in search of beautiful art, landscapes, and places of religious importance. Rome, one of the world's oldest and most colorful cities, is the capital and largest city of Italy. Vatican City, the seat of the Roman Catholic church, lies within Rome. Two thousand years ago Italy was the heart of the mighty Roman Empire, which extended from Scotland to what is now Iraq, and south from the Rhine River to the Sahara desert in North Africa. After the decline and fall of the empire, Italy was divided into a number of large and small states, but it continued to occupy a place of leadership in commerce, on both land and sea, and in the arts. Modern finance, the foundations of banking and foreign trade, and the rebirth of European art and thought, called the Renaissance, spread from Italy to most of Europe.
\par \tab The unified Italy that emerged in 1861 lagged behind other European countries economically because of its scant natural resources. In World War I Italy gained some territory but continued to have economic problems. A Fascist dictatorship under Benito Mussolini led to a few temporary gains, but during World War II Italy was occupied by Germany and invaded by Allied forces. It suffered severe damage to some of its cities and a breakdown of its economy. With outside help Italy made up its losses, expanded its economy, and strengthened its democratic institutions to become one of the cornerstones of a strong, stable Western Europe. A founding member of the European Economic Community, Italy now ranks among the leading commercial and cultural nations of the Western world.
{\b THE LAND}
\par \tab Italy is a peninsula that juts into the Mediterranean Sea from southern Europe. Its shape resembles a high boot. In the north, the wide top of the boot includes part of the Alps and also Italy's major plain, the Po Valley. The spur of the boot, on the eastern side of the country, is formed by the small, rugged Gargano peninsula. In the south, the heel, instep, and toe of the boot each make up a distinct region of Italy. Off the toe lies Sicily, Italy's largest island.
\par \tab The second largest Italian island, Sardinia, is in the Tyrrhenian Sea, opposite south-central Italy's western coast. The only other sizable island, also in the Tyrrhenian, is Elba, which served as Napoleon's place of exile. Much smaller Italian islands form groups--the Pontine Islands near Naples; the Lipari, or Eolie, Islands off northeastern Sicily; and the Egadi Islands opposite Sicily's northwestern end.
\par \tab From northwest to southeast, Italy is a little more than 670 miles (1,080 kilometers) long. The widest part, in the north, measures about 350 miles (560 kilometers) from west to east. The rest of the peninsula varies in width from 100 to 150 miles (160 to 240 kilometers). Italy has a total area of about 116,000 square miles (300,400 square kilometers). Italy is a mountainous country, dominated by two large mountain systems--the Alps in the north and the Apennines throughout the peninsula. The Alps, which are the highest mountains in Europe, extend in a great curve from the northwestern coast of Italy to the point where they merge with Austria and Slovenia in the east. The Maritime Alps are the beginning of the chain, just west of the port city of Genoa. Despite mighty peaks and steep-sided valleys, the Alps are pierced by mountain passes that have always allowed Italy to be in close contact with its northern neighbors. Highway and railroad tunnels provide year-round travel through the mountains, and the Alps are important as recreational areas in summer and winter.
\par \tab The Apennine mountain system is an eastern continuation of the Maritime Alps. It forms a long curve that makes up the backbone of the Italian peninsula. The Apennines extend across Italy in the north, follow the east coast across the central region, then turn toward the west coast, and, interrupted by the narrow Strait of Messina, continue into Sicily.
\par \tab Italy has numerous smaller mountains, many of volcanic origin, and there are several extinct volcanoes. The only two active volcanoes on the European continent are in Italy--Mount Vesuvius near Naples, and Mount Etna in Sicily.
\par {\b The Main Divisions of Italy}
\par \tab Italians divide their country into four main parts. These parts are generally recognized as the following: (1) northern Italy, (2) central Italy, (3) southern Italy, and (4) the islands. Sometimes the islands are included as part of southern Italy. Northern Italy is dominated by the only extensive plain in the country, the lowland formed by the Po River and its tributaries. The Alps form the northern and western boundaries of the area, and the Apennines make up the southern boundary. In the east, northern Italy is open to the Adriatic Sea, and in the west there is access to the Ligurian Sea. Good soils and a climate favorable for farming are characteristic of the north. This section of Italy has the largest portion of the nation's population and is the leading agricultural and industrial area.
\par \tab Central Italy consists of the part of the peninsula that extends north of Rome. Although only a small part of the area is composed of lowlands, central Italy plays an important role in farming and in some branches of industry.
\par \tab Southern Italy includes the part of the peninsula south of a line drawn from Rome to the east coast. There are few lowlands in the area, and only two have importance in farming. One is the lowland surrounding Naples, and the other is the lowland of Apulia, the segment of the east coast that includes the heel of the Italian boot.
\par \tab The fourth region includes Sicily and Sardinia, as well as smaller island groups in the Mediterranean Sea.
\par {\b Natural Resources}
\par \tab Italy's natural resources are limited. Only about 20 percent of the land considered adequate for farming is level. Italian farmers have terraced hillsides for gardens and small fields. Many farms, though too small to be considered worth farming in other countries, are worked to feed the farmers' families.
\par \tab Resources for industry are equally scarce. Oil and natural gas are produced primarily in the lower Po Valley, the southeastern portion of the peninsula, and parts of Sicily, but the output is extremely inadequate for a nation where motor transportation plays a vital role. While some coal is mined in the northwestern corner of northern Italy, for high-quality coal, as well as for oil and natural gas, Italy depends heavily on imports. However, hydroelectric power, from falling water, is so well developed in the Alpine valleys and in some valleys of the Apennines that almost all available sites produce electricity.
\par \tab Italy depends largely on imports for metals and minerals used by industry. There are, however, limited sources of bauxite in the Apulia region; iron ore on Elba; lead, zinc, and antimony on Sardinia; magnesium and asbestos in the Piedmont region; mercury in Tuscany; and sulfur in Sicily.
\par {\b Climate, Vegetation, Animal Life}
\par \tab {\b Climate.}
\par \tab Most of Italy has a Mediterranean type of climate, which has cool, rainy winters and hot, dry summers. Winter temperatures along and near the coasts of southern Italy seldom drop to freezing in winter, and summer temperatures often reach 90░ F (32░ C) or higher. Winter is the rainy season, when streambeds that remain empty during much of the year fill to overflowing and flash floods are common. Summers are dry, and certain crops, especially fruits and vegetables, must be irrigated throughout much of the peninsula and on the islands.
\par \tab The climate of northern Italy differs greatly from that of the south. Winters tend to be cold, with heavy snowfall in the Alps, much rain, and fog. Summers are not as hot, and summer rains aid farming.
\par \tab {\b Vegetation.}
\par \tab Italy has at least three zones of differing vegetation: the Alps, the Po Valley, and the Mediterranean-Apennine area. From the foot of the Alps to their highest peaks, three bands of vegetation can be distinguished. First, around the Lombard lakes, the most common trees are the evergreen cork oak, the European olive, the cypress, and the cherry laurel. Slightly higher, on the mountain plain, the beech gives place gradually to the deciduous larch and the Norway spruce. In the high-altitude zone, twisted shrubs give way to pastureland with grasses and sedges and wildflowers. At the snow line grow innumerable mosses, lichens, and flags.
\par \tab In the Po Valley little remains of the original forests because agriculture and industry have supplanted most of the natural vegetation. Poplars predominate where there is abundant water, but in the drier zones there are a few sedges. On the upland plains heather abounds, and there are forests of Scotch pine. Water lilies are common on the banks of marshes.
\par \tab In the Apennine zone extending the length of the peninsula, a typical tree is the holm oak, while the area closer to the sea is characterized by the olive, oleander, carob, mastic, and the Aleppo pine. There is a notable development of pioneer sea grape on the coastal dunes. The Mediterranean foothill area is characterized by the cork oak and the Aleppo pine. Higher up, in southern Italy, there are still traces of the ancient mountain forest, with truffle oak, chestnut, flowering ash, Oriental oak, white poplar, and Oriental plane. Where the forests have been destroyed in the strictly Mediterranean section, a scrub called macchia has grown up. The Apennine pasturelands are very much like those of the Alps. The papyrus is quite common in Sicily as a freshwater plant.
\par \tab {\b Animal life.}
\par \tab In Italy, where people centuries ago occupied the best land and even the mountain pastures, very little of the original animal life survives. Wolves and other predators still live in the remote Apennine mountains. Chamois, lynx, ibex, mountain goats, brown bears, and European deer live in the national parks and wildlife preserves of the Alps and the Apennines. The land offers few resources to the people, and so small mammals and birds of all kinds have always been hunted for food. Alpine birds include the black grouse and golden eagle, and caves are inhabited by the greater horseshoe bat. The greatest variety of animal life is in the seas surrounding Italy. In recent decades, after centuries of intensive fishing, however, overfishing and pollution have started to reduce the quantity of marine life.
{\b THE PEOPLE}
\par \tab The Italian people are known to be among the most homogeneous, in language and religion, of all the European populations. The only significant minority group consists of several hundred thousand German-speaking people who live in the Alpine valleys in the north. Their region, called the Trentino-Alto Adige, is located in the upper valley of the Adige River, a tributary of the Po. It made up part of the Austrian province of Tyrol, and the people still refer to their homeland as the South Tyrol. They were incorporated into Italy after World War I, and both Italian and German are official languages in this region. The people, however, still maintain a separate identity.
\par \tab Two much smaller minority groups live in northern Italy. One of these groups, the Valdotains, also has two official languages, Italian and French. This group dwells in the Valle d'Aosta (Valley of Aosta) in the northwestern corner of the country. The other group speaks a Romance language called Romansh, or Ladin, which closely resembles Italian. These people live in northeastern Italy.
\par \tab About 95 percent of the Italian people speak Italian. For more than seven centuries the standard form of the language has been the one spoken in Tuscany, the region of central Italy centered around Florence. However, there are many dialects, some of which are difficult for non-Italians to understand, even if they have a good command of the language. At least two of the principal dialects, those of Sicily and Sardinia, may even be difficult for other Italians to comprehend.
\par \tab Television and radio together have helped to unify the country through the use of a common speech that the Italians call the "language of Tuscany as spoken in Rome." Rome is not only the capital of Italy but also the headquarters of the Italian radio and television network.
\par {\b Cities}
\par \tab As recently as 1900, the three largest cities of Italy--Rome, Milan, and Naples--each had about 500,000 people. Much of the Italian population lived in very small towns and villages. More than half the people were farmers, and industry was concentrated in the northwestern part of the country.
\par \tab Italy's urban population has grown impressively since 1900. Rome, the largest city, had nearly 3 million people in 1990; Milan had about 1,500,000; and Naples, about 1,200,000. Since the late 19th century Italy has been a source of large numbers of emigrants. Prior to the 1920s most settled in North and South America. After World War II many moved to Australia. Hundreds of thousands of Italians are now temporary or permanent residents of Switzerland, France, and Germany.
\par \tab As Italian cities grew, the means of earning a living changed from agricultural to industrial employment. Less than 10 percent of the labor force now works in agriculture. The majority is employed in manufacturing, service occupations, commerce, and construction industries.
\par {\b Religion}
\par \tab By far the greatest number of Italians are Roman Catholics. Rome is the seat of the pope, the head of the Roman Catholic church. For centuries the city has attracted large numbers of pilgrims who come to visit Vatican City, an independent enclave. There they worship in St. Peter's Basilica, which stands next to the Papal Palace, the residence of the pope. Pilgrims also visit Assisi, the birthplace of St. Francis, and many other religious sites in Italy.
\par \tab In 1870 the new unified Italian state took over Rome and the surrounding area, which were the last remnants of what were once dominions of the pope. The reigning pope, Pius IX, refused to recognize the Italian state, and for half a century the popes considered themselves prisoners in the Papal Palace. In 1929 the Italian government and the church agreed to the Lateran Treaty and Concordat, which recognized the pope as sovereign ruler of an area smaller than a square mile.
\par \tab It is now known as the State of Vatican City, a walled area that also includes museums, the Vatican Gardens, a library, a radio station, and a railroad terminal. A group of buildings houses the central offices of the Roman Catholic church.
\par \tab Protestants compose a small minority. Across the country are old Jewish communities that survived persecution by Nazi Germany during World War II.
\par {\b Literature and the Arts}
\par \tab {\b Literature.}
\par \tab The beginnings of Italian literature can be traced to the 13th century. The Italian language, one of the Romance languages, has its origins in Latin as spoken during the later centuries of the Roman Empire. During the late 13th and early 14th centuries a group of poets and other writers began to use the "new, sweet style," which they called the language they wrote in to distinguish it from Latin. Latin continued to be used by the church, the government, and business.
\par \tab The three leading figures of the first flowering of Italian literature were Dante Alighieri, Petrarch, and Giovanni Boccaccio. Dante was the first to write in the Italian vernacular, and his symbolic poem, the 'Divine Comedy', bridges the gap between the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Petrarch was the first great lyric poet to use the Italian language. Boccaccio was the first to write what are now called short stories.
\par \tab A second great flowering of Italian literature occurred during the 16th century. Its leaders were two poets, Ludovico Ariosto, who wrote about the age of chivalry, and Torquato Tasso, whose principal work dealt with the Crusades
\par \tab {\b Visual arts.}
\par \tab Italy is perhaps best known for its great heritage in the arts. The names of world-renowned Italian artists and architects would include those of Giotto, Donatello, Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci, Botticelli, and Bellini, to mention a few.
\par \tab Italian art goes back to the beginnings of the history of the peninsula. It started with the Etruscans, whose chief cities and art centers were in the middle of the peninsula, between Rome and Florence. At about the same time Greek cities flourished in southern Italy and Sicily. They left behind magnificent temples that still stand and statues that have been found through the centuries, some lifted from the sea. The legacy of Rome includes public structures that continue to be impressive because of their size and symmetry. Some are still in use, among them great outdoor theaters, groups of temples and public meeting places such as the Forum, and aqueducts that even today bring water to the city.
\par \tab After the downfall of the Roman Empire, the Byzantines ruled much of the southern and eastern regions of Italy. Their churches, like those of the 6th century in Ravenna near the east coast, retain their glorious mosaics and other decorations.
\par \tab The Renaissance, which began in 14th-century Italy, left the most extensive legacy of all. Churches, palaces, paintings, statues, and city squares are examples of the creative genius of the period.
\par \tab Rome, more than any other Italian city, also retains the works of baroque art that followed the Renaissance. Churches, paintings, and statues recall the splendor that Rome, the city of the popes and great patrons of the arts, represented to the leading artists of the late 16th and 17th centuries.
\par \tab The creative genius of Italy continued after the great ages of the Renaissance and the baroque. The works of modern Italian artists and architects impress countless visitors. The buildings designed by the architect Pier Luigi Nervi for the 1960 Olympic Games in Rome, and for other cities, rank among the finest contemporary architecture.
\par \tab {\b Music.}
\par \tab Italy has a great tradition in music as well as in the other arts. The Gregorian chant, troubadour song, and the madrigal were forms in early Italian music, which was distinguished by the work of Palestrina and Monteverdi. These were followed by such important composers as Vivaldi, Alessandro and Domenico Scarlatti, and Cimarosa. In the 19th century Italian opera flowered with Rossini, Donizetti, Bellini, and, greatest of all, Giuseppe Verdi. Arrigo Boito and Giacomo Puccini continued the Verdian heritage. Afterward Verismo, or Realism, made itself felt in operatic tradition in the work of Pietro Mascagni. Since World War II, Italians who have made significant contributions include Luigi Dallapiccola and Luigi Nono.
\par {\b Education and Health}
\par \tab Education in Italy is free and compulsory for children between the ages of 6 and 14. Kindergartens have been promoted by the Roman Catholic church and other organizations. Elementary schools emphasize the mastery of basic skills. Secondary education offers both general and college-preparatory programs. Technical schools prepare students for certain trades, and teachers' colleges train men and women for the nation's classrooms.
\par \tab Italy has 27 state and private universities. The private universities are supported by the Roman Catholic church. The University of Bologna, founded about 1200, is Italy's oldest university and one of the oldest in the world. The largest is the University of Rome, with more than 140,000 students.
\par \tab Public health in Italy is maintained through a comprehensive state-sponsored medical program. This service is free to all citizens, who make minimum contributions for hospital treatments and examinations. Private and public hospitals serve all urban areas. The most important advance in public health in recent times has been the almost complete elimination of malaria, which was widespread for centuries throughout most of the country's lowland and coastal areas.
{\b THE ECONOMY}
\par \tab Italy suffered enormous damage during World War II, and its economy was a shambles. After the war the country was able to rebuild the economy with the assistance of the Marshall Plan and through membership in the Organization of European Economic Cooperation. Changes in structure occurred, mainly in agriculture, as a result of land reform and intensive state planning to increase farm production. In addition, many people moved from the poorer southern sections of Italy to the more prosperous areas of central and northern Italy.
\par \tab Measured in terms of overall production, Italy ranks fourth among the industrial nations of Western Europe after Germany, France, and Great Britain. The other three countries have long been among the world's leading industrial nations, but Italy has had an important place in the world economy only since the 1950s.
\par {\b Agriculture}
\par \tab The number of people employed in agriculture throughout the world has fallen during the 20th century, but farming remains important in Italy for both employment and the economy. The leading farm products include wheat for flour, olives to provide cooking oil, and grapes to be pressed for wine.
\par \tab Wheat flour is used in making bread and pasta, one of the chief Italian foods. Corn and rice are important in northern Italian cooking. Other leading crops in that part of the country are fruits and vegetables. Farmers in central and southern Italy also raise fruits and vegetables during the short, mild winters there, and these products have a ready market in the countries of the European Community.
\par \tab Poultry, sheep, and pigs are the principal livestock raised by Italian farmers, followed by cattle and goats. Horses and donkeys were once important as draft animals and for transportation, but they have sharply decreased in number.
\par \tab {\b Land reform.}
\par \tab Until the 1950s much of central and southern Italy, Sicily, and Sardinia were among the last aristocratic European strongholds of large-scale landowners. The estates of these landowners covered many thousands of acres and employed only small numbers of laborers, mostly at harvesttime. Landless peasants, who had no work during much of the year, lived in nearby villages and small towns; large numbers of them emigrated to find better employment and living conditions.
\par \tab In the early 1950s the Italian parliament passed special land-reform laws to change the situation. Much of the land held in large private estates was divided into small farms and distributed to the peasants. The new owners were given substantial government support for their first years on the land, and the previous owners received cash compensation. Thousands of new small farms were created in this way during the 1950s, and farm production, as a result of the land reform and other measures, rose quickly.
\par \tab The Italian government not only invested large sums of money in land reform but at the same time also carried out other measures to help the farmers. New roads were built to help carry produce to market, and new irrigation systems, needed during the long, dry summers, were constructed. Warehouses and cold storage facilities for farm products were provided, and the government also introduced new crops. For example, flower growers in The Netherlands began to send seeds to southern Italy, where they could start growing early while the fields of Holland might still be covered with snow. In spring, Italian growers ship the young plants back north for final growth. As a result of these changes, farming in central and especially southern Italy became its most prosperous.
\par {\b Forestry and Fishing}
\par \tab Italy's forests have long suffered from unplanned cutting and heavy soil erosion. Reclamation of former forested areas is in progress, and timber is harvested only after it has reached maturity. Forested areas have increased in size since the 1940s.
\par \tab Fishing along Italy's long coastline has been a significant industry since the beginning of the peninsula's history. The nation's fishing fleet operates near and far from shore and brings the catch to ports of all sizes. Some species of fish have suffered heavily from indiscriminate fishing. For example, tuna was once a major part of the catch but has almost disappeared from the coastal waters surrounding Sicily. The Italian diet includes many kinds of fishes and shellfishes, and fresh fish can be bought daily almost everywhere.
\par {\b Industry}
\par \tab Italian industry is organized very differently from that of most countries. During the Great Depression of the 1930s, which affected all nations, Italy's banks suffered heavy losses. The Italian government, in an effort to prop up the economy, took over the management of the banks and formed holding companies. The largest state holding company, called the Industrial Reconstruction Institute (IRI), was formed in the early 1930s. The IRI and other holding companies hold interests in a wide variety of enterprises ranging from steel mills and shipyards to the national airline. In addition, they control many corporations, including ones producing computer software, electronics, and automobiles. This diverse ownership of companies has made the Italian state the largest business employer in the country.
\par \tab Italy also has state monopolies. For example, the railroads, the postal system, sales of tobacco and salt, and most of the generation and distribution of electricity are completely controlled by the government.
\par \tab The three main parts of Italy differ greatly in their industry and agriculture. Northern Italy has by far the healthiest economy, with the largest share of industry, the best farms, and the highest incomes among farmers, workers, and employees in service industries. Central Italy is less fortunate, and southern Italy is the poorest section. These differences in income levels--and, as a result, in living standards--have existed for centuries.
\par \tab During the period from 1945 to 1950, the government began an effort to improve the economies of southern Italy and portions of central Italy by large-scale investments. The investment fund for southern Italy is supported partly by government revenues and partly by help from other nations, including Italy's partners in the Economic Communities (EC) and, in earlier years, the United States. This fund makes investments in farming and public works, and it extends help to industries wishing to build new plants in central and southern Italy.
\par \tab {\b Manufacturing.}
\par \tab The production of steel and of electric power plays a large role in determining the level of a nation's industrial output. In the early 1980s Italy ranked second only to West Germany among European steel producers, and fourth after West Germany, the United Kingdom, and France in the production of electric power.
\par \tab Iron and steel form the basis of much of Italy's industry. Italy is Europe's leading maker of home appliances and one of the five leading automobile manufacturers in the world. Other products include ships, tools, hardware, ball bearings, electrical equipment, printing machinery, and precision tools. Italian ports serve as major gateways for oil and gas imported by the nations of Western Europe. Chemical and petrochemical industries operate in all major Italian ports, such as Venice, Genoa, Bari, and Naples.
\par \tab A long tradition of fine craftsmanship led to the rise of Italy's precision industries. The Olivetti Corporation is a world leader in the production of office machinery, typewriters, and computers. Textiles are another traditional industry that now operates on a large scale. Italy has long been known for its fine silks, and the nation also produces large quantities of woolens and synthetic fabrics. The Italian government plays a leading part in the field of energy production. The National Hydrocarbons Agency (ENI) acquired a monopoly on all oil and natural gas in the Po Basin. Using profits from the sale of natural gas, it expanded and began to operate filling stations, motels, and pipelines. The ENI also operates industrial plants, petrochemical works, refineries, and tankers. In addition to its important role at home, this government corporation participates in oil exploration and production, especially in the Middle East.
\par \tab For centuries Italians have been skillful workers in marble and stone and expert designers and builders of churches, palaces, public buildings, and roads. As a result, Italian firms have undertaken major construction projects throughout the world. These companies have built such facilities as hydroelectric dams, ports, and pipelines in many countries. The skill of Italian engineers is equally well known. The largest complete automobile manufacturing plant in Russia was designed by the Fiat company of Turin. In the early 1980s the government began a remarkably daring and innovative engineering project to divert the flow of lava from Mount Etna. Past eruptions have been disastrous to nearby towns.
\par \tab {\b Crafts.}
\par \tab Hundreds of thousands of skillful Italian artisans are the heirs of a 2,000-year tradition of artistry. Their products--fashioned of leather, gold, silver, glass, and silk--are widely sought by tourists who flock to such cities as Florence, Rome, and Milan. Cameos made from seashells, an ancient Italian art form, are as popular today as they were in the days of the Roman Empire. The work of Italian artists and artisans is also exported for sale in the great department stores of France, Germany, the United Kingdom, and the United States.
\par \tab Italian clothing designers are world famous, especially for precise tailoring, unusual knits, and the imaginative use of fur and leather. After World War II Italian motion pictures pioneered in realism to win numerous awards and international acclaim.
\par \tab {\b Foreign trade.}
\par \tab Foreign trade has increased greatly as a result of Italy's industrial growth and its membership in the EEC. Imports exceed exports in most years because Italy brings in some of its food, fuels, and raw materials, as well as certain types of machinery. As a rule, however, that trade deficit is more than balanced by income from tourists. Italy carries on about half of its foreign trade, both imports and exports, with the other EEC members.
\par \tab {\b Transportation.}
\par \tab The Italian railroad system, which is owned by the government, provides convenient transportation throughout the country. Ferries link the principal islands with the mainland, and those that travel between southernmost Italy and Sicily carry trains as well as cars, trucks, and people.
\par \tab The railroad system is most extensive in the north, but main lines run along both coasts, and other routes cross the peninsula in several places. The Simplon Tunnel, one of the world's longest railroad tunnels, connects Italy and Switzerland. Other rail lines follow routes across the Alps between Italy and France, Austria, and Slovenia.
\par \tab The world's first automobile expressways were built in northern Italy during the 1920s. Today Italy and Germany have the most extensive networks of fast, limited-access highways in Europe. Motorists can drive without encountering traffic lights or crossroads--stopping only for border crossings, rest, or fuel--from Belgium, The Netherlands, France, or Germany across the Alps all the way to Sicily. Two highway tunnels through the Alps, under the Great St. Bernard Pass and through Mont Blanc, enable motor vehicles to travel between Italy and the rest of Europe regardless of weather. The expressways, called autostradas, are superhighways and toll roads. They connect all major Italian cities and have contributed to the tremendous increase in tourist travel.
\par \tab {\b Tourism.}
\par \tab For centuries Italy's attractions have drawn people from other countries. Some come to visit Rome and its shrines of the Roman Catholic church. Others are attracted by the works of art created throughout Italy's long history. Tourists are lured not only by places of religious and artistic significance but also by the varied and beautiful landscape. The money spent by tourists contributes significantly to the Italian economy. Foreign currencies converted into Italian lire help pay for Italian imports. At the same time the tourist business is one of Italy's most important service branches because it employs people who work in restaurants, hotels, shops, and transportation. Most of the tourists come from Germany, Switzerland, Austria, France, Great Britain, and the United States.
{\b GOVERNMENT}
\par \tab When the unified Italian state came into existence on Feb. 18, 1861, its government was a constitutional monarchy. On June 2, 1946, the people voted for their nation to become a republic. A new constitution became effective on Jan. 1, 1948.
\par \tab The chief of state is the president, whom the parliament elects to a seven-year term. The president appoints the premier, who actually heads the government and decides its policies. The president has the power to dissolve parliament and represents the country on formal occasions, such as the signing of treaties. His appointment of the premier is subject to approval by parliament, and a vote of lack of confidence by either house of parliament requires the official to resign. The people elect the 630 members of the Chamber of Deputies and 315 members of the Senate to five-year terms. The president may appoint five additional senators. Italy is divided into 20 regions whose names, with few exceptions, date back to the time of the emperor Augustus at the beginning of the Christian era. The regions are subdivided into 94 provinces. Aosta, or the Valle d'Aosta, in northwestern Italy is a province as well as a region. Southeast of it lies the region of Piedmont, whose capital is Turin. The rest of northern Italy is divided by the Po River. North of the Po are the regions of Lombardy, Veneto, Friuli-Venezia Giulia, and Trentino-Alto Adige. South of the Po are Emilia-Romagna and Liguria.
\par \tab Central Italy consists of Tuscany, Marche, Umbria, and Lazio. The regions of southern Italy are Abruzzi, Molise, Campania, Apulia, Basilicata, and Calabria. Each of Italy's two large islands, Sicily and Sardinia, is a region.
\par \tab The constitution gives each region considerable freedom in running its own affairs, such as farming and tourism. However, the national government has basic powers of control over the regions.
\par \tab Italian politics, long controlled by the Fascist dictatorship that took over the country in 1922, burst into activity in 1945 following World War II. Numerous political parties sprang forth. A system of proportional representation designed to avoid totalitarian rule was set up. The conservative Christian Democratic Party has dominated politics from World War II into the 1990s, getting the largest slice of the vote, but it has often been forced into a governing alliance with other parties. For example, in the 1980s and 1990s the governing coalition was made up of four parties--
\par \tab Christian Democrats, Socialists, Social Democrats, and Liberals. The Italian Communist party, renamed the Democratic Party of the Left in 1991, is the strongest party of the political left and usually gets the second largest number of votes in elections.
\par \tab Italy has had more than 40 governments since World War II, but the nation's well-established bureaucracy tends to hold the state together despite the political instability. After the 1992 elections there was a call for reform of the proportional representation system. Faced with a crippling budget deficit, deteriorating public services, and the strains of European integration beginning in 1993, Italy saw support grow for a stronger central government.
\par {\b International Relations}
\par \tab Italy has been a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) since the alliance was established in 1949. The country joined the United Nations in 1955. Italian statesmen, led by longtime Premier Alcide De Gasperi, played an important part in the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community and, later, of the EEC and the European Atomic Energy Commission, whose charters were signed in Rome in 1957. Through the years, Italy has been one of the world powers that provide political and economic leadership among the Western nations. The nation maintains strong ties with the United States.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab Most of this article was written by George Kish, Professor Emeritus of Geography, University of Michigan.
\par \tab {\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR ITALY}
\par {\b Books for Children}
\par \tab Anno, Mitsumasa. Anno's Italy (Putnam, 1984).
\par \tab Mack Smith, Denis. Garibaldi: A Great Life in Brief (Greenwood, 1982).
\par \tab Mack Smith, Denis. Italy: A Modern History, rev. ed. (Univ. of Mich. Press, 1969).
\par \tab Simon, Kate. Italy: The Places in Between, rev. ed. (Harper, 1984).
\par \tab Traub, Charles and Ballerini, Luigi. Italy Observed: In Photography and Literature (Rizzoli International, 1988).
\par \tab Villari, Luigi. Italian Life (Gordon, 1976).
\par \tab Villari, Luigi. The Liberation of Italy (Devin, 1960).
\par \tab Wharton, Edith. Italian Backgrounds (Ecco, 1989).\par \tab The national motto of Jamaica is "Out of many, one people." In the early 19th century, however, the people of this Caribbean island were divided by color and class. Most were black slaves--treated more as property than as human beings. In fact, until slavery was abolished in 1838, Jamaica served as the chief slave market of America. The transformation of the country into a multiracial society with considerable social and political harmony, therefore, is a remarkable achievement.
\par {\b Land and People}
\par \tab Jamaica is a mountainous island of 4,244 square miles (10,991 square kilometers). The Blue Mountains in the east, composed in part of ancient volcanic rock, contain the island's tallest peak at 7,402 feet (2,256 meters). The northern slopes of the Blue Mountains and the nearby John Crow Mountains are a completely uninhabited wilderness. Another unpopulated region is the Cockpit Country in the center of the island. A roadless jumble of limestone pinnacles and glades, the region is riddled with spectacular caves. In the west and along the coasts are savannas, plains, and scattered trees. Most Jamaicans live on the coastal plains.
\par \tab The climate is tropical, with temperatures higher along the coasts and cooler in the mountains. Rainfall, too, varies with region. Northeastern Jamaica receives more than 100 inches (250 centimeters) of rainfall annually--making it one of the wettest regions in the world. Most of the country experiences severe fluctuations of drought and flood. Little rain falls on the hot, dry southern and southwestern plains. The average annual temperature at Kingston, the capital, is 79░ F (26░ C).
\par \tab For centuries Jamaicans have exploited their island for mahogany and other cabinet woods, leaving little of the natural rain forest still standing. Erosion of the hill slopes is one serious consequence of this exploitation. But there is still a rich flora of native orchids and ferns. Throughout the year the many species of tropical and subtropical plants produce a changing spectacle of colors. Among the plants are the vivid red poinciana, the yellow poui, and the blue lignum vitae, which is Jamaica's national tree. There are four major botanical gardens. Jamaica has more than 200 species of birds, including a beautiful hummingbird--known locally as the "doctor bird"--which is the national bird. Also abundant are bats, mongooses, frogs, lizards, and crocodiles. There are no venomous snakes on the island.
\par \tab During the 18th century, more than 600,000 blacks were brought in to work on the sugar, coffee, and other plantations. Today the population of the country consists mainly of the black and mulatto descendants of those slaves. There are also minorities of East Indian, Chinese, Amerindian, Syrian, Lebanese, and European ancestry, all with full and unqualified Jamaican citizenship. More than half of the Jamaican population lives in urban areas.
\par \tab The official language of Jamaica is English, but many people speak a popular and expressive Creole dialect. Originally developed as a means of communication between slaves, it contains elements from African languages as well as from English, French, and Spanish. Education is theoretically free, but illiteracy is still a problem. Near Kingston, the capital and chief port, is the main campus of the University of the West Indies and a technical college.
\par \tab A religious people, Jamaicans enjoy complete freedom of worship. Many Christian denominations are represented--the majority belonging to the Church of God--and there are small groups of Jews, Muslims, and Hindus. Two cults, Kumina (Revival) and Rastafarianism, have African links and are native to Jamaica. Rastafarians use ganja, a potent form of marijuana, as a sacrament and have special rules of dress, diet, and work. Jamaicans have developed a vibrant national culture, notably represented in such fields as reggae music, drama, and the visual arts and in the sport of cricket.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab About one fourth of the people depend upon agriculture for a living. Half the cultivated area is controlled by about 1,000 large estates, while the other half is divided into 185,000 small farms. The larger farms mainly produce sugarcane, citrus fruits, coffee, bananas, pimentos, and cattle--often for export. The small farms grow a variety of crops and raise goats and pigs for subsistence and for local markets.
\par \tab Jamaica depends on tourism. A string of beautiful resorts extends all along the north coast. Montego Bay and Ocho Rios are towns with many large hotels, but there are also simpler types of accommodations set in small coves and secluded bay areas. Among the popular attractions are water sports and game fishing.
\par \tab Five international aluminum companies mine deposits of bauxite on the central limestone plateaus; three of them also process the ore into alumina. The aluminum industry causes environmental pollution, but it is also vital to the national economy. Among the top five producers of bauxite and alumina in the world, Jamaica derives essential foreign exchange from the industry. Workers in the bauxite industry are among the highest paid in the country.
\par \tab The Kingston metropolitan area dominates the country commercially and industrially. Spanish Town (the capital from 1534 to 1872), May Pen, and Mandeville are smaller industrial and commercial centers. Jamaica has a good road network. Public transport is mainly by minibus. Air Jamaica links the country with other Caribbean islands, the United States, Canada, and Europe.
\par {\b History and Government}
\par \tab When Christopher Columbus landed in Jamaica in 1494, the island was inhabited by the gentle Arawak people. During 150 years of Spanish rule, the Arawaks were virtually exterminated, and African slaves were brought to the island. A British force invaded successfully in 1655, and Jamaica remained a British colony until 1962. The slave trade expanded during the 18th century.
\par \tab Slavery was abolished by stages in the 1830s, and between 1839 and 1844 indentured laborers from India were brought in to replace the blacks, many of whom moved to the new free settlements that had developed in the hills. In 1865 there was an uprising, which the British governor Edward John Eyre repressed so severely that he was recalled and put on trial. In the 1930s Sir Alexander Bustamante--who later led the country to independence--was prominent in a vigorous labor movement. He founded the Jamaica Labour party, while his cousin Norman Washington Manley formed the People's National party.
\par \tab Jamaica is a parliamentary democracy, with a lower house elected by universal suffrage and an appointed senate. It belongs to the Commonwealth, and the head of state is the governor-general, who is appointed by the monarch of England. The prime minister is the leader of the majority party in the House of Representatives.
\par \tab In the late 1970s Jamaica moved toward closer ties with Cuba under Michael Manley, who was prime minister from 1972 to 1980. Under Manley the country was brought to the verge of economic collapse. After 1980 ties with the United States were strengthened with the election of the conservative Edward Seaga. During his term there were problems of overpopulation, limited resources, and inequitable distribution of land and wealth. Manley was again elected prime minister in 1989. A devastating hurricane in September 1988 caused widespread damage. Population (1990 estimate), 2,431,000.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab L. Alan Eyre\par \tab The leading industrial state of Eastern Asia and of the non-Western world, Japan rivals the most advanced economic powers of the West. It rose rapidly from a crushing military defeat in World War II to achieve the fastest-growing economy of any major country in the postwar period. Today only the United States outproduces it, although the industrialization of China poses a strong challenge.
\par \tab The Meiji Restoration of 1868 launched Japan onto the road of modernization. The Japanese skillfully developed the technological base for modern industry and built their country into a leading world power. Set back temporarily by wartime destruction and the consequences of military defeat, Japan has again become a world power. This time, however, its reputation is based not on armed might but on the productivity of its peacetime industry.
\par \tab The Japanese people enjoy an unprecedented supply of goods. Their swelling cities, paced by the giant metropolis of Tokyo, are as modern as urban centers anywhere in the world. Japanese people face the problems that most inhabitants of great cities everywhere face--overcrowded housing, inadequate waste-disposal facilities, air and water pollution, and traffic congestion.
\par \tab In few other places in the world do the values and traditions of the past continue to flourish so strongly alongside the ideas and practices of the present. The persisting contrast between the new and the old, the modern and the traditional, is one of the most characteristic features of present-day Japan.
\par \tab Urbanization, industrialization, and modern transportation and communication rapidly changed the Japanese way of life, the effect of these developments being keenly felt not only in the cities, but also in the countryside. However, beneath Japan's "new look" lie the deep-seated customs and institutions of traditional Japanese culture--in religion, in politics, and especially in family life. The people of Japan largely continue to respect and honor their past. Their society as a whole continues to adhere to the concepts of personal loyalty and obligation that have been a tradition through the ages.
\par \tab Japan ranks high in population density and eighth in population among the world's countries. Its capital, Tokyo, is one of the world's largest cities. Japan's spectacular economic growth--the greatest of any country between 1955 and 1990--has brought the country to the forefront of the world economy. The phrase economic miracle has been used to describe the spectacular recovery from the ravages of World War II. By the early 1990s, however, that growth had slowed and was being challenged by other countries in the Far East.
{\b LAND}
\par \tab Japan comprises an island chain along mainland Asia's east coast. The four main islands--Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu--stretch some 1,200 miles (1,900 kilometers) from northeast to southwest. Including the more than 3,900 smaller islands, Japan is about 1,800 miles (2,900 kilometers) long. Its maximum width is about 200 miles (320 kilometers).
\par \tab Japan has no land border with any other country. Across the Sea of Japan to the west are North and South Korea; across the Sea of Japan to the northwest and the Sea of Okhotsk to the north is Russia; across the East China Sea to the west is China; southwest of Japan's Ryukyu Islands are Taiwan and the Philippines. The open waters of the vast Pacific Ocean wash Japan's eastern and southeastern shores. Across the Pacific, more than 4,000 miles (6,400 kilometers) away, is the United States mainland.
\par \tab Japan is 145,842 square miles (377,729 square kilometers) in area. Its largest island by far is Honshu, with about three fifths of the total area. On Honshu are most of Japan's principal cities and about four fifths of the country's more than 123 million inhabitants.
\par \tab The islands of Japan are the exposed tops of massive undersea ridges that rise from the floor of the Pacific Ocean on the eastern edge of the Asian continental shelf. The islands lie between the Japan Deep--a north-south trench that plummets to a depth of 28,000 feet (8,500 meters) in the Pacific--and the Sea of Japan, which reaches depths of 10,000 to 12,000 feet (3,000 to 3,700 meters). The Japan Deep is east of the islands; the Sea of Japan, west of the islands.
\par \tab The islands of Japan are geologically young and unstable. They have been subjected to considerable folding, faulting, and volcanic activity. As a result, the land surface of the Japanese islands is rugged and is dominated by mountains and hills that cover more than 80 percent of the land surface and divide the islands into hundreds of subunits. This creates a landscape of great variety and beauty and gives Japanese life a small-scale compactness. The largest and highest mountain mass, part of which is known as the Japanese Alps, is in central Honshu. From it mountain chains extend northward to Hokkaido and southwest to Shikoku and Kyushu. These mountain chains are gouged by many short river valleys and interrupted by many small lowland plains.
\par \tab Only one quarter of Japan's land surface has a slope of less than 15 degrees. Most Japanese plains have been formed by river deposits and lie along the seacoast. The largest lowland, the Kanto Plain of east-central Honshu, has an area of 6,000 square miles (15,500 square kilometers). In it sits the city of Tokyo. Among the nation's smaller, yet intensely utilized, plains are the Nobi Plain, the site of Nagoya, and the Kansai Plain, in the vicinity of Osaka, Kyoto, and Kobe.
\par \tab The numerous rivers of Japan are short and have small drainage basins. Only two of them are more than 200 miles (310 kilometers) long--the Shinano and the Tone, both on Honshu. Of the two, the Shinano is the longest (228 miles; 367 kilometers), and the Tone drains the largest area (7,100 square miles; 18,400 square kilometers).
\par \tab Japan's rivers generally have steep gradients and carry heavy loads of sediment from the mountains to the lowlands. On the lowlands they are usually shallow and braided and flow through gravel-filled beds. Often they have built-up natural levees and are elevated above the river plains. Their flow rates vary greatly with the seasonal rains.
\par \tab Although of little use for navigation, the rivers of Japan are used intensively for irrigation, urban water supply, and the generation of electricity. Floods are common, especially during the typhoon season, and are highly destructive in the heavily populated river valleys and plains. Japan has few lakes. The largest is Lake Biwa, in west-central Honshu.
\par \tab Japan's coastline is unusually long in relation to the nation's total land area. The Pacific coast has many deep indentations, among them Tokyo, Suruga, and Ise bays on Honshu and the Inland Sea between Honshu and Shikoku. The indentations are separated by rugged peninsulas and headlands. Among them are the Boso and Izu peninsulas. The west coast of Kyushu is also deeply indented, and there are many small offshore islands. The Sea of Japan coast of Honshu, however, is much straighter and has long stretches of sand dunes and beach ridges.
\par \tab Japan's numerous volcanoes and frequent earthquakes are evidence of the instability of the rocks underlying the country. It has about 200 volcanoes and volcanic groups, of which about 60 have been active in recorded history. Some of the volcanoes are cone-shaped and rise to the highest elevations in Japan, while others are calderas, or craters where cones once stood.
\par \tab Mount Fuji (12,389 feet; 3,776 meters), the famous volcanic cone, is the highest peak in Japan. It has been dormant since 1707. Mount Asama in central Honshu and Mount Sakurajima in southern Kyushu are well-known active volcanoes. Among the most notable calderas are Mount Aso in Kyushu and Mount Akan in Hokkaido. There are hot springs in the volcanic zones.
\par \tab Undersea earthquakes in the North Pacific basin stir up unusually large tsunamis, or "tidal waves," that are very destructive when they reach the Japanese coast. Severe earthquakes that do damage over small areas occur about every five or six years in Japan. One of the worst was the Great Kanto Earthquake of 1923, which, combined with the ensuing fire, wiped out much of Tokyo and Yokohama. More than 140,000 lives were lost.
\par {\b Climate}
\par \tab For a small country, Japan has a great variety of climatic conditions. This is because its islands have a long latitudinal spread and are in the zone where the conflicting air masses of the Asian continent and of the Pacific Ocean meet and interact. The continental air masses make for more extreme temperatures, both in winter and in summer, and result in large annual temperature ranges. But their effect is moderated by the strong marine influence, which also produces high humidity and abundant rainfall. Japan's rugged topography also causes many local variations in weather and climate.
\par \tab During the winter, Japan is primarily under the influence of cold air masses moving out of Siberia, deep in the Asian interior. Biting northwest winds pass over the Sea of Japan and cross the islands of Japan. Moisture picked up over the Sea of Japan is deposited on Japan's west coast in the form of heavy snows that are among the deepest in the world.
\par \tab During the summer, Japan is under the influence of air moving in from the Pacific Ocean. Southeast winds prevail, making the summer months hot and humid. The cycle of the seasons brings frequent, often sharp, changes in the weather, especially during the spring and autumn months.
\par \tab Japan's climate, especially along the coasts, is also affected by two ocean currents--the warm Kuroshio, or Japan Current, from the south, and the cold Oyashio, or Okhotsk Current, from the north. The two currents meet off northeastern Honshu. The Kuroshio, on the lee--or sheltered--side of Japan in winter, has little warming effect on land temperatures. The Tsushima Current, a branch of the Kuroshio, passes into the Sea of Japan by way of Korea Strait and slightly warms offshore waters. The Oyashio reduces summer temperatures and creates dense fog banks off the coasts of northeastern Honshu and Hokkaido.
\par \tab Virtually all of Japan except parts of eastern Hokkaido averages more than 40 inches (100 centimeters) of precipitation annually. Several coastal mountain areas in Honshu get more than 120 inches (300 centimeters). The area around the Inland Sea, eastern Honshu north of Tokyo Bay, and western Hokkaido average 40 to 60 inches (100 to 150 centimeters). The Sea of Japan coast gets more precipitation in winter, largely in the form of snow, than it does in summer. The reverse is true for the Pacific coast, where summer precipitation exceeds that of winter. In northern Hokkaido, snow falls an average of 130 days per year; along the Sea of Japan, 80 days; on the Pacific coast south and west of Tokyo Bay, only ten days.
\par \tab Japan has rainy seasons in June and September, though there is some precipitation throughout the year. The main, June rainy season is called the baiu, or tsuyu, and has many days of continuous rain. The September rainy season is called the shurin. It is associated with occasional typhoons, tropical storms like the hurricanes of southeastern North America. These move to the north and northeast in a clockwise arc from their spawning grounds east of the Philippines. When they strike Japan, they cause destructive floods and landslides, but they also restore water levels, which drop during the dry days of late summer.
\par \tab Typhoons bring roughly one third of the rain that falls annually on the Pacific coast of Asia. In 1959, one of the worst typhoons of modern times tore through the city of Nagoya and across central Honshu. Approaching typhoons are carefully watched by the Japan Meteorological Agency, and special radio and television bulletins are issued on their progress.
\par \tab Seasonal temperatures in Japan increase from north to south. Average January temperatures are 15░ to 20░ F (-9░ to -7░ C) in Hokkaido; 35░ to 40░ F (2░ to 4░ C) in central Honshu; and 45░ F (7░ C) in southern Kyushu. There is little difference in winter temperatures between the west and east coasts, though the skies are more overcast on the west coast and clearer and sunnier on the east coast. Summers are sultry throughout Japan. July temperatures average 77░ to 80░ F (25░ to 27░ C) in Kyushu, Shikoku, and southern and central Honshu; 72░ to 75░ F (22░ to 24░ C) in northern Honshu; and a cooler 65░ to 70░ F (18░ to 21░ C) in Hokkaido.
\par \tab The clear, hot weather of summer arrives in mid-July, following the baiu rains. It is ended by the shurin rains. The length of the frost-free, or growing, season ranges from 250 days or more along the Pacific coast south from Tokyo Bay to only 120 days in central Hokkaido. Early autumn frosts in northern Japan and late spring frosts in central and southern Japan pose a seasonal threat to farming.
\par {\b Plant and Animal Life}
\par \tab The trees, shrubs, and flowering plants of Japan are as varied as its topography and climate. Forests cover most of the land surface that has not been cleared by humans. Coniferous, broad-leaved, and mixed forests are the three main types. Pine, cypress, hemlock, cedar, fir, and spruce are commercially valuable conifer. The numerous broad-leaved trees include oak, maple, ash, birch, beech, poplar, chestnut, and horse chestnut. Subtropical forms such as bamboo and palms grow as far north as central Honshu.
\par \tab Many native plant species have been destroyed or reduced by humans, and new species from the Asian mainland have had to be introduced. Virgin forests have been preserved in limited areas.
\par \tab Large mammals include bear, badger, otter, mink, deer, fox, and walrus. One monkey, the Japanese macaque, is found as far north as northern Honshu. Adjacent seas are the home of whales and porpoises. Japanese bird species include many water and wading birds, hawks, pheasants, doves, owls, and woodpeckers. Among the reptiles are sea turtles, tortoises, lizards, and snakes. The sea abounds with hundreds of fish species. Salmon, sardine, sea bream, tuna, squid, mackerel, cod, and mullet are among those caught by commercial fishermen. Tropical varieties accompany the warm waters of the Kuroshio as far north as Tokyo Bay. The raising of goldfish and colorful carp (koi) for decorative purposes is a Japanese specialty. Aquaculture, the commercial raising of certain fish, eels, and pearl oysters, is highly developed in Japan.
{\b PEOPLE}
\par \tab Japan is the world's eighth most populous country. Its population went beyond the 100 million mark in 1967, and at the 1990 census it had reached 123,612,396. Yet Japan has one of the lowest population growth rates in the world--about 0.3 percent per year.
\par \tab Japanese population data are incomplete for the period before 1868, when the nation's modern era began. However, the population of Japan is believed to have reached 5 million in the 7th century and 10 million in the 14th century. Official estimates placed the number of Japanese in the mid-19th century at over 30 million. In 1920, when Japan's first census was taken, the country had a population of 55,963,000. In 1940, early in World War II, its population was 73,114,000.
\par \tab Japan experienced a brief baby boom after World War II, but then the nation's birthrate dropped from a high of 34 per 1,000 in 1947 to about 11 per 1,000 by the end of the 1980s. This was one of the fastest declines ever observed in any country, though similar declines have taken place in other industrialized countries. Japan's death rate has also fallen--to about six per 1,000--largely because of improvements in public health measures, advances in medicine, and the greater availability of modern medical facilities. Average life expectancy in Japan reached 76 years for men and 82 years for women in 1990. A century earlier it was 43 years for men and 44 years for women.
\par \tab The proportion of young people in Japan has been decreasing. Average family size has also been shrinking: it dropped from about five members in 1955 to about three members per family in 1990. This drop occurred in part because many young married couples were establishing their own households instead of living with their parents in the traditional fashion.
\par \tab Another reason for this drop in family size was that young couples in Japan were having fewer children. In Japan, abortion is an accepted and widely used means of controlling family size. It is permitted under a 1950 law. Contraception, however, is not popular.
\par \tab The Japanese are a fairly homogeneous people--both culturally and racially. They have a single language, and almost all are members of the Mongoloid race. Koreans, the largest alien group in Japan, number about 688,000 (1990 census). The Ainu, a native people of northern Japan, have been almost completely assimilated into the general population of the country. There are between 2 and 3 million burakumin. The term means literally "hamlet people," but this conceals their true status as descendants of outcasts--individuals who engaged in occupations that were declared ritually unclean, such as gravediggers, butchers, or leatherworkers. These people are ethnically Japanese, but they are often victims of discrimination because of their low status in society.
\par \tab Japan is one of the world's most densely populated countries. By 1993 the population density of the country as a whole was about 855 persons per square mile (330 persons per square kilometer), but if only the urban land area is considered, the density becomes several times greater than it is for the entire land area. The bulk of Japan's people live on the coastal lowlands, which make up a relatively small part of the country's total area.
\par \tab Japan is one of the most urbanized major countries in Asia. In 1920, more than four fifths of its people still lived in rural areas. In 1993, however, about 77 percent of the Japanese lived in cities.
\par \tab Japan's greatest concentration of population is in a long belt that extends for 350 miles (560 kilometers) from Tokyo and the Kanto Plain, westward along the Pacific coast through Nagoya and Kyoto, to Osaka and Kobe on the eastern edge of the Inland Sea. Within this belt, called the Tokaido Megalopolis, live about 42 percent of Japan's people. The belt comprises the six of the seven largest cities and a large percentage of the 209 cities with more than 100,000 population. A western extension of the Tokaido Megalopolis has been developing along the Inland Sea and as far as the city of Fukuoka in western Kyushu.
\par \tab The Tokaido Megalopolis includes the metropolitan clusters of Tokyo-Kawasaki-Yokohama, Nagoya, and Osaka-Kobe-Kyoto. The largest and fastest growing of these is around Tokyo. Population is actually decreasing within the city limits of Tokyo, but in Tokyo's distant suburbs--where open land is available for the construction of new homes and apartments--the number of people is increasing rapidly. A two-hour commute to work is common for many residents of Greater Tokyo.
\par \tab The Tokaido Megalopolis contains the principal Japanese centers of industry, business, and finance and Japan's major international ports. It provides most of the job opportunities for migrants from the farms and small towns of Japan. Virtually all leading educational institutions and cultural organizations are located within the Tokyo-Kobe belt. For this reason, perhaps, Japan's difficulties in providing adequate housing, transportation, and social services of all kinds are greatest in the Tokaido Megalopolis.
\par \tab Many prefectures--political subdivisions, called ken in Japanese--outside the Tokaido Megalopolis and the few other large metropolitan centers have been losing population through out-migration, especially since 1950. The heaviest losses have occurred in Honshu along the Sea of Japan coast and in rural areas north and west of Tokyo, in western and eastern Kyushu, and on Shikoku. Hokkaido, the northernmost large island, was an area of pioneer settlement until the 1930s. It has the lowest population density of any Japanese prefecture.
\par \tab Four fifths of Japan's people--99,254,000 in 1990--were living on the island of Honshu. Three other major islands of Japan--Kyushu, Hokkaido, and Shikoku--had populations of 13,296,000, 5,644,000, and 4,195,000, respectively.
{\b CULTURE}
\par \tab For nearly 2,000 years an intimate relationship existed between Japan and China. During much of Japan's history this relationship to China was that of pupil to teacher. As early as the 1st century AD, Japanese travelers visited the Chinese imperial court. They brought back cultural treasures that enriched Japanese life--the Buddhist religion, Confucian ethics, written language, literature, art, architecture, music, and methods of government.
\par \tab In the late 19th century the coming of the Industrial Revolution to Asia changed this relationship. Japan emerged from more than two centuries of self-imposed isolation, recognizing that industrialization was a means of gaining equality with the Western powers. Mastering Western techniques, it soon built factories and created a modern army and navy.
\par \tab Japan has therefore modernized relatively rapidly. Yet there are still contrasts in the everyday life of the Japanese people. Especially striking are the contrasts between the more traditional countryside and the bustling urban centers. Perhaps less than five percent of the Japanese people live in small farming villages called buraku. The way of life of these people has changed, but the traditional patterns established centuries ago can still be observed.
\par \tab Rural homes are generally small by Western standards, but compared to the cramped apartments and the tiny houses typical of Japanese cities, they seem spacious. The walls are made of a clay-and-straw plaster. Kitchens traditionally had earthen floors, while the floors in the other rooms were covered with wood or reed mats. The stoves used for cooking are made of clay or brick. They are heated with such materials as straw or with compressed natural gas, which has come into widespread use. The toilet facilities are separate from the house. Water is usually obtained from wells.
\par \tab The villagers usually live in households that include grandparents and grown sons with their families, as well as the farmer, his wife, and their younger children. When a farmer dies or grows old, his land is passed on to a son, traditionally the eldest. His other sons may inherit money and may stay on the farm. However, most enter occupations in the village or a city.
\par \tab The chief family responsibilities involve work in the fields. Both men and women spend long days planting, tilling, and harvesting their crops. During the time in each growing season when the rice paddies are flooded, the people work knee-deep in water. Most farmers tend and harvest their crops using modern specialized farm machinery; nevertheless, intense hand labor practices are still widely employed.
\par \tab The women often work in the fields after they have finished their usual household tasks of cooking, cleaning, and gardening. Children go to school, and schoolwork is their major responsibility. They may help take care of younger brothers and sisters. Grandparents no longer able to do field work look after their grandchildren.
\par \tab After a hard day's work, the entire family enjoys an evening bath. The large earthenware or cedar bathtub stands in a bathhouse or in the kitchen near the stove. A fire kindled beneath the tub keeps the water hot. Then each family member in turn--beginning with the father--washes and rinses thoroughly before getting into the tub. The water in the tub is used only for soaking since it is shared by all members of the family. On winter days the hot bath gives the farm family its first chance to get really warm.
\par \tab Japanese villagers are neighborly. The whole village may partake in a wedding or a funeral. All the women prepare food for a village celebration, and every family brings its share. Most village business is handled through agricultural cooperatives which help market the farmers' produce.
\par {\b Life in the Cities}
\par \tab Japanese cities have modern housing, plumbing, and transportation systems. Many city dwellers live in high-rise apartment buildings and take commuter trains or buses to their jobs. The daily lives of city dwellers have been transformed by such modern conveniences as automobiles, electric household appliances, and central heating. Yet many traditional practices survive. Bath facilities even in modern apartment houses may be much like those in the villages, and many city dwellers use public bathhouses.
\par \tab In the cities, few marriages are arranged by parents and few young couples live with their parents after marriage. Since many young men and women attend universities or work away from home, they have more opportunities to meet socially and to choose their own husbands and wives.
\par \tab Entertainment in the cities is not as dependent upon family activity as is that of the villages. Many women enjoy shopping in markets and department stores. Men like to play a game called pachinko, similar to pinball, and are attracted to drinking places, including beer halls. Wealthy men may banquet friends and business associates in exclusive geisha restaurants. Here they are entertained by geisha, highly trained women who dance, sing, recite poetry, play a banjo-like instrument called the samisen, and engage in lively conversation with the guests. The geisha are gowned richly in silk garments, and their hair is elaborately styled. City dwellers can also attend a wide variety of theatrical performances and sports events.
\par {\b Growing Up in Japan}
\par \tab When a baby is about three days old, the child is named in a small ceremony. Friends and relatives attend, bringing gifts for the child. At the age of about one month, the child is taken to the nearest Shinto shrine. There the priest may record the name and birthday, and the child formally becomes a member of the community.
\par \tab A Japanese baby is often carried on the back of the mother, grandmother, or sister, safely fastened with broad sashes. The baby is given a great deal of loving attention. But from nursery school on, a child is trained in obedience. Spankings are rarely used, but a child may be ridiculed and shamed for acting badly.
\par \tab After World War II, the status of Japanese men and women began tending toward social equality. Prior to that time, boys and girls were treated very differently. Parents thought it so important to have sons to carry on the family name that boys were preferred and pampered. They could dominate their older sisters and even their mothers. Girls, on the other hand, had to defer not only to their elders but even to younger brothers. Both boys and girls were brought up with the obligation to do nothing to bring shame to the family reputation. However, parents expected their sons to achieve more than their daughters.
\par \tab Japanese boys are still often favored above their sisters and more is still expected of them, but the disparity in the treatment of boys and girls is not as great as it once was. Nevertheless, such inequalities as still exist have deep historical roots. Sons have traditionally been regarded as economic assets for the work they were expected to do. Moreover, sons--not daughters--would become responsible for caring for their elderly parents. Daughters would marry and leave the parental home to start their own families.
\par \tab When a young man is 25 or even older, his family or work supervisor may take steps to find a suitable wife for him. When friends have recommended a young lady with a similar family background, the prospective couple is introduced. If neither objects strongly to the proposed marriage, a go-between is chosen to make arrangements for the exchange of presents.
\par \tab The marriage ceremony in Japan commonly is a Shinto ceremony; the bride and groom take three sips of sake, a rice wine, from three cups. The bride wears the elaborate clothing and the complicated hairstyle that are traditional on this occasion. The marriage ceremony is usually followed by feasting and dancing. Now, couples often change to Western-style wedding attire for the reception following the wedding.
\par \tab The Japanese mark a man's entry into old age with a special ceremony which occurs between his 59th and 60th birthdays. At that time he dons a red kimono, a color not usually worn by adult males, to signify that he has shed the responsibilities of maturity.
\par \tab Most Japanese funerals are marked by Buddhist rites. Virtually all Japanese are cremated. Japanese cemeteries have family memorial stones, at which the ashes are deposited. The deceased is formally remembered each week for seven weeks and then again at increasingly lengthened periods of time.
\par {\b Inside a Traditional Japanese Home}
\par \tab Homes generally have a kitchen and three or four other rooms. The walls are lined with bamboo strips. The floors are covered with tatami, woven straw mats 6 feet by 3 feet (1.8 by 0.9 meters) in size. A room's size is stated as the number of tatami required to cover the floor. Among the most common sizes are 4 1/2- and 6-tatami rooms. To keep the tatami clean, the Japanese remove their shoes when entering a house.
\par \tab Most houses perch on posts that are 2 feet (0.6 meter) high, set on rock foundations. A narrow porch on the sunny side serves as a hall onto which the rooms open. Permanent partitions are rare. Fusuma, or sliding screens made of paper-covered frames, may be closed to create separate rooms or opened to convert the entire house into a single room. Shoji, or sliding outer doors, are pushed back on summer days to let in air and are shut for protection at night.
\par \tab The light, open construction of such Japanese houses is well suited to a warm climate and to a region where earthquakes destroy heavier structures. However, these houses do not keep out the damp chill of winter. A hibachi (charcoal brazier) serves mainly as a hand warmer. Sometimes a kotatsu (burner) is set into the floor and a table draped with quilts is placed over it. The family gathers around the table to warm their feet and legs under the table.
\par \tab Furniture in the Japanese home generally consists only of storage chests and low tables. In most homes the family sits on zabuton (low cushions) and sleeps on futons (cotton-filled mattresses). However, many city families have replaced the futon with beds. Both the zabuton and the futon are stored in wall closets when they are not being used, although they must be aired frequently to prevent mildew during the hot, humid summers.
\par \tab The most important spot in the house is the tokonoma, an alcove containing a low platform which holds a flower arrangement. Above the platform hangs a painted scroll. When callers come, the most honored guest is seated near the tokonoma. Except for the embellished parchment doors between rooms, scrolls and flower arrangements are usually the only decoration found in Japanese homes.
\par \tab Carefully tended gardens demonstrate the Japanese love of nature. The rooms of a home often open onto a garden through a sliding door. Many Japanese gardens are actually miniature landscapes, with small trees, flowering bushes, pools, streams, and bridges.
\par {\b Food}
\par \tab Most Japanese eat three meals a day. Boiled white rice (gohan), the mainstay of the Japanese diet for centuries, is eaten at almost every meal--though rice consumption per capita has declined markedly in favor of such Western staples as potatoes or bread. At breakfast rice is usually supplemented by misoshiru, a bean-paste soup, and tsukemono, pickled vegetables. In the cities, many Japanese have replaced these dishes with bread, butter, and eggs. Lunch is a light meal and may consist of tsukemono, salted fish, and tsukudani, seafood or vegetables cooked and preserved in soy sauce, in addition to rice or noodles.
\par \tab The evening meal is the most important meal of the day. In most homes it includes vegetables and rice with fish, beef, pork, or chicken. Meat is usually cut into thin strips and fried. It has not been as central in the Japanese diet as in that of Western nations, but meat-eating increased in the late 20th century. Until the late 19th century, Buddhist practice discouraged eating the flesh of four-legged animals. Fish is often served raw. When served this way it is called sushi or sashimi.
\par \tab The two most popular beverages in Japan are green tea and sake, although coffee is also widely consumed. Tea is drunk during and after meals. It is also served to guests with such snacks as soba, buckwheat noodles, and udon, wheat noodles. Sake, rice wine, is served with meals, at dinner parties, and especially at celebrations such as weddings or holiday feasts.
\par \tab Chopsticks are the only eating utensils for a traditional Japanese meal, whether formal or informal. Food is served in china or lacquer bowls and on dishes. On important occasions, individual trays are provided. Usually a Japanese family sits around a low table for meals. Western-style breakfasts probably predominate in Japan today. Western fast-food establishments are widespread.
\par {\b Clothing}
\par \tab Modern Japanese dress incorporates both Eastern and Western styles. Western clothes, worn by both men and women, are virtually universal. The traditional kimono, a loose-fitting garment with wide sleeves, is now worn principally at home or on certain special occasions. Men's kimonos differ from women's primarily in color and fabric. Women wear their kimonos at ankle length, bound with a sash called an obi. Men's kimonos are shorter and on very formal occasions are worn with a wide, divided skirt called a hakama. A kimono-shaped cloak called a haori may be worn over a kimono by both sexes. The clothes Japanese children wear are much like those worn by children in the United States. Boys wear short or long pants and shirts or sweaters. Girls wear skirts with blouses or sweaters. Japanese girls still wear kimonos for festivals, however.
\par \tab The Japanese usually wear shoes like those worn in Western nations. However, geta, or wooden clogs, and zori, or rubber or straw sandals, are still worn with kimonos. Socks called tabi are worn with geta and zori. The tabi have a separate place for the big toe--the geta or zori strap is held between it and the other toes. Japanese now wear Western hairstyles. The elaborate hairstyles Japanese women formerly wore are now used only at weddings or by entertainers in the theater and hostesses at geisha houses.
\par {\b Religious Practices}
\par \tab Most contemporary Japanese are not members of any formal religion, yet their ethics are strongly Confucian, their concerns with life after death are Buddhist, and their participation in community activities often centers on Shinto celebrations. Shinto is essentially animistic, recognizing millions of kami, or spirits, in nature. Because Shinto and Buddhism focus on different aspects of a person's life, most Japanese have no trouble following both Shinto and Buddhist practices.
\par \tab Shinto, the only religion that originated in Japan, was based on worship of local spirits in nature. Among its many objects of worship were the kami of the creator, the moon, stars, mountains, rivers, waterfalls, seas, winds, fire, and some animals. Shinto became the state religion after the Meiji Restoration of 1868. As such, it assumed that the Japanese were descendants of the sun goddess Amaterasu and members of one family headed by the emperor. The nationalists and militarists who rose to power in the 1930s adapted Shinto to their purposes, telling the Japanese that they were destined to rule all Eastern Asia.
\par \tab After World War II, state support of Shinto was abolished by the United States occupation authorities, and the emperor renounced claims of his divinity. Today Shinto shrines dot the landscape, and community festivals honoring local kami abound. Shinto is valued because it creates a bond between the individual, his community, and his native land.
\par \tab Confucianism is a system of ethics for social relationships, not a religion. It originated in China during the 6th century BC and was introduced into Japan from Korea around the 6th century AD. Its ethical teachings were adopted primarily by the ruling elite. Centuries later, during the Tokugawa era (1603-1868), Confucian principles of absolute obedience to one's father and lord also greatly influenced the samurai. During World War II, Confucianism was used to arouse patriotism. After the war, Confucianism was excluded from the Japanese educational curriculum. Nevertheless, although people in Japan are not strictly Confucian, Japanese ethics and social behavior are still profoundly influenced by Confucian social ethics.
\par \tab Buddhism arose in India and was introduced into Japan from Korea in the 6th century. Several major branches of Buddhism developed in Japan, including the well-known Zen Buddhism. All branches taught that life continues after death, but each differed on how to find salvation. Buddhism was highly influential in early Japanese history for training the warriors who ruled the country. In contemporary Japan, Buddhist practices center around funerals and later memorial rites for deceased family members.
\par \tab Christianity was introduced into Japan in the 16th century by Francis Xavier, a Spanish Jesuit. During the Tokugawa shogunate, Japanese Christianity was banned, and tens of thousands of Japanese Christians were killed. After Japan was opened to the West in the 19th century, Christianity was reintroduced, mainly by Protestant missionaries. Japanese Christians tended to become involved in social welfare movements.
\par {\b The Japanese Language}
\par \tab The language of Japan has many dialects, and speakers of one dialect do not always understand everything a speaker of another dialect might say. But almost everyone in Japan uses standard Japanese as well as the dialect of his or her home area. Standard Japanese, originally the dialect spoken by the educated people of Tokyo, is now taught and understood throughout the country. Television, radio, and the Japanese educational system played prominent roles in standardizing the speech patterns of the population.
\par \tab Broadly speaking, the accent in Japanese is musical. To say "bridge" (hashi) in standard Japanese, the voice begins with a low pitch on ha and rises on shi. If the voice is high for ha and low for shi, the word means "chopsticks." The pitch of a word can also change in a sentence. As a word, hi (fire) has a low pitch. But in the sentence Hi ga deta (Fire has broken out), the pitch pattern is high for hi, low for the rest of the sentence.
\par \tab Japanese sentences are not put together in the same way as sentences in English. For one thing, the verb comes at the end of a statement in Japanese. In Japanese, the word order for "Kenji saw the book" is "Kenji the book saw." In addition, two language particles--wa and wo--are added. Wa often follows the subject of a clause (Kenji). Wo follows the direct object of a verb (the book). So the sentence in Japanese is Kenji wa hon wo mimashita. To make a question of a statement, the particle ka is usually added. Thus Kenji wa hon wo mimashita ka means "Did Kenji read the book?"
\par \tab In Japanese, different styles of speech are used to show degrees of politeness and familiarity. A plain style is generally used in speaking to close friends. For strangers, a polite style may be used. To show honor and respect, a deferential style is often used toward parents, older people, teachers, and so on. Thus, when meeting a stranger for the first time, the Japanese are very concerned to determine appropriate social distinctions as soon as possible. Different styles are also used in talking about people and things. One of them, the exalted style, is almost entirely limited to references to the emperor and the imperial family.
\par \tab The Japanese writing system is unique. Chinese characters, called kanji, were adopted by the Japanese more than 1,500 years ago. Because Japanese is very different from Chinese, additional sets of symbols, called kana, were developed, each standing for a syllable rather than a separate consonant or vowel. After World War II the Japanese government modified the system of writing. Kanji were reduced from many thousands of characters to 1,850 basic characters, and their forms were simplified. Many words are written with kanji only. Some words are written with kana (hiragana or katakana) only. And other words are written using both kanji and hiragana.
\par \tab Most Japanese writing is a mixture of kanji and kana. In newspapers and magazines, Japanese is usually printed from top to bottom, in columns running from right to left. But in many textbooks, Japanese is printed horizontally from left to right. In the Japanese culture, the surname, or family name, comes before a person's given name.
\par {\b Japanese Literature}
\par \tab Poetry plays a central role in Japanese culture. Occasions of many kinds are celebrated with poems, and thousands of poems are submitted for the poetry prize awarded by the emperor each New Year. Most Japanese compose short poems, called haiku and tanka. Japanese poems, which usually do not rhyme, are based on a syllable count.
\par \tab A haiku is a three-line poem, with 5 syllables in the first line, 7 syllables in the second, and 5 syllables in the third. A tanka has five lines, with 5, 7, 5, 7, and 7 syllables. Because haiku and tanka are short, they can only suggest a mood or a picture; the listener or reader has to fill in the details. Basho, who has been regarded by many as Japan's greatest poet, was a master of haiku. A notable tanka poet was Tsurayuki Ki, one of Japan's "thirty-six poetic immortals."
\par \tab Japanese literature is noted for distinctive forms of drama as well as of poetry. The No, or Noh, play combines recitation, music, and slow dance. Japan's No plays can be considered as scenes from the ceremonial life of lords and ladies during Japan's Middle Ages. The mood of these plays is usually serious--often tragic--and they are noted for their fine poetry, which is chanted by the actors and chorus. Because the No plays are short, five different types of plays are presented at a time, each with its own music. The first is usually about a god, the second about a warrior, the third about a woman. The fourth type of play varies in content; it can be a realistic, contemporary play, for example, or a play about a protagonist who becomes insane. The fifth type deals with demons and other supernatural beings. Japan's outstanding No dramatists were Motokiyo Zeami and his father, Kiyotsugu Kan-ami.
\par \tab Like the No play, the Japanese puppet play is serious drama combining words, music, and dancing. Perhaps the greatest writer of puppet drama, called Bunraku, was Monzaemon Chikamatsu. His plays fall into two groups: heroic plays, often set in Japan's Middle Ages, and domestic tragedies--for example, 'The Love Suicides at Amijima'--which give a naturalistic picture of middle-class life.
\par \tab For elaborate spectacle, Kabuki drama has no rival. Kabuki plays are distinguished by sensationalism and melodrama. One of the most famous Kabuki plays is 'Chushingura', about 47 samurai who avenge their lord's death and then commit hara-kiri (ritual self-disembowelment) as required by the law of the time. (See also "The Performing Arts" later in this section.)
\par \tab Japanese prose works tend to be series of loosely connected episodes. Diaries and books of random thoughts, which lend themselves to this style, are typical of Japanese prose literature. Early Japanese novels consisted of series of incidents, each incident built around a poem. Perhaps the greatest work of Japanese literature is 'The Tale of Genji', an episodic novel written near the beginning of the 11th century by Shikibu Murasaki. Most of the works of the 17th-century writer Saikaku Ihara, the outstanding novelist of the Tokugawa period, are really collections of short stories based on a single theme. In many modern novels it is common to find loosely related incidents.
\par {\b The Fine Arts}
\par \tab The fine arts of modern Japan are similar to those of many Western countries. However, Japanese classical works of art are unique in the philosophy, methods, and materials used in their creation. These works include paintings and sculptures, as well as products of the decorative arts, such as pottery and porcelains, lacquers, textiles, and woodcuts.
\par \tab {\b Painting}
\par \tab In classical Japanese painting, black ink and watercolors were used on tissue-thin silk or washi (Japanese paper). Often the artist used only black ink, achieving a sense of color in the gradations from deep, luminous black to silvery gray. One-color paintings made in this way are called sumi-e.
\par \tab Although classical Japanese paintings were realistic, they were never photographic. Instead, the artist used only a few brushstrokes to suggest the crumbly texture of a boulder; a hard-edged, rocky cliff; the gnarled trunk and rustling foliage of a tree; the feathers of a bird; or an ocean wave. Unpainted areas of silk or paper created a sense of space and depth. Through economy of line and careful composition, the artist presented a distillation of his subject, leaving the viewer to fill in the details.
\par \tab Classical Japanese paintings were "studio pictures." The artist did not go into the countryside with paints and easel. Instead, following a walk in the hills or along a stream, he returned to his studio to paint his impressions. The paintings usually took the form of hanging scrolls called kakemono, hand scrolls called emakimono, large folding screens, sliding doors, or fans. The hand scrolls, often 30 feet (9 meters) or more in length, are unrolled from right to left, the viewer enjoying only as much of the painting as may be exposed between his outstretched hands.
\par \tab After Buddhism was introduced in Japan in the mid-6th century, great temples were built. These served not only as religious shrines but also as centers of art and learning. The numerous deities of Buddhism were depicted in paintings and sculptures. Artists, governed by precise descriptions in the sutras, or holy texts, created likenesses of the Buddha, his disciples, and minor deities, as well as complex, maplike representations of gods surrounding a central Buddha. These figures were painted or carved to embellish the temples and instruct the devout. Long, narrative hand scrolls record in fine line and rich color the lives, journeys, and campaigns of important Buddhist priests and nobles. The names of most early painters, many of them priests, are no longer known.
\par \tab Sumi-e developed rapidly during the Muromachi period (1392-1573) of Japanese art. It was fostered by Zen Buddhism, which stressed simplicity. While Japan was subjected over the centuries to successive waves of influence from China, the artists assimilated the foreign styles and in almost every instance made them uniquely their own.
\par \tab During the Muromachi period and the Momoyama period (1573-1615), distinctive schools of painting emerged and individual artists established their fame. The Buddhist monk Sesshu perfected black-and-white landscape painting in the Chinese tradition. The Kano school was founded by Masanobu Kano (1434-1530), official court painter for the shoguns. His school was continued by his family and developed into a distinctively Japanese style.
\par \tab Folding screens and sliding door panels in rich colors and patterns, often on a ground of gold or silver, were created to enliven the austere grandeur of 16th- and 17th-century castle interiors. The creators of these works were called "the great decorators." The Kano school remained dominant well into the Edo, or Tokugawa, period (1615-1867). It shared favor with traditional Chinese-style ink painting as well as a new artistic style called ukiyo-e, paintings depicting the life of common people.
\par \tab {\b Woodcuts.}
\par \tab Woodcuts were made in Japan as early as the 11th century. But this art form enjoyed its greatest popularity from the mid-17th through the 19th century. The earliest woodcuts, which portrayed Buddhist patriarchs and deities, were executed in black with strong, rhythmic lines and areas of simple pattern. Occasionally, rich red-oranges, mustard yellows, and greens were added by hand. Early color prints, developed around 1740, were also restricted to three colors, usually green or pinkish red, and sometimes yellow. True color prints, using many wood blocks and called nishiki-e (brocade pictures), were developed in 1765. A print bears the name of the artist who designed it. The carving and printing, however, were done by two other craftsmen.
\par \tab Japanese woodcuts are probably the finest expression of the ukiyo-e movement. Courtesans, Kabuki actors, and scenes from Kabuki dramas were popular subjects. Moronobu Hishikawa is credited with beginning the ukiyo-e tradition of printmaking in the 17th century. The era of the full-color print starts with the work of Harunobu Suzuki in the mid-18th century. The early 19th century brought both the full maturity and the gradual degeneration of this art form. The mid-19th century landscape artists Hokusai Katsushika and Hiroshige Ando were the last outstanding woodcut artists of the ukiyo-e. In the 20th century a modern movement in printmaking developed, called sosaku hanga (creative prints). The use of woodcuts has generally been neglected by modern printmakers.
\par \tab {\b Sculpture.}
\par \tab Japanese sculpture of the pre-Buddhist period is perhaps best represented by the haniwa (clay cylinders), which date from the 3rd to the 5th century. These images of red clay were sometimes elaborately modeled in the forms of animals, birds, and human figures. Placed fencelike around tomb mounds of the imperial family and important court figures, the haniwa seem to have served the dual function of preventing soil erosion and providing the deceased with objects they had enjoyed during their lives.
\par \tab Following the introduction of Buddhism to Japan, the development of sculpture paralleled that of painting. Numerous icons--religious images--depicted the growing number of deities. Sculpture closely followed earlier Chinese examples which had been transmitted through Korea. Important images were cast in bronze, though wood was also favored. In later periods, wood and clay were increasingly preferred, as was dry lacquer. This consisted of successive coats of lacquer applied to cloth over a clay or wood core that was later removed. Stone was almost never used in sculpture. Most of the best surviving sculptures were made by unknown masters.
\par \tab A noteworthy 8th-century tendency, which continued through the Kamakura period (1185-1392), was the portraitlike quality of much of the sculpture. This may in part be attributed to the growing preference for the dry-lacquer technique, which allowed greater inventiveness on the part of the artist. The finished product was light but durable. An innovation in wood sculpture--the use of small blocks ingeniously fitted together, rather than a single block or log--also provided the artist with greater freedom of expression.
\par \tab Japanese sculpture reached its peak during the Kamakura period. Although distinctive pieces were made in later eras, sculpture never again attained the position it had enjoyed in the preceding seven centuries. Most of the important sculptures have remained in the temples for which they were created.
\par \tab {\b Decorative arts.}
\par \tab The best-known Japanese decorative arts include the making of pottery, porcelains, lacquers, and textiles. These are usually considered types of folk art--works done by talented individuals who are not professional artists.
\par \tab The earliest examples of Japanese artistic expression are earthenware vessels called jomon (rope-patterned) and the later, but still archaic, yayoi pottery. Some jomon specimens may date as far back as 6000 BC. The style continued until about the 2nd century BC, when it was supplanted by the more finely executed yayoi.
\par \tab The process of making true porcelain was not introduced into Japan until the 16th century. Elegantly patterned products found favor with the nobility and court circles. By contrast, native rough pottery enjoyed great popularity in intellectual circles and was especially favored for use in the tea ceremony.
\par \tab Many well-known painters also applied their skills to allied arts. Koetsu Honnami, famed for his calligraphy, or decorative writing, was also a gifted potter and lacquer designer. Kenzan Ogata executed in pottery the designs of his brother Korin, who was renowned for bold, decorative paintings.
\par \tab The dry-lacquer technique was used not only for sculpture but also for decorative accessories such as trays, tables, small chests, containers for tea and candy, and sumptuously fitted picnic boxes. Sprinklings of gold and silver powder and burnished and cut-gold foil--alone or combined with inlays of shell, mother-of-pearl, or metal--provided a bold contrast to the red, black, brown, and green lacquer surfaces. The 18th- and 19th-century love of splendor and rich decoration was mirrored in handsomely brocaded silks favored by the court and clergy. The latter, under vows of poverty, cut brocades into small squares and pieced them together again so that their fine garments would simulate the patched clothing of leaner years. Even the simple folk designs worn by the poor reflected the taste of Japanese weavers.
\par \tab {\b Architecture and gardens.}
\par \tab Japanese architecture, like painting and sculpture, made its greatest advances following the introduction of Buddhism. As with sculpture, wood was the primary material. The design of traditional Japanese architecture emphasizes horizontal lines. Even in taller structures like pagodas, the use of sloping roofs helps minimize the impression of height.
\par \tab Great temples and monasteries and feudal castles and palaces are the major architectural monuments. The temples are characterized by vast halls and soaring roofs. Based on Chinese examples, the temples and storied pagodas feature elaborate bracketing systems to support their roofs.
\par \tab Major constructions mirror the taste of the periods which produced them. Horyu Temple near Nara reflects the simple elegance favored in the 7th century. It is Japan's oldest surviving wooden temple, in a region known for many such national treasures. The Toshogu Shrine in Nikko illustrates the opulence of the Edo period.
\par \tab Secular architecture of nearly all periods reveals the Japanese love for refined simplicity. Interior and exterior finishes depend on the fine grain of wood and textured stucco.
\par \tab Handsome gardens are created to so complement the buildings they surround that the landscape and structures appear to be part of one another. Moss, trees, pebbles and rocks may be combined with artificial hills, ponds, and a stream to suggest the natural beauty of a lake, seascape, or mountain waterfall. Profound simplicity is achieved in the garden of Ryoan-ji Temple near Kyoto, for example, by the use of five artfully placed rock formations set in moss in a patterned field of white sand. Whatever its proportions or the materials used, the Japanese garden is designed to invite entry and inspire meditation.
\par \tab {\b Interior decoration and home arts.}
\par \tab The art of raising bonsai--dwarfed potted trees--has enabled the Japanese to admire nature in an indoor setting. Bonsai are able to bear fruit and to drop their leaves in season, thus reproducing nature in miniature. A skillful bonsai artist can prune, bend, and shape branches to suggest trees standing tall and upright in a field or bent and gnarled by age or weather. The beauty of a natural landscape is evoked in the viewer's imagination.
\par \tab Another means of enjoying nature in the home is through the arrangement of flowers, which has been refined in Japan to an art known as ikebana. Unlike Western arrangements, which emphasize the color and form of flowers, ikebana favors the flowing lines of stems, leaves, and branches.
\par \tab In any arrangement, the plant materials used must convey a feeling of continuing growth as well as be symbolic of time and the season. Full blossoms might suggest the past; buds, the future. A full and spreading arrangement of various blossoms or other plant materials might suggest summer; a sparse one, autumn. A graceful floral design and a symbolic ornamental scroll often decorate the alcove called the tokonoma, the place of honor in a Japanese home.
\par \tab Chanoyu, the ceremonial art of making tea, is a notable aesthetic discipline in Japan. Through the delicate flavor of the tea and the simplicity of the ceremony, participants in the ritual hope to achieve serenity and an understanding of true beauty.
\par \tab {\b Calligraphy.}
\par \tab Turning handwriting into an art form is called calligraphy. Chinese writing and literary classics probably arrived in Japan by the 4th century AD. Three centuries later Japanese scholars started traveling to China to study. It was Buddhist monks especially, both Chinese and Japanese, who brought calligraphy to Japan and made it into a fine art. Among the first practitioners of the art were the priests of Zen Buddhism.
\par \tab In time, the Japanese departed from reliance on Chinese patterns and created their own, in a style called hiragana. This became the most distinctive Japanese type of calligraphy, though the use of Chinese script, called kanji, persisted. In one kind of hiragana, the letters are written together, without a break, and spacing plays a large role. In another style, hiragana and kanji are used together. This is a very demanding art which requires many years of training. Calligraphy was not confined to the Buddhist monks, however. Some of the most adept calligraphers were emperors and warriors.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was critically reviewed and updated by Dr. Richard F. Hough, Professor of Geography at San Francisco State University.
\par \tab {\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR JAPAN}
\par \tab Auakian, Monique. The Meiji Restoration and the Rise of Modern Japan (Silver Burdett, 1991).
\par \tab Beasley, E.G. The Rise of Modern Japan (St. Martin, 1990).
\par \tab Chapman, William. Inventing Japan (Prentice, 1991).
\par \tab Hane, Mikiso. Modern Japan: A Historical Survey (Westview, 1986).
\par \tab Ishihara, Shintaro. The Japan That Can Say No (Simon and Schuster, 1991).
\par \tab James, Richard. Japan: The Land and Its People (Silver Burdett, 1987).
\par \tab McAlpine, Helen, and McAlpine, William. Japanese Tales and Legends (Oxford Univ. Press, 1989).
\par \tab Meyer, Carolyn. Voice From Japan: An Outsider Looks In (Harcourt, 1992).
\par \tab Ohmae, Kenichi. The Mind of the Strategist: The Art of Japanese Business (McGraw, 1982).
\par \tab Van Wolferen, Karel. The Enigma of Japanese Power (Knopf, 1990).
\par \tab Wardell, Steven. Paper Crane: A Young American's Inside View of Japan (Morrow, 1993).
\par \tab Wood, Christopher. The Bubble Economy (Atlantic, 1992).\par \tab The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan is a small country with limited natural resources, but for years it has played a critical role in the struggle for power in the Middle East. Jordan's significance results partly from its strategic location at the crossroads of what most Christians, Jews, and Muslims call the Holy Land. The country is bounded by Syria on the north, Iraq on the east, Saudi Arabia on the southeast and south, and Israel on the west.
\par \tab Jordan is famous for its historical relics, including ancient Roman ruins, beautiful crusader citadels such as the one at Al Karak, the remarkable rose-red city of Petra, and an active seaport and fishing resort at 'Aqaba, Jordan's only port. Jordanians are known for their hospitality, an outgrowth of their Bedouin heritage, and this trait has given the nation a new and growing status as a business center of the Middle East. A tremendous building boom in Amman, the capital and largest city, has expanded the city's boundaries from the seven small hills on which it was originally built to include large outlying suburbs.
\par {\b Land and Climate}
\par \tab In spring the rolling hills and valleys of Jordan are covered by grasses and wildflowers that provide food for grazing flocks. No fish live in the Dead Sea, which is known for its extreme saltiness. Many kinds of sea life, however, can be found in the waters of the Gulf of 'Aqaba.
\par \tab The climate of western Jordan--separated from the sea only by the narrow width of Israel--is determined by mild Mediterranean winds and occasional rain, and the eastern part of the country has a desert-type climate. In the south the influence of the dry Saharan winds is felt, and the land is largely desert. In the northwest, the Jordan River, which provides water for Jordan's major agricultural region, the Jordan Valley, flows south into the Dead Sea. This depression along the border with Israel continues in a fissure known as the Wadi 'Araba and into the Red Sea at 'Aqaba.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab In 1918, the region east of the Jordan River, then called Transjordan, became a British mandate. Its population consisted mostly of desert tribes and a small percentage of Circassians who had emigrated from the Caucasus in Russia since the 19th century. Today, Jordan has few nomadic or seminomadic peoples, most of the population having been given housing and land to raise crops or herd their flocks. This change in custom occurred mainly because the people realized the value of a formal education for their children and because they could benefit most from government assistance by settling in one place.
\par \tab A large number of Palestinians fled to Jordan after the creation of Israel in 1948 and the 1967 Israeli occupation of the west bank of the Jordan River. In 1989 Jordan had an estimated population of about 3,059,000, including people in occupied territories. About 99 percent are Arabs and fewer than 1 percent Circassians. Muslims make up more than 90 percent of the population. Arabic is the official language, and nearly 80 percent of the people are literate.
\par {\b Economy, Transportation, and Communication}
\par \tab Jordan's economy has been greatly strained by the presence of a large number of refugees living in makeshift camps that the United Nations can only partially support. All the refugees have been granted Jordanian citizenship and have refugee status for relief purposes. Nevertheless, Jordan has prospered greatly. Although a large part of the country consists of semidesert land, the fertile Jordan Valley provides such vital crops as vegetables, olives and other fruits, and grain. The economy depends largely on industries such as phosphate mining, petroleum refining, cement production, and tourism.
\par \tab A major desert highway runs between Amman and the port at 'Aqaba. It serves as the main route through Jordan to the sea and is used to transport many goods for export. There is a railway, and many new highways are being built. Amman has a television station and a radio station, and another radio station broadcasts from near Jerusalem.
\par {\b Government and History}
\par \tab Jordan is a constitutional monarchy ruled by members of the Hashemite family. The legislature, called the National Assembly, consists of a senate and a house of deputies. The king appoints the members of the senate, and the people choose the members of the house. Citizens who are more than 18 years old may vote if they are not members of the royal family.
\par \tab Before World War I Transjordan formed part of an Ottoman Empire seriously weakened by internal discord. With British military assistance, Greater Syria was freed from Turkish domination by Arab nationalists led by the sharif of Mecca and his four sons. The Arabs hoped to establish an independent Arab state in all of Greater Syria, but the French and British had divided this region into their own spheres of influence in the Sykes-Picot Agreement of 1916.
\par \tab Nevertheless, one of the sharif's sons, Faisal I, went to Damascus and declared himself head of an independent Arab state. The French moved in to depose him in 1921, and Faisal's brother, Abdullah, started north from Arabia to assist him. When Winston Churchill, then the British colonial minister, learned of these events, he guaranteed Abdullah an emirate in Transjordan if he would seek no additional territory. Abdullah agreed. He became king of an independent Jordan in 1946.
\par \tab King Abdullah was assassinated in 1951 while on a trip to Jerusalem. His son Talal ruled briefly until mental illness led to his removal from office. Talal's 17-year-old son, Hussein, became king in 1953. Jordan joined the United Nations in 1955. The special relationship between Great Britain and Jordan was officially terminated in 1957.
\par \tab In 1967, as the result of the Six-Day War between the Arab states and Israel, the Israelis occupied all of Jordan west of the Jordan River and all of Jerusalem. In 1970 the Jordanian army defeated a Palestinian guerrilla force in a ten-day civil war. Jordan and other Arab nations fought another war against Israel in 1973. In 1974 the Arab governments recognized the right of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) to establish an independent Palestinian state on the west bank of the river if Israel withdrew from the area. In agreeing to this, Jordan effectively gave up its claim to the West Bank; however, Jordan continued to fund social and economic development in the territory and to pay salaries to territorial civil servants until 1988. In 1978 Israel agreed to a freeze on new settlements in the West Bank. Jordan broke off diplomatic relations with Egypt in 1979 following the Camp David agreements between Egypt and Israel because Egypt had not affirmed the status of Palestinians in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. Relations were restored in 1984. In 1989, following the first parliamentary elections since 1967, Mudar Badran was for the third time appointed prime minister. In July 1991 King Hussein formally lifted martial law, which had been in effect since 1967.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab Sheila A. Scoville\par \tab The native Kazakhs are a Muslim people who once wandered over the grasslands of Central Asia with their herds. In the 19th century the Russians invaded their territory, which eventually became the second largest republic of the Soviet Union. Even after achieving independence in 1991, Kazakhstan remained an important agricultural, mining, and industrial region with a large Russian population.
\par \tab Kazakhstan covers an area of more than 1 million square miles (2.6 million square kilometers) and extends 1,200 miles (1,900 kilometers) from west to east. The northern part consists of grasslands, while much of the south and center is covered by desert. The central and eastern areas contain the Kazakh Uplands and the western ranges of the Altai and other mountains. In the south the Karatau Mountains divide two areas of desert--the Kyzyl-Kum and the Muyun-Kum. In the southwest the Mangyshlak Peninsula extends into the Caspian Sea. Kazakhstan is crossed by the Irtysh River, which flows north to Siberia; the Ili, which empties into Lake Balkhash; and the Syr Darya, which crosses the desert to reach the Aral Sea. The Ural and Emba rivers flow to the Caspian Sea.
\par \tab The climate is continental, with warm summers and cold winters. July temperatures generally average between 70░ and 80░ F (21░ and 27░ C) and January temperatures between 20░ and 0░ F (-7░ and -18░ C). Precipitation in the north averages less than 15 inches (38 centimeters) and in the south less than 8 inches (20 centimeters) a year.
\par \tab The Kazakhs, a Turkic-speaking people, were traditionally nomads. They grazed their horses, sheep, and camels on the northern grasslands during the summer months and on the pastures to the south of the deserts in the winter months.
\par \tab In the 1930s they resisted the collectivization of their herds by the Soviet authorities, and in the subsequent fighting many Kazakhs were killed. After the Soviet conquest, most gave up their nomadic life for work on farms and in industry.
\par \tab Russians number about 41 percent of the country's population of 16,793,100 (1991 estimate). Only about 36 percent are Kazakhs. There are also about 900,000 Germans and 898,000 Ukrainians in Kazakhstan. Some 1,267,000 Kazakhs live outside the country.
\par \tab The traditional culture of the Kazakhs consists of stories and folk poems. Because of their nomadic life they had little written literature and art, except carpet weaving. The main center of culture is the capital city of Alma-Ata with its theaters, museums, libraries, university, and technical institutes.
\par \tab The agriculture of Kazakhstan changed dramatically when the Soviets established collective and state farms in the 1930s. In the 1950s large numbers of settlers emigrated from European Russia to plow up the Virgin Lands, the untouched grasslands of northern Kazakhstan. This area became a major producer of grain. In the south cotton is grown on irrigated land. Fruits and vegetables are also produced.
\par \tab Kazakhstan has rich areas of mineral deposits. Coal, petroleum, and some natural gas are exploited. Iron ore, copper, manganese, chromite, lead, zinc, bauxite, gold, and other minerals are also mined. An iron and steel industry and the smelting of metallic ores are important activities. The chemical fertilizer industry is also important. Electric power is supplied by hydroelectric plants on the Irtysh, as well as by coal-burning plants.
\par \tab For such a large territory the transportation network is sparse. A line runs from the Trans-Siberian Railroad south to Karaganda and Alma-Ata. Another line from Alma-Ata joins Central Asia with the industrial area of western Siberia. A line links the port of Gur'yev on the Caspian Sea with the Ural region. The densest railroad network is in northern Kazakhstan and is used to transport grain. The highway system is not well developed, and most freight moves by rail. The Irtysh, Ili, and Ural rivers are navigable, and there is some shipping on the Aral Sea. The major port on the Caspian Sea is Gur'yev, and there are airports at Alma-Ata and Aktyubinsk.
\par \tab Before the territory was invaded by the Russians, the Kazakhs were organized in three major groups known as hordes. These hordes were gradually pushed out of the grasslands by the advance of the Russians from the north. In 1854 the Russians reached southern Kazakhstan and founded the fort of Verny, now Alma-Ata.
\par \tab After the October Revolution of 1917, the Kazakhs attempted to establish an independent state, but in 1920 the Red Army entered Kazakhstan and declared it an autonomous Soviet republic. In 1936 it became the Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic.
\par \tab With the disintegration of the Soviet Union in 1991, Kazakhstan declared its independence on December 16. It joined the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) with ten other former Soviet republics and was admitted to the United Nations in March 1992. Nursultan Nazarbayev was elected president of the Republic of Kazakhstan, receiving almost 99 percent of the vote. The Kazakh government expected to have a strong voice in CIS affairs. At the same time, it faced severe economic problems as it struggled to repair the damage caused by 70 years of Communist rule.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab Ian Matley\par \tab A republic of Africa, Kenya is located on the equator on the continent's east coast. The country is well known for its scenic beauty and varied wildlife. Although only about 20 percent of the land is suitable for cultivation, the majority of Kenyans are farmers who produce crops mainly for their own needs. Coffee and tea, grown for export on large plantations and on small farms, together with tourism are Kenya's most important sources of foreign exchange--money used to buy foreign goods.
\par \tab The nation imports all of its petroleum and most manufactured products. Kenya is a poor country by comparison with industrialized countries such as those of Western Europe.
\par {\b Climate and Geographic Regions}
\par \tab Kenya has two wet seasons and two dry seasons. The rainy seasons extend from March to May and from November to January. The amount of rainfall is greatest in the highlands of Kenya, which are located in the west. The lowland deserts of the north receive the least amount of rain. Occasionally the rains fail or are below normal for consecutive seasons, leading to drought. During excessive periods of drought, such as in 1960 and 1961 and 1972 to 1976, crop production is low and many animals die.
\par \tab Because of the uneven distribution of rainfall and the variation in land elevation, ecological conditions differ throughout the country. However, three main geographic zones have been determined to exist: the highlands, the semiarid lowlands, and the deserts. A fourth, called the coastal zone, occupies a narrow strip along the Indian Ocean.
\par \tab {\b The highlands.}
\par \tab In the western part of Kenya the land rises to more than 5,000 feet (1,500 meters) above sea level. These highlands, which represent less than 25 percent of Kenya's land area, are divided by the Great Rift Valley. In the eastern part of this region, Kenya reaches its highest point at the peak of Mount Kenya, 17,058 feet (5,199 meters) high. The highlands are the only part of the country where rainfall is sufficient--over 50 inches (1,270 millimeters) a year--and reliable enough to support farming. Because most Kenyans depend on agriculture for a living, it is in these highlands that the majority of the population lives. Most of the forest that once covered the land has been cleared for crop production. Some of Kenya's forest does remain, and national parks have been created by the government to protect the local vegetation and the wildlife.
\par \tab {\b The semiarid lowlands.}
\par \tab Much of Kenya is semiarid, receiving between 15 and 30 inches (380 and 760 millimeters) of rainfall a year. This amount of rainfall is insufficient for production of crops, so cultivation is limited to the borders of rivers and swamps where irrigation is possible. In the past there was little farming in the lowlands, and most of the inhabitants were nomadic or seminomadic herders. The number of lowland farmers has increased, however, as people have moved from the overcrowded highlands in search of land.
\par \tab The main economic activities are livestock raising by Kenyans and wildlife viewing by foreign tourists. Both the wildlife and the livestock are able to graze on the vegetation that grows under the dry conditions. Trees, such as the acacia, are scattered throughout the bushy grasslands. The herders, such as the Masai (Maasai), raise cattle, goats, and sheep and move them seasonally from place to place to give them access to water and pasture.
\par \tab The wildlife includes large numbers of gazelles, zebras, and wildebeests, and predators such as the lion and cheetah are also prevalent. Also common are the predatory leopard and wild dog and other grazing animals such as the antelope, elephant, buffalo, and rhinoceros. National parks have been created where these animals and others are found in large numbers. Unfortunately, water is scarce, and there is increasing competition for it among the animals.
\par \tab {\b The deserts.}
\par \tab The deserts of Kenya are not so extensive as other deserts in Africa. They are located in the north of the country. The vegetation is sparse, consisting of hardy grasses and occasional bushes. Desert peoples are few, but the area includes some nomadic people, such as the Somali and the Gabbra, who raise herds of camels and goats. On the edge of the desert region is Lake Rudolf (Turkana), which stretches down from the border with Ethiopia. It is the site of a small fishing industry. Archaeologists working on the shores of the lake have found evidence of some of the Earth's earliest people, dating the ancestors of man back some 4 to 5 million years.
\par \tab {\b The coast.}
\par \tab Stretching along the shores of the Indian Ocean is a narrow strip of land 10 to 15 miles (16 to 24 kilometers) wide that separates the dry interior from the sea. It is an area with relatively heavy rainfall, 40 inches (1,000 millimeters) a year, and is an important crop-producing area. Cash crops such as coconuts and cashews are produced.
\par \tab For centuries the coast has been important in trade across the Indian Ocean, and ancient ports, such as Lamu, remain as evidence of the early coastal trade cities. Today, Mombasa is the largest coastal city and Kenya's largest and busiest port. It has modern facilities, an oil refinery, and a variety of light industries. The port also serves the landlocked countries of Uganda, Rwanda, and Burundi. The long and beautiful white coral sand beaches are the basis of Kenya's coastal tourist industry. Hotels serve tourists along the entire length of the coast.
\par {\b Population and Economy}
\par \tab Kenya has more than 100 different ethnic groups. This poses a potential problem of communication. Swahili and English have been selected as national languages and most people speak at least one of these as well as their own local language.
\par \tab The people are also divided among many religious groups. African traditional religions are widespread as is Christianity, which was spread by missionary groups in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Islam is particularly well established along the coast; the Kenyans of Asian origin are predominantly Hindus.
\par \tab Kenya's artistic heritage is represented by a variety of crafts. Among them are matweaving on the coast, wood carving by the Kamba people, and beadwork jewelry made by groups such as the Masai and the Samburu.
\par \tab Among the nation's 17 million people, the most populous groups are the Kikuyu, the Luhya, the Luo, and the Kamba. There are just over one million herders such as the Masai and the Somali living in the semiarid and desert areas. An increasing number of people live in the capital city of Nairobi and in other large cities. In the early 1980s it was estimated that Kenya's population was increasing at the rate of about 4 percent a year. This growth rate, one of the world's highest, greatly increases the people's demand for land, housing, food, jobs, education, medical care, and other services. These conditions place a severe strain on the economy of Kenya, a country whose resources are extremely limited.
\par \tab One reason that Kenya has remained heavily dependent on agriculture is its lack of fuel resources, such as petroleum. Totally reliant on foreign countries for oil, Kenya's manufacturing industries have developed slowly. Some energy is forthcoming from hydroelectric projects, but it is inadequate, and additional electric power must be imported from neighboring countries. To remedy this situation, especially in light of oil-price increases, the government has accelerated development of alternative sources of energy. Kenya now produces power from geothermal (natural heat from the Earth's interior) sources, and plans are to increase the number of geothermal units. The sugar industry, which can produce alcohol for fuel, is another developing source. The Kenyan economy receives minimal support from such other resource areas as mining, forestry, and fisheries.
\par \tab {\b Agriculture.}
\par \tab The most rapidly growing population group in Kenya is the farmers. In many areas, however, there is insufficient land available, and some farms have been subdivided into several units. These are often unable to produce sufficient crops to meet the needs of the families tending them. Increasing numbers of people are migrating to areas where more land is available. Most of the areas where people can find land are on the dry edges of the highlands. In these areas soils may be less fertile and the rainfall less certain, making farming risky.
\par \tab The vast majority of Kenya's farmers own only about seven acres (three hectares) of land. On these small farms most of what they produce is to meet their family's needs. Some crops are grown for sale to raise money to buy consumer items. Typically a farmer grows several different crops together in the same field: a grain such as corn; a legume such as beans; and perhaps a few trees producing coffee, bananas, or mangoes. This allows the family to harvest a variety of foods for a balanced diet. In order to increase production, the government sponsors agricultural experiments and encourages farmers to try different production methods. Some farmers also keep a few animals such as cattle and goats, and many raise poultry. Tea and coffee, raised for cash and export, are two of Kenya's major sources of income.
\par \tab The herders raise such animals as cattle, camels, sheep, and goats. These produce milk and meat for the family and some to be sold for cash. Herding families use the cash to buy grains to supplement the meat and milk in their diet.
\par \tab As the human population grows so have the number of animals, and there is concern that they may be overgrazing the land. In many parts of the country the government is promoting better use and management of the grazing land.
\par \tab {\b Tourism.}
\par \tab The other major earner of foreign exchange, the tourist industry, does not bring income to as many people as coffee or tea sales. Tourist facilities are concentrated in Nairobi, along the coast, and in the national parks. The industry is largely owned by foreign companies, however, and relatively few Kenyans benefit from it.
\par \tab Tourists visit Kenya for a number of reasons. Its beaches are beautiful and uncrowded, and hotels are of high quality and serve good food. Kenya has one of the world's largest wildlife populations, and a wide variety of animals can be seen in national parks. There, excellent hotels with special viewing facilities have been built for tourists. The parks protect the wildlife, but some species, such as the rhinoceros and elephant, are still hunted by poachers for their horns and tusks. Nairobi also attracts tourists, and it has become a site for international conferences.
\par \tab {\b Cities and industry.}
\par \tab The cities of Kenya have been growing partly because of emigration from the countryside. Most salaried jobs in the cities are in the government bureaucracy, in industry, and in occupations such as sales and domestic services.
\par \tab Kenya's industries include food processing, brewing, clothing and textiles, transport equipment, and refined petroleum and petrochemicals. The majority of companies are located in or near Nairobi, but the government is encouraging new firms to locate in other towns so that more of the country can benefit from industry. Nairobi, the capital city of Kenya, is located on the railway line at the junction between the lowlands and the highlands. More than 60 percent of Kenya's salaried workers live in the city, which dominates the nation's economy. It is an important commercial center and many foreign firms base their east African operations there. Most government employees also work in Nairobi.
\par \tab The Kenyan economy is supported by one of the best transportation systems in Africa. The railway links the main towns and paved roads reach all but the most inaccessible towns. The main roads to Tanzania and Uganda are paved and the one to Ethiopia is almost completely paved. Nairobi's modernized airport is one of Africa's busiest. Flights connect the city to other African cities, and to Europe, the United States, and Asia.
\par \tab {\b Education.}
\par \tab Education has been strongly supported by the government and nearly all children go to primary school, which is free. The adult literacy rate increased from 20 percent in 1960 to 59 percent in 1988. After primary school the educational system becomes highly competitive and few of those who go on to secondary school gain admittance to the University of Nairobi or any of the country's smaller colleges.
\par {\b History and Government}
\par \tab As recently as the 1880s there was no country known as Kenya. At the beginning of the 20th century the British colonized East Africa and drew boundaries around the country they named Kenya. Prior to the arrival of the British each of Kenya's peoples had its own form of government, culture, and economy. The British imposed their own administration, and through their economic, religious, and educational activities they transformed the Africans' way of life.
\par \tab The colonial administration encouraged British and South African white people to move from their homelands to settle in Kenya. To promote this settlement they reserved a large area exclusively for whites and made generous offers of land. Eventually this area totaled about 16,000 square miles (41,400 square kilometers) and contained about one half of the country's land suitable for crops. In the highlands the settlers grew tea and coffee for export, while in the lowlands they raised livestock.
\par \tab The loss of land to the British brought resentment against the colonial administration, and in 1952 a war of liberation began. A guerrilla group called the Mau Mau, made up of members of several ethnic groups (primarily Kikuyu), led the struggle. The Mau Mau rebellion, as it was called, took place mainly in the highlands, where the Kikuyu people claimed that much land had been stolen from them. In 1963, independence for Kenya was won. More than 1 million acres (400,000 hectares) were redistributed to 45,000 Kenyans, but many large farms were left intact and taken over by powerful Kenyans.
\par \tab Kenya then adopted a democratic parliamentary form of government. Initially a constitutional monarchy, in 1964 it declared itself a republic within the Commonwealth of Nations (now the Commonwealth). The one-house parliament, the National Assembly, is led by a president, who chooses the vice-president and ministers from among the members of the assembly. The dominant political party since independence, the Kenya African National Union, became the only legal party in 1982 and remained so until 1991.
\par \tab Jomo Kenyatta was elected the first president of the new country. He held the position until his death in 1978, when he was succeeded by the vice-president, Daniel arap Moi.
\par \tab Moi was supported by all of Kenya's leading politicians. He faced a major threat to his government in 1982, however, when air force personnel attempted a coup. Violent unrest marked the beginning of the 1990s as opponents charged the government with corruption, especially in land dealings. In 1991 governments sending financial aid to Kenya demanded reforms. An opposition party, the Forum for the Restoration of Democracy, was founded. Moi announced permission in December for multiparty politics. A second opposition group, the Democratic party, was formed in January 1992. Moi, however, proceeded to undermine both groups.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by David John Campbell, Associate Professor, Department of Geography and African Studies Center, Michigan State University.
\par \tab {\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR KENYA}
\par \tab Amin, Mohammed, and others. Kenya: The Magic Land (Random, 1989).
\par \tab Kennedy, Dane. Islands of White: Settler Society and Culture in Kenya and Southern Rhodesia, 1890-1939 (Duke Univ. Press, 1987).
\par \tab Lerner Publications. Kenya in Pictures (Lerner, 1988).
\par \tab Livingstone, Ian. Rural Development, Employment, and Income in Kenya (Gower, 1985).
\par \tab Lye, Keith. Take a Trip to Kenya (Watts, 1985).
\par \tab Miller, Norman. Kenya: The Quest for Prosperity (Westview, 1984).
\par \tab Schatzberg, M.G., ed. The Political Economy of Kenya (Praeger, 1988).
\par \tab Stein, R.C. Kenya (Childrens, 1985).
\par \tab Trzebinski, Errol. The Kenya Pioneers (Norton, 1988).\par \tab The Republic of Kiribati consists of 33 coral atolls and islands that spread over an area of more than 2,000,000 square miles (5,000,000 square kilometers) of the Central Pacific Ocean and straddle the equator and the international date line. The republic includes the Gilbert Islands, Banaba, the Line Islands, and the Phoenix Islands. More than 95 percent of the population lives on the Gilbert Islands, a group of 16 coral atolls located about 2,800 miles (4,500 kilometers) northeast of Australia.
\par \tab With a total land area of only 328 square miles (849 square kilometers), Kiribati extends about 1,300 miles (2,100 kilometers) from Teraina Island to Flint Island, and about 2,250 miles (3,600 kilometers) from Kiritimati Island to Banaba. The capital of Kiribati is Bairiki, on Tarawa Atoll in the Gilbert Islands.
\par \tab The low-lying coral islands are surrounded by reefs and include lagoons. The soil is poor, but the islands are well covered by coconut palms that provide copra, the main export. The climate of Kiribati is tropical marine with temperatures normally ranging between 72░ F (22░ C) and 90░ F (32░ C). A rainy season usually lasts from October to March.
\par \tab The people of Kiribati are mostly of Micronesian origin. The islet of Bairiki is somewhat urbanized, but most of the people on the other islands live in villages of thatched huts. The official language is English, but it is rarely spoken away from Tarawa Atoll. Most families fish and grow bananas, breadfruit, papaws, and taro.
\par \tab Various explorers visited the islands from 1537 until 1870. Britain declared a protectorate over the Gilbert Islands in 1892, and the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony was formed in 1916. The colony was later extended to include most of the Phoenix and Line groups. During World War II the Gilberts were occupied by the Japanese.
\par \tab Racial tension and economic rivalries in the 1960s caused the Gilbert Islands and the Ellice Islands to form separate colonies in 1976. The Ellice group was granted independence as Tuvalu in 1978. In July 1979 the name of the Gilbert group was changed to Kiribati. The islands became an independent republic, with a legislature and a president as head of state and government. Each atoll has a free, government-maintained medical dispensary and a primary school. Population (1992 estimate), 74,700.\par \tab On a mountainous peninsula jutting southward from the eastern Asian mainland is Korea, the historic land bridge and buffer between China and Japan. Today Korea is a land divided into a Communist north and a non-Communist south. It is torn by rival political and economic systems and by bitterness stemming from the Korean War. However, the people of both North Korea and South Korea are still united by a common cultural heritage and continue to regard themselves as a single nation.
\par \tab The two halves of Korea have been rebuilt from the devastation of the Korean War. But they still suffer from huge military expenditures, dependence on foreign aid, and economies unbalanced by the partition of Korea after World War II. In addition new difficulties are being created by the growing conflicts between their traditional and modern ways of life.
\par \tab Most of Korea lies on the Korean peninsula, between the Sea of Japan on the east and the Yellow Sea on the west. South Korea occupies the southern part of the peninsula, while North Korea spreads north and northeast beyond the peninsula's base. Between them is the demilitarized zone, which was set up by the truce ending the Korean War in 1953. It runs from about 40 miles north of the 38th parallel on the east to about 20 miles south on the west. Korea extends some 635 miles from northeast to southwest. The Korean Peninsula is about 150 miles wide at its widest point.
\par \tab South Korea's only land border, on the north, is with North Korea. North Korea is bounded by South Korea on the south and by China on the northwest. North Korea also touches Russia in the extreme northeast. The main islands of Japan lie 120 miles southeast of the South Korean coast across the Korea Strait.
\par \tab Korea is about the size of Utah. Its total area is 85,288 square miles--47,077 in the north, 38,211 in the south. Korea's total population is more than 65 million--more than 43 million in the south, and almost 22 million in the north. South Korea is one of the world's most densely populated countries. Its capital, Seoul, is the largest city in North and South Korea. Pyongyang is the largest city and the capital of North Korea.
{\b People}
\par \tab The Koreans are a culturally and racially homogeneous people. They have a common language and, like the Chinese and the Japanese, they are of Mongoloid descent. Korea's population from the 17th to the late 19th century has been estimated at between 7 and 10 million. The first modern census, taken in 1925, recorded 19,020,000 inhabitants.
\par \tab By the 1975 census, South Korea alone had a population of 34,678,972, and the 1989 population estimate totaled 42,380,000. The 1989 population estimate for North Korea was 22,418,000.
\par \tab Both South Korea and North Korea have high annual birthrates--about 24 per 1,000 population. Their death rates are about six per 1,000. The rate of population growth in Korea is about 2 percent per year. Medical advances have raised the average life expectancy of Koreans to about 69 years. But the population of Korea is young. About half its people are under 20.
\par \tab Korea's population is heavily concentrated on the coastal plains, particularly along the west coast of South Korea. South Korea is one of the most densely populated nations in the world, averaging more than 1,000 persons per square mile. North Korea's population density averages more than 470 persons per square mile.
\par \tab Until recently the Koreans were a mainly rural people. In 1925, less than 5 percent of the population lived in cities. By 1975, however, more than half of all South Koreans and probably almost as high a proportion of North Koreans were city dwellers. Seoul, Korea's largest city and South Korea's capital, has about 10,513,000 inhabitants; Pusan, also in South Korea, is second, with about 3,754,000; and Pyongyang, the largest city and the capital of North Korea, has about 1,283,000.
\par {\b EVERYDAY LIFE}
\par \tab Under the influence of the West, the everyday life of the Korean people has been gradually changing. The Japanese occupation, the post-World War II partition, and the Korean War--all of these helped to spur this change and to deepen the differences between the old rural traditions and a newly developing urban way of life.
\par {\b The Family}
\par \tab Historically, Korean families were formed into clans that shared the same family name. As a result, only a few hundred major surnames are used today. Kim, the most common, is the surname of about one fifth of all Korean families. In Korea, family names are customarily placed first and women do not change their names when they marry.
\par \tab The Korean family has been traditionally dominated by the husband. The wife has had only a secondary influence in family affairs, though her status improved after she bore one or more sons.
\par \tab A first son is especially welcomed because his arrival ensures the continuity of the family line. On its first birthday, a baby usually has a big party at which he or she is formally introduced to the family and their friends. As children grow up, they are taught to behave properly and to respect and obey their elders.
\par \tab In the past, marriages were arranged by parents or by go-betweens called chungmae. Today, however, young people--particularly those living in cities--more often choose their own mates. Men usually marry at about the age of 21; women, at about 18. City dwellers tend to marry at a somewhat later age.
\par \tab One of the most important milestones in a Korean man's life is his hangab (60th birthday). This date symbolizes the completion of a full life cycle and is marked by a big anniversary party.
\par {\b Housing, Food, and Clothing}
\par \tab Traditional rural houses in Korea were one-story structures, with mud-plastered wood walls and a thatched roof of rice straw. There were usually three rooms--a kitchen with a dirt floor, a bedroom, and a living room--arranged in an L or U shape. Flues under the floor carried hot smoke from a wood or coal stove in the kitchen to a chimney at the opposite end of the house. This provided a system of radiant heating called ondol. The living room usually had a board floor. Koreans removed their shoes before entering it from the kitchen or the outdoors. They sat on mats and slept on quilts spread out on the floor. Traditional city houses were similar, although slate or tile was used for roofs.
\par \tab Houses today are commonly built of concrete, but radiant heating is still often used. City houses generally have modern conveniences, such as electricity and indoor plumbing. The construction of large housing projects--including Western-style apartment buildings--has helped ease the housing shortage caused by the destruction of the Korean War and by the rapid growth of the urban population.
\par \tab Rice, the staple food of the Korean diet, is eaten at most meals. Millet, wheat, barley, corn, and sorghum are also eaten, especially in the north. The vegetables Koreans eat include potatoes, Chinese cabbage, turnips, and onions. Garlic and red peppers are used as seasoners. Kimchi (pickled vegetables) is a favorite dish. Fish and other seafoods are the usual sources of proteins. Eggs have also become popular. Milk is now drunk by youths, especially in the cities, a practice unheard of a generation ago. Ttog, or rice cake, is a popular confection.
\par \tab Traditional clothing, made of cotton or synthetic materials, is worn only by some people in the rural areas and by others on special occasions. Loose-fitting, long-sleeved jackets and oversized trousers that are tied at the waist and bound or left loose at the ankles are traditional garments for men. Nearly all men in the cities and most of the farmers have adopted Western-style shirts, trousers, and suits. Western-style shoes have largely replaced the traditional sandals, which were made of various materials.
\par \tab The traditional dress of Korean women includes the chima, a long, high-waisted, pleated skirt worn over a slip or loose trousers called paji. The chogori, a short, flared blouse, is worn open in front over a tight-fitting undergarment. In the cities today, nearly all Korean women wear Western-style clothing.
\par {\b Education, Recreation, and Welfare}
\par \tab In South Korea, elementary education is compulsory for children 6 to 11 years of age. Secondary education is provided in middle schools for 12- to 14-year-olds and in academic and vocational high schools for 15- to 18-year-olds.
\par \tab Higher education is offered in two- and four-year colleges and universities. Seoul National University is South Korea's largest institution of higher education. Among its better-known private universities are Yonsei University, Ewha Women's University, and Korea University, all in Seoul.
\par \tab In North Korea, 4- and 5-year-olds attend preschools, while 5- and 6-year-olds attend kindergartens. Education in primary schools is compulsory for 7- to 10-year-olds, and 11- to 15-year-olds are required to attend middle schools that provide general and technical courses. Graduates may go on to a vocational school, a higher technical school, or a college-preparatory high school. There are 11-year postkindergarten programs for specialization in music, ballet, drama, the arts, or foreign languages. Kim Il Sung University, in Pyongyang, is the principal institution of higher education.
\par \tab For recreation and relaxation, Koreans enjoy weddings, family gatherings, picnics, and sight-seeing. The Lunar New Year, in late January or early February, and the Harvest Moon Festival, in late September, are widely celebrated traditional holidays. Folk dancing and zither playing are very popular. Movies are well attended. Hiking, swimming, and Western sports--soccer, baseball, basketball, track, and boxing, for example--have large followings.
\par \tab Among the social services provided by the South Korean government are day nurseries and old-age, maternity, and children's homes. The number of public health services, hospitals, and clinics staffed by trained medical personnel has been increasing. In some rural areas, however, midwives and herb doctors still provide the only available medical assistance. North Korea is a welfare state. Government and industrial workers are entitled to free medical care, and factories have kindergartens and nurseries for the children of working mothers.
\par {\b Religion}
\par \tab Most Koreans do not belong to an organized religion. The Confucian ethical system, however, has greatly influenced Korean culture. Buddhism, introduced from China in the 4th century, has a following of about 13 million persons in South Korea. Confucianists number about 4.7 million. There are about 6 million Christians, mostly Protestants. Chondogyo, a native Korean religion known originally as Tonghak (Eastern Learning), had about 815,000 adherents in the late 1970s. It was founded in the mid-19th century in opposition to foreign cultural influences. Shamanism, the superstitious worship of spirits, is widespread in rural areas. Religion is discouraged by the North Korean government.
{\b Government}
\par {\b South Korea}
\par \tab The Republic of Korea, or South Korea, was established in 1948 as a democratic republic. Its constitution of 1987 provides for three separate and independent branches of government--the executive, the legislative, and the judicial--and an elaborate system of checks and balances. The executive branch of the government is headed by the president of the republic, who is chief of state, chief administrator, and commander in chief of the armed forces. He is elected by direct popular vote for one five-year term. There is no vice-president.
\par \tab The State Council, which serves as a presidential cabinet, is composed of the president, the prime minister, the deputy prime minister, and the heads of the ministries. The prime minister is appointed by the president and directs the State Council. The president appoints the heads of the ministries upon recommendation of the prime minister. The one-house National Assembly is responsible for lawmaking, approving the national budget, and ratifying treaties. Two thirds of the seats are filled by popular vote, and the remaining are apportioned among the political parties according to their share of the popular vote. Assembly members hold office for four-year terms.
\par \tab The Supreme Court has a maximum of 13 justices, including the chief justice, who is appointed for a single six-year term by the president. The other justices are appointed by the president on the chief justice's recommendation and serve renewable six-year terms. All justices must be approved by the National Assembly. The Supreme Court is the court of last resort and determines constitutionality of administrative decrees. Constitutionality of laws enacted by the National Assembly is determined by the Constitution Court, a state agency.
\par \tab The lower courts of the Republic of Korea consist of the district courts, family courts, and appellate courts. The district courts have primary jurisdiction over civil and criminal cases. The family courts also try cases for the first time, but they deal only with such matters as domestic relations and juvenile delinquency. The appellate courts hear appeals from the district and family courts. Military courts try members of the armed forces and may also try civilians accused of such military crimes as espionage.
\par \tab The major opposing political parties in South Korea in the 1990s were the Democratic Liberal party (DLP) and the Party for Peace and Democracy. The DLP was formed in 1990 from a merger of the ruling Democratic Justice party (DJP) with two smaller conservative parties and was thought to be part of a movement toward a parliamentary system of government.
\par \tab The electoral system in South Korea is based on direct, equal, and secret suffrage. All citizens over the age of 20 have the right to vote. About 80 percent of the registered voters cast ballots in presidential elections. In addition to the ballot, South Koreans often use other forms of political expression, such as organized protest demonstrations. The press is also an important voice of South Korean political opinion.
\par {\b North Korea}
\par \tab North Korea, or the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, has a Communist government. According to the North Korean constitution, the country's highest legislative body is the Supreme People's Assembly. It is made up of representatives who are supposed to be elected every four years. A permanent presidium is empowered to act on behalf of the assembly when it is not in session.
\par \tab The Administration Council, or cabinet, which is legally accountable to the assembly, acts as the government's executive branch. It includes the premier and several vice-premiers. Since 1972 the secretary-general of the Workers' (Communist) party has been the president of North Korea and its head of state. There are three vice-presidents.
\par \tab North Korea's judicial structure functions on three levels, with the Supreme Court at the top, the provincial courts at the intermediate level, and people's courts in the cities, counties, and districts at the base. Closely linked to the courts is the Procuracy, or law-enforcement agency. The Procuracy is headed by a procurator-general with broad powers. He participates in sessions of the Supreme Court and has the authority to issue directives on judicial procedure to the lower courts.
\par \tab The Workers' party has almost complete control over the government of North Korea. As a result, the government functions differently from what the nation's constitution prescribes. Elections for the Supreme People's Assembly are held irregularly, and the cabinet has assumed absolute power.
\par \tab There are no opposition parties of any influence in North Korea. All of the country's major political decisions are made within the Korean Workers' party.
\par \tab In recent years the Korean Workers' party has begun to educate a new corps of industrial managers and technicians and to incorporate them into the party structure. As a result of these efforts more North Koreans have been participating in the affairs of the Korean Workers' party, and North Korea's one-party government has to that extent become somewhat more representative. However, most of the North Korean people still have little voice in their government.
{\b Economy}
\par \tab Korea's traditional economy was agricultural. Not until the late 1800s did industry begin to develop. Under Japanese rule, Korea became a source of Japan's raw materials and a market for its products. Modern transportation, communications, and electric power facilities were built, but on the whole Japanese rule stunted Korea's economic development.
\par \tab The partition of Korea after World War II further dislocated its economy. Most of the factories and electric power plants, the bulk of the mineral deposits, and the largest forests were in North Korea. The best ports, most of the railway mileage, most of the good farmland, and more than two thirds of the people were in South Korea.
\par \tab South Korea and North Korea have taken different paths of economic development since the partition. The South Korean government provides central guidelines for economic development and some financing for industry. But it encourages private enterprise and capital investment by foreign companies. South Korea's economy has been financed in part by aid and loans from the United States. The Communist regime of North Korea controls all the means of production and has a highly centralized economy. It stresses the development of heavy industry. North Korea has received much economic aid from China and other Communist nations.
\par {\b The Economy of South Korea}
\par \tab Agriculture is the economic mainstay of South Korea. About two fifths of the people work in agriculture, forestry, and fishing. The average farm household has less than 2 1/2 acres of land, usually on several scattered plots. Some farming is now done with modern machines. The generally low yields have been rising with the increased use of fertilizer. The mild winters permit double-cropping on most lowland fields. In irrigated areas, rice is generally grown in the summer; other grains, in the winter.
\par \tab Rice is by far the major crop--in tonnage, acreage, and value. Other leading crops include sweet potatoes, barley, soybeans, wheat, corn, millet, cotton, mulberry leaves, fruits, and vegetables. Pigs and chickens are the principal livestock.
\par \tab The government has sought to raise agricultural output by increasing fertilizer production and reclaiming farmland from west coast tidal flats. A program to increase the number of farm owners has made progress.
\par \tab The fishing industry is an important source of food for South Korea. The catch is sufficient to meet domestic demand and to allow some exports. Pusan is the largest fishing port.
\par \tab South Korea's forests were badly overcut during and after World War II. There has been some reforestation, but the fast-rising demand for lumber must be met through imports. Because of the government's forest preservation policies, coal has mostly replaced wood as the fuel used in homes.
\par \tab Most of South Korea's electric power is generated by coal- and oil-fired thermal plants in the coastal cities. Some comes from hydroelectric plants in the northeastern mountains. South Korea's petroleum refineries use imported crude oil. The nation's first major refinery was built at Ulsan in 1964. The chief mineral product of South Korea is anthracite coal. The nation is a leading producer of tungsten and graphite. Other commercially important minerals are iron ore, limestone, fluorite, gold, silver, and kaolin. Before partition, South Korea had little manufacturing industry. Its few plants produced textiles, machinery, and foodstuffs. Since partition, emphasis has been placed on the development of heavy industry. The new stress on heavy industry has greatly boosted the output of cement, fertilizer, petrochemicals, ships, and automobiles. However, the textile industry is still one of the largest. It now uses not only cotton but also nylon, rayon, and other synthetic fibers.
\par \tab In addition to textiles, South Korea's light industries produce foodstuffs, plastics, plywood, plate glass, porcelain, cutlery, tires, wigs, cosmetics, sewing machines, toys, and leather goods. Artisans in small shops still engage in traditional handicrafts. South Korea's industry is heavily concentrated in the Seoul-Inchon area and at Pusan and Ulsan. An integrated steel mill has been built at Pohang.
\par \tab A modern transportation network is being built in South Korea. Main railroad lines have been electrified; new lines have been built to the northeast; and old rolling stock has been replaced. Modern expressways, beginning with one between Seoul and Inchon (1968) and one between Seoul and Pusan (1970), have been built. Trucks carry more than one half of the country's domestic freight traffic. South Korea's principal seaports are at Pusan, Ulsan, and Inchon. Modern air service links the major cities with each other and with the rest of the world. The nation has modern telephone, telegraph, and postal services as well as many newspapers and radio and television stations.
\par \tab South Korea's foreign trade grew substantially in the 1970s. Manufactured goods, especially clothing and textiles, make up two thirds of the value of its exports. Other leading exports are wood veneers, foods, and raw materials. The chief imports are machinery, transportation equipment, petroleum, textiles, foods, chemicals, and wood. The United States and Japan are South Korea's main trading partners.
\par \tab The South Korean government owns and operates the major transportation services, communications facilities, and electric power plants. Private companies dominate most other sectors of the economy.
\par {\b The Economy of North Korea}
\par \tab Agriculture is one of the weakest segments of North Korea's economy. Since the winters are long and cold, most of the farmland supports only a summer crop. Yields are low. Rice is well over a half of the total grain harvest. Other leading crops are corn, potatoes, millet, barley, soybeans, and wheat. More than 90 percent of the cultivated land is in state-controlled collective farms; the remainder in state-operated farms. Farm machinery is in only limited use. Crop production falls short of the nation's needs and is supplemented by imports, mainly wheat.
\par \tab Fish are an important part of North Korea's food supply. Cod, herring, sardines, salmon, swordfish, and crabs are leading marine products. The major fishing ports are Kimchaek (Songjin), Chongjin, and Nampo.
\par \tab Although North Korea's forests were depleted under Japanese rule, enough stands remain to support logging operations. Spruce, fir, larch, pine, and oak are the main commercial species.
\par \tab North Korea is a leading producer of tungsten, graphite, and magnesite. Other principal mineral products are coal, iron ore, limestone, nickel, zinc, copper, lead, titanium, fluorite, mica, and gold. Power is provided by hydroelectric plants on the Yalu River and its tributaries and by thermal plants.
\par \tab Manufacturing dominates North Korea's economy. Although the nation's industries were largely destroyed during the Korean War, they have since been rebuilt and expanded. Important products include iron and steel, nonferrous metals, machinery, machine tools, chemicals, cement, tractors, automobiles, railway rolling stock, and small ships. Consumer goods include textiles, foodstuffs, medicines, and plastics.
\par \tab Railways serve industrial areas of North Korea, but until the early 1970s the Pyongyang-Wonsan line was the only transpeninsular link. Other lines connect with Chinese and Russian railways. There are domestic air links and flights from Beijing and Moscow. The principal ports are Unggi, Najin, Wonsan, and Nampo. In the late 1980s North Korea's foreign trade was mainly with the Soviet Union, China, and Japan. Major imports are machinery, petroleum, coking coal, and wheat. Iron ore and processed metals are the major exports.
{\b Culture}
\par {\b The Korean Language}
\par \tab Korean is not closely related to any other modern language. Despite the longtime cultural influence of China upon Korea and the use of Chinese as the official written language of Korea until the late 19th century, Korean and Chinese belong to entirely different linguistic families. However, some experts believe that Korean may belong to the Ural-Altaic familyalong with Japanese, Mongolian, and Turkish.
\par \tab Spoken Korean is soft and lilting. There are no heavy nasal tones and no strong accents to emphasize words in sentences. Although half a dozen dialects are spoken in Korea, the differences among them are not very great. People from various sections of the nation can understand one another easily.
\par \tab Formal manuscripts did not appear in Korea until the 4th century AD, when educated Koreans wrote in Chinese. Later, systems were developed by which Korean words could be written in Chinese ideograms. The mastery of Chinese ideography was very difficult, however, and only scholars could read and write.
\par \tab Hangul, an alphabet suited to the Korean language, was developed at the direction of King Sejong and introduced in 1446. It was used by the common people, but educated Koreans continued to write in Chinese. Hangul did not come into general use until the end of the 19th century, when it became the official alphabet for all laws and decrees. After the Japanese assumed complete control of Korea in 1910, they discouraged and then abolished the use and teaching of Korean. With the liberation of Korea at the end of World War II, hangul was revived. Today Korean texts and parts of Korean newspapers are printed in hangul. Chinese ideography is still taught, but most writers use hangul.
\par {\b Korean Literature}
\par \tab The first Korean literature is thought to have been primitive poetry which, accompanied by music and dance, was used in prehistoric religious rites. The evolution of Korean poetry as an independent art form is believed to have begun in the 1st century AD. The brief Sijo probably developed late in the Koryo period and is still popular today. It was used as a vehicle for romantic and naturalistic themes.
\par \tab Under the Yi Dynasty, the novel gradually replaced poetry as the most popular literary form. The early Korean novelists sought primarily to edify their readers. The works of later novelists mocked the yangban (aristocracy).
\par \tab The late 17th and early 18th centuries are known as "the golden age of the classic novel" in Korea. The most popular novel of this era, 'Chunhyangjon' (The Story of Spring Fragrance), is about the love of an aristocrat's son for a lower-class girl. Many of the classic Korean novels had romantic themes.
\par \tab Growing Western influence in the last half of the 19th century inspired the "new novel." The "new novels" promoted such ideas as political democracy and social equality. The best known of these novels was 'The Tears of Blood' by Yi Injik.
\par \tab New writers in many branches of literature emerged. Such authors as Yi Kwangsu, Ch'oe Namson, Kim Tongin, and Kim Sowol assimilated Western literary trends and contributed to the development of modern Korean literary forms.
\par \tab During World War II, the progress of Korean literature was blocked by a Japanese ban on native culture. After the Korean War, however, new writers emerged who drew their inspiration from contemporary trends in world literature, and there was a surge of literary activity.
\par {\b The Fine Arts}
\par \tab Korea's artists have been strongly influenced by the cultures of neighboring nations. Nevertheless, they have always produced sculptures, paintings, and pottery that are peculiarly their own.
\par \tab Little early Korean sculpture has survived, though a few fine stone figures and relief carvings remain. The golden age of Korean sculpture reached its height in the late 7th century during the reign of the Silla Dynasty. Most of the sculpture of this period is of bronze, small in scale, and dedicated to Buddhist deities. Except for some tomb frescoes dating from the 4th through the 7th centuries, few examples of early Korean painting have survived. Painters of the last Yi Dynasty (1392-1910), however, left a rich legacy. Their paintings were executed on silk or paper scrolls and album leaves. They depicted towering landscapes, important personages, and scenes of daily life.
\par \tab The ceramics of Korea almost certainly represent the country's most significant artistic contribution. Functional as well as decorative, Korean ceramics have an unmistakable character. The utilitarian vessels of the Silla period are of sturdy dark-gray earthenware with modest, usually incised, decoration. The rich-green celadons of the Koryo period are adorned with brilliant brushed or inlaid designs that are admirably adapted to their forms. The heavier wares of the Yi Dynasty bear designs, usually on a white porcelaneous base, which seem swiftly executed, almost offhand, yet masterly.
\par \tab Early Korean architecture is exemplified by the tombs of Koguryo and the remains of great walled fortresses. From the late 7th century into the Koryo Dynasty many Buddhist temple complexes--actually small villages--were built. Although their general features were Chinese, they were adapted to local materials and landscape by their Korean builders. Under the Yi Dynasty the increasing popularity of Confucianism was mirrored in the construction of Confucian shrines. There was also an upsurge of nonreligious architecture, including imposing palaces, town gates, and watchtowers.
\par {\b The Performing Arts}
\par \tab Korea's performing arts were greatly influenced by those of China, whose dance, music, and instruments the Koreans adopted. Korea, in turn, played a major role in transmitting music and dance to Japan.
\par \tab Among the earliest extended performances in Korea were the danced mask plays that originated around the 9th century. Their purpose was to make crops grow, to ward off evil spirits and disease, to placate the spirits of the dead. By the end of the 14th century, various elements of these plays were combined in the "typical" mask play, the Sandae. Accompanied by drums, flutes, and the Korean harp, or kayageum, the Sandae satirized the nobility and corrupt priests. Korea's puppet plays may have originated at about the same time as the mask plays. The puppet plays were performed on a two-story stage. The puppets--one to three feet tall--were in the upper story; their manipulators were hidden below.
\par \tab A kind of musical drama was created by combining a narrative with folk tunes. The first permanent Korean theater for performances of this type was built in Seoul in 1902. This genre survives partially in the popular Pan-Sori (folk opera). Unlike other Asian countries, Korea failed to develop a classical theater from its popular theatrical forms. Folk dances and mask plays, once established, remained unchanged.
\par \tab During the 20th century the Korean performing arts were greatly influenced by the West, at first by way of Japan, where a type of play called shimpa developed about 1890. The shimpa plays were patterned on realistic Western drama. In later decades adaptations of shimpa plays became very popular in Korea. The Earth-Moon Society, formed by men who had studied theater in Tokyo, began presenting plays by Anton Chekhov, Henrik Ibsen, and George Bernard Shaw in 1923. Familiarity with the work of contemporary Western playwrights led, increasingly, to the writing of Korean plays that dealt with existing social conditions.
\par \tab Since 1945 much has been done to encourage the performing arts of Korea. A government-sponsored National Theater opened in April 1950. The Seoul Cultural Center for the performing arts and a new National Theater in Seoul were opened in the 1970s.
{\b Natural Features}
\par {\b Land}
\par \tab The Korean peninsula is dominated by mountains. From the northern interior, where several peaks reach over 8,000 feet, a mountainous backbone--the Taeback Mountains--extends southward along the east coast. The range has many spurs to the west and south. The longest spur--the Sobaek Mountains--extends to the southwestern corner of the peninsula.
\par \tab There are no active volcanoes in Korea today, nor are there any earthquakes. But volcanic activity in past geologic times helped shape the rugged Korean landscape. Korea's highest point is Mount Paektu (9,003 feet), an extinct volcano on the North Korea-China border. The highest point in South Korea is Mount Halla (6,398 feet), on Cheju (Quelpart Island).
\par \tab Many short, swift, and shallow rivers flow from the mountains to the coast. Most of them drain to the south and west, into the Yellow Sea and the Korea Strait. Korea's two longest rivers--the Yalu and the Tumen--are along the boundary with China and Russia. The Yalu flows west for 491 miles into the Yellow Sea. The Tumen flows east for 324 miles into the Sea of Japan. Other important rivers are the Taedong, which flows through the North Korean capital of Pyongyang; the Han, which flows through the South Korean capital of Seoul; and the Naktong, in southeastern Korea. The lower courses of the larger rivers are navigable by small boats. Some rivers have been dammed to generate hydroelectric power. Korea has no large lakes.
\par \tab Most of Korea's plains are small and nestled among mountains or between mountains and the sea. Except for the plain around Wonsan, the plains along the east coast are especially narrow. Most of the plains in the southeast are clustered around the Naktong River and its tributaries. The most extensive lowlands are along the west coast, but even these are broken into pockets by hills and mountains. The southeastern and western lowlands constitute most of Korea's productive cropland and its major urban centers and support the bulk of the Korean population. Many of the significant historical developments in Korea have taken place on these plains.
\par \tab The Korean peninsula has a long, varied coastline. The east coast is relatively straight and rocky, with a tidal range of only 1 or 2 feet. The west coast is low and deeply indented and has long stretches of mud flats. It has a tidal range of more than 17 feet. Major ports are Pusan and Masan on the south coast; Inchon and Nampo, on the west coast; and Ulsan, Unggi, and Wonsan on the east coast.
\par \tab The south and west coasts are fringed with more than 3,300 islands, of which about 200 are inhabited. The largest islands of Korea are Cheju, Koje, Kanghwa, Chin, and Namhae, off the south and west coasts, and Ullung, in the Sea of Japan.
\par {\b Climate}
\par \tab Most of Korea has a humid, continental climate marked by sharp seasonal changes. In winter, cold, dry air from the Asian interior--warmed somewhat as it crosses the Yellow Sea--moves across Korea. In summer, air flows across Korea from the opposite direction. Regional variation in climate is greatest during the winter and slight during the summer. In general, however, the south is warmer than the north and the coasts are warmer than the mountainous interior. The Korean peninsula juts far enough south to reach the warm waters of the Kuroshio, or Japan Current. Korea's southern coast has a humid, subtropical climate. The length of the frost-free period ranges from about 130 days in the northern interior to 220 days in the extreme south. Cool weather begins in October and November, when winds start to come from the north and northwest. A long winter follows. Winter in the northern interior is bitterly cold. From November to April the average monthly temperature there is below 32░ F and subzero readings are common. Temperatures in the south for the same period are considerably higher. The cold weather is relieved by numerous warm spells. January is Korea's coldest month.
\par \tab Spring arrives in April and is noted for its pleasant, sunny weather. Summer comes in June. By July it is hot and humid everywhere in Korea except the higher mountains and the northeast coast. Daytime temperatures commonly reach the high 80s and low 90s. In September, humidity decreases and clear, cloudless days become more frequent. The first cold spells come at night in October, but the October days remain sunny, dry, and warm.
\par \tab Annual precipitation ranges from less than 25 inches in parts of the mountainous north to more than 55 inches along the south and east coasts and on Cheju. Most falls as rain, which is heaviest from April to September. The remainder of the year is relatively dry. Summer downpours often cause flooding. In late summer and early autumn, torrential rains accompany the typhoons that strike the peninsula from the south and east. Winter snows accumulate to a depth of several feet in the northern mountains, but snow that falls in the south soon melts.
\par {\b Plant and Animal Life}
\par \tab Korea's plants and animals are transitional between those of Manchuria and Siberia and those of the Japanese islands. The original vegetation of the Korean peninsula was notable for its many varieties of trees, shrubs, and flowering plants. But the rich forests that once covered most of Korea have been largely removed from the plains and adjacent mountain slopes. Some species were merely thinned out, but broad areas were cut too often to allow new trees to mature, and artificial plantings favored a few fast-growing species. Both North Korea and South Korea have undertaken reforestation. Fir, spruce, larch, and pine forests prevail in the northern mountains. Central and southern Korea have mixed forests of oak, pine, elm, beech, and poplar. The natural vegetation of the south coast is broadleaf evergreen forest and bamboo.
\par \tab Early in the 20th century, Korea still had a rich variety of wild animals, including sables, marten, foxes, beaver, otter, deer, antelope, goats, tigers, and leopards. Most of these wild animal species have either disappeared completely or are found only in small numbers in remote northern mountain areas. They were killed for their fur or their forest habitat was destroyed. Pheasants and rabbits are now the most common wildlife. There are also many smaller mammals and birds, as well as reptiles and fish.
{\b History}
\par {\b Early History and the Three Kingdoms}
\par \tab Archaeological evidence indicates that men lived in southwestern Korea well before 10,000 BC. Later, Korea was inhabited by at least two distinct groups of people who migrated from the north. One group consisted of fishermen and shellfish gatherers, who settled along the rivers and the seacoast about the third millennium BC. They produced an earthenware which is known as "comb ceramic" from the linear decoration on its surface. The second group entered the Korean peninsula around the 7th century BC. It was made up of hunters and gatherers who produced mumun (undecorated pottery). They developed a primitive agriculture and may have built the great stone-slab tombs, or dolmens, found throughout Korea. Wet-field rice agriculture and the use of metal appear to have been introduced from China by 300 BC.
\par \tab By the 2nd century BC the state of Choson had developed in northwestern Korea, with its capital at the present city of Pyongyang. In 108 BC, Choson and the northern part of the peninsula fell to the armies of the Chinese Han Dynasty. Four Chinese commanderies were established; the great walled city of Lo-lang was built; and the Chinese civilization began to penetrate the Korean peninsula. Native resistance soon compelled the Chinese to abandon three of the commanderies.
\par \tab Confederations of the many Korean tribes led to the rise in the 1st century BC of the Three Kingdoms--Koguryo, in the Yalu River basin in the north; Paekche, in the Han River basin in the west; and Silla, in the southeast. In the following centuries Buddhism was introduced into the Korean peninsula from China. It was adopted by Koguryo in 372, by Paekche in 384, and by Silla in 528. Buddhism was accompanied by T'ang Dynasty art and the study of Chinese characters, which remained the basic written language of Korea until the 20th century.
\par \tab The Korean states battled for primacy. After centuries of warfare, the combined forces of Silla and T'ang China defeated Paekche in 660 and Koguryo in 668. The greater part of Korea was now unified under Silla, and a period of peace and strong Chinese influence followed. A great cultural and technical flowering centered at the capital of Silla (the present Kyongju). Astronomy, medicine, metal casting, sculpture, and textile manufacture reached especially high levels. Hundreds of Buddhist temples were built. A brisk maritime trade was conducted with China.
\par {\b The Koryo and Yi Dynasties}
\par \tab In the 9th century, the ruling clans of Silla lost control over warlords in the outlying provinces. After a century of fighting, the peninsula was reunified under the state of Koryo (935-1392), from which the modern Western name of Korea is derived. During the Koryo period, hundreds of Buddhist monasteries were built in the mountains around the Koryo capital of Kaesong. Maritime trade with Sung Dynasty China fostered a new flowering of culture. The Korean authorities modeled their methods of government on the example of China, including a system of civil service examinations.
\par \tab In the 11th century, Korea was invaded by the Ch'itan people of Manchuria. During the 12th century, it was ruled by military overlords. The Mongols launched the first of a series of invasions against Korea in 1231. To gain divine assistance in removing the invaders, the Koreans carved more than 81,000 wood blocks for the printing of the entire Buddhist canon, the Tripitaka; this took 16 years. In 1270 Korea made peace with the Mongols and became a partner in Mongol campaigns of conquest, including two disastrous attempts to invade Japan in 1274 and 1281. By 1368 the Koreans had ousted the Mongols, who had suffered defeats in China that drove them back to their homeland. In 1392 a Korean general, Yi Songgye, seized the throne as the ruler of the new Yi Dynasty.
\par \tab Under the Yi Dynasty, landowners formed a ruling elite called the yangban. They were firmly anti-Buddhist, and the withdrawal of their patronage from the Buddhist establishment led to the decline of Buddhism in Korea. The social attitudes of the yangban were expressed in Confucian terms. In their view relationships of superiority and inferiority existed between ruler and subject, father and son, husband and wife, elder and younger brother, and among friends. The Yi class system was rigidly hierarchical and hereditary, from the royal caste down to the peasants and slaves. There was little social mobility.
\par \tab Comparative peace and increasing international trade fostered a period of intellectual achievement. Under the direction of King Sejong, the fourth ruler of the Yi Dynasty, an alphabet called hangul, or "script of the Korean people," was completed in 1446. Although hundreds of years passed before it was widely used, the alphabet made it possible for any Korean to read his language. Literacy and knowledge were no longer the monopoly of the yangban.
\par \tab From 1592 to 1598 Korea was devastated by two invasions under the Japanese military ruler Hideyoshi Toyotomi. Aided by the armies of Ming Dynasty China and the brilliant tactics of a native naval genius, Yi Sunsin, the Koreans drove the Japanese out. Yi Sunsin invented the ironclad Korean "turtle ship" early in 1592. From 1627 to 1637 Korea was invaded by the Manchus, who founded the Ch'ing Empire in China. Korea remained tributary to this empire until the late 19th century. The strict political, social, and economic controls imposed by the Yi authorities were thoroughly disrupted by the wars. The destruction of land, tax, and slave registers enabled many Koreans to escape the bonds of caste and class.
\par \tab In the first half of the 17th century a number of Dutchmen visited Korea. Several of them fought with the Koreans against the Manchu invaders. They were among the first Westerners in Korea, though knowledge of Europe had been brought back earlier by Korean embassies to Peking.
\par \tab In the first half of the 19th century, Jesuit priests entered Korea from China and Western ships began to appear off the Korean coast. A few of the ships requested trading privileges for their nations, which the Koreans refused to grant. Korean shore batteries at times exchanged fire with ships entering Korean bays or rivers. In 1876, negotiations resulting from a Korean attack on a Japanese naval vessel led to the signing of the Treaty of Kanghwa, which opened three Korean ports to Japan. The Korean authorities attempted to dilute Japanese influence by also signing treaties with Western nations. The first of these was a treaty of friendship with the United States, signed in 1882.
\par {\b Japanese Occupation}
\par \tab From 1876 to 1910 power struggles between the pro-Chinese conservative ruling Min family and rival factions, which wanted to modernize Korea along Japanese or Russian lines, ensued. Meanwhile, the antiforeign Tonghak movement, which advocated "Eastern Learning" as opposed to Sohak, or "Western Learning," was developing in the countryside. In 1894, antiforeign sentiment, coupled with peasant demands for political and social reforms, culminated in the Tonghak Rebellion. Both Japan and China sent armies to help quell the rebellion. Their rival interests led to the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-95. The victory of Japan ended China's influence over Korea. Japanese-backed administrations unsuccessfully attempted to institute reforms in 1894. Rivalry between imperial Japan and czarist Russia over dominance in the Korean peninsula led to the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-5. The victorious Japanese formally annexed Korea as a Japanese colony in 1910, ending the Yi Dynasty.
\par \tab The Japanese helped modernize the Korean economy, but during their occupation many Korean government workers, farmers, and businessmen lost their positions to Japanese immigrants. The Japanese Shinto religion was taught in Korean schools, while the Korean language was forbidden.
\par \tab In 1919 the Koreans staged a passive resistance campaign known as the Samil (March First) Independence Movement. Thousands of people were killed or imprisoned by the Japanese. A Korean provisional government-in-exile was formed in Shanghai, China, with Syngman Rhee as president.
\par {\b Recent Times}
\par \tab Korea was liberated in 1945 after Japan's defeat in World War II. Under a wartime agreement, Soviet troops occupied the area north of the 38th parallel and United States troops occupied the area south of that line. For the next three years there were fruitless negotiations to reunify Korea. The United Nations proposed nationwide elections. Although the north refused, elections were held in the south. As a result, the Republic of Korea was established in the south in August 1948, and Rhee was elected president by its new National Assembly. In September the Democratic People's Republic of Korea was established in the north, with Kim Il Sung, a Communist, as its premier. Kim had gained prominence in the 1930s as a leader of a group of anti-Japanese Korean guerrillas that was based in Manchuria.
\par \tab By 1950 all United States and Soviet troops had been withdrawn from Korea. But in June the Soviet-equipped North Korean army invaded South Korea, beginning the Korean War. The United Nations voted to aid South Korea, but most of the troops sent to fight the North Koreans were furnished by the United States. At the end of 1950 Communist China entered the war in support of North Korea. In 1953 a truce was signed, with the truce line at approximately the prewar border.
\par \tab The war crippled industrial and agricultural production. In the north a recovery program was begun in 1953, with aid from the Soviet Union and Communist China. In the south the government was left weak and unstable. In 1960 Rhee was ousted.
\par \tab A military junta seized control of South Korea in 1961. General Park Chung Hee, a junta leader, was elected president in 1963. The country's rapid economic growth led to Park's reelection in 1967 and again in 1971. In 1972 he declared martial law, banned all political activity, and dissolved the National Assembly. The Yushin Constitution, giving Park almost unlimited powers, was adopted; he was reelected in 1972 and 1978. North Korea also revised its constitution in 1972. Premier Kim was named to the new post of president.
\par \tab On Oct. 26, 1979, Park was assassinated. The caretaker president, Choi Kyu Hah, restored the civil rights of dissidents, but a return to democratic rule depended on constitutional reform. In 1980 Chun Doo Hwan, a former lieutenant general, was elected president. A new constitution, reducing presidential powers, was approved by voters in 1981. During 198687 tens of thousands of people in several cities held violent protests against the constitution and its electoral-college system of selecting a president. An amended constitution, approved in a national referendum on Oct. 27, 1987, provided for direct popular election of the president. On December 16 Roh Tae Woo won an election that was marked by violence and charges of vote fraud. In 1988, for the first time, the ruling Democratic Justice party lost its majority in the National Assembly. In January 1990 Roh gained an overwhelming majority by merging two opposition parties into his own ruling party to form the Democratic Liberal party.
\par \tab Reunification meetings, which began in 1972 between North and South Korea, remained largely deadlocked for years, mostly because of hostile reactions by each to the other's policies. In 1988, however, Roh called for political dialogue, trade relations, and sports, cultural, and humanitarian exchanges between the North and South. In 1990 and 1991 meetings the prime ministers of the two countries met for talks with the potential to push the two sides toward reconciliation. The United Nations approved membership applications for both North and South Korea in 1991. The Soviet Union had vetoed South Korea's five previous applications, supporting North Korea's argument that separate admission would perpetuate the division of the Korean Peninsula.
\par \tab Reunification talks stalled in 1991 over the issue of North Korea's nuclear program. The issue reached a crisis stage in 1994 when the north refused to allow inspection of its nuclear facilities to determine if they were producing plutonium for nuclear weapons. An agreement was later reached, and North Korea agreed to abide by the Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty.
\par \tab In 1993 South Korea elected its first president in more than 30 years with no military ties, Kim Young Sam. North Korea mourned the death of Kim Il Sung on July 8, 1994. His designated successor was his son Kim Jong Il.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab The following contributors and consultants assisted in the preparation of this article: Byong-uk Chung, Professor of Korean Literature, Seoul National University; Earle Ernst, Emeritus Senior Professor, Department of Drama and Theatre, University of Hawaii; John D. Eyre, Professor of Geography, University of North Carolina; Pyong-choon Hahm, Professor of Law, Yonsei University; William E. Henthorn, Professor, Department of Oriental Studies, Princeton University; Jun-yop Kim, Professor of History and Director, Asiatic Research Center, Korea University; Kyung-sung Kim, late Professor of Geography, Seoul National University; Kwang-rin Lee, Professor of History, Sogang University; John Roderick, Foreign Correspondent; Jack Sewell, Curator of Oriental Art, The Art Institute of Chicago; Suk-kee Yoh, Professor of English Literature, Korea University.
\par \tab {\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR KOREA}
\par \tab Covell, J.C. Korea's Cultural Roots (Hollym International, 1984).
\par \tab Crowther, Geoff, and Pun, Choe Hyung. Korea (Lonely Planet, 1990).
\par \tab Farley, Carol. Korea (Dillon, 1991).
\par \tab Lee, Ki-waik. A New History of Korea (Harvard Univ. Press, 1984).
\par \tab Moffett, Eileen. Korean Ways (Tuttle, 1986).
\par \tab Rucci, R.B. Living in Korea (Seoul International Publishing House, 1987).
\par \tab Simons, Geoff. Korea: The Search for Sovereignty (St. Martin, 1995).
\par \tab Solberg. S.E. The Land and People of Korea (HarperCollins, 1991).
\par \tab Whan, Kihl Young, ed. Korea and the World: Beyond the Cold War (Westview, 1994).\par \tab On a mountainous peninsula jutting southward from the eastern Asian mainland is Korea, the historic land bridge and buffer between China and Japan. Today Korea is a land divided into a Communist north and a non-Communist south. It is torn by rival political and economic systems and by bitterness stemming from the Korean War. However, the people of both North Korea and South Korea are still united by a common cultural heritage and continue to regard themselves as a single nation.
\par \tab The two halves of Korea have been rebuilt from the devastation of the Korean War. But they still suffer from huge military expenditures, dependence on foreign aid, and economies unbalanced by the partition of Korea after World War II. In addition new difficulties are being created by the growing conflicts between their traditional and modern ways of life.
\par \tab Most of Korea lies on the Korean peninsula, between the Sea of Japan on the east and the Yellow Sea on the west. South Korea occupies the southern part of the peninsula, while North Korea spreads north and northeast beyond the peninsula's base. Between them is the demilitarized zone, which was set up by the truce ending the Korean War in 1953. It runs from about 40 miles north of the 38th parallel on the east to about 20 miles south on the west. Korea extends some 635 miles from northeast to southwest. The Korean Peninsula is about 150 miles wide at its widest point.
\par \tab South Korea's only land border, on the north, is with North Korea. North Korea is bounded by South Korea on the south and by China on the northwest. North Korea also touches Russia in the extreme northeast. The main islands of Japan lie 120 miles southeast of the South Korean coast across the Korea Strait.
\par \tab Korea is about the size of Utah. Its total area is 85,288 square miles--47,077 in the north, 38,211 in the south. Korea's total population is more than 65 million--more than 43 million in the south, and almost 22 million in the north. South Korea is one of the world's most densely populated countries. Its capital, Seoul, is the largest city in North and South Korea. Pyongyang is the largest city and the capital of North Korea.
{\b People}
\par \tab The Koreans are a culturally and racially homogeneous people. They have a common language and, like the Chinese and the Japanese, they are of Mongoloid descent. Korea's population from the 17th to the late 19th century has been estimated at between 7 and 10 million. The first modern census, taken in 1925, recorded 19,020,000 inhabitants.
\par \tab By the 1975 census, South Korea alone had a population of 34,678,972, and the 1989 population estimate totaled 42,380,000. The 1989 population estimate for North Korea was 22,418,000.
\par \tab Both South Korea and North Korea have high annual birthrates--about 24 per 1,000 population. Their death rates are about six per 1,000. The rate of population growth in Korea is about 2 percent per year. Medical advances have raised the average life expectancy of Koreans to about 69 years. But the population of Korea is young. About half its people are under 20.
\par \tab Korea's population is heavily concentrated on the coastal plains, particularly along the west coast of South Korea. South Korea is one of the most densely populated nations in the world, averaging more than 1,000 persons per square mile. North Korea's population density averages more than 470 persons per square mile.
\par \tab Until recently the Koreans were a mainly rural people. In 1925, less than 5 percent of the population lived in cities. By 1975, however, more than half of all South Koreans and probably almost as high a proportion of North Koreans were city dwellers. Seoul, Korea's largest city and South Korea's capital, has about 10,513,000 inhabitants; Pusan, also in South Korea, is second, with about 3,754,000; and Pyongyang, the largest city and the capital of North Korea, has about 1,283,000.
\par {\b EVERYDAY LIFE}
\par \tab Under the influence of the West, the everyday life of the Korean people has been gradually changing. The Japanese occupation, the post-World War II partition, and the Korean War--all of these helped to spur this change and to deepen the differences between the old rural traditions and a newly developing urban way of life.
\par {\b The Family}
\par \tab Historically, Korean families were formed into clans that shared the same family name. As a result, only a few hundred major surnames are used today. Kim, the most common, is the surname of about one fifth of all Korean families. In Korea, family names are customarily placed first and women do not change their names when they marry.
\par \tab The Korean family has been traditionally dominated by the husband. The wife has had only a secondary influence in family affairs, though her status improved after she bore one or more sons.
\par \tab A first son is especially welcomed because his arrival ensures the continuity of the family line. On its first birthday, a baby usually has a big party at which he or she is formally introduced to the family and their friends. As children grow up, they are taught to behave properly and to respect and obey their elders.
\par \tab In the past, marriages were arranged by parents or by go-betweens called chungmae. Today, however, young people--particularly those living in cities--more often choose their own mates. Men usually marry at about the age of 21; women, at about 18. City dwellers tend to marry at a somewhat later age.
\par \tab One of the most important milestones in a Korean man's life is his hangab (60th birthday). This date symbolizes the completion of a full life cycle and is marked by a big anniversary party.
\par {\b Housing, Food, and Clothing}
\par \tab Traditional rural houses in Korea were one-story structures, with mud-plastered wood walls and a thatched roof of rice straw. There were usually three rooms--a kitchen with a dirt floor, a bedroom, and a living room--arranged in an L or U shape. Flues under the floor carried hot smoke from a wood or coal stove in the kitchen to a chimney at the opposite end of the house. This provided a system of radiant heating called ondol. The living room usually had a board floor. Koreans removed their shoes before entering it from the kitchen or the outdoors. They sat on mats and slept on quilts spread out on the floor. Traditional city houses were similar, although slate or tile was used for roofs.
\par \tab Houses today are commonly built of concrete, but radiant heating is still often used. City houses generally have modern conveniences, such as electricity and indoor plumbing. The construction of large housing projects--including Western-style apartment buildings--has helped ease the housing shortage caused by the destruction of the Korean War and by the rapid growth of the urban population.
\par \tab Rice, the staple food of the Korean diet, is eaten at most meals. Millet, wheat, barley, corn, and sorghum are also eaten, especially in the north. The vegetables Koreans eat include potatoes, Chinese cabbage, turnips, and onions. Garlic and red peppers are used as seasoners. Kimchi (pickled vegetables) is a favorite dish. Fish and other seafoods are the usual sources of proteins. Eggs have also become popular. Milk is now drunk by youths, especially in the cities, a practice unheard of a generation ago. Ttog, or rice cake, is a popular confection.
\par \tab Traditional clothing, made of cotton or synthetic materials, is worn only by some people in the rural areas and by others on special occasions. Loose-fitting, long-sleeved jackets and oversized trousers that are tied at the waist and bound or left loose at the ankles are traditional garments for men. Nearly all men in the cities and most of the farmers have adopted Western-style shirts, trousers, and suits. Western-style shoes have largely replaced the traditional sandals, which were made of various materials.
\par \tab The traditional dress of Korean women includes the chima, a long, high-waisted, pleated skirt worn over a slip or loose trousers called paji. The chogori, a short, flared blouse, is worn open in front over a tight-fitting undergarment. In the cities today, nearly all Korean women wear Western-style clothing.
\par {\b Education, Recreation, and Welfare}
\par \tab In South Korea, elementary education is compulsory for children 6 to 11 years of age. Secondary education is provided in middle schools for 12- to 14-year-olds and in academic and vocational high schools for 15- to 18-year-olds.
\par \tab Higher education is offered in two- and four-year colleges and universities. Seoul National University is South Korea's largest institution of higher education. Among its better-known private universities are Yonsei University, Ewha Women's University, and Korea University, all in Seoul.
\par \tab In North Korea, 4- and 5-year-olds attend preschools, while 5- and 6-year-olds attend kindergartens. Education in primary schools is compulsory for 7- to 10-year-olds, and 11- to 15-year-olds are required to attend middle schools that provide general and technical courses. Graduates may go on to a vocational school, a higher technical school, or a college-preparatory high school. There are 11-year postkindergarten programs for specialization in music, ballet, drama, the arts, or foreign languages. Kim Il Sung University, in Pyongyang, is the principal institution of higher education.
\par \tab For recreation and relaxation, Koreans enjoy weddings, family gatherings, picnics, and sight-seeing. The Lunar New Year, in late January or early February, and the Harvest Moon Festival, in late September, are widely celebrated traditional holidays. Folk dancing and zither playing are very popular. Movies are well attended. Hiking, swimming, and Western sports--soccer, baseball, basketball, track, and boxing, for example--have large followings.
\par \tab Among the social services provided by the South Korean government are day nurseries and old-age, maternity, and children's homes. The number of public health services, hospitals, and clinics staffed by trained medical personnel has been increasing. In some rural areas, however, midwives and herb doctors still provide the only available medical assistance. North Korea is a welfare state. Government and industrial workers are entitled to free medical care, and factories have kindergartens and nurseries for the children of working mothers.
\par {\b Religion}
\par \tab Most Koreans do not belong to an organized religion. The Confucian ethical system, however, has greatly influenced Korean culture. Buddhism, introduced from China in the 4th century, has a following of about 13 million persons in South Korea. Confucianists number about 4.7 million. There are about 6 million Christians, mostly Protestants. Chondogyo, a native Korean religion known originally as Tonghak (Eastern Learning), had about 815,000 adherents in the late 1970s. It was founded in the mid-19th century in opposition to foreign cultural influences. Shamanism, the superstitious worship of spirits, is widespread in rural areas. Religion is discouraged by the North Korean government.
{\b Government}
\par {\b South Korea}
\par \tab The Republic of Korea, or South Korea, was established in 1948 as a democratic republic. Its constitution of 1987 provides for three separate and independent branches of government--the executive, the legislative, and the judicial--and an elaborate system of checks and balances. The executive branch of the government is headed by the president of the republic, who is chief of state, chief administrator, and commander in chief of the armed forces. He is elected by direct popular vote for one five-year term. There is no vice-president.
\par \tab The State Council, which serves as a presidential cabinet, is composed of the president, the prime minister, the deputy prime minister, and the heads of the ministries. The prime minister is appointed by the president and directs the State Council. The president appoints the heads of the ministries upon recommendation of the prime minister. The one-house National Assembly is responsible for lawmaking, approving the national budget, and ratifying treaties. Two thirds of the seats are filled by popular vote, and the remaining are apportioned among the political parties according to their share of the popular vote. Assembly members hold office for four-year terms.
\par \tab The Supreme Court has a maximum of 13 justices, including the chief justice, who is appointed for a single six-year term by the president. The other justices are appointed by the president on the chief justice's recommendation and serve renewable six-year terms. All justices must be approved by the National Assembly. The Supreme Court is the court of last resort and determines constitutionality of administrative decrees. Constitutionality of laws enacted by the National Assembly is determined by the Constitution Court, a state agency.
\par \tab The lower courts of the Republic of Korea consist of the district courts, family courts, and appellate courts. The district courts have primary jurisdiction over civil and criminal cases. The family courts also try cases for the first time, but they deal only with such matters as domestic relations and juvenile delinquency. The appellate courts hear appeals from the district and family courts. Military courts try members of the armed forces and may also try civilians accused of such military crimes as espionage.
\par \tab The major opposing political parties in South Korea in the 1990s were the Democratic Liberal party (DLP) and the Party for Peace and Democracy. The DLP was formed in 1990 from a merger of the ruling Democratic Justice party (DJP) with two smaller conservative parties and was thought to be part of a movement toward a parliamentary system of government.
\par \tab The electoral system in South Korea is based on direct, equal, and secret suffrage. All citizens over the age of 20 have the right to vote. About 80 percent of the registered voters cast ballots in presidential elections. In addition to the ballot, South Koreans often use other forms of political expression, such as organized protest demonstrations. The press is also an important voice of South Korean political opinion.
\par {\b North Korea}
\par \tab North Korea, or the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, has a Communist government. According to the North Korean constitution, the country's highest legislative body is the Supreme People's Assembly. It is made up of representatives who are supposed to be elected every four years. A permanent presidium is empowered to act on behalf of the assembly when it is not in session.
\par \tab The Administration Council, or cabinet, which is legally accountable to the assembly, acts as the government's executive branch. It includes the premier and several vice-premiers. Since 1972 the secretary-general of the Workers' (Communist) party has been the president of North Korea and its head of state. There are three vice-presidents.
\par \tab North Korea's judicial structure functions on three levels, with the Supreme Court at the top, the provincial courts at the intermediate level, and people's courts in the cities, counties, and districts at the base. Closely linked to the courts is the Procuracy, or law-enforcement agency. The Procuracy is headed by a procurator-general with broad powers. He participates in sessions of the Supreme Court and has the authority to issue directives on judicial procedure to the lower courts.
\par \tab The Workers' party has almost complete control over the government of North Korea. As a result, the government functions differently from what the nation's constitution prescribes. Elections for the Supreme People's Assembly are held irregularly, and the cabinet has assumed absolute power.
\par \tab There are no opposition parties of any influence in North Korea. All of the country's major political decisions are made within the Korean Workers' party.
\par \tab In recent years the Korean Workers' party has begun to educate a new corps of industrial managers and technicians and to incorporate them into the party structure. As a result of these efforts more North Koreans have been participating in the affairs of the Korean Workers' party, and North Korea's one-party government has to that extent become somewhat more representative. However, most of the North Korean people still have little voice in their government.
{\b Economy}
\par \tab Korea's traditional economy was agricultural. Not until the late 1800s did industry begin to develop. Under Japanese rule, Korea became a source of Japan's raw materials and a market for its products. Modern transportation, communications, and electric power facilities were built, but on the whole Japanese rule stunted Korea's economic development.
\par \tab The partition of Korea after World War II further dislocated its economy. Most of the factories and electric power plants, the bulk of the mineral deposits, and the largest forests were in North Korea. The best ports, most of the railway mileage, most of the good farmland, and more than two thirds of the people were in South Korea.
\par \tab South Korea and North Korea have taken different paths of economic development since the partition. The South Korean government provides central guidelines for economic development and some financing for industry. But it encourages private enterprise and capital investment by foreign companies. South Korea's economy has been financed in part by aid and loans from the United States. The Communist regime of North Korea controls all the means of production and has a highly centralized economy. It stresses the development of heavy industry. North Korea has received much economic aid from China and other Communist nations.
\par {\b The Economy of South Korea}
\par \tab Agriculture is the economic mainstay of South Korea. About two fifths of the people work in agriculture, forestry, and fishing. The average farm household has less than 2 1/2 acres of land, usually on several scattered plots. Some farming is now done with modern machines. The generally low yields have been rising with the increased use of fertilizer. The mild winters permit double-cropping on most lowland fields. In irrigated areas, rice is generally grown in the summer; other grains, in the winter.
\par \tab Rice is by far the major crop--in tonnage, acreage, and value. Other leading crops include sweet potatoes, barley, soybeans, wheat, corn, millet, cotton, mulberry leaves, fruits, and vegetables. Pigs and chickens are the principal livestock.
\par \tab The government has sought to raise agricultural output by increasing fertilizer production and reclaiming farmland from west coast tidal flats. A program to increase the number of farm owners has made progress.
\par \tab The fishing industry is an important source of food for South Korea. The catch is sufficient to meet domestic demand and to allow some exports. Pusan is the largest fishing port.
\par \tab South Korea's forests were badly overcut during and after World War II. There has been some reforestation, but the fast-rising demand for lumber must be met through imports. Because of the government's forest preservation policies, coal has mostly replaced wood as the fuel used in homes.
\par \tab Most of South Korea's electric power is generated by coal- and oil-fired thermal plants in the coastal cities. Some comes from hydroelectric plants in the northeastern mountains. South Korea's petroleum refineries use imported crude oil. The nation's first major refinery was built at Ulsan in 1964. The chief mineral product of South Korea is anthracite coal. The nation is a leading producer of tungsten and graphite. Other commercially important minerals are iron ore, limestone, fluorite, gold, silver, and kaolin. Before partition, South Korea had little manufacturing industry. Its few plants produced textiles, machinery, and foodstuffs. Since partition, emphasis has been placed on the development of heavy industry. The new stress on heavy industry has greatly boosted the output of cement, fertilizer, petrochemicals, ships, and automobiles. However, the textile industry is still one of the largest. It now uses not only cotton but also nylon, rayon, and other synthetic fibers.
\par \tab In addition to textiles, South Korea's light industries produce foodstuffs, plastics, plywood, plate glass, porcelain, cutlery, tires, wigs, cosmetics, sewing machines, toys, and leather goods. Artisans in small shops still engage in traditional handicrafts. South Korea's industry is heavily concentrated in the Seoul-Inchon area and at Pusan and Ulsan. An integrated steel mill has been built at Pohang.
\par \tab A modern transportation network is being built in South Korea. Main railroad lines have been electrified; new lines have been built to the northeast; and old rolling stock has been replaced. Modern expressways, beginning with one between Seoul and Inchon (1968) and one between Seoul and Pusan (1970), have been built. Trucks carry more than one half of the country's domestic freight traffic. South Korea's principal seaports are at Pusan, Ulsan, and Inchon. Modern air service links the major cities with each other and with the rest of the world. The nation has modern telephone, telegraph, and postal services as well as many newspapers and radio and television stations.
\par \tab South Korea's foreign trade grew substantially in the 1970s. Manufactured goods, especially clothing and textiles, make up two thirds of the value of its exports. Other leading exports are wood veneers, foods, and raw materials. The chief imports are machinery, transportation equipment, petroleum, textiles, foods, chemicals, and wood. The United States and Japan are South Korea's main trading partners.
\par \tab The South Korean government owns and operates the major transportation services, communications facilities, and electric power plants. Private companies dominate most other sectors of the economy.
\par {\b The Economy of North Korea}
\par \tab Agriculture is one of the weakest segments of North Korea's economy. Since the winters are long and cold, most of the farmland supports only a summer crop. Yields are low. Rice is well over a half of the total grain harvest. Other leading crops are corn, potatoes, millet, barley, soybeans, and wheat. More than 90 percent of the cultivated land is in state-controlled collective farms; the remainder in state-operated farms. Farm machinery is in only limited use. Crop production falls short of the nation's needs and is supplemented by imports, mainly wheat.
\par \tab Fish are an important part of North Korea's food supply. Cod, herring, sardines, salmon, swordfish, and crabs are leading marine products. The major fishing ports are Kimchaek (Songjin), Chongjin, and Nampo.
\par \tab Although North Korea's forests were depleted under Japanese rule, enough stands remain to support logging operations. Spruce, fir, larch, pine, and oak are the main commercial species.
\par \tab North Korea is a leading producer of tungsten, graphite, and magnesite. Other principal mineral products are coal, iron ore, limestone, nickel, zinc, copper, lead, titanium, fluorite, mica, and gold. Power is provided by hydroelectric plants on the Yalu River and its tributaries and by thermal plants.
\par \tab Manufacturing dominates North Korea's economy. Although the nation's industries were largely destroyed during the Korean War, they have since been rebuilt and expanded. Important products include iron and steel, nonferrous metals, machinery, machine tools, chemicals, cement, tractors, automobiles, railway rolling stock, and small ships. Consumer goods include textiles, foodstuffs, medicines, and plastics.
\par \tab Railways serve industrial areas of North Korea, but until the early 1970s the Pyongyang-Wonsan line was the only transpeninsular link. Other lines connect with Chinese and Russian railways. There are domestic air links and flights from Beijing and Moscow. The principal ports are Unggi, Najin, Wonsan, and Nampo. In the late 1980s North Korea's foreign trade was mainly with the Soviet Union, China, and Japan. Major imports are machinery, petroleum, coking coal, and wheat. Iron ore and processed metals are the major exports.
{\b Culture}
\par {\b The Korean Language}
\par \tab Korean is not closely related to any other modern language. Despite the longtime cultural influence of China upon Korea and the use of Chinese as the official written language of Korea until the late 19th century, Korean and Chinese belong to entirely different linguistic families. However, some experts believe that Korean may belong to the Ural-Altaic familyalong with Japanese, Mongolian, and Turkish.
\par \tab Spoken Korean is soft and lilting. There are no heavy nasal tones and no strong accents to emphasize words in sentences. Although half a dozen dialects are spoken in Korea, the differences among them are not very great. People from various sections of the nation can understand one another easily.
\par \tab Formal manuscripts did not appear in Korea until the 4th century AD, when educated Koreans wrote in Chinese. Later, systems were developed by which Korean words could be written in Chinese ideograms. The mastery of Chinese ideography was very difficult, however, and only scholars could read and write.
\par \tab Hangul, an alphabet suited to the Korean language, was developed at the direction of King Sejong and introduced in 1446. It was used by the common people, but educated Koreans continued to write in Chinese. Hangul did not come into general use until the end of the 19th century, when it became the official alphabet for all laws and decrees. After the Japanese assumed complete control of Korea in 1910, they discouraged and then abolished the use and teaching of Korean. With the liberation of Korea at the end of World War II, hangul was revived. Today Korean texts and parts of Korean newspapers are printed in hangul. Chinese ideography is still taught, but most writers use hangul.
\par {\b Korean Literature}
\par \tab The first Korean literature is thought to have been primitive poetry which, accompanied by music and dance, was used in prehistoric religious rites. The evolution of Korean poetry as an independent art form is believed to have begun in the 1st century AD. The brief Sijo probably developed late in the Koryo period and is still popular today. It was used as a vehicle for romantic and naturalistic themes.
\par \tab Under the Yi Dynasty, the novel gradually replaced poetry as the most popular literary form. The early Korean novelists sought primarily to edify their readers. The works of later novelists mocked the yangban (aristocracy).
\par \tab The late 17th and early 18th centuries are known as "the golden age of the classic novel" in Korea. The most popular novel of this era, 'Chunhyangjon' (The Story of Spring Fragrance), is about the love of an aristocrat's son for a lower-class girl. Many of the classic Korean novels had romantic themes.
\par \tab Growing Western influence in the last half of the 19th century inspired the "new novel." The "new novels" promoted such ideas as political democracy and social equality. The best known of these novels was 'The Tears of Blood' by Yi Injik.
\par \tab New writers in many branches of literature emerged. Such authors as Yi Kwangsu, Ch'oe Namson, Kim Tongin, and Kim Sowol assimilated Western literary trends and contributed to the development of modern Korean literary forms.
\par \tab During World War II, the progress of Korean literature was blocked by a Japanese ban on native culture. After the Korean War, however, new writers emerged who drew their inspiration from contemporary trends in world literature, and there was a surge of literary activity.
\par {\b The Fine Arts}
\par \tab Korea's artists have been strongly influenced by the cultures of neighboring nations. Nevertheless, they have always produced sculptures, paintings, and pottery that are peculiarly their own.
\par \tab Little early Korean sculpture has survived, though a few fine stone figures and relief carvings remain. The golden age of Korean sculpture reached its height in the late 7th century during the reign of the Silla Dynasty. Most of the sculpture of this period is of bronze, small in scale, and dedicated to Buddhist deities. Except for some tomb frescoes dating from the 4th through the 7th centuries, few examples of early Korean painting have survived. Painters of the last Yi Dynasty (1392-1910), however, left a rich legacy. Their paintings were executed on silk or paper scrolls and album leaves. They depicted towering landscapes, important personages, and scenes of daily life.
\par \tab The ceramics of Korea almost certainly represent the country's most significant artistic contribution. Functional as well as decorative, Korean ceramics have an unmistakable character. The utilitarian vessels of the Silla period are of sturdy dark-gray earthenware with modest, usually incised, decoration. The rich-green celadons of the Koryo period are adorned with brilliant brushed or inlaid designs that are admirably adapted to their forms. The heavier wares of the Yi Dynasty bear designs, usually on a white porcelaneous base, which seem swiftly executed, almost offhand, yet masterly.
\par \tab Early Korean architecture is exemplified by the tombs of Koguryo and the remains of great walled fortresses. From the late 7th century into the Koryo Dynasty many Buddhist temple complexes--actually small villages--were built. Although their general features were Chinese, they were adapted to local materials and landscape by their Korean builders. Under the Yi Dynasty the increasing popularity of Confucianism was mirrored in the construction of Confucian shrines. There was also an upsurge of nonreligious architecture, including imposing palaces, town gates, and watchtowers.
\par {\b The Performing Arts}
\par \tab Korea's performing arts were greatly influenced by those of China, whose dance, music, and instruments the Koreans adopted. Korea, in turn, played a major role in transmitting music and dance to Japan.
\par \tab Among the earliest extended performances in Korea were the danced mask plays that originated around the 9th century. Their purpose was to make crops grow, to ward off evil spirits and disease, to placate the spirits of the dead. By the end of the 14th century, various elements of these plays were combined in the "typical" mask play, the Sandae. Accompanied by drums, flutes, and the Korean harp, or kayageum, the Sandae satirized the nobility and corrupt priests. Korea's puppet plays may have originated at about the same time as the mask plays. The puppet plays were performed on a two-story stage. The puppets--one to three feet tall--were in the upper story; their manipulators were hidden below.
\par \tab A kind of musical drama was created by combining a narrative with folk tunes. The first permanent Korean theater for performances of this type was built in Seoul in 1902. This genre survives partially in the popular Pan-Sori (folk opera). Unlike other Asian countries, Korea failed to develop a classical theater from its popular theatrical forms. Folk dances and mask plays, once established, remained unchanged.
\par \tab During the 20th century the Korean performing arts were greatly influenced by the West, at first by way of Japan, where a type of play called shimpa developed about 1890. The shimpa plays were patterned on realistic Western drama. In later decades adaptations of shimpa plays became very popular in Korea. The Earth-Moon Society, formed by men who had studied theater in Tokyo, began presenting plays by Anton Chekhov, Henrik Ibsen, and George Bernard Shaw in 1923. Familiarity with the work of contemporary Western playwrights led, increasingly, to the writing of Korean plays that dealt with existing social conditions.
\par \tab Since 1945 much has been done to encourage the performing arts of Korea. A government-sponsored National Theater opened in April 1950. The Seoul Cultural Center for the performing arts and a new National Theater in Seoul were opened in the 1970s.
{\b Natural Features}
\par {\b Land}
\par \tab The Korean peninsula is dominated by mountains. From the northern interior, where several peaks reach over 8,000 feet, a mountainous backbone--the Taeback Mountains--extends southward along the east coast. The range has many spurs to the west and south. The longest spur--the Sobaek Mountains--extends to the southwestern corner of the peninsula.
\par \tab There are no active volcanoes in Korea today, nor are there any earthquakes. But volcanic activity in past geologic times helped shape the rugged Korean landscape. Korea's highest point is Mount Paektu (9,003 feet), an extinct volcano on the North Korea-China border. The highest point in South Korea is Mount Halla (6,398 feet), on Cheju (Quelpart Island).
\par \tab Many short, swift, and shallow rivers flow from the mountains to the coast. Most of them drain to the south and west, into the Yellow Sea and the Korea Strait. Korea's two longest rivers--the Yalu and the Tumen--are along the boundary with China and Russia. The Yalu flows west for 491 miles into the Yellow Sea. The Tumen flows east for 324 miles into the Sea of Japan. Other important rivers are the Taedong, which flows through the North Korean capital of Pyongyang; the Han, which flows through the South Korean capital of Seoul; and the Naktong, in southeastern Korea. The lower courses of the larger rivers are navigable by small boats. Some rivers have been dammed to generate hydroelectric power. Korea has no large lakes.
\par \tab Most of Korea's plains are small and nestled among mountains or between mountains and the sea. Except for the plain around Wonsan, the plains along the east coast are especially narrow. Most of the plains in the southeast are clustered around the Naktong River and its tributaries. The most extensive lowlands are along the west coast, but even these are broken into pockets by hills and mountains. The southeastern and western lowlands constitute most of Korea's productive cropland and its major urban centers and support the bulk of the Korean population. Many of the significant historical developments in Korea have taken place on these plains.
\par \tab The Korean peninsula has a long, varied coastline. The east coast is relatively straight and rocky, with a tidal range of only 1 or 2 feet. The west coast is low and deeply indented and has long stretches of mud flats. It has a tidal range of more than 17 feet. Major ports are Pusan and Masan on the south coast; Inchon and Nampo, on the west coast; and Ulsan, Unggi, and Wonsan on the east coast.
\par \tab The south and west coasts are fringed with more than 3,300 islands, of which about 200 are inhabited. The largest islands of Korea are Cheju, Koje, Kanghwa, Chin, and Namhae, off the south and west coasts, and Ullung, in the Sea of Japan.
\par {\b Climate}
\par \tab Most of Korea has a humid, continental climate marked by sharp seasonal changes. In winter, cold, dry air from the Asian interior--warmed somewhat as it crosses the Yellow Sea--moves across Korea. In summer, air flows across Korea from the opposite direction. Regional variation in climate is greatest during the winter and slight during the summer. In general, however, the south is warmer than the north and the coasts are warmer than the mountainous interior. The Korean peninsula juts far enough south to reach the warm waters of the Kuroshio, or Japan Current. Korea's southern coast has a humid, subtropical climate. The length of the frost-free period ranges from about 130 days in the northern interior to 220 days in the extreme south. Cool weather begins in October and November, when winds start to come from the north and northwest. A long winter follows. Winter in the northern interior is bitterly cold. From November to April the average monthly temperature there is below 32░ F and subzero readings are common. Temperatures in the south for the same period are considerably higher. The cold weather is relieved by numerous warm spells. January is Korea's coldest month.
\par \tab Spring arrives in April and is noted for its pleasant, sunny weather. Summer comes in June. By July it is hot and humid everywhere in Korea except the higher mountains and the northeast coast. Daytime temperatures commonly reach the high 80s and low 90s. In September, humidity decreases and clear, cloudless days become more frequent. The first cold spells come at night in October, but the October days remain sunny, dry, and warm.
\par \tab Annual precipitation ranges from less than 25 inches in parts of the mountainous north to more than 55 inches along the south and east coasts and on Cheju. Most falls as rain, which is heaviest from April to September. The remainder of the year is relatively dry. Summer downpours often cause flooding. In late summer and early autumn, torrential rains accompany the typhoons that strike the peninsula from the south and east. Winter snows accumulate to a depth of several feet in the northern mountains, but snow that falls in the south soon melts.
\par {\b Plant and Animal Life}
\par \tab Korea's plants and animals are transitional between those of Manchuria and Siberia and those of the Japanese islands. The original vegetation of the Korean peninsula was notable for its many varieties of trees, shrubs, and flowering plants. But the rich forests that once covered most of Korea have been largely removed from the plains and adjacent mountain slopes. Some species were merely thinned out, but broad areas were cut too often to allow new trees to mature, and artificial plantings favored a few fast-growing species. Both North Korea and South Korea have undertaken reforestation. Fir, spruce, larch, and pine forests prevail in the northern mountains. Central and southern Korea have mixed forests of oak, pine, elm, beech, and poplar. The natural vegetation of the south coast is broadleaf evergreen forest and bamboo.
\par \tab Early in the 20th century, Korea still had a rich variety of wild animals, including sables, marten, foxes, beaver, otter, deer, antelope, goats, tigers, and leopards. Most of these wild animal species have either disappeared completely or are found only in small numbers in remote northern mountain areas. They were killed for their fur or their forest habitat was destroyed. Pheasants and rabbits are now the most common wildlife. There are also many smaller mammals and birds, as well as reptiles and fish.
{\b History}
\par {\b Early History and the Three Kingdoms}
\par \tab Archaeological evidence indicates that men lived in southwestern Korea well before 10,000 BC. Later, Korea was inhabited by at least two distinct groups of people who migrated from the north. One group consisted of fishermen and shellfish gatherers, who settled along the rivers and the seacoast about the third millennium BC. They produced an earthenware which is known as "comb ceramic" from the linear decoration on its surface. The second group entered the Korean peninsula around the 7th century BC. It was made up of hunters and gatherers who produced mumun (undecorated pottery). They developed a primitive agriculture and may have built the great stone-slab tombs, or dolmens, found throughout Korea. Wet-field rice agriculture and the use of metal appear to have been introduced from China by 300 BC.
\par \tab By the 2nd century BC the state of Choson had developed in northwestern Korea, with its capital at the present city of Pyongyang. In 108 BC, Choson and the northern part of the peninsula fell to the armies of the Chinese Han Dynasty. Four Chinese commanderies were established; the great walled city of Lo-lang was built; and the Chinese civilization began to penetrate the Korean peninsula. Native resistance soon compelled the Chinese to abandon three of the commanderies.
\par \tab Confederations of the many Korean tribes led to the rise in the 1st century BC of the Three Kingdoms--Koguryo, in the Yalu River basin in the north; Paekche, in the Han River basin in the west; and Silla, in the southeast. In the following centuries Buddhism was introduced into the Korean peninsula from China. It was adopted by Koguryo in 372, by Paekche in 384, and by Silla in 528. Buddhism was accompanied by T'ang Dynasty art and the study of Chinese characters, which remained the basic written language of Korea until the 20th century.
\par \tab The Korean states battled for primacy. After centuries of warfare, the combined forces of Silla and T'ang China defeated Paekche in 660 and Koguryo in 668. The greater part of Korea was now unified under Silla, and a period of peace and strong Chinese influence followed. A great cultural and technical flowering centered at the capital of Silla (the present Kyongju). Astronomy, medicine, metal casting, sculpture, and textile manufacture reached especially high levels. Hundreds of Buddhist temples were built. A brisk maritime trade was conducted with China.
\par {\b The Koryo and Yi Dynasties}
\par \tab In the 9th century, the ruling clans of Silla lost control over warlords in the outlying provinces. After a century of fighting, the peninsula was reunified under the state of Koryo (935-1392), from which the modern Western name of Korea is derived. During the Koryo period, hundreds of Buddhist monasteries were built in the mountains around the Koryo capital of Kaesong. Maritime trade with Sung Dynasty China fostered a new flowering of culture. The Korean authorities modeled their methods of government on the example of China, including a system of civil service examinations.
\par \tab In the 11th century, Korea was invaded by the Ch'itan people of Manchuria. During the 12th century, it was ruled by military overlords. The Mongols launched the first of a series of invasions against Korea in 1231. To gain divine assistance in removing the invaders, the Koreans carved more than 81,000 wood blocks for the printing of the entire Buddhist canon, the Tripitaka; this took 16 years. In 1270 Korea made peace with the Mongols and became a partner in Mongol campaigns of conquest, including two disastrous attempts to invade Japan in 1274 and 1281. By 1368 the Koreans had ousted the Mongols, who had suffered defeats in China that drove them back to their homeland. In 1392 a Korean general, Yi Songgye, seized the throne as the ruler of the new Yi Dynasty.
\par \tab Under the Yi Dynasty, landowners formed a ruling elite called the yangban. They were firmly anti-Buddhist, and the withdrawal of their patronage from the Buddhist establishment led to the decline of Buddhism in Korea. The social attitudes of the yangban were expressed in Confucian terms. In their view relationships of superiority and inferiority existed between ruler and subject, father and son, husband and wife, elder and younger brother, and among friends. The Yi class system was rigidly hierarchical and hereditary, from the royal caste down to the peasants and slaves. There was little social mobility.
\par \tab Comparative peace and increasing international trade fostered a period of intellectual achievement. Under the direction of King Sejong, the fourth ruler of the Yi Dynasty, an alphabet called hangul, or "script of the Korean people," was completed in 1446. Although hundreds of years passed before it was widely used, the alphabet made it possible for any Korean to read his language. Literacy and knowledge were no longer the monopoly of the yangban.
\par \tab From 1592 to 1598 Korea was devastated by two invasions under the Japanese military ruler Hideyoshi Toyotomi. Aided by the armies of Ming Dynasty China and the brilliant tactics of a native naval genius, Yi Sunsin, the Koreans drove the Japanese out. Yi Sunsin invented the ironclad Korean "turtle ship" early in 1592. From 1627 to 1637 Korea was invaded by the Manchus, who founded the Ch'ing Empire in China. Korea remained tributary to this empire until the late 19th century. The strict political, social, and economic controls imposed by the Yi authorities were thoroughly disrupted by the wars. The destruction of land, tax, and slave registers enabled many Koreans to escape the bonds of caste and class.
\par \tab In the first half of the 17th century a number of Dutchmen visited Korea. Several of them fought with the Koreans against the Manchu invaders. They were among the first Westerners in Korea, though knowledge of Europe had been brought back earlier by Korean embassies to Peking.
\par \tab In the first half of the 19th century, Jesuit priests entered Korea from China and Western ships began to appear off the Korean coast. A few of the ships requested trading privileges for their nations, which the Koreans refused to grant. Korean shore batteries at times exchanged fire with ships entering Korean bays or rivers. In 1876, negotiations resulting from a Korean attack on a Japanese naval vessel led to the signing of the Treaty of Kanghwa, which opened three Korean ports to Japan. The Korean authorities attempted to dilute Japanese influence by also signing treaties with Western nations. The first of these was a treaty of friendship with the United States, signed in 1882.
\par {\b Japanese Occupation}
\par \tab From 1876 to 1910 power struggles between the pro-Chinese conservative ruling Min family and rival factions, which wanted to modernize Korea along Japanese or Russian lines, ensued. Meanwhile, the antiforeign Tonghak movement, which advocated "Eastern Learning" as opposed to Sohak, or "Western Learning," was developing in the countryside. In 1894, antiforeign sentiment, coupled with peasant demands for political and social reforms, culminated in the Tonghak Rebellion. Both Japan and China sent armies to help quell the rebellion. Their rival interests led to the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-95. The victory of Japan ended China's influence over Korea. Japanese-backed administrations unsuccessfully attempted to institute reforms in 1894. Rivalry between imperial Japan and czarist Russia over dominance in the Korean peninsula led to the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-5. The victorious Japanese formally annexed Korea as a Japanese colony in 1910, ending the Yi Dynasty.
\par \tab The Japanese helped modernize the Korean economy, but during their occupation many Korean government workers, farmers, and businessmen lost their positions to Japanese immigrants. The Japanese Shinto religion was taught in Korean schools, while the Korean language was forbidden.
\par \tab In 1919 the Koreans staged a passive resistance campaign known as the Samil (March First) Independence Movement. Thousands of people were killed or imprisoned by the Japanese. A Korean provisional government-in-exile was formed in Shanghai, China, with Syngman Rhee as president.
\par {\b Recent Times}
\par \tab Korea was liberated in 1945 after Japan's defeat in World War II. Under a wartime agreement, Soviet troops occupied the area north of the 38th parallel and United States troops occupied the area south of that line. For the next three years there were fruitless negotiations to reunify Korea. The United Nations proposed nationwide elections. Although the north refused, elections were held in the south. As a result, the Republic of Korea was established in the south in August 1948, and Rhee was elected president by its new National Assembly. In September the Democratic People's Republic of Korea was established in the north, with Kim Il Sung, a Communist, as its premier. Kim had gained prominence in the 1930s as a leader of a group of anti-Japanese Korean guerrillas that was based in Manchuria.
\par \tab By 1950 all United States and Soviet troops had been withdrawn from Korea. But in June the Soviet-equipped North Korean army invaded South Korea, beginning the Korean War. The United Nations voted to aid South Korea, but most of the troops sent to fight the North Koreans were furnished by the United States. At the end of 1950 Communist China entered the war in support of North Korea. In 1953 a truce was signed, with the truce line at approximately the prewar border.
\par \tab The war crippled industrial and agricultural production. In the north a recovery program was begun in 1953, with aid from the Soviet Union and Communist China. In the south the government was left weak and unstable. In 1960 Rhee was ousted.
\par \tab A military junta seized control of South Korea in 1961. General Park Chung Hee, a junta leader, was elected president in 1963. The country's rapid economic growth led to Park's reelection in 1967 and again in 1971. In 1972 he declared martial law, banned all political activity, and dissolved the National Assembly. The Yushin Constitution, giving Park almost unlimited powers, was adopted; he was reelected in 1972 and 1978. North Korea also revised its constitution in 1972. Premier Kim was named to the new post of president.
\par \tab On Oct. 26, 1979, Park was assassinated. The caretaker president, Choi Kyu Hah, restored the civil rights of dissidents, but a return to democratic rule depended on constitutional reform. In 1980 Chun Doo Hwan, a former lieutenant general, was elected president. A new constitution, reducing presidential powers, was approved by voters in 1981. During 198687 tens of thousands of people in several cities held violent protests against the constitution and its electoral-college system of selecting a president. An amended constitution, approved in a national referendum on Oct. 27, 1987, provided for direct popular election of the president. On December 16 Roh Tae Woo won an election that was marked by violence and charges of vote fraud. In 1988, for the first time, the ruling Democratic Justice party lost its majority in the National Assembly. In January 1990 Roh gained an overwhelming majority by merging two opposition parties into his own ruling party to form the Democratic Liberal party.
\par \tab Reunification meetings, which began in 1972 between North and South Korea, remained largely deadlocked for years, mostly because of hostile reactions by each to the other's policies. In 1988, however, Roh called for political dialogue, trade relations, and sports, cultural, and humanitarian exchanges between the North and South. In 1990 and 1991 meetings the prime ministers of the two countries met for talks with the potential to push the two sides toward reconciliation. The United Nations approved membership applications for both North and South Korea in 1991. The Soviet Union had vetoed South Korea's five previous applications, supporting North Korea's argument that separate admission would perpetuate the division of the Korean Peninsula.
\par \tab Reunification talks stalled in 1991 over the issue of North Korea's nuclear program. The issue reached a crisis stage in 1994 when the north refused to allow inspection of its nuclear facilities to determine if they were producing plutonium for nuclear weapons. An agreement was later reached, and North Korea agreed to abide by the Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty.
\par \tab In 1993 South Korea elected its first president in more than 30 years with no military ties, Kim Young Sam. North Korea mourned the death of Kim Il Sung on July 8, 1994. His designated successor was his son Kim Jong Il.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab The following contributors and consultants assisted in the preparation of this article: Byong-uk Chung, Professor of Korean Literature, Seoul National University; Earle Ernst, Emeritus Senior Professor, Department of Drama and Theatre, University of Hawaii; John D. Eyre, Professor of Geography, University of North Carolina; Pyong-choon Hahm, Professor of Law, Yonsei University; William E. Henthorn, Professor, Department of Oriental Studies, Princeton University; Jun-yop Kim, Professor of History and Director, Asiatic Research Center, Korea University; Kyung-sung Kim, late Professor of Geography, Seoul National University; Kwang-rin Lee, Professor of History, Sogang University; John Roderick, Foreign Correspondent; Jack Sewell, Curator of Oriental Art, The Art Institute of Chicago; Suk-kee Yoh, Professor of English Literature, Korea University.
\par \tab {\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR KOREA}
\par \tab Covell, J.C. Korea's Cultural Roots (Hollym International, 1984).
\par \tab Crowther, Geoff, and Pun, Choe Hyung. Korea (Lonely Planet, 1990).
\par \tab Farley, Carol. Korea (Dillon, 1991).
\par \tab Lee, Ki-waik. A New History of Korea (Harvard Univ. Press, 1984).
\par \tab Moffett, Eileen. Korean Ways (Tuttle, 1986).
\par \tab Rucci, R.B. Living in Korea (Seoul International Publishing House, 1987).
\par \tab Simons, Geoff. Korea: The Search for Sovereignty (St. Martin, 1995).
\par \tab Solberg. S.E. The Land and People of Korea (HarperCollins, 1991).
\par \tab Whan, Kihl Young, ed. Korea and the World: Beyond the Cold War (Westview, 1994).\par \tab The tiny desert nation of Kuwait was a quiet Middle Eastern country until August 1990, when it was invaded and annexed by its much larger northern neighbor, Iraq. This act of aggression was met with force by a United Nations coalition, and a short war in early 1991 freed Kuwait. Although liberated, the country had been heavily damaged--more than 700 of its oil wells had been set ablaze--and the Iraqis had stolen nearly everything of value.
\par \tab Of all the oil-producing Arab countries of the Middle East, Kuwait was the first one whose entire population came to benefit from its vast petroleum reserves. Many of these reserves lie along its border with Iraq. Kuwait lies at the northeastern tip of the Arabian Peninsula, on the shore of the Persian Gulf. Like Iraq, which borders it on the north and northwest, and Saudi Arabia, on the south and southwest, Kuwait has a Muslim Arab cultural heritage.
\par \tab Kuwait is a good example of a traditional society that advanced rapidly into the 20th century because of its oil wealth. In the early 1950s the nation's capital, Kuwait City, was a fortified town surrounded by a mud wall for protection against raiding tribes. Today, the city has high-rise buildings, a busy port, stores that sell the latest products, and an extensive petrochemical industry.
\par \tab The state of Kuwait covers only 6,880 square miles (17,820 square kilometers). The country is largely desert, but it has 120 miles (190 kilometers) of coastline. A number of small offshore islands, including Faylakah, Bubiyan, and Warbah, belong to Kuwait.
\par \tab Most urban dwellers live in Kuwait City and its suburbs Al Jahra and Hawalli because of the harsh desert climate farther inland. Maximum temperatures in the desert region usually range between 108░ F (42░ C) and 115░ F (46░ C) during the day in summer and drop close to freezing at night in winter. There are occasional dust storms, some accompanied by thunder and light rain. Along the Persian Gulf, the humidity is high, making the summer months very unpleasant. Kuwait's average annual rainfall of less than 6 inches (15 centimeters) occurs almost entirely between November and May.
\par \tab Although Kuwait is today largely urban, it was traditionally a tribal society composed of groups from the Arabian Peninsula. Many Kuwaitis can trace their origins to such tribes as the Aneza, Ajman, Utaibah, Awazim, and Dawasir. However, a majority of the labor force is non-Kuwaiti. The population of Kuwait is made up of about 52 percent Kuwaitis, 45 percent other Arabs, and 3 percent Asians.
\par \tab Kuwait's people receive government-subsidized housing, education, and health services. To obtain this assistance, however, they must prove that their families have lived in Kuwait for at least two generations. The continual influx of people from Saudi Arabia results in a population with many recent immigrants who cannot provide such proof, and the government continues to make efforts toward an equitable distribution of social services.
\par \tab The nomadic Bedouins of Kuwait have virtually disappeared since the early 1960s because of housing built by the government for the rural population. Many of these modern structures include not only fuel supplies and electricity, but also special enclosed courtyards for livestock. Kuwait, therefore, no longer officially has a Bedouin population, but rather a growing suburban populace composed largely of former nomads.
\par \tab Kuwait is a Muslim nation, with a court system based on a combination of civil and Islamic law. Islam is the state religion, and the official language is Arabic. English is also taught in public schools. Western influences have combined with traditional customs to produce a society with elements of both cultures. Traditional Islamic ways of life have resurged among many Kuwaitis, a trend often reflected in their dress.
\par \tab About 75 percent of Kuwait's people are literate, a high rate for a Middle Eastern country. Since the 1950s, education has been patterned on Western systems. Women as well as men receive a free education through the university level.
\par \tab Kuwait's economy is based on petroleum and petrochemicals. The Kuwait Oil Company was established in 1934 by British and American firms. Extensive production did not begin until after World War II, however, when petroleum was discovered in the Neutral Zone shared with Saudi Arabia and, a few years later, in northern Kuwait. In the early 1960s a Japanese petroleum company discovered commercial quantities of offshore petroleum in Kuwaiti waters. Natural gas is utilized by the Kuwait National Petroleum Company's refinery at Ash Shu'aybah. Crude petroleum and petroleum products account for about 90 percent of Kuwait's exports. Less than 1 percent of the economy is based on agriculture.
\par \tab The Kuwaitis used small sailing vessels for commerce along the eastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula and as far away as India. Fishing was a large part of the economy prior to World War II, and there has been renewed interest in exporting fishery products.
\par {\b Government and History}
\par \tab Kuwait is a constitutional monarchy ruled by the al-Sabah family. The ruler, called the emir, appoints the prime minister. A constitution went into effect in 1963 providing for a 60-member National Assembly elected by literate adult males born in the country or naturalized after 20 years of residence. There were, until after the Persian Gulf War, no legal political parties. Kuwait was a British protectorate from 1899 until 1961, when it became independent.
\par \tab Kuwait and Saudi Arabia have had close ties since Ibn Saud, the founder of Saudi Arabia, took refuge in Kuwait before reconquering Riyadh in 1902. The two nations also share a common tribal and cultural heritage that does not seem to have been disturbed by Western technology and vast petroleum wealth.
\par \tab The Kuwaiti government officially took over the Kuwait Oil Company in 1975. Today the state has full control of the country's petroleum industry. In 1976 the government resigned after charging that the National Assembly had blocked significant legislation. At the same time the emir dissolved the assembly and suspended parts of the constitution. Constitutional government was restored after elections in 1981, but parliament was later suspended in 1986.
\par \tab In July 1990 Iraq accused Kuwait of stealing petroleum from a disputed oil field and of producing too much petroleum; Iraqi forces then massed along the border. On August 2, after talks between the two countries broke down, Iraq invaded Kuwait, overran Kuwait City, and overthrew the government. Less than a week later Iraq annexed Kuwait, subsequently closing the borders of both countries.
\par \tab The United States and its allies rushed troops to the Saudi Arabia-Iraq border. Air strikes on Baghdad began on Jan. 16, 1991, and continued until Iraqi troops withdrew from Kuwait on February 25. Much of Kuwait City had been damaged and thousands of citizens were killed or taken hostage. Kuwait's leaders returned from exile in Saudi Arabia in early March. Martial law was imposed. Elections were held in October 1992. Population (1992 estimate), 1,790,000.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab Sheila A. Scoville\par \tab Located in the center of the Asian landmass, Kyrgyzstan is a small mountainous republic. From 1924 until the end of 1991 it was the Kirgiz Soviet Socialist Republic, or Kirgizia, of the Soviet Union. The country is bounded on the north by Kazakhstan, on the east by China, on the south and southwest by Tajikistan, and on the west by Uzbekistan. The area of Kyrgyzstan is 76,600 square miles (198,400 square kilometers). The capital is Bishkek.
\par \tab The major mountain ranges belong to the Tian Shan system. Its highest peak is Pobeda, at 24,406 feet (7,439 meters). The valleys of the Chu and Naryn rivers are the main areas of settlement and farming, along with the neighboring region of Fergana, in Uzbekistan.
\par \tab The citizens of Kyrgyzstan are a Turkic-speaking Muslim people whose traditional way of life consisted of herding livestock. Although this type of herding still exists, many people now work in farming or industry. About 62 percent of the population is rural. The Kyrgyz now form about 52 percent of the population of Kyrgyzstan. Russians, Uzbeks, Ukrainians, Tatars, and Germans make up most of the remaining population.
\par \tab In addition to herding cattle, sheep, and goats for the production of meat and wool, farmers grow hay, grain, cotton, tobacco, sugar beets, and opium poppies. Coal is mined, and some petroleum and natural gas are extracted. The republic is a source of antimony and mercury. Factories in Bishkek and Tokmak produce farm machinery, machine tools, and other engineering products. Textiles are manufactured at Bishkek and Osh. Because of the mountainous terrain, the transport system of Kyrgyzstan is not well developed. The only railroad lines are in the north and in the Fergana region in the southwest. The mountains are crossed by two main highways, one of which leads to China. Bishkek is connected by air with cities in several other Asian and European republics.
\par {\b Government and History}
\par \tab The early Kyrgyz lived a nomadic life in tribal groups. By the 19th century they had come under control of the Central Asian state of Kokand. Later in the century Russians invaded the region and began a large-scale settlement. In 1916 the Kyrgyz revolted against the Russians, and the 1917 Revolution brought further opposition to Soviet rule. Kirgizia became an Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic in 1926 and, ten years later, one of the constituent republics of the Soviet Union.
\par \tab As the Soviet Union weakened, a wave of ethnic violence rocked the country in 1990. Fighting broke out between Uzbeks and Kyrgyz over land distribution. Hundreds were killed during the unrest, and in June Soviet authorities closed the border between Uzbekistan and Kirgizia in a desperate bid to bring the two republics back from the brink of open war. After declaring its independence in 1991 and changing the spelling of its name, the republic began economic and government reform. The very low standard of living posed severe problems for economic improvement. Population (1991 estimate), 4,422,200.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab Ian Matley\par \tab The Lao People's Democratic Republic, or Laos, is a landlocked country of Southeast Asia. The former kingdom lies entirely within the tropics and occupies a rugged central strip of the Indochinese peninsula, surrounded by Vietnam on the east, Cambodia on the south, Thailand on the west, Myanmar on the northwest, and China on the north. Vientiane is the capital.
\par {\b Land and Climate}
\par \tab The landscape of this country of 91,429 square miles (236,800 square kilometers) is dominated by inhospitable, forest-covered mountains, which in the north rise to 9,248 feet (2,819 meters) above sea level. The principal mountain range, the Annamite Chain, runs from northwest to southeast along the Laos-Vietnam border. Secondary ranges running perpendicular to the Annamite Chain are separated by narrow, deep river valleys. The slope of the land is generally downward from east to west, and most of the rivers drain into the Mekong, which forms the boundary with Myanmar and most of the boundary with Thailand. The only lowlands lie along the eastern bank of the Mekong, where more than half the population is concentrated. Most are engaged in wet rice farming. The fertile floodplains of these lowlands are formed from soil carried by the river and its tributaries. The only other important fertile area is the Bolovens Plateau, a region in the far southeast underlain by volcanic basalt. Its fertile, reddish soils are well suited for plantation crops such as rubber. The hills and mountainsides can be brought into temporary cultivation by primitive slash-and-burn agriculture, but they quickly lose their fertility and the cultivators must move to other areas and repeat the process. A vital area strategically and politically is the Plain of Jars, a plateau area in the north that often changed hands during the Vietnam War. Its name derives from large prehistoric stone jars discovered there.
\par \tab The tropical monsoon climate in Laos varies with altitude and latitude. More than 80 percent of the rain falls from May to October, when the winds blow from the southwest and deposit an average rainfall of between 50 and 90 inches (1,300 and 2,300 millimeters). On the Bolovens Plateau precipitation reaches 160 inches (4,100 millimeters) per year. The dry season is from November to April. Temperatures average between 60░ to 70░ F (16░ and 21░ C) from December through February, and increase to more than 90░ F (32░ C) in March and April.
\par \tab Laos has tropical rain forests of broadleaf evergreens in the north and monsoon forests of mixed evergreens and deciduous trees in the south. In the monsoon forest areas the ground is covered with tall, coarse grass called tranh; bamboo and scrub and wild banana trees are abundant.
\par {\b The People}
\par \tab More than half of the people are the Lao-Lu, who speak virtually the same language as the Thai of Thailand and live mainly in the lowlands. The mountain peoples are known collectively as Kha, a derogatory term meaning slaves. They may be classed in three groups: Lao-Tai, or tribal Tai, who unlike most Laotians believe in spirits rather than in Buddhism; the Lao-Soung, including the Meo and Man, who have migrated from southwest China since the late 1800s; and the Lao-Theng, or Mon-Khmer, who are thought to be descendants of the earliest inhabitants of the region. There are also a few thousand Vietnamese and some Chinese town dwellers.
\par \tab The typical lowland Lao village is strung along a road or a stream. Houses are raised on timber stilts. They have steep thatched roofs and verandas. Animals find shelter beneath the houses. Tropical fruit trees and vegetable gardens grow nearby. Rice fields surround the village.
\par \tab The Lao and most of the other ethnic groups are Theravada (or Hinayana) Buddhists. Village life has long centered about the temple, with its guesthouse, monastery, and monastery school. Each Lao youth traditionally spends some time as a Buddhist monk, with shaven head, saffron robe, and begging bowl. Buddhism prevails, but there is widespread belief in spirits, called phu.
\par \tab The Lao are slight in stature and have light brown skin and black hair. Typical Lao clothing consists of a saronglike garment, worn by both men and women, and a blouse or jacket. Shoes are seldom worn.
\par \tab The diet is barely adequate. It consists chiefly of rice combined with a pungent fish sauce. Little meat is eaten, largely because of Buddhist beliefs.
\par \tab Only a few Laotians live in cities or large towns. There is little manufacturing to offer employment, and most trade is carried on by Chinese. Vientiane, the national capital, is the largest city. Pakse, Luoangphrabang (Luang Prabang), Thakhek, and Savannakhet are regional centers.
\par {\b The Laotian Economy}
\par \tab Most Laotians depend upon agriculture for a livelihood, though less than 4 percent of the country is under permanent cultivation. Rice accounts for about 90 percent of the permanently tilled acreage. Also raised are melons, cassava, sweet potatoes, corn (maize), potatoes, tobacco, coffee, sugarcane, and plants yielding drugs, especially opium poppies.
\par \tab Each village attempts to meet its own needs. Weaving, basketmaking, forest gathering, and fishing help supply village needs. Some lumbering is carried on, and tin is produced in southern Laos.
\par \tab The Mekong River system is the chief transportation route, though it is only partly navigable. Between Vientiane and Savannakhet it can handle larger vessels. Navigation on other sections is hampered by shallows, rapids, and falls. In 1956 the Thai railroad system was extended to the Mekong, near Vientiane, providing northern Laos with access to the sea through Bangkok. Good roads are scarce.
\par {\b History and Government}
\par \tab Laos began to develop in the 9th century as Tai-speaking peoples moved southward from China. The powerful kingdom of Lan Xang was founded in the 14th century. It split into the kingdoms of Vientiane, Luang Prabang, and Champassak in the 18th century. Soon after the split, the rulers of the three kingdoms became vassals of what is today Thailand. The French established a protectorate over Luang Prabang in 1893 and governed the rest of Laos as a colony. During World War II the Japanese occupied Indochina. The French recognized the king of Luang Prabang as king of all Laos before they returned in 1946. In 1954 Laos became independent and in 1955 was admitted to the United Nations. Although both Communist and Western nations recognized its neutrality, Laos became a divided state. Its two northernmost provinces were controlled by the leftist group known as the Pathet Lao. Military and technical aid came from North Vietnam and China. In keeping with its policy of halting Communist expansion in Southeast Asia, the United States gave massive aid to the anti-Communist government.
\par \tab The Laotian army, however, was unable to stem the advances of the pro-Communist Pathet Lao forces, and by early 1961 the Communists controlled much of the country. In May a cease-fire was signed. A coalition government of neutralist, Communist, and pro-Western factions was formed in June 1962. All foreign troops were ordered to leave the country. Prince Souvanna Phouma, neutralist premier of the coalition government, failed to get the contending factions to cooperate. Political assassinations and military and political coups plagued the government until 1973, when another coalition government between the existing Laotian government and the Pathet Lao was formed.
\par \tab In late 1975, after Communist victories in Vietnam and Cambodia, the Pathet Lao took full control of Laos. With the proclamation of the Lao People's Democratic Republic, both the coalition regime and the monarchy were ended. Prince Souphanouvong, the leader of the Pathet Lao and half-brother of Prince Phouma, became the first president of the republic.
\par \tab In the early 1980s Laos helped form the Indochinese Solidarity Bloc along with Vietnam and Cambodia. In 1986 Prince Souphanouvong resigned and was replaced by interim president Phoumi Vongvichit. On June 26, 1988, the first local district council elections in 13 years were held. In the same year Laos also passed a foreign investment law that relaxed rules on production and trading and that gave a greater role to private enterprise. As a result, the Laotian currency, the kip, was strengthened. After years of border disputes, relations with Thailand improved, and a treaty was signed in 1991. Laos also inaugurated party-to-party relations with China in 1988. In 1989, following years of strict cooperative farming, there was a return to some family-based farming. On March 26 the first parliamentary elections since 1975 were held. A new constitution was approved on Aug. 15, 1991, that provided for a strong presidency. The National Assembly appointed Kaysone Phomvihan to the office for the first five-year term.\par \tab Latvia was one of the three Baltic states that established democratic governments after the Russian Revolution of 1917 but lost independence in 1940 when they were incorporated in the Soviet Union. After more than 50 years under Soviet rule, Latvia again gained its independence in the dramatic year of 1991.
\par \tab Latvia is covered with glacial deposits, some of which have formed hills. In the west the Kurzeme Uplands reach about 600 feet (180 meters) in height. In the northeast the Vidzeme Uplands have summits of more than 1,000 feet (300 meters). In the southeast the lower Latgale Uplands contain many small lakes. The center of the country consists of the Zemgale Plain, while the Vidzeme Uplands are surrounded by the Latvian and East Latvian plains. These plains are marshy in places, with several small lakes, and are crossed by a number of rivers, the largest of which is the Daugava, or Western Dvina.
\par \tab The climate is cloudy, cool, and humid. The Gulf of Riga freezes for much of the winter, but the rest of the coast is ice-free.
\par \tab The Latvians, or Letts, speak a Baltic language similar to Lithuanian. They are predominantly Lutheran, though there are Orthodox and Roman Catholics. More than half the nation's population of 2,694,000 (1991 estimate) is Latvian--about 52 percent. Because of a low birthrate their numbers have grown little in recent years. Many fled the country after World War II. A large percentage of the non-Latvians are Russian, and the rest include Belorussians, Ukrainians, Lithuanians, and Poles who migrated to Latvia after 1940.
\par \tab The advanced culture of Latvia includes not only many modern writers and artists, but also a rich folk heritage--especially songs and poetry. The Latvian national poet Rainis (Janis Plieksans) used legends and folk music as themes for his modern plays and poems. The capital, Riga, has museums, theaters, a university, and an Academy of Sciences.
\par {\b Economy and Transportation}
\par \tab Despite decades of Soviet industrialization, agriculture is still essential in the economy. Because of poor soils and the cool climate, growing crops is less important than raising livestock--mainly pigs, dairy cattle, sheep, and goats. Some rye, barley, flax, potatoes, sugar beets, and fodder crops are grown. Fishing is important along the Baltic coast and also in the Atlantic.
\par \tab Latvia has few industrial raw materials. The only fuel is peat, which is used in several large electric power plants. There are a few small hydroelectric plants. Natural gas comes by pipeline from Ukraine. Manufacturing has developed rapidly, and electric motors, farm machinery, buses, railroad equipment, and ships are produced.
\par \tab Latvia also manufactures radios, television sets, and household equipment. Much of this industry is located in Riga, though other Latvian cities have developed industries. Timber from Latvia's forests is used in the manufacture of furniture.
\par \tab Latvia has the densest rail network of all the Baltic countries. Riga is connected by rail with many other Latvian cities. The ports of Riga, Ventspils, and Liepaja are important for overseas trade. International air transport is through Riga.
\par {\b History and Government}
\par \tab In the Middle Ages Latvia was conquered and ruled by the Germans as the provinces of Courland and Livonia. In the 16th century the Poles seized the region, but in the 17th century the Swedes obtained control of northern Livonia. Russian attempts to control the Baltic coast finally succeeded when Peter the Great took northern Livonia from Sweden in 1721. By the end of the 18th century all of Latvia was controlled by Russia. Independent after the Russian Revolution, Latvia was annexed to the Soviet Union after the Red Army invaded it in 1940. During World War II the Germans occupied Latvia, but in 1944 the Soviets reclaimed it.
\par \tab Latvia was one of 15 Soviet socialist republics, with its own Communist party and government but controlled by the central government in Moscow. A push for political reform of the system led to a nationalist movement seeking independence in 1989. The bid for autonomy for the Baltic states was led by Lithuania and fueled by the sweeping changes in Eastern Europe, where the Communist governments were toppled. In February 1990 the parliament of Latvia voted to work toward independence, and negotiations began with the Soviet Union toward secession. In the aftermath of the attempted coup in the Soviet Union against the political reforms of Mikhail Gorbachev, the new ruling council recognized Latvia's independence on Sept. 6, 1991.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab Ian Matley\par \tab The Republic of Lebanon is an Arab state in Western Asia. It occupies a long, narrow strip of land on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea. The Lebanese coast is about 135 miles (217 kilometers) long, and the country has an average width of 30 miles (48 kilometers). Lebanon is bordered on the north and east by Syria, and on the south by Israel. It covers an area of 3,950 square miles (10,230 square kilometers). Beirut is the capital and largest city.
\par {\b Land and Climate}
\par \tab Lebanon is a rugged land with two mountain ranges that are almost parallel. The Lebanon Mountains extend the length of the country close to the narrow Mediterranean coastal plain. In the east the Anti-Lebanon Mountains rise along the Syrian border. Between the two mountain ranges lies the high, fertile Bekaa Valley. The valley receives water from Lebanon's chief river, the Litani. The Litani flows southward, then abruptly turns westward, runs through a deep gorge in the Lebanon Mountains, and empties into the Mediterranean Sea.
\par \tab Lebanon's Mediterranean coast has warm, dry summers and mild, rainy winters. Summers in the Bekaa Valley are hot and dry, and winters are cool. During winter, high winds and heavy rains and snows lash the mountains, particularly the western slopes.
\par \tab Plant life in Lebanon varies with altitude and climate. Large groves of orange and olive trees thrive in the rich coastal soil, and farmers also grow bananas, figs, grapes, and other fruits there. Apples and potatoes are raised in the foothills. The Bekaa Valley is an equally rich farming region, producing tobacco, vegetables, cotton, grains, and mulberries. In the mountains much of the soil is barren. Erosion has destroyed almost all the natural vegetation, leaving only scattered bush and scrub. The cedars, for which Lebanon is famous, remain only in protected groves.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab Lebanon is rather densely populated, but the people are unevenly distributed. In 1992 the nation had a population of about 2,803,000. Most Lebanese are Arabs. Palestinians make up less than 10 percent of the population. Arabic is the official language, but English and French are also spoken.
\par \tab Until recently Lebanon had a government in which religious communities operated like political parties. Muslims make up more than half of the population, and Christians comprise most of the rest. The chief Muslim sects include the Sunnites and the Shi'ites, who form the largest religious community. The Druzes, whose religion is an offshoot of Islam, compose an independent sect. The Maronite Christians are the largest Christian sect. Other Christian groups include the Greek Orthodox and Armenian Catholic.
\par \tab Lebanon also has small communities of Muslim Kurds, Arab Protestants, and Jews. There are about 17 recognized religious communities. The majority are Arabic and all speak Arabic, but some minorities also use their communal languages periodically.
\par \tab About 80 percent of the people can read and write. Lebanon is well staffed with skilled medical and professional personnel. The Christian communities, especially the Maronites, have a larger proportion of educated people than the other Lebanese groups. The major centers of learning include St. Joseph University, the American University, the Lebanese University, and the Arab University, all in Beirut. More than half of Lebanon's students attend parochial and missionary schools, and the remainder attend public schools. This educational division tends to keep the communities apart, because from early childhood the people regard themselves as belonging to their community rather than as citizens of the Lebanese nation.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab The Lebanese economy has traditionally been based on trade and on Beirut's position as the banking center of the Middle East, in addition to being a major port. Other principal cities include Tripoli, Zahlah, and Sidon. Petroleum tankers load offshore from pipeline terminals at Tripoli and near Sidon. A railroad system links Lebanon with other Arab countries and, through Turkey, with Europe.
\par \tab Lebanese industries include petroleum refining, food processing, textile manufacturing, services, the manufacture of cement and chemicals, metal fabricating, and tourism. Among Lebanon's major exports are pharmaceutical products, textiles, tobacco, manufactured goods, and precious metals, stones, jewelry, and coins. Civil war and foreign occupation in the 1970s and 1980s disrupted the economy.
\par {\b Government}
\par \tab When Lebanon became independent in 1943, a government had to be established that would enable the various communities to live in harmony. To that end a government was set up in which the president is traditionally a Maronite Christian, the prime minister a Sunnite Muslim, and the speaker of parliament a Shi'ite. Many defense ministers have been Druzes.
\par \tab Members of the republic's one-house parliament, the National Assembly, are elected to four-year terms. They represent religious, rather than political, groups. The president is chosen by parliament for a six-year term, and he appoints the prime minister. Since an agreement of 1989, parliamentary seats are apportioned equally among the various Muslim and Christian sects.
\par {\b History}
\par \tab The region that includes Lebanon had many rulers in ancient times, including the Phoenicians, Greeks, Romans, and Byzantines. Christianity was established in the region during the 5th century AD, followed by Islam two centuries later.
\par \tab For many centuries the mountainous terrain prevented conquerors from completely subjugating the people, and the region became a refuge for persecuted minorities. The Maronites established themselves in the north, and the Druzes found shelter in the south. Little friction occurred between the two communities until the 19th century. Peasant revolts against landowners then turned into wars between the Druzes and Maronites, and by 1860 thousands had been killed. The Turkish sultans of the Ottoman Empire, who conquered the region in the 16th century, assisted the Druzes and Muslims, and the Maronites looked to France and the West for support.
\par \tab After Turkey's defeat in World War I, France received a mandate from the League of Nations to prepare the region for eventual independence. Lebanon was carved out of Greater Syria and became the only state in the Middle East with a Christian majority. After the fall of France in 1940, the Free French government agreed to end the mandate. Lebanon became independent in 1943. A period of brief prosperity and relative freedom followed. However, the emergence of an Arab nationalist movement, the birth of Israel in 1948, and inequality among Lebanese factions led to widespread unrest.
\par \tab In 1958 discontented religious groups revolted against the government. The insurrection was put down with the aid of United States troops. In 1970 the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) transferred its headquarters to Lebanon after it had been expelled from Jordan. Palestinian guerrillas launched attacks on Israel, and in response the Lebanese government tried to curb the PLO's military activities.
\par \tab The violent situation, together with Muslim demands for more power in the government, led to civil war between Muslims and Christians in 1975. About 60,000 Lebanese were killed during the first two years of the war. From 1976 to 1982 thousands of Syrian troops and a multinational United Nations force attempted to enforce a tenuous cease-fire among Christians, Muslims, Palestinians, and Israelis. In June 1982 Israeli forces invaded Lebanon, intent on driving the PLO out of southern Lebanon. About 14,600 troops of the PLO withdrew from Beirut in August. With the retirement of President Elias Sarkis, the 1982 election was won by Christian (Phalangist) militia leader Bashir Gemayel. He was killed later that year when a bomb exploded in the Phalangist headquarters. The assassination brought an immediate advance by Israeli forces into Beirut. The next day Lebanese Christian militia massacred some 600 Palestinian civilians in Beirut refugee camps that were under Israeli control. A multinational peacekeeping force of largely French, Italian, and American troops was sent to Beirut. Gemayel's brother, Amin, was elected to the presidency at the end of September.
\par \tab In May 1983 Lebanon and Israel signed an agreement calling for the withdrawal of Israeli and Syrian troops from the country. Syria rejected the plan, however. By midsummer Lebanon was in chaos, with battles raging between various factions. In September Israel redeployed its troops into southern Lebanon. The Syrian-backed Druzes then launched an offensive into the areas that had been vacated by the Israelis.
\par \tab In February 1984 the multinational peacekeeping forces began leaving Beirut. Israeli troops began their withdrawal from southern Lebanon in 1985, remaining only at the Lebanon-Israel border and leaving Lebanon divided between warring factions. Prime Minister Rashid Karami was assassinated in June 1987 when a bomb exploded aboard his military helicopter. Selim al-Hoss was named acting prime minister.
\par \tab Amin Gemayel's term of office ended in 1988, and the National Assembly failed to elect a new president. Gemayel appointed an interim military government, headed by Michel Aoun. Aoun declared a "war of liberation" against Syria and rejected the Lebanese parliament's 1989 election of RenΘ Moawad as president, claiming he was merely a Syrian puppet. Moawad was assassinated soon thereafter, and parliament elected Elias Hrawi to succeed him. Aoun occupied the presidential palace and refused to surrender power. Lebanese legislators created a new charter in Ta'if, Saudi Arabia, that redistributed political power between rival religious groups in Lebanon's parliament, but warfare resumed in 1990. In October Aoun was ousted by a Syrian-led military attack.
\par \tab Recovery from 16 years of civil war began as Lebanon's private armies and the PLO began to surrender their weapons in 1991. By May the Lebanese army had regained control of the Mediterranean ports, and Syria retained troops in the country to enforce a peace pact. In early December the last of the British and American hostages that had been held by extremist groups for years had been released.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by Ludwig W. Adamec, Professor of Near Eastern Studies, University of Arizona and former Chief of Afghanistan Branch, Voice of America.\par \tab The small but volatile southern African kingdom of Lesotho is completely surrounded by the three South African provinces of KwaZulu/Natal, Eastern Cape, and Orange Free State. A monarchy, Lesotho is headed by a military council and a hereditary king.
\par {\b Land and Climate}
\par \tab The Maloti and Drakensberg mountain ranges, which rise over 11,000 feet (3,350 meters), cover about two thirds of the country's total area of 11,716 square miles (30,344 square kilometers). Communications and transportation are difficult for the people who live in the mountains--about one fourth of the population. The majority of the people live on the relatively flat plateau along Lesotho's western side. The plateau climate is temperate with cool winters and warm summers. Most of the 28-inch (71-centimeter) average annual rainfall occurs from October to April.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab Most of Lesotho's citizens are of the Sotho, or Basuto, ethnic group and speak Sotho, one official national language. English is the other official language. Lesotho also has small minorities of people of Indian or European descent and of mixed race. English is used in high schools and is the second language of most of the people.
\par \tab The mountain and rural people live in family compounds made up of one family extending over several generations. The villages are clusters of huts made of earth and stone with thatched or corrugated iron roofs. Some of the people residing in the capital, Maseru, or in one of the other larger towns in the lowlands live in modern houses or apartment buildings. Many low-income families live in simple one-room apartments without electricity or other conveniences. Most of the people are Christian.
\par \tab Education is important to the Sotho, who have one of the highest literacy rates in Africa. About 74 percent of the adult population can read and write. All primary education is free, and most schools are run by Christian churches. The Sotho may attend the National University of Lesotho in Maseru, which also attracts many international students.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab Subsistence farming is the basis of Lesotho's economy. In order to make a better living, however, as many as half of the adult males cross the border to work in the mines and industries of South Africa. Most send some of their pay home to help support their families. South Africa does not allow the workers' families to come with them, and they may be separated for six to nine months a year.
\par \tab Of those who remain in Lesotho, about 66 percent work in agriculture, even though only 13 percent of the land is suitable for crop-growing because of the mountainous terrain. All land belongs to the Sotho nation and cannot be bought or sold. Corn (maize), fruit, sorghum, and roots and tubers are raised. About two thirds of the land is used as meadows and pastures for herds of cattle, sheep, and goats. The intensity of this farming contributes to overgrazing and soil erosion problems. Agricultural goods exported include mohair, wool, and hides, but Lesotho must import most of the products that are used in the country.
\par \tab Industry comprises a small part of the economic activity. Small factories have been established, which manufacture candles, handicrafts, mohair yarn, and furniture. Natural resources are limited. Diamonds are the major export.
\par \tab The lack of resources in Lesotho causes it to remain one of the world's poorest countries. The country relies on aid from many nations and international organizations. Lesotho is heavily dependent on South Africa for food and most consumer goods.
\par {\b History and Government}
\par \tab The Basotho nation was formed in the early 1800s under King Moshoeshoe I when several African groups, who were displaced by the Zulu nation, sought refuge in the Maloti mountains. Later, due to conflicts with Boers, or Dutch-speaking white settlers, Moshoeshoe sought the protection of the British Crown, which was granted in 1868.
\par \tab In 1960 the Basutoland Council was formed. In 1965 Chief Leabua Jonathan was chosen prime minister. The following year, the country gained independence, with King Moshoeshoe II as the new nation's head of state. Jonathan was overthrown in 1986 by army commander Gen. Justin Lekhanya. The National Assembly was dissolved and the constitution was suspended. Executive and legislative powers were returned to King Moshoeshoe II, who was to act on the advice of a Military Council, headed by Lekhanya, and a Council of Ministers. On Feb. 21, 1990, Lekhanya stripped the king of his powers. In March the king was sent into exile. In November he was dethroned, and his son was sworn in as King Letsie III. Lekhanya himself was ousted by rebel army officers in a bloodless coup on April 30, 1991, for failing to initiate democratic reforms. Population (1991 estimate), 1,806,000.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab David S. Wiley\par \tab A small country on the west coast of Africa, Liberia has been influenced in many ways by the United States. This influence has its origins in the efforts of the American Colonization Society to settle freed American slaves in Africa, beginning in 1822. The government was modeled on that of the United States. Monrovia, the capital and principal port, was named after United States President James Monroe. For African Americans this country has historical significance. As Africa's oldest republic, established by former black American slaves, Liberia played an important role as a model for African colonies seeking independence.
\par {\b Land and People}
\par \tab Liberia has a land area of 38,250 square miles (99,067 square kilometers). Except for a strip of coastal savanna and mangrove swamps, the land is covered by tropical rain forest. Although warm throughout the year, Liberia has two seasons. The dry season lasts from November to April and the wet season from May through October. Annual rainfall averages 200 inches (508 centimeters) along the coast and diminishes to about 70 inches (178 centimeters) farther inland. The physical environment is ideal for tree crops, such as rubber, cacao, coffee, palm oil, bananas, and kola. Approximately 46 percent of the land is designated urban.
\par \tab The country is rich in wildlife. More than 100 species of mammals have so far been identified. There are fifteen species belonging to the cat family, among which the largest is the leopard. The number of leopards has been decreasing rapidly, along with the elephant and the bush cow. Monkeys, chimpanzees, and antelopes abound. Two rare mammals found here are the manatee and the pygmy hippopotamus. In addition to mammals there are more than 100 species of birds, including eagles, kites, and hawks.
\par \tab Liberians of black American ancestry, known as Americo-Liberians, live along the coast and make up about 5 percent of the more than 2 million population. The bulk of the population belongs to several local tribes, including the Kpelle, Bassa, Grebo, Gio, Kru, and Mano. It is estimated that 18 percent of the people practice traditional African religions, about 68 percent are Christians, and about 14 percent follow Islam.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab Farming is the most important economic activity for more than 68 percent of the people. They grow rice, cassava, sugarcane, palm trees (for palm oil), bananas, sweet potatoes, and other crops for their own needs. Liberia's economy is highly dependent on the export of raw materials. Rubber was the first major export crop. The first Liberian rubber plantation was established by the British in 1904. It was acquired from the British in 1926 by an American company, the Firestone Tire and Rubber Company. Firestone improved and expanded its rubber plantations, but in 1983 they cut off operations.
\par \tab Rich deposits of iron ore in the mountains along the Liberian-Guinea border provide the chief export in terms of earnings. Most of it is sent to the United States. Timber and other tree products form a third major export.
\par \tab Since the 1950s the network of roads in remote areas has been greatly expanded. Most of the existing roads were constructed to meet the needs of the plantations rather than the needs of small rural farmers. The only railroad is owned and operated by foreign iron-ore mining concessions. A telephone and radio communication system, one of the first in Africa, was introduced in Liberia in the early 1900s.
\par {\b Government and History}
\par \tab On July 26, 1847, Liberia adopted a constitution that made it a republic headed by a president, a vice-president, and a cabinet. It established a Senate and House of Representatives as the chief legislative bodies. The constitution and its provisions at first applied only to Americo-Liberians and not to the African tribes. William V.S. Tubman, who was president from 1944 until his death in 1971, made a serious effort to encourage participation of the tribes in the political life of the country. After his death Tubman was succeeded by William R. Tolbert, who had been vice-president. President Tolbert was assassinated on April 12, 1980, in Liberia's first military coup, led by an army sergeant, Samuel K. Doe.
\par \tab Doe became commander in chief of the army with the rank of general. He also became the first non-Americo-Liberian to head the government. After his victory in an allegedly fraudulent election in 1985, Doe was inaugurated as president of the republic on Jan. 6, 1986, when a new constitution took effect. A vicious civil war began in December 1989 when a group of rebels led by a former member of Doe's administration invaded the country. The rebels, associated with the Mano and Gio tribes, sought the ouster of Doe, a member of the Krahn tribe, and by mid-1990 the insurrection had turned into a tribal war.
\par \tab In September 1990 Doe was killed by one of the rebel factions that had been trying to overthrow him. Four men claimed leadership of the country, and a caretaker government was appointed until a freely elected government could be formed. Population (1991 estimate), 2,714,000.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab David S. Wiley\par \tab The petroleum-rich country of Libya lies in northern Africa along the southern coast of the Mediterranean Sea. Libya blends its role as one of the world's most important producers of petroleum with a traditional Arab society based on the Islamic religion. In Tripoli, the capital and the largest city, nomadic herders mingle with construction engineers and bearded imams, or Islamic religious teachers. In rural areas herds of sheep, goats, and camels graze alongside modern highways.
\par \tab Libya's official name is the Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya. Jamahiriya is an Arabic word meaning "socialism" or "brotherhood." Libya extends south from the Mediterranean coast into the vast Sahara and ranks fourth in size among the countries of Africa. It covers about 678,400 square miles (1,757,000 square kilometers), an area one sixth larger than that of Alaska. Libya is bordered by Tunisia and Algeria on the west, Niger and Chad on the south, and Sudan and Egypt on the east.
\par {\b Land, Climate, and Natural Resources}
\par \tab Libya is a combination of contrasting land forms. Its three main regions are Cyrenaica (also called the Eastern provinces) on its eastern Mediterranean coast, Tripolitania (the Western provinces) on its western coast, and Fezzan (the Southern provinces), a series of oases in the southwestern desert. In Cyrenaica the coastline rises sharply out of the sea; there and in Tripolitania the coastal rainfall creates excellent conditions for growing grains, olives, dates, and tropical fruits. Away from the coast and directly south of the Gulf of Sidra, the land is arid and suitable mainly for herding livestock. Farther south and east lies the Libyan Desert, one of the largest in the world. Less than 6 percent of Libya's land is economically useful.
\par \tab Libya has wadis, or riverbeds, rather than continually flowing rivers. The wadis are dry most of the year. Libya receives less than 4 inches (10 centimeters) of rain annually. In the desert, groundwater rises from beneath the surface and forms oases that provide relief for travelers and water for agriculture. To obtain water where there is none on the surface, Libyans dig artesian wells, often shared by an entire village.
\par \tab Libya's most important natural resource is its petroleum, which was first discovered in Fezzan in 1956. The first major discovery came in Cyrenaica in 1959. The country also has supplies of natural gas and a huge iron ore deposit in Fezzan.
\par {\b The People}
\par \tab Libya had a population of about 4,206,000 in 1990, the smallest among the five countries of North Africa. Most of the people live in the temperate climate of the Mediterranean coast, and about 60 percent make their homes in towns with populations above 5,000. About two thirds of Libya's people live in Tripolitania, one third in Cyrenaica, and a small fraction in Fezzan. Away from the towns and agricultural areas of the Mediterranean coast, most Libyans live in small, widely separated nomadic groups.
\par \tab The vast majority of the people speak Arabic, the national language. Pastoral groups in the south, such as the nomadic Tuareg, use dialects of the Berber language. Many Libyans also speak Italian, English, or French as a second language.
\par \tab Libya's population consists of a large number of foreign-born people. They include Europeans and people from other Arab countries, who work as technicians and laborers in the nation's oil industry.
\par {\b Religion, Art, and Music}
\par \tab Most Libyans are Muslims who belong to the Sunnah branch of Islam. Islam is practiced by all the language groups, including the Berber-speaking people who maintain much of their traditional culture. In Cyrenaica and Fezzan, an important sect of Libyan Muslims called the Sanusiyah practices a distinctive type of militant Islam.
\par \tab Libya's art and music are a part of its heritage from the Roman Empire and the Islamic world. Ruins from the Roman period include beautiful mosaics that decorated temples and the houses of wealthy merchants. Large, richly ornamented mosques reflect the importance of art as a decoration in Islam. In local markets and small shops, Libyan craftsmen and craftswomen make carpets, baskets, leather goods, and elaborately designed jewelry.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab Libya's economy is based overwhelmingly on oil production, though agriculture and livestock herding are still important to many rural families. Receipts from oil exports account for nearly all income from foreign trade.
\par \tab Libya has invested much of its oil profits in the development of other parts of its economy, including agriculture, industry, and mining. Agriculture is expanding south from the coast to newly irrigated areas of desert. Most of the large farms, which are owned by the government, have begun to produce foods that were formerly imported, including corn (maize), wheat, and citrus fruits, as well as cattle, sheep, and poultry. Decreased oil revenues in the 1980s, however, set back Libya's economic development, and the country must still import much of its food. Industry is dominated by oil production, but forms of local industry include traditional handicrafts, food processing, textiles, and construction. The government is working to develop medium and heavy industry to help reduce Libya's dependence on imports.
\par {\b Transportation, Communication, and Education}
\par \tab Libya's transportation network is based on the Tripoli-Banghazi highway, which stretches about 1,000 miles (1,600 kilometers) along the coast. Small rural roads connect the highway system to rural villages, oil-producing areas, and government farms. Libya has its own domestic airline. Telecommunications were very poor in the past, but the government has given top priority to their development.
\par \tab Education in Libya is free, and all young people must attend school through the high school level. In the past, only cities and towns had schools. Today, schools in rural villages enable the children of farmers and nomads to acquire an education. Libya also has literacy schools for adults. Illiteracy has been greatly reduced since 1973, when almost half the population could not read. In the past, girls and women were not encouraged to learn to read or to go to school, but they now have an opportunity to do so.
\par {\b History and Government}
\par \tab From about 1000 BC, Libyans had contacts with Africans south of the Sahara. A people called Garamantes, who probably were the ancestors of the present-day Tuareg, captured the important oases along routes leading south to the Niger River. They controlled the gold and slave trade between sub-Saharan Africa and the Mediterranean. During the 7th century BC, Greek colonists settled in Cyrenaica and founded the city of Cyrene, which flourished as a center of Greek art and science. In the 6th century BC, Tripolitania was absorbed as the eastern province of the Phoenician city-state of Carthage.
\par \tab Later, Libya became an important part of the Roman Empire. It was influential because of its location across the Mediterranean from Italy. Libya's prosperity during this period is reflected by the Roman ruins in the cities of Leptis Magna, Sabrata, and Oea.
\par \tab In AD 395 the Roman Empire split, and Libya fell under the control of the Eastern Empire, which was governed from Constantinople. The empire's rule in Libya ended in 439, when Gothic Vandals from Spain conquered Tripolitania and Cyrenaica. A century later Constantinople drove out the Vandals.
\par \tab In 642 Arab armies moved into Tripolitania and Cyrenaica. They arrived in Fezzan the next year. The simple, direct beliefs of Islam appealed to Libyans. Berber peoples formed their own version of Islam and resisted the political control of Arab dynasties based in Damascus and Baghdad.
\par \tab In the mid-11th century groups of migrants called the Beni Salim and Beni Hilal settled in the area of present-day Libya and started to dominate the local Berbers. Under their influence, the Arabic language and culture spread from the cities to the country.
\par \tab Since its conversion to Islam, Libya has had many invaders. The Spaniards came in 1510 and the Ottoman Turks in 1551. In 1804 Libya fought a brief war with the United States over control of the sea-lanes in the southern Mediterranean.
\par \tab Italy took control of Libya in 1911 after invading the country and defeating the Turks. After World War I Italy's leader, Benito Mussolini, declared his intention of forming a second Roman Empire. Italy, which had quickly occupied the main cities and coastal areas, began a policy of bringing Italians to settle in the best agricultural zones. They constructed roads to improve communications for their military forces and built a large naval base at Tobruk.
\par \tab The Libyan people never accepted Italian rule. Between 1911 and 1932, Libyans in Tripolitania, Fezzan, and Cyrenaica fought the Italian colonial government. The Italians, who had superior military power, finally subdued northern Tripolitania in 1923. Resisting groups of Arabs, Berbers, and Sanusi, however, continued to fight in Cyrenaica under the religious leader Omar Mukhtar, a modern Libyan folk hero. Under him the people of southern Cyrenaica held off the Italians until 1931, when he was captured and hanged. Italy made Libya a colony in 1939.
\par \tab During World War II Libya was a major battleground for the combined forces of Germany and Italy fighting the Allied powers. A British military government ruled Libya after the Italians and Germans were defeated. Later a French military government took control of Fezzan and ruled with Britain.
\par \tab After the war Libya became the first country to gain independence through the United Nations. The independent kingdom of Libya was created in December 1951. Libya joined the Arab League in 1953 and the United Nations in 1955. In 1963 the three zones of the country were merged into one national unit, and Libya became a founding member of the Organization of African Unity (OAU).
\par \tab In September 1969 a group of young army officers calling themselves the Revolutionary Command Council (RCC) overthrew the government and abolished the monarchy. The leader of the group was Muammar al-Qaddafi, a 27-year-old colonel. In 1972 Qaddafi was named head of state, commander in chief of the armed forces, and chairman of the RCC. On March 2, 1977, the government changed the name of the country from the Libyan Arab Republic to the Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya. Since 1973 the political decision-making body of Libya has been the General People's Congress. The Congress appoints a General People's Committee with executive powers, but Qaddafi remained head of state.
\par \tab The policies of the Libyan government are now based on jamahiriya, which has been defined as Islamic socialism. The foundations of these policies are set forth in the 'Green Book', a collection of essays by Qaddafi. Under jamahiriya, the government has used petroleum profits to undertake a major program of building housing, roads, communications networks, and a modern educational system. Large sums have also been spent on armaments to make Libya a major military power in North Africa.
\par \tab In 1981 Libya's oil production fell to less than a third of the amount considered necessary to finance the development programs. The production slump continued in 1982, and, though the nation maintained programs already underway, new ones were severely hampered. Early in 1983 Libya promised military support for what it called "revolutionary forces" in Arab countries. Qaddafi had long denounced Egypt and the United States for their policies toward Israel, and the General People's Congress called for armed bands of Libyans to attack Arab land held by the Israelis. In response to several Libyan-backed terrorist attacks in Western Europe, the United States imposed economic sanctions against Libya in January 1986 and ordered the 1,000 to 1,500 Americans living there to leave. After a terrorist bombing in April of a West Berlin discotheque frequented by United States servicemen, the United States responded with warnings and then a nighttime air attack on military and intelligence targets in and around Tripoli and Benghazi. Qaddafi's living quarters and command center were damaged.
\par \tab In December 1988 the United States accused Libya of building a large chemical plant to manufacture poison gas used in chemical warfare. In a military clash over the Mediterranean in January 1989, two United States fighter planes shot down two Libyan fighters. The United States claimed to have acted in self-defense after a display of hostile intent by the Libyan planes. The United States modified its trade sanctions in January to allow five United States petroleum companies to resume their operations in Libya and to prevent Libya from nationalizing the companies' assets.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by James McCann, Assistant to the Director of the African Studies Center, Michigan State University.\par \tab One of the smallest independent states of Europe is Liechtenstein, with an area of 62 square miles (161 square kilometers). It is situated between Switzerland and Austria. The Rhine River forms the boundary with Switzerland. From the Rhine's narrow valley the land rises eastward to rugged uplands. The highest peak is Grauspitz, with an elevation of 8,534 feet (2,601 meters). The capital of Liechtenstein is Vaduz.
\par \tab About half of the land is devoted to crops and pasture. Farm products include beef and milk cattle, corn, cereals, grapes, and potatoes. Since World War II the country's industry has developed rapidly. Small factories in Liechtenstein produce textiles, ceramics, precision instruments, boilers, building equipment, chemicals, and pharmaceuticals.
\par \tab Tax rates are low, so thousands of foreign companies have established headquarters here. The moderate fees paid by these companies provide much of the country's revenue. The tourist trade and the sale of postage stamps are other sources of income.
\par \tab Most of the natives are German-speaking Roman Catholics descended from the Alemanni tribe. Liechtenstein is a constitutional monarchy that is hereditary in the male line. The country is ruled by a prince.
\par \tab Liechtenstein was made a principality in 1719 by the Holy Roman emperor Charles VI. In 1866 it became independent. It adopted the Swiss franc as its monetary unit in 1921 and became a member of the Swiss customs union in 1923. In 1984 women were given the right to vote. Population (1992 estimate), 29,600.\par \tab One of the three Baltic countries, Lithuania was a major power in Eastern Europe in the Middle Ages but was partitioned between Russia and Prussia in the 18th century. In 1918 it became an independent country, but, after Soviet troops occupied it in 1940, it was proclaimed the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic--one of the 15 constituent republics of the Soviet Union. On March 11, 1990, the Lithuanian parliament issued a declaration of independence and voted to have Lithuania secede from the Soviet Union, but the declaration was frozen, pending negotiations with Moscow. Independence was recognized in September 1991, after a failed coup in Moscow. The capital is Vilnius.
\par \tab Lithuania is larger than the other Baltic republics, Estonia and Latvia, which lie to the north. It consists of a coastal plain that gradually rises eastward to the Zemaitija Hills, a morainic range with summits of more than 650 feet (200 meters). To the east of these uplands, the Central Lithuanian Plain forms a broad belt of lowland stretching from northeast to southwest. The eastern part of the country consists of a second range of hills that rise to more than 800 feet (240 meters). The major river is the Neman, or Nemunas, which enters the Baltic Sea. The climate of Lithuania, generally cool and humid, is modified by the Baltic Sea. July temperatures average about 63░ F (17░ C) and January temperatures about 25░ F (-4░ C).
\par \tab With the Latvians, the Lithuanians form the major group of the Baltic peoples. They were among the last of the European peoples to be converted to Christianity, and in the 14th century they became Roman Catholics. The 14th-century union between Lithuania and Poland also influenced the culture, especially in Vilnius, which became a predominantly Polish city with a large Jewish population in the 17th century. Most of the Jewish population was murdered during the German occupation during World War II, and after the war most of Lithuania's Poles emigrated. After the annexation of Lithuania by the Soviet Union, many Russians moved to the republic. About 80 percent of the population of 3,754,000 (1991 estimate) is Lithuanian.
\par {\b Economy and Transportation}
\par \tab Before 1940 Lithuania's major economic activity was agriculture. Under the Soviet regime the importance of agriculture declined, though the republic still produces grain--especially rye, wheat, oats, and barley--as well as sugar beets, flax, and potatoes. Livestock breeding is the single most important branch of agriculture.
\par \tab Industrial production increased in spite of the lack of energy and other raw materials, which must be imported. A large hydroelectric plant is located on the Niemen River near Kaunas, and there are some thermal power stations, fired by peat or natural gas brought by pipeline from Ukraine. Lithuanian industry produces machine tools, refrigerators, washing machines, radio and television sets, and similar products that require skilled labor. Other industries include chemicals, textiles, and woodworking.
\par \tab There is a relatively dense railroad network. River vessels can reach Kaunas on the Niemen River. The major port is Klaipeda, which is ice-free in winter. Vilnius is linked by air with other cities.
\par {\b History and Government}
\par \tab During the Middle Ages Lithuania was transformed from a small duchy to the largest state in Europe. In 1386 a union with Poland was formed by royal marriage, but the 18th-century partition of Poland resulted in the division of Lithuania between Russia and Prussia. In 1918, after the collapse of the Russian empire, Lithuania proclaimed its independence. It was annexed by the Soviet Union in 1940, occupied during World War II by the Germans from 1941 to 1944, and then reconquered by the Soviet Union.
\par \tab Lithuania had its own government and Communist party under the control of the central government in Moscow until 1989, when the Lithuanian parliament voted to declare the 1940 Soviet annexation invalid and abolished the Communist party's monopoly on power. In 1990 elections candidates backed by the nationalist organization Sajudis won a majority of the seats in the parliament, and Vytautas Landsbergis, a Sajudis leader, was elected president of Lithuania.
\par \tab In April 1990 Soviet president Mikhail Gorbachev imposed an economic blockade on the republic, banning major supplies of petroleum and natural gas. The unraveling of central controls, which resulted from the abortive coup against Gorbachev in August 1991, led to the recognition of Lithuania's independence by the Soviet Union on September 6. The country then joined the United Nations, and in February 1992 the United States reopened the embassy it had closed in 1940. That month troops of the former Soviet Union began a pullout from the country.\par \tab The Grand Duchy of Luxembourg is a country of only 998 square miles (2,585 square kilometers), surrounded by Belgium, Germany, and France. Despite its size, it is a center of European diplomacy and it outranks many other countries as an iron and steel producer. The country is composed of two natural regions. The fertile south and center is known as the Good Land--the Bon Pays (French) or Gutland (German). Luxembourg city, the capital, is in the Good Land, as is most of the population and industry.
\par \tab The northern third of the country, called ╓sling, lies in the plateau of the Ardennes. Picturesque castles dot the landscape. The highest point, Buurgplaatz, (1,834 feet; 559 meters) is in the north. The climate is mild and damp. Temperatures at the capital average 63░ F (17░ C) in July and 33░ F (1░ C) in January. It rarely gets hotter than 87░ F (31░ C) or colder than 15░ F (-9░ C).
\par {\b People}
\par \tab In recent years there has been a continuing trend of people moving away from the countryside to Luxembourg's larger towns. In 1991 75,377 people lived in the capital. Esch-sur-Alzette and Differdange, in the steel-producing region near the French border, had populations of 24,012 and 15,699 respectively.
\par \tab One of every four people in the country is a foreigner. The largest numbers are from Portugal and Italy; most of the others are citizens of France, Belgium, or Germany. To promote rapid industrial development in the 20th century, the government actively encouraged workers to come from other countries. This, combined with a low birthrate, has brought about a population two thirds of which is of working age. Luxembourg owes its high standard of living in part to the fact that the labor force makes up almost half the population. About 95 percent of the people are Roman Catholic. The remainder is made up of Protestants and Jews.
\par \tab The everyday language of the Luxembourgers, called Luxembourgian, is a Germanic dialect influenced by both French and German. French and German are both standard languages as well and are widely used in government, commerce, the press, and cultural life. Schooling is in French and German. Both languages, as well as English, are used at the university in Luxembourg city.
\par \tab Conservatories train musicians in Luxembourg city and Esch-sur-Alzette. At Vianden, in the Ardennes, a Victor Hugo Museum and a folklore museum feature different facets of local culture. The Grand Ducal Institute has exhibits of art, archaeology, local history, literature, and science.
\par {\b Agriculture and Industry}
\par \tab About one fourth of the land is farmed. Cattle graze in the extensive meadows and pastures. Agricultural products grown in the north include barley, wheat, oats, and potatoes. Vineyards in the southeast, in the valley of the Moselle River, produce still and sparkling wines. The woodlands that cover about 35 percent of the total land area form the basis for a small lumber industry.
\par \tab Iron and steel production is Luxembourg's leading industry, but rubber tire, plastic, chemical, and machine industries have grown in importance. Pig iron, steel, and rolled steel products account for nearly half of the country's exports. Heat from the steel mills is used to generate thermal electric power. A huge dam at Vianden produces hydroelectricity.
\par \tab Roads, railroads, air service, and waterways link Luxembourg to the main transportation networks of Europe. The canalization of the Moselle River in the 1960s joined Luxembourg to the canal systems of France and Germany. Radio-TΘlΘvision Luxembourg broadcasts to audiences in France and Germany.
\par {\b Government and History}
\par \tab The grand duchy is a constitutional monarchy, governed by a Council of State and a Chamber of Deputies, with the grand duke as chief executive. Luxembourg was a founding member of the European Coal and Steel Community, the European Economic Community (EEC), and the European Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM)--collectively called the European Union (formerly the European Communities). Many institutions of the European Union are based in Luxembourg. The grand duchy is also a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization.
\par \tab Luxembourg dates its founding from AD 963, when Siegfried, count of the Ardennes, built a castle--Lucilinburhuc, or "little fortress"--on the rock that is now the site of Luxembourg city. The medieval counts of Luxembourg achieved great military prestige and were several times elected king of Germany. In 1354 the county became a duchy, or dukedom.
\par \tab In 1443, however, it fell to the Burgundians. Through inheritance it passed to the Spanish Hapsburgs, and in 1713, by the Treaty of Utrecht, to the Austrian Hapsburgs. The French conquered Luxembourg in 1795 and made it a department of the Napoleonic Empire. The Congress of Vienna, which redrew the map of Europe in 1815 after Napoleon's defeat, declared it an independent grand duchy and gave it to the Dutch king. In 1890 Luxembourg became truly independent.
\par \tab In 1922 Luxembourg joined Belgium in an economic union, which was called Benelux after the addition of The Netherlands in 1944. Luxembourg led in the formation of the European Union, starting in the 1950s. Population (1993 estimate), 392,000.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab Sarah Gibbard Cook\par \tab The last territory remaining from the former overseas empire of Portugal, Macao consists of a small peninsula connected to the China mainland and the islands of Taipa and Col⌠ane in the South China Sea. The city of Macao occupies almost the entire peninsula, an area of 6.5 square miles (16.8 square kilometers) on the western side of the mouth of the Pearl River.
\par \tab Most of the peninsula and the islands consist of small hills and limited flatlands. There are no permanent rivers. The average annual temperature is 72░ F (22░ C). Farming area is limited, and rural settlements are very small. Its major agricultural products are grapes and eggs. Fishing contributes significantly to the economy. Manufacturing, which employs the largest sector of the labor force, produces apparel, textiles, paper products, and leather products.
\par \tab Macao's economy is based on tourism, international financial operations, and light industry. Its gambling casinos attract thousands of tourists. Its major trade partners are China, Hong Kong, the United States, and Japan. Chief exports are textiles, toys, hides and skins, and wool products. Major imports are raw materials, capital goods, and foodstuffs. Macao imports its drinking water and much of its food supply from China. There are no railways or airports.
\par \tab The population is primarily of Chinese origin. Portuguese and Cantonese are the official languages. Although Roman Catholicism is the official religion, the great majority of the Chinese population follows Buddhism.
\par \tab The Portuguese first arrived in Macao in 1513. It became a Portuguese colony in 1557. At about that time the poet Luφs de Cam⌡es wrote part of his 'Lusiads' there. China recognized the Portuguese government of the territory of Macao in an 1887 treaty. It was a province from 1961 until 1974, when it was redefined as a Chinese territory under Portuguese administration. In 1987 Portugal agreed to release control of Macao to China at the end of 1999. Population (1992 estimate), 367,000; city (1991 census) 342,548.\par \tab A landlocked nation in southeastern Europe, the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYRM) declared its independence from Yugoslavia in November 1992. The country extends over 9,928 square miles (25,713 square kilometers) and is bounded by Serbia to the north, Bulgaria to the east, and Greece and Albania to the south. The nation's capital is Skopje.
\par \tab Ethnic Macedonians make up more than 65 percent of the republic's population. Other prominent ethnic groups include the Albanians (21%), Turks (5%), Romanians (3%), and Serbs (2%). A majority of the population belongs to the Eastern Orthodox church, while a quarter of the republic's people are Muslim.
\par \tab The government of Macedonia consists of the Sobranje, a unicameral assembly of 120 members, and a president. The prime minister, who heads the government, is appointed by the president and approved by parliament.
\par \tab Macedonia became involved in a dispute with Greece after declaring independence. Greece claimed that the Macedonian republic was trying to usurp the name of its northern province of Macedonia, and also objected to the use of the Star of Vergina, an ancient Greek symbol, on the republic's flag. An agreement signed in September 1995 eased tensions, with Macedonia agreeing to change its flag in exchange for the lifting of a damaging trade embargo by Greece.
{\b The Former Federated Republic of Yugoslavia}
\par \tab One of the youngest nations of Europe, Yugoslavia was created after World War I as a homeland for several different rival ethnic groups. The country was put together largely from remnants of the collapsed Ottoman Empire and Austria-Hungary. Demands for self-determination by Slovenes, Croats, Serbs, and others went unrecognized, and thus Yugoslavia became an uneasy association of peoples conditioned by centuries of ethnic and religious hatreds. World War II aggravated these rivalries, but a Communist dictatorship took power after the war and kept them restrained for 45 years. When the Communist system failed, the old rivalries reasserted themselves; in 1991-92 the provinces of Slovenia, Croatia, Macedonia, and Bosnia and Herzegovina seceded from the union, leaving the republics of Serbia and Montenegro as the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. Serbia includes the formerly independent provinces of Vojvodina in the north and Kosovo in the south.
\par \tab Yugoslavia is bounded on the north by Hungary, on the northeast by Romania, on the east by Bulgaria, on the south by Macedonia and Albania, on the southwest by the Adriatic Sea, and on the west by Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. At its widest point, the country measures more than 290 miles (465 kilometers) from northwest to southeast and 250 miles (400 kilometers) from northeast to southwest. Yugoslavia's total area is 39,449 square miles (102,172 square kilometers).
\par \tab Yugoslavia has a mountainous terrain. In eastern Serbia, the Balkan Mountains form the republic's border with Bulgaria and Romania, reaching an elevation of 6,000 feet (1,800 meters). The Sar and Kopaonik Mountains, located in southwestern Yugoslavia, feature the country's highest peak, Daravica, at 8,712 feet (2,655 meters). The Dinaric Alps occupy much of Montenegro and contain peaks reaching more than 8,000 feet (2,400 meters), including Montenegro's highest mountain, Durmitor, at 8,274 feet (2,522 meters). The major area of flatland lies in the north and is part of the Mid-Danube, or Pannonian, Plain. Stretching from Croatia and Hungary across northern Serbia, the plain is Yugoslavia's most fertile land.
\par \tab The major river in Yugoslavia is the Danube, which flows southeastward from the Hungarian border, through Belgrade, to the border with Romania. Its primary tributaries are the Sava, Drava, Tisa, and Morava. Other rivers include the Piva, Tara, Lim, and Vardar. Lake Scutari, on the border between Montenegro and Albania, is the largest lake on the Balkan Peninsula.
\par \tab The mountainous nature of Yugoslavia causes considerable climatic differences from one place to another. The Mid-Danube Plain has a continental climate with cold winters, hot summers, and moderate precipitation. The mountain regions have, on the whole, colder and shorter summers and more severe winters compared with other regions.
\par {\b Natural Resources and Plant and Animal Life}
\par \tab Yugoslavia has numerous deposits of lignite, or brown coal, but there is little good-grade black coal. There are some small petroleum and natural gas fields, located primarily in the Vojvodina region. The country has no nuclear power stations. Waterpower is a major source of energy, providing about one third of Yugoslavia's electricity. Yugoslavia is a major European producer of lead and copper. Other minerals include iron ore, zinc, bauxite, mercury, and antimony. About 37 percent of the country is forested. The predominant species are oak, beech, and other deciduous trees, with such evergreens as pine and fir growing in the mountains. Yugoslavia has a wide range of animals, including deer, foxes, wolves, wild pigs, bears, and martens. Birds include grouse, partridge, swans, buzzards, woodpeckers, and pelicans. The Adriatic Sea contains anchovies, sardines, mackerel, tuna, and other fishes.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab The inhabitants of Yugoslavia are of varied ethnic origins. According to the 1991 census the largest group is the Serbs, who number 6.5 million, or 62 percent of the population. They speak Serbo-Croatian, a Slavic language, and belong to the Eastern Orthodox church.
\par \tab A non-Slavic people, the Albanians, live in the southern part of the country. They number 1.7 million (17 percent of the population) and are the fastest growing ethnic group. Montenegrins total about 600,000 and are concentrated within the borders of their republic in southern Yugoslavia. They are Eastern Orthodox and speak Serbo-Croatian. Other ethnic groups present in Yugoslavia include Bosnian Muslims (300,000) and the Hungarians (300,000), Romanians, Bulgarians, Slovaks, Czechs, and others who live mostly in the northern province of Vojvodina.
\par \tab The largest city is Belgrade, the federal capital, with about 1.1 million inhabitants. Novi Sad, the capital of Vojvodina, is the second largest, with more than 170,000. Other important cities include Nis, with 160,000 people; Pristina, the capital of Kosovo, with 108,000; and Podgorica (formerly Titograd), the capital of Montenegro, with about 96,000 inhabitants.
\par \tab Yugoslav culture has been influenced by the Slavs, Turks, Italians, and Austrians. The influence of the long Turkish occupation can be seen in the food, folk costumes, and architecture of the nation.
\par \tab The earliest Yugoslav literature was religious in nature. The first popular literature appeared in medieval Serbia, mainly in the form of epic poems describing the struggle of the Serbs against the Turks. These poems were chanted by minstrels who traveled from village to village.
\par \tab In the 19th century Serbian writers laid the foundations of a modern literature. Vuk Karadic reformed the language and collected folk poetry, while Petar Petrovi Njegos produced epic poetry on the theme of liberty. Among modern writers are the Serbs Branimir Cosic, Branko Copic, and Ivo Andric, the winner of the 1961 Nobel prize for Literature, whose novel 'The Bridge on the Drina' has been translated into many languages.
\par \tab Yugoslav folklore is very colorful. Each ethnic group has its own costumes, songs, and dances. The most popular folk dance is the kolo, a circle dance performed to lively music.
\par \tab Soccer is the most popular sport, and Yugoslavia has produced some star players. Yugoslav basketball teams have also had success in international competitions, including a gold medal victory in the 1980 Summer Olympics. Outdoor sports such as hunting and fishing are also popular.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab Farming is a major occupation, employing about 34 percent of the labor force and utilizing more than half of the nation's land. Most farms are owned privately and are small. The major crops are corn (maize), wheat, barley, oats, potatoes, sugar beets, sunflowers, tobacco, and alfalfa. About one third of the agricultural area consists of pastures for grazing pigs, sheep, and cattle. Much of this is in the mountains. The growing of fruit includes plums, apples, pears, peaches, raspberries, strawberries, and apricots. Grapes are widely grown and wine produced, some for export.
\par \tab Fishing is carried out along the Adriatic coast and on the Danube River. Forestry is concentrated mainly in the mountain forests of northern Yugoslavia. It supports the pulp and paper and furniture industries.
\par \tab Much of Yugoslavia's industry is located in the north, primarily in the area surrounding Belgrade. Major exports include iron, steel, electronics, machinery, textiles, automobiles, and trucks. The processing and refining of metallic minerals also gives considerable employment.
\par \tab In the late 1980s, Yugoslavia began the shift from a centrally planned economy to a market economy. By 1993, only 4 percent of the nation's businesses were owned by the state, though nearly 70 percent of the labor force was employed in the state sector. The combined effects of the civil war in Bosnia and Herzegovina and United Nations (UN) economic sanctions against Yugoslavia served to devastate the Yugoslavian economy in the early 1990s. The country was plagued by a fall in output in almost every sector of the economy, and hyperinflation raged from early 1993 until January 1994, when the government introduced a new currency, called the new dinar, that is pegged to the German deutsche mark.
\par {\b Transportation, Communication, and Education}
\par \tab The problems of rail construction over the mountainous terrain of Yugoslavia have favored the development of a highway network. In the early 1990s, there were nearly 30,000 miles (48,300 kilometers) of roads in the country, compared to almost 2,500 miles (4,025 kilometers) of rail. More than 1.4 million passenger cars and 120,000 trucks were registered for use in 1993.
\par \tab With the secession of Croatia and Slovenia in 1991, Yugoslavia lost all of its major ports except the Montenegrin town of Bar. Yugoslav Airlines (JAT) is state owned and flies to many foreign destinations. The country has five airports, including international terminals at Belgrade and Podgorica.
\par \tab Postal and telephone services are run by the state. In 1993, there were 11 daily newspapers, including the notable Politika and Borba, published in Belgrade, and Pobjeda, printed in Podgorica. More than 2,500 books are published annually in Yugoslavia.
\par \tab In addition to the state-run Serbian Radio and Television and Montenegrin Radio and Television networks, there were three independent radio and television networks operating in the mid-1990s. An estimated 1.7 million televisions and 1.8 million radio receivers were in use in 1993.
\par \tab Education is compulsory between the ages of 7 and 15, after which students may choose to attend either a vocational or general secondary school. Students attending vocational school have the option of continuing their education at a two-year postsecondary school, while those attending general secondary school may continue at one of the country's six four-year universities. All education is free in Yugoslavia, including that at the university level.
\par {\b Government}
\par \tab Under a constitution drafted in April 1992, the government of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia is a federal multiparty republic with a bicameral legislature. The parliament, called the Federal Assembly, is divided into the Chamber of Citizens, which has 138 members elected by universal suffrage, and the 40-member Chamber of Republics, composed of representatives elected in equal numbers from the assemblies of both Serbia and Montenegro. The head of state is the president, who is elected by the federal parliament. The president is responsible for appointing a prime minister to head the government, a choice subject to approval by the legislature.
\par \tab The federal government handles matters of national defense, foreign policy, monetary policy, social welfare, and human rights. A large amount of administrative power is delegated to the separate republican governments of Serbia and Montenegro, which are organized on the federal model.
\par {\b History}
\par \tab After World War I the breakup of Austria-Hungary made possible the creation of a new state for the South Slavs, who include the Serbs, Croats, Slovenes, Bosnian Muslims, Montenegrins, and Macedonians. In 1918, an uneasy coalition of mutually hostile ethnic groups, each with a distinct 1,400-year history, became the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes; the new nation was renamed the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in 1929.
\par \tab Yugoslavia's first ruler was King Alexander, a Serb, who declared a personal dictatorship in 1929. He was assassinated by Croatian terrorists while on a state visit to France in 1934, and the throne passed to his young son Peter II. The resolution of the country's ethnic troubles appeared closer when an agreement was reached in 1939 to give Croatia autonomy, but in 1941 Yugoslavia was invaded by Germany, Italy, Hungary, and Bulgaria. Serbs resisted the occupation forces, and the Communist Partisans under the leadership of Josip Broz, known as Tito, became the dominant group. The Croats and Slovenes, however, sided openly with Germany and Italy.
\par \tab In the aftermath of World War II, Yugoslavia was devastated, with much of the country in ruins and more than 10 percent of its prewar population dead. Peter II was deposed in 1944, and Tito--who now bore the title of marshal--and the Communists came to sole power after an election in November 1945.
\par \tab A new constitution adopted in January 1946 abolished the monarchy and established the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia, a federation of six republics: Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia, and Slovenia. The Serbian provinces of Kosovo, with its Muslim Albanian majority, and Vojvodina, with a large Hungarian population, were given autonomous status within the people's republic in an effort to protect the interests of those two populations.
\par \tab In June 1948 Yugoslavia was expelled from the Soviet bloc for refusing to submit to Soviet orders. Despite Soviet efforts to depose him by isolating Yugoslavia, Tito became the country's first president in 1953. He managed successfully to steer a nonaligned path between the two superpowers, the Soviet Union and the United States, criticizing Western colonialism while also denouncing Soviet aggressions, such as the 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia. When Tito died in 1980, the fragile federation he had held together began to unravel.
\par \tab The League of Communists relinquished their constitutionally guaranteed monopoly on power, and in 1990 the first multiparty elections were held since Tito took power. In May 1991 Serbia and its allies blocked the election of a Croat to the federal presidency, leaving the country without a president. A new Serbian leader emerged--Slobodan Milosevic, who renewed the age-old promise of a Greater Serbia. This goal entailed taking parts of other republics where Serbian minorities lived and uniting them with Serbia.
\par \tab On June 25, 1991, Croatia and Slovenia declared their independence from Yugoslavia. Serbian leaders denounced this action, fearing for the safety of the more than half a million Serbs living in the other Yugoslav republics. Federal troops made up mostly of Serbs poured into Slovenia, resisted by Slovenian militia. The Serbs invaded Croatia.
\par \tab At the end of 1991 Germany, followed by the European Community (EC; now the European Union) and the United States, recognized the independence of Croatia and Slovenia. In January 1992, a cease-fire was negotiated that left Serbia with about one third of Croatia's territory. (A shaky peace between Serbia and Croatia lingered for more than three years until Croatia regained the captured territory in a military offensive during May-August 1995.)
\par \tab The violence spread next to Bosnia and Herzegovina. In an early 1992 referendum boycotted by the large Serb minority, the republic's Croats and Muslims voted for independence. International recognition came on April 6, 1992, and soon after, a bitter civil war erupted throughout the republic as the artillery of Serb militias shelled cities and towns.
\par \tab The situation in Bosnia was complicated by religious differences. Many of its residents were Muslims. Serbs tended mostly to be Serbian Orthodox, while Croats were mostly Roman Catholic. These rivalries added to the ethnic hatreds. Croat and Serb Christians also turned their weapons on the Muslim minority.
\par \tab A campaign of terrorism and genocide, which they termed ethnic cleansing, was started by the Serbs against the Muslims. Many Muslims were killed outright. Muslim women were raped, and men and boys were put into concentration camps. At least two million people became refugees, and about 140,000 were missing and presumed dead.
\par \tab In May 1992 the UN imposed sanctions on the newly formed Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. The UN accused the country of fueling the conflict in Bosnia and Herzegovina by supplying weapons and material support. The sanctions devastated the Serbian economy, causing hyperinflation and massive unemployment. Serbian President Milosevic closed his country's borders with Bosnia and broke off contacts between Serbia and the Bosnian Serbs in an effort to have the sanctions lifted.
\par \tab By late 1995, Muslim and Croat forces had made substantial gains against Serb forces and were in control of more than half the country. Many of Bosnia's cities were in ruins, among them Sarajevo, the capital. A breakthrough peace agreement was signed by the presidents of Serbia, Croatia, and Bosnia on November 21. The deal called for Bosnia and Herzegovina to be split 51 percent to a Croat-Muslim federation and 49 percent to a Bosnian Serb republic, both of which will share power in a central government. As a reward for Yugoslavia's role in bringing the peace treaty to fruition, the UN lifted its economic and military sanctions, signaling that the nation's long international isolation had finally come to an end.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by Ian M. Matley, Professor of Geography, Michigan State University.
\par \tab {\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR YUGOSLAVIA}
\par \tab Cohn, Lenard. Broken Bonds: The Disintegration of Yugoslavia, 2nd ed. (Westview, 1995).
\par \tab Crnobinja, Mihailo. The Yugoslav Drama (Univ. of Toronto Press, 1994).
\par \tab Dragnich, Alex. Serbs and Croats: The Struggle in Yugoslavia (Harcourt Brace, 1992).
\par \tab Pavlowitch, Stevan. Tito--Yugoslavia's Great Dictator: A Reassessment (Ohio State Univ. Press, 1992).
\par \tab Silber, Laura, and Little, Allan. Yugoslavia: Death of a Nation (TV Books/Penguin, 1996).
\par \tab Singleton, Fred. A Short History of the Yugoslav Peoples (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1985).\par \tab The fourth largest island in the world, Madagascar is located off the southeastern coast of Africa in the Indian Ocean. It covers an area of 226,658 square miles (587,041 square kilometers), separated from the African coast by the Mozambique Channel. With a coastline of about 2,480 miles (3,990 kilometers), the island is 980 miles (1,580 kilometers) long from north to south with a maximum width of 360 miles (580 kilometers). The Democratic Republic of Madagascar occupies the island and several minor adjacent islands. Its capital is Antananarivo (population, 1990 estimate, 802,400).
\par \tab The island is divided by ridges, valleys, rivers, and tropical forests into many sections, each with a somewhat different climate and topography: a central plateau with scattered trees and tall grasses, narrow coastal plains in the east, and low plateaus and plains in the west. A backbone of mountains stretches the length of the island. Mount Maromokotro, the island's highest peak at 9,436 feet (2,876 meters), is in the north. Rivers are short and fast flowing in the east and longer in the west, where huge deposits of fertile soil support intensive cultivation. Behind the coral beaches of the east coast an almost continuous chain of lagoons is connected by the Pangalanes Canal, which forms an inland waterway.
\par \tab The tropical climate provides varying amounts of rainfall--from 83 inches (211 centimeters) in the northwest to 14 inches (36 centimeters) in the southwest. The drought-prone south is extremely arid, and the west is hot and wet. Indian Ocean cyclones bring periodic heavy rains and destructive floods. Once covered by forests, most of the island now has a savannah-steppe vegetation with a few deciduous forests in the west and evergreen forests on the eastern edge of the central plateau. There are some mangrove swamps and tropical rain forests on the eastern coast.
\par \tab Despite its proximity to Africa, Madagascar has many forms of wildlife not found on the continent. It is the home of some 50 species of lemur, a tree-dwelling, monkeylike animal. Another unusual animal is the fossa, a carnivorous mammal that is related to the catlike civet and is about the size of a sheepdog. Crocodiles are the most dangerous of the native animals. Madagascar is also the home of some 800 species of butterfly. The spiny globefish and cofferfish are unique to the island. Remains of the aepyornis, a giant bird that became extinct about 200 years ago, have been found here. Some of the plant and animal life seem to be of East Indian origin.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab About 99 percent of the people of Madagascar are Malagasy, a people distinct from those of neighboring Africa and more closely related by language and culture to the people of Indonesia. The island was probably visited by Indonesians during the 1st century AD. Subsequent migrations from the Pacific, African, and Arab countries evolved into 18 distinct ethnic groups that now inhabit the island. More than one fourth of the Malagasy are the Merina, followed by the Betsimisaraka, the Betsileo, and the Tsimihety ethnic groups. There are small minorities of Indians, Chinese, French, and Comorians.
\par \tab The country's population has more than doubled since 1950. Nearly 80 percent of the people are rural, largely concentrated on the central plateau. Antananarivo, the largest city and capital, is located on the plateau. The University of Madagascar, the country's only university, and historical and archaeological museums are there. Antananarivo is served by two airports and is connected by rail to the country's chief port, Toamasina, on the east coast.
\par \tab Malagasy, a language of Indonesian origin, and French are the official languages. Five daily newspapers in both languages are published on the island. Christians, almost evenly divided between Roman Catholics and Protestants, make up the largest religious group. About half of the people follow traditional religions. There are also some small Muslim communities.
\par \tab Education is free and compulsory between the ages of 6 and 14. The literacy rate is about 68 percent. Health facilities are concentrated in urban areas, but there is a shortage of medical personnel. Malaria is common all over the island. Life expectancy is about 53 years.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab Agriculture dominates the economy and employs some 80 percent of the population. It also accounts for about 64 percent of Madagascar's export earnings. Rice is the leading food crop, and about half of the total value of the island's agricultural production comes from rice. Coffee is the leading export crop. Madagascar is the world's largest producer of vanilla, but production fluctuates sharply. Other crops are cloves, peanuts, sisal, bananas, mangoes, cassavas, yams, sugarcane, tobacco, and pineapples. Livestock, particularly cattle, are another source of income. Despite large territorial waters, the fishing industry is in the early stages of development, assisted by Japan and France. Freshwater fishing is more productive.
\par \tab Madagascar's primary industrial activities are mineral extraction and light industries. There are known deposits of nickel, bauxite, coal, and tar sand, but because internal transportation is poor they have not been exploited. Most mineral deposits are found on the southwest coast. Chromite, graphite, gold, zircon, and garnets are mined.
\par \tab Hydroelectricity supplies half of the country's total energy needs. Madagascar is the world's only producer of phlogopite mica. Offshore petroleum deposits were discovered in the early 1980s. There is a refinery at Toamasina.
\par \tab Processed foods and textiles are the major industries. Other manufactures are cigarettes, paper, lumber, fertilizers, leather products, refined sugar, cement, soap, tobacco, and beer.
\par \tab Madagascar's imports include crude petroleum, medicines, chemicals, machinery, motor vehicles, electrical equipment, and textiles; chief exports are coffee, cloves and clove oil, vanilla, and sugar. The balance of trade has not been favorable since the early 1980s. France is the major trade partner.
\par {\b Government and History}
\par \tab Madagascar is a multiparty republic; however, until 1990 it was governed by a single party, the National Front for the Defense of the Revolution. After a military takeover in October 1972, a process of nationalization called malagasization was begun. The 1959 constitution was replaced in 1975, and the country's name was changed to the Democratic Republic of Madagascar.
\par \tab The Arabs established trading posts on Madagascar in the 7th century AD. The Portuguese arrived in about 1500, and the French established settlements in the early 17th century. The French took complete control by 1896, when they abolished the Merina monarchy. Following World War II Madagascar became a French overseas territory, and in 1958 it became the autonomous Malagasy Republic. In 1960 it was proclaimed an independent republic and admitted to the United Nations.
\par \tab Since the 1970s, the military, led by Adm. Didier Ratsiraka, has headed the government. As president, Ratsiraka is chief of state and in that capacity heads the Supreme Revolutionary Council. Under the weight of increasing government debt, a free-market economy was organized in 1986. Although plagued by attempts to overthrow him and by strikes for democratic reforms, Ratsiraka was re-elected to a third term in 1989. In 1990 opposition political parties were legalized but the island continued to suffer social unrest and economic problems. Population (1991 estimate), 12,396,000.\par \tab A landlocked country in Southern Africa, Malawi was known as Nyasaland until 1964. Long and narrow in shape, it covers an area of 45,747 square miles (118,484 square kilometers). More than 520 miles (830 kilometers) long and up to 100 miles (160 kilometers) wide, it extends along the western shore of Lake Nyasa (which is also known as Lake Malawi) and down the Shire River valley. Malawi is bounded by Tanzania to the north, Mozambique to the east and south, and Zambia to the west. Lilongwe is the official capital, though the seat of government is at Zomba.
\par \tab Much of the country is covered by a high plateau 3,000 to 6,000 feet (900 to 1,800 meters) above sea level. The East African Rift Valley, the most prominent physical feature, runs along the eastern border and contains Lake Nyasa--the third largest lake in Africa and one of the deepest lakes in the world. In the north the land rises to more than 8,000 feet (2,400 meters) in the Nyika Plateau. A prominent feature of the intensely cultivated Shire Plateau in the south is Mount Mulanje--at 9,843 feet (3,000 meters) the country's highest point.
\par \tab The Shire, Malawi's principal river, is the only outlet of Lake Nyasa. The subtropical climate has abundant precipitation, especially in the highlands. Temperatures are mild at the higher elevations but rise to well over 100░ F (38░ C) in the lowlands of the Shire. July is the coldest month, and October and November are the hottest months. Forests and woodlands occupy roughly half the total land area.
\par \tab The country's rich animal life is protected in several game parks. The major ones are Lengwe for antelope; Kasungu for elephants, hippopotamuses, and lions; and Nyika for giraffes, zebras, and buffalo.
\par \tab {\b Economy.}
\par \tab The country's economy is based largely on agriculture, which accounts for more than 90 percent of its export earnings. With some of the most fertile soils in South-Central Africa, Malawi grows corn, potatoes, peanuts, cassavas, and plantains. Tung for oil, sunflower seeds, cotton, and peanuts are largely grown for export. Tea plantations are found on the Shire Highlands, and tobacco is raised in the central region. Lake Nyasa provides a rich harvest of fish. Industries are limited to the production of cement, beer, cigarettes, pharmaceuticals, textiles, furniture, and various construction materials; sugar refining; and timber processing.
\par \tab External trade is dominated by exports of tobacco, tea, cotton, and sugar and imports of road vehicles, machinery, and consumer goods. The lack of economic opportunities in the country forces large numbers of Malawians to work in the mines and factories of nearby countries. The money they send home accounts for a large part of Malawi's national income.
\par \tab The port city of Beira in Mozambique is Malawi's chief outlet for foreign trade. Beira is also connected by a railway with Salima on Lake Nyasa. There are more than 1,500 miles (2,400 kilometers) of good paved roads. Lilongwe has an international airport. Public health facilities and medical personnel are few in Malawi. The average life expectancy is about 45 years, and the infant mortality rate is very high--more than 20 percent.
\par \tab Education is not compulsory, but since independence Malawians have been receiving primary school education in sizable numbers. The literacy rate has been reported at less than 40 percent. The University of Malawi, founded in 1965, is at Zomba.
\par \tab {\b People.}
\par \tab Malawi derives its name from the Maravi, a Bantu people who first settled in the region some 600 years ago. Almost the entire population consists of Bantu-speaking black Africans, with small minorities of Europeans and Asians. Chewa and English are the official languages. Some of the major tribes are the Yao, Nyanja, Lomwe, Tonga, Henga, Chewa, and Ngoni. Mostly concentrated in the south, Malawi's population is largely rural, living in small villages with houses of mud walls and thatched roofs.
\par \tab More than half the people adhere to Christianity, but there are large groups who practice traditional African religions. About 15 percent of the population are Muslims. Blantyre is the largest city and the commercial center of the country. Lilongwe is the second largest and Mzuzu is another major city.
\par \tab {\b History.}
\par \tab The vicinity of Lake Nyasa was inhabited in the period between 8000 and 2000 BC. The slave trade flourished during the 18th and 19th centuries. The missionary David Livingstone reached Lake Nyasa in 1859. Islam spread into Malawi with the slave trade in the 1860s. In 1878 the British-sponsored African Lakes Company began building trading posts. Great Britain established the Nyasaland Districts Protectorate in 1891 following agreements with the German and Portuguese governments. In 1893 it became the British Central Africa Protectorate, and in 1907 the colony was renamed the Nyasaland Protectorate. It was made part of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland in 1953.
\par \tab Nyasaland became a self-governing colony in February 1963. It achieved independent status under its new name on July 6, 1964, and joined the Commonwealth of Nations and the United Nations. It became a republic in 1966. The economy prospered in the 1970s with the help of foreign aid and capital investment. Early in that decade Malawi became a refuge for antigovernment rebels from Mozambique. By the mid-1990s the country was deeply dependent on foreign aid.
\par \tab Malawi was for many years a one-party state with a legislature called the National Assembly. Hastings Kamuzu Banda, named prime minister in 1963, was elected president for life in 1971. He established a dictatorship that lasted until 1994. The nation held its first parliamentary elections since independence on June 29, 1978.
\par \tab Banda's serious illness prompted the government to strip him of his title of president for life in November 1993, and a successful referendum to abolish the one-party system in 1993 paved the way for free elections in May 1994. Bakili Muluzi, a 51-year-old businessman, was elected president by a margin of 46 to 31 percent of the vote. Muluzi and his United Democratic Front pledged to reduce poverty. He called for a nonviolent transition but ordered an inquiry into Banda's alleged involvement in the killing of four political rivals in 1983. In January 1995 Banda was placed under house arrest, accused of ordering the 1983 killings. Population (1994 estimate), 9,732,000.\par \tab A nation of Southeast Asia, Malaysia consists of two components: peninsular Malaysia, which is part of mainland Southeast Asia, and the states of Sabah and Sarawak on the island of Borneo. Although there are considerable areas of lowland and coastal plain, much of the country consists of mountainous terrain clothed in dense rain forest. With the exception of Mount Kinabalu in Sabah, elevations are modest3,000 to 6,000 feet (1,000 to 2,000 meters). Since Malaysia lies entirely between one and seven degrees north of the equator, it experiences a humid equatorial-tropical climate.
\par \tab Peninsular Malaysia covers an area of 50,806 square miles (131,587 square kilometers) and consists of the states of Perlis, Kelantan, Kedah, Terengganu, Pinang, Perak, Pahang, Negeri Sembilan, Selangor, Melaka, and Johor. The capital, Kuala Lumpur, occupies a small enclave in the state of Selangor, designated in 1974 as Federal Territory. About 82 percent of Malaysia's population resides in peninsular Malaysia. The populations in Sabah, with an area of 28,460 square miles (73,711 square kilometers), and Sarawak, with an area of 48,050 square miles (124,449 square kilometers), account for about 8 and 9 percent, respectively.
\par \tab Malaysia is a very significant nation in Southeast Asia, even though it is the smallest in the region except for Singapore and Brunei. It is one of the world's leading producers of tin, natural rubber, oil palm, and tropical lumber.
\par {\b Land and Climate}
\par \tab Mountain ranges extend southward from Thailand into peninsular Malaysia. The weathering of granites and other associated rocks has created extensive areas of deep and relatively well-drained soils. Tin-bearing minerals are concentrated in the gravel beds of several of the major river systems. Over the years these rivers have transported much sediment, building extensive areas of coastal alluvial plain--especially along the Strait of Malacca. These areas are either exploited for their swamp forest resources or are drained to become agricultural land, especially for growing rice.
\par \tab Much of the center of Borneo consists of mountain systems. Sarawak, in the northwest, represents a slightly uplifted basin with its southern portion folded into a series of parallel ridges from southwest to northeast. Its northern portion is a still sedimenting coastal plain under which have been found considerable petroleum resources. The mountain ridges of Sarawak pass northeastward into Sabah, where they form a more compact coastal mountain chain. This culminates in Mount Kinabalu, which at 13,698 feet (4,175 meters) is the highest point between northeastern India and the island of New Guinea.
\par \tab Malaysia's equatorial climate is characterized by temperatures and humidity that remain high throughout the year. In Kuala Lumpur the daily minimum and maximum temperatures are about 73░ and 90░ F (23░ and 32░ C). Annual rainfall averages about 100 inches (250 centimeters). From December to March a northeasterly airflow predominates, and portions of the country, especially those areas farther from the equator, have a distinct dry season. From May to October a southwesterly flow predominates, and rainfall is widespread.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab The population of Malaysia in 1991 was about 17.5 million, of which native ethnic groups accounted for 61.7 percent, Chinese 29.7 percent, Indians 8.1 percent, and others 0.5 percent. The population has been shifting in its distribution from rural to urban, though it is still predominantly rural. The major cities--notably Kuala Lumpur, George Town, Ipoh, and Johor Baharu--are expanding rapidly as the Malays and the other native ethnic groups that were previously largely rural are migrating in increasing numbers to urban centers.
\par \tab Malaysia has great ethnic diversity. In peninsular Malaysia there remain some 60,000 members of groups referred to as the Orang Asli, or aboriginal peoples. Included are several groups of Negritos and Senoi and such others as the Jakun and the Temelai, who may in fact be more closely related to the later Malay arrivals. These peoples are believed to be remnants of groups that have lived in the peninsula for thousands of years but who were driven into remote parts of the mountains and forests by subsequent migrant groups.
\par \tab The later arrivals began infiltrating Southeast Asia from the north in about 2000-1500 BC. They settled in the valleys and plains, but in certain areas they also occupied the mountainous interiors. These groups include the Malays in peninsular Malaysia; the Iban, Kayan, Kelabit, Kenyah, Bidayuh, Bisayah, Melanau, and Kelabit in Sarawak; and the Bajau, Kadazan, and Murut in Sabah. These groups are generally referred to collectively as the Bumiputra groups, or the "sons of the soil."
\par \tab Under colonial rule Chinese--especially from the southern provinces--were encouraged to come to peninsular Malaysia and Sarawak. Indian laborers from South India were also brought to work on the rubber plantations. The Chinese and Indians together make up almost half of the population of peninsular Malaysia, though their proportions in Sarawak and Sabah are much lower.
\par \tab The Malays of the peninsula were influenced by the Indianized kingdoms of Southeast Asia, though few cultural traces of this Hindu-Buddhist phase remain. During the 15th century Islam entered the region from India by way of northern Sumatra, and the Malay peoples quickly embraced this religion. The social and cultural life of the Malays revolves around their religious obligations and activities. Every village or kampong has its mosque. Malay children are often sent to religious as well as state schools. Many Malays make the hajj, or pilgrimage, to Mecca, and the major festival of the year is the celebration with which the Muslim month of fasting ends.
\par \tab Chinese and Indian immigrant groups who arrived in the 19th and early 20th centuries brought with them their own languages and religions. Several southern Chinese dialects were represented among the Chinese immigrant population, but Cantonese and Hokkien were the two major ones. Tamil-speaking Hindus from around Madras were a large element among the Indians. The Chinese and Indians made strong efforts to maintain their distinctive ethnic identities, but with the coming of independence Malaysia worked toward a more unified national image. Education in all languages except Malay--Bahasa Malaysia--is being phased out, though the use of other languages is not prohibited. The population also includes small numbers of Europeans, Americans, Arabs, and Thai.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab Malaysia is a country in which the production and export of raw materials is a major part of the economy. But the country has made great strides in attempting to diversify its economy and to encourage the growth of modern industries and services. In 1993 it was estimated that 21 percent of the labor force was engaged in agriculture and other primary industries, 23 percent in manufacturing, 7 percent in construction, 25 percent in services (including public utilities and trade), 11 percent in government, and 20 percent in miscellaneous occupations.
\par \tab Natural rubber has long been the most significant commercial crop. It is produced mainly in peninsular Malaysia, both from large-scale plantations and from smallholdings. Many of the smallholdings were created beginning in the 1960s in an extensive program of pioneer settlement--the establishing of impoverished families as farmers in government-planned settlement (FELDA) schemes. Smallholders were responsible for two thirds of the million and a half metric tons of rubber produced annually in the early 1980s. Palm oil, also from both plantations and smallholders, is another major commercial crop.
\par \tab Rice has been cultivated in the region for centuries and remains a staple food item. Most rice cultivators are Malay peasant farmers on smallholdings. Yields and output have increased as a result of irrigation projectssuch as the Muda Scheme in Kedah and Perlis--and the use of high-yielding rice strains. Annual production of rice at 1.8 million tons represents 80 to 85 percent of national self-sufficiency. Bananas, cacao, pineapples, and tobacco are also grown. Tropical timber is exported. Peninsular Malaysia, Sarawak, and Sabah share more or less equally in this form of trade. The rate at which the country's 50 million acres (20 million hectares) of primary forest is being cut, however, has been slowed.
\par \tab Malaysia is one of the world's leading tin producers. Like most primary products, tin faces an uncertain future. Quotas are in force to restrict production. In 1993 Malaysia produced an estimated 10,000 tons of tin.
\par \tab Petroleum is a more recent industry with reserves estimated at more than 3 billion barrels. Production is almost entirely from offshore rigs that lie to the east of peninsular Malaysia and to the north of Sarawak and Sabah. Production of petroleum reached nearly 450,000 barrels per day in 1984 but was reduced in response to declining prices. The petroleum fields also contain vast reserves of natural gas that have been little exploited. There are plans to make natural gas the basis of several new industrial complexes, including one for aluminum smelting at Miri in Sarawak.
\par \tab Industrialization in Malaysia began early. In its first stages it was linked to the production and export of industrial materials. Rubber processing, tin smelting, and palm-oil extraction all made their appearance before 1960. In the 1960s a policy of import substitution was initiated, with favorable terms accorded companies that began local industries to serve the Malaysian market. Such major industries as iron and steel, sugar refining, cement production, and fertilizers were begun. In the 1970s there was a policy shift toward encouraging the establishment of export-oriented industries. This led to factories in major urban centers, especially of peninsular Malaysia, that produced components for the international electronics industry. It also spurred the rapid growth of textiles and other manufactured items for sale in Europe and North America. The motor vehicle industry, though still dependent on imported parts, progressed by 1986 to the point of producing a prototype of a passenger car intended for the North American market.
\par \tab By 1993 it was estimated that 1.7 million workers, or 23 percent of the labor force, were employed in manufacturing industries. Manufacturing accounted for 30 percent of the total value of the country's gross domestic product.
\par \tab A notable feature of economic policy planning in Malaysia is the attempt to raise the economic status of the country's Malay population, long below that of the immigrant peoples. Development plans include land settlement schemes and shareholding trust funds that share in the purchase and management of modern industries. This has been done, however, at the cost of some alienation of the Chinese and Indian segments of the population.
\par {\b History and Government}
\par \tab In the middle of the 1st millennium AD, city-states emerged in Southeast Asia that reflected Hindu and Buddhist influences from India. The lands that now make up Malaysia were at different times affected by these states, but no major Indianized state seems to have existed in Malaysia. In the 15th century Melaka was founded, and shortly thereafter its ruler was converted to Islam. Melaka rapidly became the center of a commercial empire that controlled much of the trade in precious spices from the islands to the east, especially the Moluccas. From Melaka, Islam spread farther to the east, establishing itself in Borneo.
\par \tab European powers soon began to intrude into the region, each seeking to control the highly profitable spice trade. The Portuguese captured Melaka in 1511. A century later the Dutch replaced the Portuguese. The British were the main rivals of the Dutch, and these two powers remained in contention until after the Napoleonic wars. In 1824 they signed the Anglo-Dutch Treaty, which divided Southeast Asia into spheres of influence that were later to become colonial possessions. By this treaty Britain gave the Dutch all "factories," or trading posts, in Sumatra, recognized Dutch control over Java, and agreed not to establish posts or enter into treaty relations with rulers of islands "south of the Straits of Singapore." In return the Dutch agreed to give up all their posts and claims on the Malay peninsula as well as to cede posts in India. This colonial division created the territorial structure of the present-day federation of Malaysia. In addition to developing control over the Malay peninsula, the British established themselves on the northern coast of Borneo--now Sarawak and Sabah--as these areas did not lie south of the Straits of Singapore.
\par \tab As the 19th century progressed, Britain's hold on the territory tightened. Britain exercised direct rule over the Straits Settlements--George Town, Melaka, and Singapore, a port founded by Stamford Raffles in 1819. Various Malay sultanates were placed under treaty relationships. James Brooke obtained permission in the 1840s from the sultan of Brunei in Borneo to pacify--and rule--the southwestern part of Sarawak, and the area he controlled subsequently increased. In North Borneo, later Sabah, the British North Borneo Company was granted a charter in 1846. Resistance to this intensification of colonial rule was widespread, and revolts simmered for years.
\par \tab Economic change was rapid in the latter part of the 19th century and the start of the 20th. Chinese tin miners had long been operating in the Malay peninsula, and the establishment of British control enabled them to expand their activities. Large numbers of Chinese laborers flowed into the region to work in the mines, many staying to start other businesses. Railroads were constructed to help export the tin. Various types of agricultural and plantation enterprises were established--primarily coffee, tea, and rubber. Rubber was native to the Amazon Basin in South America, but seeds were transported to London in 1876 and from there to Singapore. After experiments in Singapore, rubber was recommended as a plantation crop in Malaya, and plantings expanded rapidly.
\par \tab The native populations participated in the growing cash economy only to a minor extent. On the peninsula they continued to be hunters, and in the forests they continued to grow irrigated rice and other crops.
\par \tab As a raw-materials producer, Malaya suffered severely during the years of the Great Depression. In the late 1930s economic conditions improved, but in 1941 Malaya, Sarawak, and Sabah were all invaded by the Japanese and remained under Japanese control until 1945. The British returned after the war to reestablish colonial rule in Malaya and took over Sarawak and Sabah. British plans for independence for its territories met with strong opposition. They included citizenship for both native and immigrant peoples and were perceived as reducing the status of the Malay princely states. The outbreak of a Communist-led insurgency in 1948 also interfered with plans to grant independence. In 1957 Malaya became independent, but Sarawak and Sabah continued as British territories for several years.
\par \tab In 1963 Britain proposed a federation to incorporate not only Malaya but also Singapore, Sarawak, Sabah, and Brunei. All but Brunei agreed to form the Federation of Malaysia. Singapore withdrew in 1965.
\par \tab Each state in the federation has an elected legislature and a chief minister. At the federal level there is a bicameral, or two-house legislature, or parliament. Government is in the hands of a prime minister, who is chief of the majority party in the Dewan Rakyat, or lower house. The states of Melaka, Pinang, Sarawak, and Sabah have appointed governors who function as constitutional rulers for the state. Each of the other states has a ruler, or sultan, who functions as a constitutional monarch but is also responsible for questions relating to the Muslim religion and the Malay language. The constitutional monarch for the whole federation is the Yang Dipertuan Agung, elected by the traditional Malay rulers from among themselves for a term of five years.
\par \tab The Malays constitute the major political power block, and they dominate the nation's political life. They have found it necessary, however, to maintain a political alliancethe Barisan Nasional--with elements in Sarawak and Sabah and with Chinese and Indian groups of peninsular Malaysia. The Barisan and its predecessors have held a majority in parliament without interruption since the granting of independence in 1957. Opposition to the Barisan comes from radical elements of the Chinese, Indians, and Malays on the left and from Islamic reformers on the right who seek to establish a Muslim state.
\par \tab Recommended readings are 'Information Malaysia', edited by Gulrose Karim (Berita, 1986), and 'Fifth Malaysia Plan: 1986-1990', published by Malaysia's National Printing Office in 1986.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by W. Donald McTaggart, Professor of Geography, Arizona State University.\par \tab One of the smallest countries in the world, Maldives is a chain of nearly 1,200 small coral islands in the Indian Ocean. Situated southwest of India, the islands extend more than 475 miles (764 kilometers) from north to south and 80 miles (130 kilometers) from east to west, with a total land area of 115 square miles (298 square kilometers). Only some 200 islands are inhabited.
\par \tab The islands are the peaks of an ancient submerged volcanic mountain range. All of the islands are low-lying--none rises to more than 6 feet (1.8 meters) above sea level. Many are surrounded by barrier reefs that protect them from the destructive effects of monsoons. The hot and humid climate has average annual temperatures varying from 79░ F (26░ C) to 92░ F (33░ C). Rainfall on all the islands averages 59 inches (150 centimeters). Because of the hot and humid climatic conditions, malaria is common. The luxuriant vegetation consists of coconut palms, breadfruit trees, and tropical bushes. Fish and turtles abound in the ocean. Assorted vegetables, melons, coconuts, cassava, sweet potatoes, and yams are the chief crops.
\par \tab Maldives is one of the most underdeveloped countries in the world. Fishing and the building and repairing of boats are the major industries. Tuna is the predominant species caught, and there is a tuna-canning factory on Lhaviyan Atoll. Tourism and postage stamps generate considerable revenue. Traditional handicrafts include the making of coir and coir products, lace, lacquerwork, garments, and woven mats. Fish, fish products, and copra are the chief exports. Imports include food items, petroleum products, textiles, and medicine. India, Sri Lanka, and the United Kingdom are the major trading partners.
\par \tab The people are of Dravidian, Sinhalese, Arab, and African origin. The southern islands are the more densely populated ones. Male, the capital city, is also the chief urban center, with nearly a quarter of the country's population. Divehi, similar to the old Sinhalese of Sri Lanka, is the official language. Arabic, Hindi, and English are also spoken. Islam is the official religion. Education is compulsory; traditional schools teach the reading and reciting of the Koran. There are no colleges or universities in Maldives. Traditional medical practices are common. Boats provide the principal means of transport between the atolls. The international airport is on Hulule Island near Male.
\par \tab Maldives was inhabited as early as the 5th century BC by Buddhists probably from Sri Lanka and southern India. Islam was adopted in the 12th century. The British protectorate of the Maldive Islands gained full political independence in 1965 and joined the United Nations. It became a republic in 1968, when the former sultanate was abolished. Sri Lankan mercenaries tried to overthrow the Maldives government in November 1988. They fled Male with hostages in stolen boats after Indian troops arrived. The drama ended when the gunmen, members of a Tamil guerrilla force, surrendered to the Indian navy. Population (1994 estimate), 244,000.\par \tab A landlocked country in northwestern Africa, Mali covers an area of 478,841 square miles (1,240,192 square kilometers). It is bordered by Senegal and Mauritania on the west, Algeria on the northeast, Niger on the east, Burkina Faso on the southeast, and C⌠te d'Ivoire and Guinea on the south. In Mali is the legendary city of Timbuktu, long regarded as perhaps the most inaccessible place on Earth. Bamako is the capital.
\par \tab The northern third of the country lies within the Sahara. Loose sand covers most of the rest of the country. Mali's land is largely flat. The plateaus of the east and the southeast are a chain of small hills with elevations between 1,000 and 1,700 feet (300 to 500 meters). The extensions of the Futa Jallon mountains are in the west. The Niger and the Senegal, in the central and southwestern parts of the country, respectively, are Mali's two major rivers. Nearly one third of the total length of the Niger flows through Mali, and its basin is the principal agricultural region. It is also a major waterway and source of fish.
\par \tab A very short rainy season and a long, dry summer are characteristic of Mali's climate. A virtual absence of rain and an extremely dry atmosphere prevail in the north. Rainfall is most regular and heavy in the southeast--51 inches (130 centimeters). From the 1960s rainfall has decreased and has become more erratic. Annual average temperatures range from 80░ F (27░ C) in the south to 86░ F (30░ C) in the central part. Temperatures in the north exceed 117░ F (47░ C) during the day. Natural vegetation decreases, along with rainfall, from south to north and gradually disappears. Vegetation in the south consists of mahogany, kapok, and baobab trees. Only about 1 percent of Mali's land area is considered arable, and about 25 percent is available as pasture or rangeland. Animal life includes lions, panthers, hyenas, gazelles, antelopes, giraffes, elephants, crocodiles, and a wide variety of monkeys, snakes, and birds. Smaller game and water birds are present except in the desert.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab Mali is one of the least densely populated countries in Africa. About 80 percent of the people live in small villages and pursue such traditional occupations as farming, fishing, herding, crafts, and trade. The nomadic groups of Berbers, Tuareg, and Moors live north of the Niger River. Mostly herders, they raise cattle, sheep, and goats and are always on the move in search of water and forage for their animals. Black peoples include various agricultural, settled groups of Bambara, Soninke, MalinkΘ, and Songhai. About 90 percent of the people are Muslims, but many small groups adhere to traditional African religions. Only about 1 percent are Christians. French is the official language. Several local languages and dialects are spoken, of which Bambara is the most widely used. The Moors speak Arabic. Mali's major cities are Bamako, the capital and largest city, SΘgou, Mopti, Sikasso, and Kayes.
\par \tab Education is free and compulsory for all children age 6 to 15. The literacy rate is very low--about 19 percent. The government operates several literacy centers for adults. Although Mali has a number of small hospitals, medical and health centers, and maternity clinics, there is a shortage of trained medical staff. Life expectancy is about 42 years, and the infant mortality rate is very high.
\par \tab Situated between the Arab world to the north and the black African nations to the south, Mali has for centuries been one of the cultural crossroads of West Africa. The most noteworthy cultural aspects of the country are its folk music and dance, wood carving, and jewelry making.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab Agriculture, employing approximately 80 percent of the workforce, is the major economic activity. Subsistence farming and livestock raising are subject to cyclic drought conditions. Major crops are millet, cassava, corn, rice, cotton, sugarcane, and peanuts. Rice is grown along the banks of the Niger River. Mali is one of the world's major producers of peanuts and peanut oil. The raising of goats, sheep, and cattle is the second major source of income after agriculture. Livestock accounts for about a fourth of total export earnings. Fish are caught both for domestic use and for export.
\par \tab There are known deposits of bauxite, uranium, iron ore, copper, and manganese, but mining is presently limited to gold, phosphate, limestone, marble, and salt. Exploration is under way for petroleum, tin, and diamonds. Most of Malian industry is concentrated in Bamako. Manufacturing is primarily small-scale and is dominated by light industries. Food processing includes rice and cotton milling, sugar refining, palm-oil extraction, and fruit preservation. Such small consumer goods as matches, cotton textiles, and building materials are manufactured, and there are a cement plant, small brickworks, and a marble factory. Bamako and Mopti have international airports.
\par \tab Mali suffers from a chronic trade deficit. The country's total imports are almost double the value of its exports. Major exports are raw cotton and cotton products, live animals, gold and diamonds, fish, and peanuts; chief imports are machinery, transportation equipment, petroleum and pharmaceutical products, chemicals, and construction materials. France is the major trade partner.
\par {\b History}
\par \tab Numerous traces of late prehistoric civilizations have been found in Mali. As early as AD 300 ivory, gum, ostrich feathers, gold, and slaves were transported on caravan routes across the Sahara. Mali takes its name from that of a large, rich empire of the 13th to 16th century. In 1591 the Moroccan army invaded the area, and it remained under the Moors for two centuries. The French conquered the land in the mid-19th century, and it became part of French West Africa. In 1946 the area, then called the French Sudan, became an overseas territory of the French Union. In November 1958 what is now Mali was proclaimed the Sudanese Republic, a self-governing member of the French Community. In 1959 the Sudanese Republic and Senegal, a former French colony on the Atlantic coast, united to form the Federation of Mali. Political differences led Senegal to withdraw in 1960, and Mali became independent.
\par \tab After independence a socialist regime collectivized farms and restricted trade. In 1968 deteriorating economic conditions led a military junta, led by Moussa Traore, to overthrow the government. The junta suspended the constitution, restored free trade, and ended farm collectivization. A new constitution, approved in 1974, provided for a single-party republic headed by an elected president, who was both head of government and of state. In March 1991 in response to strikes and protests from pro-democracy supporters another military junta, led by Amadou Toure, overthrew Traore. In April the junta named a civilian, Soumana Sacko, to the new office of prime minister. Toure led the transitional government until elections were held in early 1992. Population (1994 estimate), 8,825,000.\par \tab An island country, Malta is located in the central Mediterranean Sea 58 miles (93 kilometers) south of Sicily. Covering an area of 124 square miles (321 square kilometers), the country consists of five islands--Malta (the largest), Gozo, and Comino, which are inhabited, and the uninhabited islands of Cominotto and Filfla. The capital and chief port is Valletta, located on the island of Malta.
\par \tab The Mediterranean climate provides hot and dry summers, cool rainy winters, and an absence of snow, frost, and fog. Malta has no permanent rivers or lakes, and natural vegetation is sparse. About half of the total land is cultivated, but because of poor soils, productivity is low. Wheat, barley, corn (maize), potatoes, and citrus fruits are cultivated on tiny farms on terraced hillsides. Salt and limestone are the only minerals.
\par \tab Until 1979 the economy was dependent on a British military base and naval docks. When they closed, the government of Malta successfully diversified the economy. Tourism is now a major industry and source of foreign exchange. Construction and the repair of ships is also vital to the economy. Other industries include food processing, winemaking, and the manufacture of textiles, garments, and leather footwear. Exports include textiles, garments, shoes, and plastics. Germany, Italy, and Great Britain are the chief trading partners. Malta has about 800 miles (1,300 kilometers) of all-weather roads. There are no railways.
\par \tab The Maltese people have a high standard of living. Hospitalization and some health services are free in public institutions. Education is compulsory between the ages of 6 and 16; it is free in public schools and, since 1985, in church secondary schools. The population is of mixed Italian, Arab, Turkish, Greek, and British ethnic origin. More than 95 percent of the people follow Roman Catholicism, the state religion. Both English and Maltese--a language of mixed Phoenician, Arabic, and Latin origin using the Latin alphabet--are official languages. The University of Malta is the only institution of higher learning.
\par \tab Archaeological remains on Malta are among the oldest monuments of mankind in the Mediterranean region. Phoenicians colonized strategically located Malta in about 900 BC, and the Romans took control of it in 218 BC. In AD 870 the Arabs made themselves masters and introduced Arabic. Malta was ruled by a succession of feudal lords until the early 16th century. In June 1798 Napoleon took possession of the island. The British seized it from the French in 1800, but its status as a British colony was not recognized until the Treaty of Paris in 1814.
\par \tab Malta attained independence within the Commonwealth in 1964 and became a republic in 1974. Parliament consists of an elected House of Representatives, a president who is elected for a five-year term as the constitutional head of state, and an appointed prime minister who is the head of government. In international affairs Malta has maintained a nonalignment policy and negotiated economic agreements with many countries. Population (1994 estimate), 368,000.\par \tab A republic in the central Pacific Ocean, the Marshall Islands comprises two parallel chains of coral atolls 800 miles (1,300 kilometers) long. The chains lie about 125 miles (200 kilometers) apart. The islands and islets number more than 1,200 and have a total land area of 70 square miles (181 square kilometers), scattered over about 770,000 square miles (1,994,000 square kilometers) of the Pacific. The islands are coral caps set on dome volcanoes rising from the ocean floor. The climate is tropical. Relative humidity is always high, averaging about 85 percent.
\par \tab The economy is more than 90 percent dependent on United States grants or defense payments. Bikini and Eniwetak atolls served as testing grounds for nuclear weapons from 1946 to 1962, and Kwajalein atoll is presently used as a missile testing range by the United States military.
\par \tab A German possession until World War I and administered by Japan between the world wars, the Marshall Islands were administered as part of a United Nations Trust Territory by the United States after World War II. They became an independent republic on Sept. 17, 1991. The capital is Dalap-Uliga-Darrit (also known as DUD), on Majuro atoll. Population (1994 estimate), 54,000.\par \tab The oval-shaped island of Martinique is a French overseas department in the eastern Caribbean Sea. Located 4,400 miles (7,000 kilometers) from France, it is the smallest of all French overseas departments. Martinique is the largest of the Windward Islands in the West Indies and covers 421 square miles (1,091 square kilometers). The islands of Dominica and Saint Lucia are to the north and south, respectively. Fort-de-France is the largest city, capital, and leading port.
\par \tab Largely mountainous and volcanic in origin, the island is some 50 miles (80 kilometers) long and 22 miles (35 kilometers) wide. The highest point is Mont PelΘe, at 4,583 feet (1,397 meters), an active volcano in the north.
\par \tab The climate is tropical, with an annual average temperature of 79░ F (26░ C). Rainfall, varying according to elevation, averages 70 inches (178 centimeters). Forests cover more than one quarter of the island. Palm, rosewood, and mahogany trees abound on the mountain slopes. There are mangrove swamps on the southern coast.
\par \tab The developing market economy is largely based on tourism and export-oriented agriculture. Sugarcane is the leading crop, and bananas, avocados, pineapples, yams, sweet potatoes, and vegetables also are grown. Flowers are cultivated on a large scale for export. Industrial activity is very limited and is mostly concentrated in construction, food processing, and the production of consumer goods for the domestic market. Sugar processing, rum distilling, and the manufacture of leather goods, cement, garments, and refined petroleum products are the chief industries. The growing tourist industry is a significant element in the island's economy.
\par \tab Martinique's total imports amount to more than eight times the value of exports. France is the largest trade partner. Chief exports are sugar, rum, bananas, pineapple preserves, and fertilizers; major imports are crude petroleum and petroleum products, electrical machinery, chemicals, clothing, and food products. There are no railways, but there are about 500 miles (800 kilometers) of good motor roads. An international airport is at Lamentin.
\par \tab The majority of the population is of black African or mulatto origin. French is the official language, but a local creole with French, Spanish, and African elements is widely spoken. Roman Catholicism is the major religion. The island has a high standard of living compared to its Caribbean neighbors. Its economy is heavily dependent on French government aid, giving rise to problems such as high unemployment, emigration to France, and social unrest. Economic power rests with the descendants of white colonial settlers who own most of the agricultural land and control the island's trade. Education is free and compulsory in government schools for children age 6 to 16. There is a branch of the Universitaire Antilles-Guyana. The literacy rate is very high--about 93 percent--and school attendance is nearly 100 percent.
\par \tab Martinique's tourist attractions include its warm climate, beaches, and coastal scenery. Fort-de-France became the leading city only after 1902, when Mont PelΘe erupted, destroying the city of St-Pierre and killing 30,000 people. The desolate site of St-Pierre is now a tourist attraction. Another place of interest is the ruins of the old house where Napoleon's first wife, the empress Josephine, was born.
\par \tab The first European to reach Martinique in 1502 was Christopher Columbus on his fourth voyage. France colonized it in 1635. The British occupied it for brief periods, but since 1816 Martinique has been under French control. The native Indians--Caribs--were exterminated through many wars or were assimilated. Black African slaves were imported to work in the sugarcane fields. Slavery was abolished in 1848, and some 74,000 slaves were freed.
\par \tab In March 1946, at the request of its inhabitants, Martinique became a French overseas department. Local leftist groups have been demanding independence from France since the 1960s. The president of France is head of state, represented by a government commissioner. Population (1986 estimate), 328,000.\par \tab Named by the French after a province of the Roman Empire, the Islamic Republic of Mauritania is located in northwestern Africa. Covering an area of 398,000 square miles (1,030,800 square kilometers), it is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the west, Western Sahara to the northwest, Algeria to the northeast, Mali to the east and south, and Senegal to the southwest. The capital is Nouakchott (1988 population census, 393,325).
\par \tab Lying within the Sahara, most of Mauritania's land is low and sandy with an average elevation of about 500 feet (150 meters) above sea level. Sand dunes cover about half of the land. The climate is hot and dry, but there is a large variation in temperature. Rainfall is absent or negligible in most years and is usually less than 4 inches (10 centimeters). Vegetation increases from north to south, but overall it is sparse and scrubby. Antelope, lion, elephant, gazelle, ostrich, panther, and lynx are mostly found in the south. The Senegal River valley in the south is the only region with adequate precipitation for farming--25 inches (64 centimeters) annually. Floodplains of the Senegal River and its tributaries support Mauritania's most densely settled farming population.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab More than four fifths of the people are Moors, or of mixed Arab and Berber descent. The remainder are of mixed Arabic or black African descent. There are also small communities of Europeans. Most of the Moors are seminomads who live in tents and range in seasonal patterns over vast areas in search of water and forage for their livestock.
\par \tab Black Africans, mostly sedentary farmers, consist of the Tukulor, the Soninke, the Fulani, and the Wolof. Virtually all Mauritanians are Muslims; Islam is the official religion. The Arab and Muslim heritage of Mauritania's Moorish society is reflected in its arts. Goldsmithing and jewelry making are among the country's fine-arts traditions. Arabic is the official language, but several tribal languages are also spoken.
\par \tab The news media are owned and operated by the government. Mauritania has a high illiteracy rate of more than 60 percent, and primary school attendance is only about 15 percent. Common diseases are malaria, tuberculosis, measles, and influenza. The country's only major hospital is in Nouakchott. Life expectancy is about 44 years for men and 50 years for women. Infant mortality is high at 94 per 1,000 live births.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab Mauritania's economy is largely based on subsistence agriculture and livestock raising. The chief crops are sorghum, rice, pulses, dates, vegetables, and roots and tubers. Date palms are cultivated in the oases. Gum arabic is gathered from the wild acacia trees. Livestock raising of sheep, goats, and cattle involves nearly 35 percent of the work force. Live animals, chiefly cattle and camels, and such livestock products as meat and hides are exported. Cyclic drought conditions can drastically lower agricultural and livestock output. Mauritania's offshore waters contain some of the world's richest fishing grounds. Fish are caught both for the domestic market and for export.
\par \tab The country's principal source of wealth is its large deposits of high-grade iron ore, accounting for 32 percent of its export earnings. The exploitation of iron-ore and copper reserves has made Mauritania one of West Africa's wealthier nations. Industrial development is limited to sugar refining, gypsum processing, flour milling, textile manufacturing, and fish processing. The petroleum refinery at Nouakchott processes imported petroleum.
\par \tab Transportation facilities are generally poor except in the mineral shipment network. Mauritania's first railroad, 400 miles (640 kilometers) long, began operating in 1963. It carries iron ore from mines at FdΘrik to the chief ocean port at Nouadhibou. The deepwater harbor at Nouakchott has helped reduce Mauritania's dependence on transportation through Senegal. The newly constructed Trans-Mauritania Highway links Nouakchott with the more populous southeastern region of the country. The Senegal River is navigable for part of the year.
\par {\b History}
\par \tab Mauritania's earliest inhabitants were Africans and Berbers. Most of the people were converted to Islam during the 11th and 12th centuries. The nomadic Arab tribes moved to the area in about the 15th century and formed powerful confederations. The Portuguese visited Mauritania in the 15th century, but settlements were established by France only in the 19th century. Slavery was legally abolished under French occupation. In 1903 a formal French protectorate was extended over the territory, and in 1904 it was added to French West Africa. Mauritania became a French colony in 1920, was given a large measure of self-government in 1958, and was granted full independence in 1960. It left the French Community soon after. In the mid-1960s its ties with France gradually weakened as Mauritania pursued a foreign policy of nonalignment. It was admitted to the United Nations in 1961.
\par \tab From 1964 to 1991 Mauritania was a one-party state. The Military Committee for National Salvation ousted the country's first president in 1978. It assumed power, suspended the constitution, and dissolved the one-chamber National Assembly. In 1979 the new regime annexed the southern part of Western Sahara. Later it signed a peace accord with the guerrilla forces who were seeking Western Sahara's independence and renounced its claims to the former Spanish colony. In 1980 a civilian government was established, and slavery of blacks practiced by the northern nomads was officially abolished. After a bloodless coup in December 1984, Col. Maaouya Ould Sidi Ahmed Taya became president of the military regime and prime minister. Diplomatic relations with Morocco were reestablished in April 1985, and Mauritania declared its neutrality in the Western Sahara conflict. In July 1991 voters ratified a new constitution that legalized opposition parties and that allowed for an elected parliament to be created. Population (1992 estimate), 2,108,000.\par \tab The island country of Mauritius comprises Mauritius and Rodrigues islands and two small groups of islands. Located in the Indian Ocean 500 miles (800 kilometers) east of Madagascar, it covers a total area of 788 square miles (2,040 square kilometers). Port Louis (population, 142,645), the largest city and major port, is the capital.
\par \tab Mauritius Island is volcanic in origin and mostly surrounded by coral reefs. The narrow coastal plains support the majority of the population. The highest point, Little Black River Peak at 2,711 feet (826 meters), is in the southwest. The Grand River is the island's major river, supplying most of its hydroelectric power. The subtropical climate has fairly uniform temperatures throughout the year. Bamboo thickets and forests of coconut palm, ebony, and other tropical trees once covered most of the island's interior.
\par \tab One of the most densely populated areas in the world, Mauritius has a highly diverse population. After slavery was abolished in 1835, the British replaced the sugarcane laborers with Indians. Indians make up about 70 percent of the population. There are also some communities of Malays, black Africans, French, British, and Chinese. Half of the population is Hindu. Roman Catholics and Muslims form other large groups. English is the official language, but French and Creole are widely spoken. Mauritius has a relatively highly educated population. Nearly 82 percent are literate. The University of Mauritius at Port Louis is one of two institutions of higher learning. Mauritius has no railways, but there are many miles of all-weather roads. There is one airport.
\par \tab About 60 percent of the total area is farmed, of which 90 percent is sugarcane plantations. Other crops are tea, potatoes, tomatoes, bananas, cabbages, and onions. Major industries are sugar refining, tea processing, and soft-drink and fertilizer manufacturing. The island's major imports are petroleum products, machinery, and food items; its major exports are clothing and textiles, sugar, molasses, and tea. In 1988 Mauritius launched Africa's first offshore banking facility.
\par \tab Mauritius was probably known to Arab navigators in the 10th century or earlier. The Portuguese arrived in about 1505. Mauritius was occupied, successively, by the Dutch (1598), the French (1710), and the British (1810). On March 12, 1968, it became an independent state within the Commonwealth of Nations. In 1992 it became a republic within the Commonwealth. Veerasamy Ringadoo became the country's first president. On June 30, 1992, Cassam Uteem was elected president by the National Assembly. Uteem promised to industrialize and otherwise modernize the nation. Population (1990 census), 1,081,000.\par \tab Southward from its 1,500-mile- (2,400-kilometer-) long border with the United States lies the Estados Unidos Mexicanos. A country with slightly more than 750,000 square miles (1,940,000 square kilometers) in area, Mexico has a vast array of mineral resources, limited agricultural land, and a rapidly growing population. These factors are the basis for many of the country's present problems as well as opportunities for future development. The nation is struggling to modernize its economy. With more than 80 million people in the mid-1980s, Mexico's overall population density exceeds 110 per square mile (42 per square kilometer). More than half of its inhabitants live in the country's central core, while the arid north and the tropical south are sparsely settled.
\par \tab The long-held stereotype of Mexico as a slow-paced country with a population consisting mainly of subsistence farmers has little validity. Petroleum and tourism dominate the economy, and industrialization is increasing in many parts of the nation. Internal migration from the countryside has caused urban centers to grow dramatically: more than two thirds of all Mexicans now live in cities. Mexico City, with a metropolitan area population of approximately 16 million people, is the largest city in the world. While still low by United States standards, the nation's gross national product per capita rose significantly during the 1970s. Despite impressive social and economic gains, since 1981 Mexico has been wracked by severe inflation and an enormous foreign debt brought on in large part by precipitous declines in the value of petroleum products.
{\b NATURAL ENVIRONMENT}
\par \tab Geologically, Mexico is located in one of the Earth's most dynamic areas. It is a part of the "Ring of Fire," a region around the Pacific Ocean highlighted by active volcanism and frequent seismic activity. Within the context of plate tectonics, a theory developed to explain the creation of major landform features around the world, Mexico is situated on the western, or leading, edge of the huge North American Plate. Its interaction with the Pacific, Cocos, and Caribbean plates has given rise over geologic time to the Earth-building processes that created most of Mexico. Towering peaks, like CitlaltΘpetl (Orizaba) at some 18,000 feet (5,500 meters), are extremely young in geologic terms (late Tertiary) and are examples of the volcanic forces that built much of central Mexico. The spectacular eruption of the volcano Chinchon in 1981 was more powerful than that of Mount St. Helens in the United States a year earlier and led to widespread devastation.
\par \tab Much of the complexity found in southern Mexico's physiography is related to the interaction of three tectonic plates. Such interaction creates regions that are often highly unstable, producing numerous and severe Earth movements. A 1985 quake, with an epicenter off the coast of Acapulco, caused billions of dollars in damage nationwide, destroyed hundreds of buildings in Mexico City, and killed several thousand people. It is on this often unstable and dynamically active physical environment that the Mexican people must build their nation.
\par {\b Land Regions}
\par \tab Mexico can be divided into eight major physiographic regions. The largest and most significant in terms of human habitation is the Mexican Plateau. Extending from the isthmus of Tehuantepec northward to the United States border, the region consists of a central plateau and its dissected borders. The central plateau tilts gently from north to south. At its northern end it is about 4,000 feet (1,200 meters) above sea level and rises to more than 8,000 feet (2,400 meters) south of Mexico City. Throughout the plateau, somewhat flat basins are interrupted by mountainous outcrops.
\par \tab The plateau can be subdivided into two major sections. The Mesa del Norte begins near the international border and ends around San Luis Potosφ. In this arid lower part of the plateau, interior drainage predominates with few permanent streams. On its west side the mesa is flanked by the largely volcanic Sierra Madre Occidental, with an average height of 8,000 to 9,000 feet (2,400 to 2,700 meters). It has been highly dissected by westward-flowing streams that eroded a series of deep barrancas, or canyons. The most spectacular of these is the Barranca del Cobre, Mexico's equivalent of the Grand Canyon. The Sierra Madre Oriental, a range of folded mountains formed of shale and limestone, is on the east side of the mesa. With average elevations similar to those of the Sierra Madre Occidental, these dissected highlands have peaks that reach 13,000 feet (4,000 meters).
\par \tab The Mesa Central stretches from San Luis Potosφ to the volcanic axis south of Mexico City. Formed largely by volcanic action, the general plateau surface of this mesa is higher, moister, and generally flatter than the Mesa del Norte. The Mesa Central is divided into a series of fairly flat intermountain basins separated by eroded volcanic peaks. These basins are generally quite fertile and have been the most densely populated portions of Mexico for several hundred years. The largest valleys--such as those of Mexico City, Puebla, and Guadalajara--rarely exceed 100 square miles (260 square kilometers) in area, while many others are quite small. The traditional breadbasket of the country, the Bajio of Guanajuato, is located in the northern part of the mesa. Many of the basins were sites of major lakes, like those formerly located around Mexico City that were drained to facilitate European settlement. The weak, structurally unstable soils that remain have caused numerous buildings to shift on their foundations and over many years to slowly sink into the ground. The volcanic axis--with such spectacular snowcapped peaks as PopocatΘpetl at 17,887 feet (5,452 meters), Ixtaccφhuatl at 17,342 feet (5,286 meters), and Toluca at 15,000 feet (4,572 meters)--forms the southern boundary of the Mexican Plateau.
\par \tab On the east and west sides of the plateau lie that country's coastal lowlands. The Gulf Coastal Plain extends from the Texas border to the Yucatßn peninsula, a distance of some 900 miles (1,450 kilometers). Characterized by lagoons and low-lying swampy areas, the triangular northern portion is more than 100 miles (160 kilometers) wide near the border and tapers rapidly toward the south. Inland toward the abrupt escarpment of the Sierra Madre Oriental is a series of gently undulating plains dotted by occasional hills and low mountains. Near Tampico an extension of the Sierra Madre Occidental reaches the sea and interrupts the plain's continuity. To the south of Tampico it is narrow and irregular. In several places low hills and isolated volcanic peaks meet the sea and subdivide the plain. It widens at the northern end of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and then encompasses the limestone formations that underlie the Yucatßn peninsula.
\par \tab The Pacific Lowlands are much narrower and less well defined than their east-coast counterpart. Extending from the Mexicali Valley in the north, they terminate near Tuxpan nearly 900 miles (1,450 kilometers) to the south. Bounded on the east by the steep-sided Sierra Madre Occidental, the lowlands are in fact a series of coastal terraces, mesas, and small basins interspersed with river deltas and restricted coastal strips. From the 1940s parts of this arid region have been irrigated for agricultural production.
\par \tab West of the Pacific Lowlands is the Baja California peninsula. This relatively isolated strip of land is nearly 800 miles (1,300 kilometers) long but seldom more than 100 miles (160 kilometers) wide. The central core is formed by a huge granitic fault block with peaks of more than 9,000 feet (2,700 meters) in the San Pedro Martir and Sierra de Jußrez mountain ranges. The gently sloping western side of these ranges is in contrast to the steep eastern escarpment, which makes access from the gulf extremely difficult. Rugged surface features and extreme aridity have limited human settlement, though several stark coastal landscapes have become popular tourist sites.
\par \tab Immediately south of the Mexican Plateau is the Balsas Depression, which takes its name from the major river draining the region. This low-lying area is hot and dry with a distinctive landscape. The depression is formed of a series of small, irregular basins interrupted by hilly areas.
\par \tab The Southern Highlands are a series of highly dissected mountain ranges and plateaus. On the western side a series of mountain ranges known collectively as the Sierra Madre del Sur extend from approximately Puerto Vallarta to the Gulf of Tehuantepec. These low--7,000 to 8,000 feet (2,100 to 2,400 meters)--crystalline mountains often reach the sea and create a rugged coastal margin, part of which has become known as the "Mexican Riviera." Such picturesque coastal sites as Manzanillo, Ixtapa-Zihuatenejo, Acapulco, and Puerto Escondido have become favorite tourist destinations, while the less hospitable basins inland provide a difficult environment for traditional peasant farmers. East of the Sierra Madre del Sur is the Mesa del Sur, with numerous stream-eroded ridges and small isolated valleys some 4,000 to 5,000 feet (1,200 to 1,500 meters) above sea level. The largest and most densely settled valley of this area is the Oaxaca, with a predominantly Indian population. It is one of the poorest, if most picturesque, parts of Mexico. A low, narrow constriction separating the Southern from the Chiapas highlands, the Isthmus of Tehuantepec reaches a height of less than 900 feet (275 meters) and extends only slightly more than 125 miles (200 kilometers) from gulf to gulf. A hilly central area is bordered by restricted coastal plains on either side. Because of its physical characteristics, this region is considered a possible site for a sea-level canal to link the Atlantic and Pacific oceans as a replacement for the increasingly outmoded Panama Canal.
\par \tab The Chiapas Highlands in southeastern Mexico complete the physiographic regions of the country. An extension of the mountainous ranges of Central America, these highlands are composed of a series of fault-block mountains surrounding a high rift valley. The low, crystalline Sierra Madre de Chiapas lies along the Pacific coast. Northwest of this mountain chain and paralleling the coast is the rift valley of the Rφo Grijalva. A group of highly dissected, folded, and faulted mountains is located between the rift valley and the Gulf Coastal Plain.
\par {\b Rivers and Lakes}
\par \tab Mexico has relatively few large rivers or natural lakes, but the largest river systems are found in central Mexico. The Rφo Lerma has its headwaters in the Toluca Basin west of Mexico City and flows westward to form Lake Chapala, Mexico's largest natural lake. Water from the Lerma is tunneled eastward through the mountains to help supply Mexico City's water needs. The Rφo Grande de Santiago flows out of Lake Chapala to the northwest, dropping over the dissected border of the Mesa Central into the Pacific. The eastward-flowing Rφo Moctezuma-Pßnuco system drains much of the eastern portion of the Mesa Central. These rivers have carved gorges through the Sierra Madre Oriental to reach the Gulf of Mexico. Lakes Pßtzcuaro and Cuitzeo, west of Mexico City, are remnants of the numerous lakes that were once found in the Mesa Central.
\par \tab The Rφo Balsas and its tributaries drain the Balsas Depression as well as much of the southern portion of the Mesa Central. Dammed where it crosses the Sierra Madre del Sur, the Balsas is a major source of hydroelectric power. Farther south the Grijalva is the main river system. It drains a large part of the Chiapas Highlands. Dammed in two places, the Grijalva has created a pair of huge man-made lakes. The Rφo Papaloapan, which enters the Gulf of Mexico south of Veracruz, was dammed in the 1960s in a project modeled after the Tennessee Valley Authority. The project's aim was to control flooding along the previously swampy coastal plain and to provide for new agricultural production.
\par \tab In the north an arid climate and interior drainage limit the size and number of rivers. By far the major river in this part of the nation is the Rφo Bravo del Norte (known as the Rio Grande in the United States), which forms the international border. Because both the Sierra Madre Occidental and the Sierra Madre Oriental originate close to the coastal margins, streams on the west and east coasts are short and steep. Along the Pacific Lowlands the Rφos Yaqui, Fuerte, and Hunaya have been dammed, and they support major irrigated acreages. Baja California and the Yucatßn peninsula are essentially devoid of permanent streams.
\par {\b Climate}
\par \tab Because of its topographic diversity and large range in latitude, Mexico has a wide array of climatic conditions, often occurring in very short distances. More than half of Mexico lies south of the Tropic of Cancer. Within the tropics, temperature variations from season to season are small, often less than 10░ F (5░ C) between the warmest and coldest months of the year. In these areas winter is defined as the rainiest rather than coldest months. The climate also changes significantly with increases in elevation.
\par \tab From sea level to just above 2,000 feet (600 meters) is the tierra caliente (hot land) with uniformly high temperatures. Acapulco, for example, has an average daily temperature of approximately 80░ F (27░ C), with the warmest month (September) averaging 83░ F (28░ C) and the coldest (January) about 78░ F (26░ C). The tierra templada (temperate land) extends from 2,000 feet (600 meters) to about 6,000 feet (1,800 meters). At an elevation of 4,500 feet (1,400 meters), Jalapa has an average daily temperature of 63.6░ F (17.6░ C) with a yearly range of 9░ F (5░ C). Tierra fria (cold land) is situated from about 6,000 to 11,000 feet (1,800 to 3,350 meters). Pachuca, at just under 8,000 feet (2,400 meters), has an average annual temperature of 58░ F (14░ C) and a yearly range of just 10░ F (5░ C). Above the tierra fria are the pßramos, or alpine pastures, while the tierra helada (frozen land), or permanent snow line in central Mexico, is found at roughly 14,000 feet (4,300 meters).
\par \tab North of the tropics, temperature ranges increase substantially and are greatest in north-central Mexico near Ciudad Jußrez. The highest temperatures in the country occur in northern Baja California and in the northern Sonoran and Chihuahuan deserts in July and August. Outside mountainous areas the lowest temperatures are also recorded there.
\par \tab Most of Mexico lacks adequate precipitation at least during part of the year. With the exception of the highland areas of the Sierra Madre Occidental, the Sierra Madre Oriental, and the Gulf Coastal Plain, all of Mexico north of the tropics generally receives less than 20 inches (50 centimeters) of precipitation annually and can be classified as either tropical desert or tropical steppe. Nearly all of Baja California, much of Sonora, and large parts of Chihuahua receive less than 10 inches (25 centimeters). Only the Gulf Coastal Plains and the mountains adjacent to them from roughly Tampico southward to Villahermosa and the Chiapas Highlands receive abundant rainfall year-round. In combination with uniformly high temperatures, this creates a tropical rain-forest climate in these areas. Much of central and southern Mexico receive less than 40 inches (102 centimeters) of precipitation yearly and can be classified as having tropical savanna or highland savanna climates.
\par {\b Plants}
\par \tab Natural vegetation is primarily a response to climatic conditions. The tropical deserts of Baja California, Sonora, and north-central Mexico are characterized by sparse desert scrub vegetation. On the higher portions of the Sonoran and Chihuahuan steppes, as well as in much of Coahuila and Tamulipas, a distinctive ecosystem has evolved composed of grasses, shrubs, and a variety of cacti and other succulents.
\par \tab Most of the Sierra Madre Occidental and large parts of the Mesa Central were originally covered by forests of conifers, evergreen deciduous, and deciduous trees. Similar forests extended southward into the Southern Highlands. Long periods of human occupation in these regions have caused most of the natural vegetation to disappear. The semiarid Balsas Depression has a tropical scrub vegetation of shrubs, low deciduous trees, and scattered cacti.
\par \tab The high precipitation zones of the Gulf Coastal Plain, the adjacent east-facing mountain slopes, and the Chiapas Highlands are dominated by tropical rain-forest vegetation. These dense broadleaf evergreen trees are among the most luxuriant and diversified in the world. A large portion of the Pacific coastal area from Mazatlßn to the Guatemalan border is covered by tropical deciduous and semideciduous forests, but they lack the variety and density of the tropical rain forests found in southeastern Mexico.
\par {\b Animal Life}
\par \tab The natural wildlife of northern Mexico was severely affected by the introduction of cattle, sheep, and goats more than 400 years ago. While rabbits and snakes abound in the deserts and steppes, such larger animals as deer and mountain lions are found only in isolated or mountainous areas. Massive flocks of ducks and geese migrate into the northern part of the Sierra Madre Occidental to winter. A millennium of human habitation has brought about the virtual elimination of much of the natural fauna throughout the Mesa Central and parts of the Southern Highlands, especially the Oaxaca Valley. In contrast the rain forests of the Gulf Coast and Chiapas and the degraded rain forests of the Pacific coast still provide a largely undisturbed habitat for many animals--from monkeys to parrots to jaguars.
\par \tab Mexico is blessed with a bountiful supply of marine resources. The Gulf of California is renowned for its game fishes as well as its shrimping grounds. Farther south along the Pacific coast, tuna are commercially plentiful. The Gulf of Mexico, especially the east side of the Yucatßn peninsula, is a scuba diver's paradise, as tropical fish teem in clean, clear waters. Large shrimping grounds are found in the northern part of the gulf as well as in the south near Campeche.
{\b PEOPLE}
\par \tab Mexico's population comprises a wide variety of racial and ethnic groups. At the time of European arrival in the early 1500s, the country was inhabited by numerous Amerind civilizations. The "Indians" are thought to have migrated into the New World from Asia some 40,000 to 60,000 years earlier by crossing a former land bridge in what is now the Bering Straits.
\par \tab By far the greatest number of people lived in the Mesa Central. Most were under the general rule of the Aztec Empire, but a great many separate cultural groups thrived in the region, among them speakers of Tarastec, Otomi, and Nahuatl. Outside the Mesa Central were numerous other cultural groups such as the Maya of the Yucatßn and the Mixtecs and Zapotecs of Oaxaca. Highly organized civilizations had occupied various regions of Mexico for at least 2,000 years prior to European discovery. The Aztec cities of the Mesa Central were marvels of architectural design, irrigation technology, and social organization. Spectacular Mayan ruins in the Yucatßn evidence widespread urbanization and intense agricultural productivity dating from well before the Christian Era.
\par \tab Over the last four centuries descendants of Indians and Europeans, sometimes called mestizos, have become the dominant group in Mexico. Today they account for at least two thirds and perhaps three fourths of the total population.
\par \tab While Indians are still said to represent nearly a quarter of the population, in 1980 there were only slightly more than 5 million people (about 8 percent of the population) who spoke an Indian language and just over 1 million who spoke only an Indian language. There are more than 50 Indian languages spoken in the country. Entirely European-descended people, including many who immigrated during the last half century, account for about 10 percent of all Mexicans.
\par \tab One of the more dynamic aspects of Mexico's demography is its rapid rate of population increase. At present the nation's population is growing at a rate of 2.6 percent annually. This is about 50 percent higher than the world average and almost four times the rate of the United States. This growth rate, however, represents a recent slowing in natural increase. From 1960 to 1980 Mexico averaged about 3.0 percent annually. This reflects the greatly improved health-care standards introduced since 1940. These changes allowed a significant lowering of the death rate, especially infant mortality. The more recent decline in the growth rate results from increasing urbanization, higher educational levels, and a lessened dependence on child labor.
\par \tab In 1910 Mexico had a population of about 15 million, and by 1940 the number had increased to only 20 million. In 1960 there were more than 34 million people and by 1970 more than 58 million. The 1980 population surpassed 66 million, and at the end of 1986 it was estimated that it surpassed 80 million. Such rapid growth has severely taxed the ability of the Mexican Republic to provide basic social services and economic opportunities for its citizens. It is estimated that Mexico will have 113 million people by the year 2000. Traditionally the government has opposed limiting population growth. This position has been somewhat modified since the late 1970s with continuing high growth rates and recurring economic difficulties.
\par \tab More than 50 percent of all Mexicans live on the Mesa Central, which accounts for only 15 percent of the national territory. Mexico City's urban area has about 18 percent of the population. Parts of the Gulf Coastal Plain and the Southern Highlands, especially the Oaxaca Valley, are relatively densely settled, but southern Baja California, much of the Yucatßn peninsula, and large parts of the Chiapas Highlands are sparsely populated.
\par \tab Although Spanish speakers form the bulk of the population throughout most of the country, there are several areas where Indian speakers still dominate. Mayan speakers are the majority cultural group in the rural Yucatßn. In the Chiapas Highlands and the Southern Highlands, especially the Oaxaca Valley and more remote parts of the Sierra Madre del Sur, Indian communities abound, and enclaves of Indians are still significant in isolated mountain areas on the eastern margin of the Mesa Central.
\par \tab The movement of people within the nation's borders has drastically altered the distribution of Mexico's population. Massive migrations of peasants from rural areas and small towns to cities began in the 1950s, resulting in an estimated 70 percent of Mexicans now living in cities. This represents a substantial proportional decline in rural population, which accounted for 50 percent in 1960. In 1987 roughly half of the country's residents lived in cities with 50,000 inhabitants or more. As a group, Mexican cities have grown at a rate of more than 5 percent a year since the 1960s.
\par \tab A lack of agricultural land, limited job opportunities, and the availability of few social amenities push people from the rural areas. The perception of increased chances for social and economic mobility as well as the dynamic character of urban places pulls rural folk toward the cities. Many head for such large cities as Guadalajara, Puebla, and Monterrey, but Mexico City is the main destination. Because of the highly favorable employment prospects, increasing numbers of migrants have moved to cities on the United States border--in particular Ciudad Jußrez, Mexicali, and Tijuana. As a result these are the fastest-growing cities in the nation.
\par \tab In addition to internal migration, the number of individuals who have emigrated from Mexico to the United States illegally has grown sharply since the 1970s. Estimates are highly inaccurate and vary drastically, but it is believed that somewhere between 4 and 8 million Mexicans relocated illegally to the United States between 1970 and 1985. An increasing number of highly qualified technicians and professionals have found their way northward causing a "brain drain" for Mexico.
\par {\b Education and Health}
\par \tab Mexico has made great efforts to improve educational and health opportunities for its people. Despite a rapidly growing population and an increasingly large number of school-age children, gains are being made in many areas. As in most Third World countries, social infrastructure is much more available in cities than in the countryside, but national programs have sought to provide primary schools and basic health-care centers to all rural areas.
\par \tab There is a system of free, compulsory education. All children age 6 to 14 are required to attend school. Public schools are funded by federal, state, and private sources. In general, private schools offer superior education in comparison to public schools. Therefore families who can afford it send their children to private schools.
\par \tab Public schools are often among the first services provided in new, low-income urban neighborhoods. Many internal migrants choose to move to cities because of the availability of schools and the social opportunities that can be derived from an education. Rural public schools are the least well developed in the nation, but primary schools are now found in all but the most remote and isolated villages. In rural areas and in many low-income urban schools, teachers need only a secondary education to teach. Despite significant increases in the number of schoolrooms, teachers, and educational supplies, nearly 15 percent of children between the ages of 6 and 14 do not attend school.
\par \tab It is the goal of the federal government to eradicate illiteracy and to assure at least a primary education to all of its citizens, and strides have been made to reach these goals. In addition to schools for younger children, adult illiteracy has been attacked vigorously. A national program that urges every citizen to teach one illiterate to read and write has had some success. In 1986 Mexico's illiteracy rate was thought to be approximately 15 percent--down from nearly 25 percent in 1970. While the push to deal with the shortages of primary education has resulted in large increases in the number of schools, teachers, and students, the shortage of secondary and higher educational facilities remains a problem. Secondary schools are virtually nonexistent in rural areas, and universities are found only in the largest cities. Of the fewer than 50 universities in the country, 20 percent are located in Mexico City; and a staggeringly high percentage of university students--perhaps more than 80 percent--are in the city. As with primary education, private secondary schools are normally vastly superior to public ones. This helps to maintain a socioeconomic imbalance in educational levels that greatly favors the middle and upper classes. A college degree is very much a passport to social mobility in Mexico.
\par \tab As with education the federal government plays a major role in providing medical care. Several governmental institutions operate hospitals, and subsidized medical and hospital care is available to all citizens. But public medicine generally is considered inferior to private care, and those who can afford it avail themselves of private physicians and hospitals.
\par \tab In rural areas basic medical treatment has been widely disseminated since the 1960s. Clinics, sometimes attended only by a nurse, are found throughout the country. Anything more than the most basic medical needs, however, must be handled in the cities. A strong hierarchy exists in quality of medical service, with Mexico City far and away the center for specialized medical treatment. The overall quality of medical care in Mexico lags behind that available in the United States and in Europe. Many Mexicans therefore travel outside the country to have sophisticated surgical procedures and treatments performed.
\par \tab Nonetheless improvements have occurred. Although still quite high in comparison to more developed countries, infant mortality has been greatly reduced to about 50 per 1,000 live births. The overall death rate is reported to be approximately six per thousand. This represents a 50 percent decrease since the early 1970s. While the accuracy of these figures is highly questionable, the downward trend is not in question.
\par \tab Despite these generally positive changes, strong differences in health characteristics are found from region to region. In general, rural areas have much higher mortality and morbidity levels than do urban areas. Regions with high Indian populationssuch as Chiapas, Oaxaca, and isolated portions of Guerrero and the mountainous eastern portions of the Mesa Central--have high death rates and generally low health standards. Significant differences also exist between social classes in the cities. Endemic diseases and health problems afflict poor urban dwellers at rates far in excess of those for middle- and upper-income families.
\par {\b Cities}
\par \tab Within the hierarchy of Mexican urban places, Mexico City is the political, economic, social, educational, and industrial capital of the nation. The metropolis covers a solidly built-up urbanized area of some 15 by 20 miles (24 by 32 kilometers). Despite its already enormous population, Mexico City gains more than 350,000 people per year. By the end of the century the city's population could easily exceed 25 million.
\par \tab The famous Aztec pyramids of Teotihuacßn are located northeast of the city, and the floating gardens of Xochimilco are in the southeast. Hundreds of thousands of Mexicans, many of them peasants, make annual pilgrimages to the Shrine of the Virgin of Guadalupe, which is a holy site for the country's Roman Catholics.
\par \tab With some 2 1/2 million people, Guadalajara is the nation's second largest urban center, and Monterrey, Mexico's iron and steel center, has grown to more than 2 million. Tijuana, Mexicali, and Ciudad Jußrez are border cities, each approaching a population of 1 million. These metropolitan areas have grown spectacularly since the 1960s, spurred by industrialization brought about by the maquilladora, or "twin-plant" program. This allows the duty-free importation and exportation between Mexico and the United States of products made within a narrow border zone. As Mexico's early center of the textile industry, Puebla has traditionally been one of the country's leading cities. The city now has a population of over 800,000 and has gained considerable new industry, including one of the country's largest automotive assembly plants.
\par {\b Literature and the Arts}
\par \tab Through the years Mexican writers and artists have received worldwide acclaim for their creativity and innovation. Within the nation both folk and classical traditions are strong. The country's most renowned writers have gained their reputations by dealing with questions of universal significance, as did Samuel Ramos. Octavio Paz is the foremost poet of Latin America. Carlos Fuentes is honored throughout the world, Gustavo Sainz is a leader in Spanish-language literature, and Juan JosΘ Arreola's fantasies are widely admired. Among dramatists Rodolfo Usigli was extremely influential during his lifetime, but more recently Luisa Josefina Hernßndez and Emilio Carballido have made significant contributions to Mexican drama.
\par \tab Perhaps the most widely recognized Mexican art form is the mural. Among its members the Mexican muralist school counted the most powerful figures of this genre of painting. The murals created by Diego Rivera and David Alfaro Siqueiros depicting aspects of the Mexican Revolution, the nation's modernization, and class struggle are legend. Among others Rufino Tamayo, Carlos MΘrida, and Juan Soriano have followed in this tradition. Perhaps the most popular of Mexico's folk artists is JosΘ Clemente Orozco, whose satirical plaster-of-paris skeleton characters are extremely lifelike.
\par \tab To encourage and help to disseminate Mexican art in all its forms, the federal government sponsors the National Fine Arts Institute. Under its auspices are the programs of the National Symphony Orchestra, the Ballet Folklorico, and the Modern and Classical Ballet Company--all of which travel nationally and internationally to promote Mexican culture. Additionally, folk and popular culture receive support through government institutes, including the Native Institute, which seeks to preserve and stimulate traditional craftsmanship.
{\b ECONOMY}
\par \tab In economic terms Mexico is a developing nation. With a 1986 gross domestic product (GDP) of approximately United States $2,300 per capita, the country has a long way to progress before it can provide its people with living standards similar to the more developed nations. But even this modest figure represents a major improvement in a relatively short period of time. In constant 1982 dollars Mexico's GDP per capita has increased from about $1,100 in 1960. Given the steady and rapid population growth rate, the nation's economic growth has been impressive. Between 1960 and 1980 the GDP grew at an average annual rate of 6.8 percent. To illustrate the effect of petroleum prices on Mexican economic growth, in 1981 the GDP increased by 7.9 percent. In 1982, the year of the price collapse, GDP growth fell to -0.5 percent.
\par \tab The United States is a major trade partner of Mexico. Almost two thirds of the nation's exports go to the United States--mostly petroleum and natural gas--while 67 percent of Mexico's imports are from the United States. The overwhelming majority of tourists who visit Mexico come from the United States, and they spend freely.
\par \tab Although agriculture has always been the largest employment sector in the economy, the nation's leading exports traditionally have come from mineral production. Metallic minerals, particularly silver, have played a primary role in bringing wealth to the country. Mexico is still the world's largest producer of silver as well as a major supplier of a variety of industrial minerals. Since the mid-1970s, however, petroleum products have taken on enormous significance in the nation's economy. One third of the value of all exports derives from these products. The country has huge proven petroleum reserves and even greater potential reserves. Mexico is thought to have as much productive capacity as any nation in the world.
\par \tab In addition to its mineral wealth and agricultural production, Mexico also has a growing industrial sector. With a population approaching 85 million and the strong possibility of its doubling to 170 million by 2020, the nation is developing an internal market large enough to support widespread industrialization. Tourism produces nearly 5 billion dollars annually, and this helps to diversify the economy. When the nation's fishing and forest resources are included, Mexico appears to have great economic potential.
\par \tab It is estimated that in 1990 the nation's active labor force was about one third of the total population, or roughly 28 million people, a substantial increase from the 22 million of the 1980 census. The public- and personal-service sector accounts for about 11 percent of the work force. Slightly more than 25 percent of employment is in agriculture, hunting, forestry, and fishing, while about 12 percent is in manufacturing industries. As a proportion of GDP, services produce 15 percent, manufacturing about 26 percent, and wholesale and retail trade about 27 percent.
\par \tab After making major gains in the 1970s, the Mexican economy experienced serious difficulties in the early 1980s. The boom fueled by petroleum exports spurred a massive amount of capital investment from both the public and private sectors. This created jobs and increased the market for all kinds of goods and services within the country. Much of this development, however, was financed through loans from private banks and international lending institutions such as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. A cycle of steadily increasing oil prices progressed unabated for several years. With little warning petroleum prices plummeted on the world market.
\par \tab These factors resulted in a major economic crisis unparalleled in the country's modern history. Confidence in the ability of the Mexican economy to rebound led to high rates of inflation, a precipitous decline in the value of the Mexican peso, a serious flight of capital from the nation, and grave problems of unemployment and underemployment. Mexico's economy changed dramatically. Between 1961 and 1970 the average annual rate of inflation was 2.8 percent. Economic expansion in the 1970s brought with it increased inflationary pressure. The rate grew to more than 12 percent for the first half of the decade and jumped to more than 20 percent from 1976 to 1980. By 1983 the yearly inflation rate had exceeded 110 percent. In the first six years of the 1980s, the value of the Mexican peso fell from less than 50 to more than 1,100 to the United States dollar.
\par \tab The effects of these conditions are felt most keenly by people at the lowest income levels. Increasingly rapid migration of impoverished rural people to the cities and of hundreds of thousands of individuals toward the United States border are, at least in part, the result of economic recession. These migrants find few meaningful employment opportunities, and they lead a marginal existence. Unemployment for the nation as a whole exceeded 20 percent in 1986, and underemployment for the same year was estimated to exceed 40 percent. For those who have stayed in the countryside, real incomes have decreased from inflation. Similar problems affect middle-income families, and the value of savings is eroded by the shrinking peso.
\par {\b Agriculture}
\par \tab Largely because of the diversity of its physical environment, Mexico produces a wide array of agricultural products in different parts of its national territory. Despite the fact that farming and ranching have been the basic economic activities throughout its history, Mexico has a very limited amount of good agricultural land. Much of the country is too arid or too mountainous for crops or grazing. Irrigation is required in many areas to bring the land into any kind of production. It is estimated that no more than 20 percent of the nation can be classified as potentially arable. Normally only from 10 to 12 percent of the country's area is planted to crops annually, and because of weather conditions only half of that is harvested. Only 20 percent of the cropland in production is irrigated. The most fertile soils and the largest areas of agricultural land are located in the Mesa Central, where a dense farming population has been present for at least 1,000 years. Aridity in the north and dense tropical vegetation in much of the south have hampered the spread of agriculture to these areas. Ranching has been extended into many areas considered marginal for crops.
\par \tab A significant proportion of Mexican agriculture still relies on traditional farming methods. This is especially true of the regions with predominantly Indian populations such as the Chiapas Highlands, the Oaxaca Basin and Southern Highlands, and the isolated mountainous communities on the east side of the Mesa Central. In these regions intensive subsistence agriculture based on corn (maize), beans, and squash is practiced on small plots of land, often as parts of communal village holdings. This system is highly labor intensive and has low per-capita productivity. This limits the opportunities for social and economic change. Utilizing human or animal labor in fields that are often steeply sloping produces a quaint-looking rural landscape that is a ready indicator of rural poverty and traditional life-styles.
\par \tab While not its major objective, one of the legacies of the Mexican Revolution was land reform, which produced the ejido system. At the time of the revolution, Mexico's rural peasantry was virtually landless and worked under a system of debt peonage on the large haciendas that dominated the countryside. It is estimated that more than 95 percent of rural families were landless in 1910. The Constitution of 1917 contained a statute limiting the amount of land that an individual could own and legalized the federal government's expropriation and redistribution of land to the landless. Initially small parcels were granted to communal groups whose members worked holdings individually or in common. Later modifications brought about the establishment of cooperative and individual ejidos, which are widespread in the north.
\par \tab Because of the dense concentrations of landless peasants in much of the Mesa Central, Balsas Depression, and Southern Highlands, haciendas had all but disappeared from these areas by the end of the 1930s. Land redistribution produced a massive number of small holdings of from 10 to 20 acres (4 to 8 hectares). These small farms are barely viable economic units, and much of what is grown is used for subsistence. A considerable proportion of their produce, however, enters the commercial market channels to supply the towns and cities of central and southern Mexico. Corn is the staple crop in most instances, but many different horticultural crops and animal products are produced for sale.
\par \tab While less than an overwhelming success in economic terms, the ejidos made a major contribution to improving social equality within Mexico and to bringing a new human dignity to the rural peasantry. Because of agrarian reform and the way it directly benefited individual peasants, the Partido Revolucionario Institucional, the nation's ruling political party since its formation in the late 1920s, has enjoyed the unswerving support of ejidatarios.
\par \tab Commercial agricultural products come from three major regions. Tropical crops have been grown on the Gulf Coastal Plain and its adjacent highlands since the early colonial period. Production now extends from north of Tampico to the Chiapas Highlands and inland on the east-facing mountain slopes to about 5,500 feet (1,700 meters) in elevation. Coffee and sugarcane are the major crops in value and acreage. These are produced in quantities sufficient to meet the country's internal demands and to provide sizable tonnages for export as well. Increased local demand for sugar has caused exports of the crop to drop since the late 1970s. Additionally, bananas, pineapples, cacao, rice, and such tropical fruits as papayas and mangos are grown primarily for the domestic commercial market. Mexico is one of the world's major exporters of vanilla, which is produced mainly in these areas. Smaller areas of cacao, coffee, and sugar production are found in the western Chiapas Highlands. Along the coastal plain near the Guatemalan border, cotton has become a major commercial crop.
\par \tab Irrigated agriculture has brought large-scale commercial production to the Mesa del Norte and the Pacific Lowlands. Cotton has become the dominant crop in many of the irrigation projects developed in these areas since the 1930s. The Laguna Project near Torre≤n was the nation's first large-scale attempt at providing water to the arid north, making it a major cotton production center. Huge cooperative ejidos were formed to farm cotton using modern mechanized methods. It was followed by the Delicias Project near Chihuahua, which features cotton but also has brought substantial acreages of wheat into the production mix. Much of the wheat grown here has been specifically hybridized for the region by the international crop research institutes funded by the Rockefeller Foundation. Despite its new producing areas, Mexico has become a net importer of agricultural grains since 1980 because of rapid population growth.
\par \tab Several sites in the northwestern part of the Pacific Lowlands have been brought into production since the 1940s through major irrigation schemes. The largest of the projects are in the Rφo Fuerte and Rφo Yaqui valleys, but a series of projects extends from Hermosillo in the north to Culiacßn in the south. Much of the land in these projects is worked as cooperative ejidos, but significant areas of private land are also farmed here. Wheat, especially north of Sinaloa, is the major crop produced in the region, which is now the primary grain center of the country. Cotton, a variety of vegetables, and oil seeds also make significant contributions to the area's agricultural economy. Winter vegetables, especially tomatoes and lettuce, are produced mainly for markets in the United States and contribute between 200 and 300 million dollars a year in export revenue. Cotton is the major crop grown in the Mexicali Valley.
\par \tab Within the Mesa Central the Bajio of Guanajuato is a commercial agricultural region of long standing. Traditionally considered the breadbasket of Mexico, it produces wheat, corn, vegetable crops, and beans on small holdings. While still a producing region with the advantage of being near major urban markets, it has been eclipsed in production by the northwest.
\par \tab Livestock ranching has been centered in the Mesa del Norte since the country gained independence. Open-range cattle operations, frequently exceeding 250,000 acres (100,000 hectares) in size and using extensive production methods, were created in the late 1700s and 1800s. A number of very large holdings persist despite agrarian reform. Because of arid conditions and limited natural vegetation, animal carrying capacities are low and frequently exceed 125 acres (50 hectares) per animal per year. This necessitates that holdings be large if they are to be economically successful. A significant proportion of livestock nonetheless is raised on ranches that are relatively small in acreage. In combination these ranches have provided meat for the Mexican market as well as substantial quantities for export to the United States.
\par \tab Since the 1960s major improvements have been made in the ranching industry in the arid and semiarid north. Many of the criollo cattle, descendants of stock introduced from Spain in the 1500s, have been replaced by Hereford and Angus breeds, while open-range methods are giving way to rotational grazing systems. Some natural pastures are being replaced by artificial ones, while others are being upgraded through irrigation, top seeding, and fertilization. Supplemental feeding of stock has also become more common than in the past. These improved pastures, however, are most susceptible to damage from severe weather and are often victims of drought or frost.
\par \tab Cattle are also raised commercially in tropical areas--mainly on the Gulf Coastal Plain, the Chiapas Highlands, and the Sierra Madre del Sur. In these regions Brahman or Zebu cattle are favored because of their tolerance of heat and high humidity. Because of luxuriant vegetation and ample moisture, animal carrying capacities are much higher than in the north. Rain-forest areas are being cleared and planted in imported African grasses to facilitate grazing. While some producers operate on relatively small holdings, most ranches require capital for land acquisition and clearing and are thus sizable both in acreage and numbers of animals.
\par \tab Despite an expansion of the livestock industry, meat production has not kept up with the demands of a growing population. Governmental policies have tended to encourage cattle production while restricting exports. This has caused problems for ranchers, especially those in the north, because they are forced to sell their animals for lower prices internally than they could earn in the United States market.
\par \tab Mexico produces two specialized crops that are rarely grown outside the country. Henequen, a member of the agave family, is a plant whose fiber is used in furniture manufacturing and cordage. It was introduced into the Yucatßn peninsula in 1880, and for more than 30 years this was the sole source of henequen. Extensive plantations were developed that survived until the mid-1930s, when land reform led to their demise. Still a significant export crop of the Yucatßn, henequen is now grown on small farms and by cooperatives.
\par \tab Another form of agave is the maguey, which is planted in many parts of the Mesa Central. It was originally used in the making of pulque, an inexpensive alcoholic beverage produced from its partially fermented liquid extract. Maguey was a good crop for many small farmers because it could be planted on infertile, rocky soils. Because of health hazards associated with its production by peasant farmers, pulque was outlawed in the 1950s. Tequila, Mexico's national drink, also is derived from maguey. This liquor takes its name from the town of Tequila in the state of Jalisco. Yet another alcoholic drink derived from agave is mescal, which is made from a plant of the same name that is grown primarily in Oaxaca.
\par {\b Forestry}
\par \tab Slightly less than a fifth of Mexico's national territory is forested. It is estimated that nearly two thirds of the country was covered by forests in the mid-1500s, but indiscriminate exploitation decimated the resource. While conservation methods are now practiced in some of the pine forests in the north, the uprooting of rain forest continues elsewhere.
\par \tab By far the largest part of the forest area is located in the tropical east and south of the country. These tropical forests yield a wide variety of valuable products, including such hardwoods as oak and mahogany and such fragrant logs as cedar and rosewood. The rain forests of the Chiapas Highlands and the southern Yucatßn are also the source of chicle, the latex used in the manufacture of chewing gum. Collected by individual chicleros, who roam through extensive tracts of forest gathering it, the chicle is taken to towns to be sold for export.
\par \tab Softwood forests are found in the Sierra Madre Oriental and the Sierra Madre Occidental above 6,000 feet (1,800 meters). Stands of ponderosa, lodgepole, and other pines are well developed in the Sierra Madre Occidental, especially in the states of Chihuahua and Durango. The bulk of the softwoods used for construction lumber and plywoods are felled and milled in this region.
\par {\b Mining}
\par \tab Metallic minerals have been a significant part of the economy throughout the nation's history. Silver was long the most valuable product mined, and Mexico was the world's leading producer until about 1970. The major mining area during the colonial period was the Silver Belt, a region that extended from Zacatecas and Guanajuato in the northern part of the Mesa Central into Chihuahua on the Mesa del Norte. San Luis Potosφ was an eastern outpost. The Silver Belt is still the primary region of mineral production, but the focus is now on industrial rather than precious minerals.
\par \tab A good deal of silver is taken from the older centers of Guanajuato, Pachuca, and Zacatecas, but zinc, lead, cadmium, and such trace minerals as antimony and manganese total more in value. Iron ore deposits have been worked near Durango since the early 1900s and have provided the raw materials for the nation's iron and steel center at Monterrey. Rich copper deposits were discovered in the late 1800s in Santa Rosalφa in Baja California and near Cananea in northern Sonora, but these resources are now largely played out. Some 50 minerals are produced in commercial quantities. Because much of the country has not yet been adequately surveyed, it is believed that significant new discoveries could be forthcoming as new exploration techniques are developed.
\par {\b Fishing}
\par \tab Mexico's nearly 5,500 miles (8,850 kilometers) of coastline is richly endowed with marine resources. Seafood products do not form a major part of the Mexican diet despite attempts to increase it, so the nation's fishing industry has not yet been developed to its potential. Commercial exploitation of ocean products has occurred only since the 1940s.
\par \tab Mexico has rich shrimping grounds in the Gulf of Mexico, in the Gulf of California, and along the southern Pacific coast. The gulf coast from Tampico to the United States border and from Veracruz to Campeche has been fished commercially since the 1940s, producing about 25,000 tons of shrimp in 1984. The Gulf of California shrimping grounds were not exploited on a large scale until the late 1950s but are now the most productive. More than 40,000 tons of shrimp were taken there in 1984, with another 10,000 tons landed in the far south.
\par \tab Deepwater fish abound off the Pacific coast of Baja California. Since the inception of a commercial fishing fleet in the 1960s, this area has become the country's major fishing grounds, producing more than 80 percent of the total catch. Sardines, anchovies, and tuna are the leading species taken. In the near-shore zone of Baja California, lobster and abalone are captured in commercial quantities. The remaining 20 percent of the ocean catch comes from the Gulf of Mexico, especially off the Campeche Bank on the north coast of the Yucatßn peninsula. Sea bass, red snapper, and grouper make up a significant portion of the tonnage.
\par \tab Efforts are being made to increase consumption of seafood. Of a total production nearing a million tons a year, about three fourths is consumed within the country, especially as fresh fish. The remainder is exported to the United States and Japan. Government spending has been augmented to purchase new equipment and to train boat crews. Cooperatives control much of Mexico's fishing industry.
\par {\b Energy}
\par \tab Petroleum is Mexico's primary economic asset. Nearly 70 percent of the nation's foreign-exchange earnings are derived from the sale of oil and natural gas, the overwhelming majority of which is exported to the United States. Petroleum is seen as the commodity capable of creating enough resources to bring about significant changes in the country's social and economic systems. Oil money will be used to create jobs, improve infrastructure, and finance social programs. Oil revenues could lead to the modernization of Mexico.
\par \tab The country's first fields were discovered about 1900 off Tampico on the gulf coast. Shortly thereafter additional producing zones were found farther south near the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. Foreign capital was invested in the exploration of petroleum, and most oil was exported until the industry was nationalized in 1938. At that time Petroleos Mexicanos (PEMEX) was created as a semiautonomous governmental agency charged with discovering, producing, and marketing oil and natural gas.
\par \tab Several major producing fields are now in operation, the main ones including the Poza Rica, Marine Golden Lane, and Tabasco-Chiapas sites. These latter reserves were explored and brought into production in the 1960s and 1970s. The country has huge proven and potential reserves, perhaps exceeding those of Saudi Arabia in quantity. Petroleum and natural gas have also been discovered in the Mesa del Norte near Chihuahua and Torre≤n as well as off the coast of Baja California.
\par \tab A system of pipelines was constructed to move products to major cities in the Mesa Central and to the United States border, where it links with other pipelines. Large refineries were built in the gulf at Minatitlßn and Reynosa to augment the older productive capacity at Tampico and Veracruz. Additional refineries are located in the Mesa Central at Salamanca, Tula, and Mexico City. Sulfur is found in juxtaposition to petroleum in many of the gulf fields and is used in the manufacture of a wide variety of products. There are petrochemical plants at Coatzacoalcos, the major export center for sulfur products, and Ciudad Pemex in Tabasco. Both are located in formerly unpopulated rain-forest regions. There are also several petrochemical sites on the Mesa Central near refineries.
\par \tab Oil and natural gas account for well over three fourths of the fuels used by Mexican industry, but this is a change brought about by abundant new supplies. For a period of about 20 years beginning in the early 1940s, hydroelectric power was seen as vital for the nation. Most of the early projects were located on the streams exiting the eastern and southern escarpments of the Mesa Central because of their proximity to major population clusters. Better transmission technologies permitted newer projects to be located farther away, such as the Malpaso Project on the Rφo Grijalva on the margins of the Chiapas Highlands.
\par {\b Manufacturing}
\par \tab Mexico is the most industrialized country in Latin America after Brazil. A disproportionate share of manufacturing is located in the Mexico City metropolitan area largely because of its huge market and superior infrastructure. Its impressive array of manufacturing includes everything from agricultural processing to automotive assemblage and electronics to iron and steel production. Most of the country's industrial jobs are located in this urban area, acting as a magnet to migrants from throughout Mexico.
\par \tab Serious efforts have been made by the federal government to disperse industry to sites outside the capital, but with only modest success. Much of the industrialization so deflected has been to neighboring cities of the Mesa Central. Auto-assembly plants are in Puebla and Toluca and more recently in Hermosillo. Textiles were traditionally more dispersed, with older centers in Puebla and Guadalajara and newer ones in Torre≤n and Ciudad Jußrez. The border industrialization program has concentrated "high-tech" industries and other manufacturing in places like Tijuana and Ciudad Jußrez. As discussed earlier, Monterrey is the nation's center for steel production.
\par {\b Transportation}
\par \tab Because of its physical diversity and economic status, Mexico has had a difficult time creating an integrated transportation network. Although it was one of the first in Latin America to develop railway lines, the nation is joined together by an extensive but inefficient state-owned railway system.
\par \tab Major rail routes extend outward from the Mexico City hub along the west coast to Mexicali, through the Central Plateau to El Paso and Laredo, via the Gulf Coastal Plain to the Yucatßn peninsula, and south to Oaxaca. Rail traffic, both for passengers and freight, is slow and unreliable.
\par \tab As a result, highways are the major mode for transporting goods. Cross-country trucking accounts for a high percentage of freight movement within the nation. While they have improved tremendously since the 1960s, Mexico's highways are barely adequate to serve the national needs. As with rails, all roads focus on Mexico City. Five major two-lane highways link northern border cities to the capital. Similar roads connect the Yucatßn peninsula and the Guatemalan border with the Mesa Central. Several parts of the country are lacking in rail and road connections, especially from east to west across northern Mexico.
\par {\b Tourism}
\par \tab Tourism is a growth industry in Mexico. The country attracted visitors, especially from the United States, for many years, but in relatively limited numbers. Historically these tourists came to visit Mexico City and surrounding colonial towns in the Mesa Central and to see the archaeological ruins at Tenochtitlßn and Tulum. More adventurous tourists went to the Mayan ruins of the Yucatßn or to the Indian-dominated Oaxaca Valley. People later discovered Mexico's beaches, and the government invested heavily in this sector of the economy.
\par \tab Nearly 8 million tourists visit the country every year, and they spend nearly 5 billion dollars in hotels, restaurants, stores, and for transportation. Tourism is Mexico's largest economic activity after petroleum. Much of the increase has been to resort and archaeological sites improved by the government. Acapulco, Puerto Vallarta, Ixtapa-Zihuatanejo, Canc·n, Cozumel, Mazatlßn, and Cabo San Lucas were developed or significantly improved beginning in the 1960s through the construction of new airports, hotels, and other tourist facilities. As a result these sites have become world famous. Given an exotic cultural diversity, tropical environmental settings, and relatively low prices, Mexico exerts a strong attraction on United States tourists, who represent more than 80 percent of all visitors to the country.
{\b GOVERNMENT}
\par \tab Mexico is a federal republic composed of 31 states and the Federal District (DF). It has a Senate of 64 members, two from each state and the DF, as well as a Chamber of Deputies with a representative for every 250,000 people. Senators serve six-year and deputies three-year terms and cannot be reelected for the succeeding term.
\par \tab Ostensibly the president is popularly elected but in fact is picked by the outgoing president from among candidates in the Partido Revolucionario Institucional (PRI). The president serves one term and cannot be reelected. PRI is the dominant political party and has never lost a major election. The main opposition party is the Partido Accion Nacional. Other parties, such as the Socialist Workers party and Communist party, represent small minorities.
\par \tab The president appoints a cabinet, which includes 17 secretaries--from Education to Energy and Defense to Public Works--as well as the governor of the DF and the attorney general. The president also appoints the 21 Supreme Court justices, who serve life terms. Governors are popularly elected, but PRI candidates are normally approved by the president. All citizens 18 and older are required to vote.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by Ernst Clark Griffin, Professor and Chairman of Geography, San Diego State University, San Diego, Calif.
\par \tab {\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR MEXICO}
\par \tab Bernal, Ignacio. A History of Mexican Archaeology (Thames and Hudson, 1980).
\par \tab Bazant, Jan. A Concise History of Mexico (Cambridge, 1977).
\par \tab Tompkins, Peter. Mysteries of the Mexican Pyramids (Harper, 1976).
\par \tab Wilkie, James, ed. Society and Economy in Mexico (UCLA Latin American Center Publications, 1990).\par \tab A republic in the western Pacific Ocean, the Federated States of Micronesia comprises more than 600 islands and islets in the Caroline Islands archipelago. The country has a total land area of 271 square miles (702 square kilometers). The islands in Yap state are continental islands formed by folds in the Earth's crust, while those of Chuuk, Pohnpei, and Kosrae states are coral caps on volcanic mountains rising from the ocean floor.
\par \tab The climate is tropical, with an average temperature of 81░ F (27░ C). On the high islands vegetation consists of mangrove swamps rising to rain forests; on the coral islands the predominant vegetation is coconut and pandanus palms and breadfruit trees.
\par \tab The people are Micronesian, with great diversity in physical types, cultures, and languages. The majority live in traditional villages and engage in subsistence farming and fishing. The main crops are breadfruit, taro, coconuts, and bananas. The main source of revenue is grants from the United States.
\par \tab The Federated States of Micronesia was successively ruled by Spain, Germany, and Japan (under a League of Nations mandate) and by the United States (as part of the United Nations Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands). It became an independent country on Sept. 17, 1991. The capital is Palikir, on Pohnpei island. Population (1991 estimate), 111,000.\par \tab Until it declared its independence from the Soviet Union on Aug. 27, 1991, Moldova was called Moldavia, or the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic. It was the second smallest of the 15 Soviet republics. Also formerly known as Bessarabia, it covers an area of 13,000 square miles (33,700 square kilometers), and it is bordered by Ukraine on the north, east, and south and by Romania on the west, from which it is separated by the Prut River.
\par \tab Lying south of the Carpathian Mountains, its surface is a hilly plain with an average elevation of 482 feet (147 meters). Mount Balaneshty in the west is the highest point at 1,409 feet (429 meters). The steppe region in the south, covering roughly 40 percent of the nation's area between the Dnestr and Prut rivers, consists almost entirely of farmland. A network of about 3,000 rivers drains southward into the Black Sea. Winters are short and mild, with an average January temperature of 24░ F (-4░ C). Summers are long and warm, with an average July temperature of 70░ F (21░ C). Rainfall is variable, with an annual average of 18 inches (46 centimeters). Rich black soil--known as chernozem--covers three quarters of the land. Forests, covering 8 percent of the area, are inhabited by wild boars, wolves, foxes, weasels, badgers, wildcats, hare, and deer. Oak, ash, beech, and linden trees provide lumber for local industries.
\par \tab {\b People.}
\par \tab Nearly 65 percent of the people are Moldavians. Other major groups are Ukrainians and Russians. Its rich soils and intensive development have given Moldova the highest average population density of any surrounding nation. The majority of the population lives in villages that are generally large and mostly supplied with electricity. Transportation facilities are well developed. Air transport links Moldova with other parts of Eastern Europe. There are nearly 10,000 miles (16,000 kilometers) of roads and 700 miles (1,100 kilometers) of waterways. Kishinev, the capital city, is the largest industrial center of the nation and a major railway, air, and motor transport center. Other cities are Tiraspol', Bel'tsy, and Bendery.
\par \tab Ten years of schooling is compulsory for children. Illiteracy was essentially eradicated under Soviet rule. There are several institutions of higher learning, including a state university. Numerous scientific and research centers mainly serve such fields as horticulture and grape and grain cultivation.
\par \tab {\b Economy.}
\par \tab Until 1991 there were several hundred collective and state farms. Collective farmers also had small private plots for their own use. All sowing and plowing is mechanized. Most agriculture is devoted to grape cultivation and fruit and vegetable farming. Sunflower seed is the major industrial crop. Other agricultural products are grains, sugar beets, potatoes, meat, milk, and wool. Dairying and cattle breeding account for about a third of the agricultural output, followed by the raising of pigs.
\par \tab Industry is the principal economic activity, employing nearly a third of all workers. Major food-processing industries are wine making, sugar refining, oil pressing, butter and cheese making, meat-packing, and fruit canning. Machine building and metalworking are increasing. Light industries include the production of furs, knitwear, and silk fabrics. Moldova is a major producer of oils from roses, lavender, sage, and mint. Mineral wealth includes deposits of gypsum, clays, glass, sand, petroleum, and natural gas. There is a large hydroelectric station at Dubossary on the Dnestr River.
\par \tab Moldova's chief imports are coal, iron, heavy steel, machine tools, motor vehicles, fertilizers, petroleum products, paper, tea, and cotton thread. Its major export items are fruits, grapes, wine, sugar, tobacco, essential oils, silk fabrics, knitted goods, refrigerators, and washing machines.
\par \tab {\b History.}
\par \tab Moldova was ceded to Russia by the Ottoman Turks in 1812. It was seized by Romania in 1918, but the Soviet government contested Romania's rule and in 1924 established a small Moldavian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic within Ukraine. In 1940 the Soviet Union obliged Romania to give up Bessarabia and merged much of it with Moldavia into a new Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic. A one-chamber Supreme Soviet (parliament) was the highest organ of state power.
\par \tab The Popular Front, a nationalist movement formed in 1989, favors unification with Romania. Russians in Moldova responded by forming Interdvezheniye, an organization that opposes secession. On Aug. 31, 1989, Moldavian, which is identical to Romanian, replaced Russian as the official language of Moldova; and a return from the Cyrillic to the Latin alphabet was authorized. The parliament in 1990 declared sovereignty of the republic's laws over those of the central government. On Aug. 23, 1991, the Communist party was outlawed and all party property was seized by the people. On August 27, by parliamentary vote, Moldova was declared independent. Former Communist president Mircea Snegur was elected president. In December 1991 Moldova joined the newly formed Commonwealth of Independent States. It quit the organization in August 1993, alleging Russian attempts at dominance. Population (1992 estimate), 4,394,000.\par \tab Its world-class reputation as one of the most luxurious tourist resorts far exceeds its size of about 0.73 square mile (1.9 square kilometers). Monaco, the home of the famous casino at Monte Carlo, is part of the French Riviera on the Mediterranean Sea. It is a sovereign, or independent, principality ruled by the Grimaldi family, whose reign began in 1297. It remains a hereditary monarchy, but Prince Rainier III renounced the long-standing principle of divine right.
\par \tab Monaco's climate is warm in summer and mild in winter. The principality consists almost entirely of a built-up urban area. The oldest section, also called Monaco, sits partly atop the Rock of Monaco, which is a majestic point jutting into the sea. The prince's palace is located here. The other sections are Monte Carlo, La Condamine, and the newer zone of Fontvieille, in which various light industries have been developed.
\par \tab Most of Monaco's population is composed of French and Italian citizens, and the official language of the country is French. Only about 15 percent of the people claim Monegasque descent. Citizens of Monaco are prohibited from gambling but are free from taxation. Most of the people are Roman Catholics.
\par \tab Since the 1970s Monaco has been a tax haven for the wealthy. Its refusal to impose income taxes on its residents and on international businesses with headquarters there led to a severe crisis with France in 1962. A compromise was reached by which French citizens with less than five years' residence would be taxed at French rates. Taxes were also imposed on Monegasque companies doing more than 25 percent of their business outside the principality. Additional revenue comes from franchises on radio, television, and the casino and state monopolies on stamps and tobacco.
\par \tab One of the world's largest aquariums is housed in the Oceanography Museum, founded in 1899 by Rainier III's great-grandfather, Albert I. Another museum has a great collection of 18th- and 19th-century mechanical dolls. The Jardin Exotique has cacti and tropical plants from all over the world. A soccer and athletic stadium with seating for 20,000 spectators is part of a major sports complex. In addition to splendid beaches and boating facilities, a major tourist attraction is the Grand Prix, an annual international sports-car race through Monte Carlo's elegant streets.
\par \tab Prince Albert I gave Monaco a constitution in 1911. A treaty in 1918 provided that Monaco would become an autonomous state under French protection if the Grimaldi dynasty should become extinct. Rainier III succeeded his grandfather on the throne in 1949. In 1959 he suspended part of the constitution and dissolved the National Council because it refused to accept the state budget. (It was restored in 1962.) Later a new, more liberal constitution was granted.
\par \tab The fairy-tale wedding of Prince Rainier III to the American film star Grace Kelly in 1956 made Monaco the focus of international attention. Their son, Albert, became the heir to the throne. The Princess Grace Irish Library contains books about Ireland that she collected during the 1960s. In 1982 the princess died in an automobile accident after suffering a stroke while at the wheel. Population (1990 estimate), 29,972.\par \tab Located in the frontier zone of East Asia between northwestern China and Siberia, the State of Mongolia (formerly Outer Mongolia) has an area of 604,800 square miles (1,566,500 square kilometers), and its capital is Ulaanbaatar
\par \tab Mongolia is a high and dry interior region characterized by internal drainage. Several major landform regions can be identified: mountains in the north and west; a basin region in the northwest; and a large, arid plateau--the Gobi--composed of steppe and desert in the south and southeast.
\par \tab Mountains dominate northern, central, and western Mongolia, and these peak at more than 12,000 feet (3,600 meters). Generally, the mountains trend along a northwest-southeast axis. The major mountain system is the eastward extension of the Central Asian Altai Range. A volcanic zone exists along Mongolia's northern boundary with Russia. Most of the rivers and streams disappear into salt lakes, marshes, or desert sand, though a few major streams and rivers in the north flow into Siberia and empty eventually into Lake Baikal. A varied and interesting animal and bird life inhabit the many lake areas, especially those in the northwest.
\par \tab Mongolia's climate is continental. Winters are long, cold, and dry. Summers are hot, though the heat is tempered by occasional precipitation. Precipitation varies by location and ranges from as little as 2 inches (5 centimeters) a year in places within the Gobi to as much as 20 inches (50 centimeters) in the northern and central mountains. There is great fluctuation in temperature on a seasonal as well as daily basis.
\par \tab Plants and animals of the country reflect the extreme climatic conditions. In the northern and western mountains are found forests of such northern deciduous and coniferous trees as birch, aspen, poplar, larch, cedar, spruce, and pine. Grasses are common in the steppe zone and plain, and these give way to desert plants or little vegetation in the Gobi. Such wild animals as lynx, bear, musk and red deer, and snow leopard abound in the northern mountains. Marmots and gazelles are common in the steppe, and wild horses, donkeys, and camels are found in the steppe and near-desert zones.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab There are roughly 5.5 million Mongols. About 3.5 million of them live mainly in Chinese Inner Mongolia, and most of the remaining 2 million are in the State of Mongolia. A small number are found in Russia and other regions of China and Central Asia. Physically most Mongolians are stocky and of medium height with brown skin and dark hair. The epicanthic, or angled, eyefold is common. As their name suggests, they belong racially to the broad grouping called Asiatic, or Mongoloid.
\par \tab Mongols trace their origin to clan and tribal groups in Central and Northeastern Asia, and they have ties to Manchus in northeastern China as well as Hsuing-nu (Huns) and Turkic-speaking people who inhabit Central Asia west of Mongolia. Most Mongols speak a common language--Khalkha--and dialects among different groups are usually mutually intelligible. Their traditional affiliation and unity derive from their common language, their alliance along clan and tribal lines, and their long-standing way of life as pastoral nomads.
\par \tab Prior to the establishment of modern Mongolia, conditions of pastoral living were harsh. Most people were extremely poor, and what little wealth existed was concentrated in the hands of a few religious and secular feudal overlords who controlled the country. The state was theocratically ruled--similarly to Tibet, from which it received its religious influences.
\par \tab Disease and early death were common, and the death rate among children was especially high. There were few physicians and medical personnel. This situation began to change after the formation of the present socialist state, and the death rate dropped sharply. The population grew rapidly as better health care was provided, many diseases controlled, and a more reliable food supply made available.
\par {\b Economy and Way of Life}
\par \tab For many generations Mongols have engaged in herding as a means of using the resources of their marginal, arid environment. On the broad steppe grasslands and plains, they developed extensive herds of sheep, goats, camels, horses, and cattle. Today there are roughly 15 domestic animals for each person. The characteristic seasonal migration of these herders long formed their main activity patterns. Their traditional disdain for farming and other forms of sedentary activity stood in the way of modernization. Only priestly service to Buddhistic Lamaism has ever formed an acceptable alternative to the wandering existence of the pastoralist.
\par \tab Formation of a people's republic under Soviet control wrought great changes for Mongolia. The approach to modernization was gradual and perhaps for that reason successful. Although a large percentage of the labor force is engaged in animal husbandry, it is state controlled and based on collectively organized farms and ranges. Associated with collectivization were a scientific approach to animal raising and centralized rural organization. Other improvements in medicine, transportation, education, power production, and mining followed. The influence of the traditionally powerful religious establishments--the lamaseries--was eliminated. Major crops include wheat, barley, oats, potatoes, vegetables, and hay.
\par \tab Socialist planning also led to an increased emphasis on industrialization as a means to modernize the country and to improve the standard of living. At the time of its founding in 1924, there was no industry in the republic. After World War II there was rapid progress in constructing such industries as flour milling, mining, power production, textiles, and other manufacturing. Mongolia is rich in mineral resources, and major deposits of coal, iron, copper, gold, silver, and fluorspar have been discovered. While the mining and sale of these to foreign countries is significant, Mongolia seeks to diversify its economy.
\par \tab The economy and trade patterns were strongly influenced by the Soviet Union. Mongolia's main trading partners were the Soviet Union and its allies, but the country hoped to reopen trade with China and with the West. Beginning in June 1991, the government made moves toward establishing a mixed economy in Mongolia. Some state properties would be privatized, though key companies in transportation, mining, fuel, and telecommunications, as well as pastureland, were to remain state owned. Price reform was planned, and foreign aid and investment were sought. Economic reform was accompanied by a new constitution adopted in January 1992.
\par \tab The major transport artery is the Trans-Mongolian rail line. It connects Ulaanbaatar northward to the Trans-Siberian line and southward to a line extending across the Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region that eventually terminates within Beijing.
\par {\b History and Government}
\par \tab The early origins of the Mongolian people are not well known. Several different nomadic tribal groups--Hsiung-nu, Tungus, and Turks--occupied the vast area extending from northeastern China to Central Asia known today as Mongolia. From the 4th century BC to the T'ang Dynasty (AD 618-907), when the Mongols were first recognized, these various peoples had established their dominion and way of life over the steppe land. Aided by their mobility in warfare as mounted archers, these tribes came together as a loose confederation under the leadership of the great Genghis Khan in 1206.
\par \tab The Mongols dominated a region that included most of China and much of Eurasia as the Yⁿan, or Mongol, Dynasty. While control of China lasted only about a century, the Mongols held sway over much of Central Asia for several centuries. From the end of the 17th century until 1911 the Chinese Ch'ing Empire controlled the neighboring territory known as Mongolia.
\par \tab With the collapse of the Ch'ing Empire in 1911, an independent feudal monarchy was established. There was opposition within the country, however, to this monarchy. An antifeudal movement, organized in part with Soviet assistance, overthrew the feudal monarch in 1921, and the Mongolian People's Republic was officially established in 1924 as the world's second revolutionary Marxist state.
\par \tab From the 1920s until 1990 the socialism under which the country was organized and governed was gradually strengthened. Mongolia became established as a single-party socialist country of workers, farmers, and herdsmen. All citizens were guaranteed the right to work, health assistance, education, welfare in old age, and leisure. In 1990 a new Communist party constitution set the goal of building "democratic humane socialism" based on a multiparty democracy.
\par \tab The government operates through organizations called Hurals, or legislative bodies. The major Hural is the national parliament and elects members of the judiciary and supreme court.
\par \tab Until 1990 the Communist, or Mongolian People's Revolutionary, party was the only political party allowed to operate, and it controlled all decision making in the government. The party had close ties to the Communist party of the Soviet Union, and it also received a great deal of economic and military assistance from the Soviets.
\par \tab Mongolia existed as a satellite of the Soviet Union for decades, but its role was mostly as a buffer state between the Soviet Union and China. Amid the collapse of Communism and the Soviet Union's disintegration in 1991, Mongolia, too, underwent rapid change. The Mongolian People's Revolutionary party surrendered its constitutional monopoly on power in March 1990 after months of pro-democracy demonstrations. Multiparty elections in July 1990 brought a coalition government and privatization of the economy.
\par \tab In January 1992 a new constitution was adopted that renounced socialism, changed the country's name to the State of Mongolia, and made Mongolia a republic with parliamentary government and a directly elected president. Mongolia would remain neutral in international affairs.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab Clifton W. Pannell\par \tab Montserrat, island, British colony, in Leeward Islands, West Indies; 40 sq mi (104 sq km); cap. Plymouth; active volcano, Soufriere; cotton; pop. 12,100\par \tab The Kingdom of Morocco is located at the western end of North Africa. Known to the Arabs as al-Maghreb al-Aqsa, or "the farthest west," it was the center of Berber Islamic kingdoms that once included much of Spain and North Africa. France established a protectorate over Morocco in 1912 and granted independence in 1956. Morocco has a 1,140-mile (1,835-kilometer) coastline on the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. The Strait of Gibraltar separates Morocco from Spain. Algeria borders Morocco on the east, and to the south Western Sahara is a disputed territory under Moroccan occupation.
\par {\b Land and People}
\par \tab Morocco is a country of 177,117 square miles (458,730 square kilometers). The highest and most rugged ranges of the Atlas Mountains dominate the physical landscape. Earthquakes are common, sometimes causing great destruction.
\par \tab The Rif Atlas border the Mediterranean coast, rising steeply to elevations of 7,218 feet (2,200 meters). The Middle Atlas, with elevations of 10,466 feet (3,190 meters), form a drainage divide for Morocco's major rivers. The Oued Moulouya flows northward to the Mediterranean. The Oued Sebou and the Oued Oum er Rbia flow westward and southward to the Atlantic. The heavily dissected High Atlas span Morocco from the Atlantic coast near Agadir northeastward to Algeria, where they merge with the Saharan Atlas. The mountains average about 13,123 feet (4,000 meters) and are snowcapped in winter. Jebel Toubkal, the highest peak in North Africa, reaches an elevation of 13,665 feet (4,165 meters).
\par \tab An extensive lowland slopes gradually from the mountains to the Atlantic coast. The Gharb Plain and the wide valley of the Oued Sebou are in the north. The Mesata and Tadla plains are farther south. South of the High Atlas the Sahara begins. In the southwest the Anti-Atlas separate the valley of the Oued Draa, which flows to the Atlantic, and the Oued Sous, which drains into the Sahara.
\par \tab Northern Morocco has a Mediterranean climate. Rainfall in the Rif and Middle Atlas averages 30 inches (75 centimeters) annually and falls in the warm winter months. Summers are hot and dry. The mean annual rainfall at Fes is 21 inches (54 centimeters) and the temperature 63░ F (17░ C). Rainfall decreases and temperatures increase southward in the lowlands. The mean annual rainfall at Casablanca is 18 inches (47 centimeters) and at Marrakech 9 inches (23 centimeters) with a temperature of 67░ F (19░ C). During the summer hot dry winds from the Sahara reach the southern plains. The cool, offshore Canary Current moderates coastal temperatures and rainfall.
\par \tab The Atlas Mountains are covered by forests of evergreen, oak, and cedar. Because of widespread deforestation from overgrazing, burning, and fuelwood gathering, as well as sparse rainfall, scrub bushes and grasses cover the lower slopes and lowlands. The cork oaks at Mamora near Rabat are the only remnants of the vast forests that once covered the plain. On the southeastern slopes of the High Atlas and the lowlands that extend into the Sahara, steppe grasslands, and drought-resistant scrub vegetation cover much of the area. Intermittent streams drain from the Atlas into the Sahara. Where gorges cut through the Anti-Atlas, date-palm oases extend into the desert. Elsewhere large areas have no vegetation.
\par \tab The majority of the more than 20 million Moroccan people live in rural areas. They are concentrated in the valley of the Oued Sebou and the Atlantic lowland plains. The average annual rate of population growth is 3.3 percent. Arabic is the official language. French is taught as a second language and is widely used in commerce and government. One third of the people speak Berber languages. They live in towns and villages in the Atlas Mountains and in the Saharan lands. Arabic-speaking people live primarily in cities and towns in the lowlands and agricultural lands. Islam is the state religion. An estimated 28 percent of the adult population are literate. Primary and secondary education are compulsory. The University of al-Quarawiyn, founded in 859, is in Fes. The Muhammad V University, founded in 1957, is in Rabat.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab Half of Morocco's labor force is employed in agriculture. Wheat, barley, and corn (maize) are the main cereal crops. Citrus fruits, vegetables, and olives are also abundant. Sugarcane and sugar beets are grown on a large scale to reduce sugar imports. The herds of cattle, sheep, and goats are generally of poor quality. Rich fishing grounds are offshore in the Atlantic.
\par \tab About one third of Morocco is arable. The richest agricultural lands are in the Oued Sebou Valley and the Atlantic lowland plains. Most crops are grown by dry-farming methods with irrigation necessary in the southern lowlands. Crop production varies widely because of drought and erratic rainfall. In the 1980s Morocco imported cereals, sugar, and dairy products as demand exceeded domestic production. A large-scale water development program is underway to increase irrigated agriculture.
\par \tab Morocco is rich in calcium phosphates. It is the world's third largest producer and the leading exporter. Phosphate rock, phosphoric acid, and fertilizer are Morocco's principal sources of export earnings. Calcium phosphate is mined at Khouribga, Youssoufia, and Benguerir, and Bu Craa in Western Sahara. Rock is processed at Safi for export through the ports of Casablanca, El Jorf-Lasfar, and Layoun. Some coal, iron ore, lead, zinc, and manganese are mined.
\par \tab The production of phosphates is Morocco's main industry. Petroleum refining, food processing, and the production of cement, textiles, and chemicals are also significant. Morocco is almost entirely dependent on imported crude petroleum. Production from the Sidi Ghalem field is small, and plans to develop oil-shale deposits in the Atlas Mountains were abandoned. Petroleum refineries are located at Mohummedia and Sidi Kacem, and one is planned for El Jorf-Lasfar. The textile industry has expanded, and metal industries are planned to use Morocco's extensive mineral resources.
\par \tab Morocco has the capacity to generate 3,838 megawatts of electricity--two thirds by oil and the rest by waterpower. Increased coal imports are planned to replace oil. Morocco has vast hydroelectric potential in the Atlas Mountains.
\par \tab Casablanca is the largest city with a population of about 2.6 million; Rabat is the capital city and, together with the adjoining city of SalΘ, has a population of nearly 810,000. Fes, Marrakech, Meknes, and Tetouan are other population centers. Morocco has ten major ports. Phosphate exports and petroleum imports are the principal commodities handled. Tangier is the main passenger port and an international free-trade zone. The transportation system is well-developed in the north and west with 35,787 miles (57,594 kilometers) of road, about half paved, and 1,105 miles (1,778 kilometers) of railway connecting the principal cities and ports. Transportation through the Atlas Mountains is limited. Morocco has eight international airports, the major ones serving Tangier and Rabat-SalΘ.
\par {\b History and Government}
\par \tab Ancient Morocco was called Mauretania. Northern Morocco was conquered by Carthage and in the 4th century AD was a Roman province. Vandals overran the country in 492, and pirates controlled the Barbary (Berber) coast.
\par \tab Arab armies reached Morocco in 692. Although conversion to Islam was widespread, most Berbers followed the heretical Kharijite sect. Berber Islamic kingdoms of the Almoravids and the Almohads ruled Morocco, much of Spain, and North Africa from 1050 to the mid-13th century. Morocco flourished as a center of Moorish learning. During the 11th and 12th centuries nomadic Arab tribes settled in towns and cities and on the lowland plains. Berber states exempted them from taxation in return for armed services. In the mid-17th century a popular Islamic movement among Saharan Berbers brought the Alawi to power. The present monarchy is hereditary in the house of Alawi.
\par \tab European interests in Morocco increased after France conquered Algeria in 1830. Spain controlled the coastal enclaves of Ceuta, Melilla, and Ifni (now Sidi Ifni) and in 1884 claimed a protectorate over Rφo de Oro. France reached agreements with Great Britain and Spain and, in 1912, with Germany. These agreements recognized French interests in Morocco. Morocco became a French protectorate in 1912. Spain was granted zones of influence in the north and in the south bordering Rφo de Oro.
\par \tab France gradually extended its control over Morocco. Berbers in the Atlas Mountains resisted the French until 1934. In the lowlands colonization by French settlers brought large areas of the best agricultural land under European control. In 1943 the Istiqlal, or Independence, party called for Moroccan independence with a constitutional monarchy headed by Sultan Muhammad ibn Yusuf, or Muhammad V. France, already burdened by rebellion in Algeria, recognized Moroccan independence on March 2, 1956. Muhammad was head of state. Agreements with Spain gave Morocco control over the Spanish zones of influence.
\par \tab On Feb. 26, 1961, King Hassan II succeeded his father on the throne. A new constitution was adopted in 1962, which created a constitutional monarchy. Legislative power rested in a single assembly. Half of the members were elected by direct universal suffrage and the other half by an electoral college comprising representatives of local governments, professional organizations, and workers. Hassan dissolved the legislature when elections failed to produce a clear majority for the government. New elections were postponed until a new constitution could be passed. In 1969 Spain ceded Ifni to Morocco.
\par \tab A new constitution adopted in a 1972 referendum increased the size of the Chamber of Representatives and gave it more legislative power. Two thirds of the members are elected by direct universal suffrage and one third by the electoral college. Members serve six-year terms, though actual term lengths have varied because several elections were postponed. In the early 1990s the government began to address its history of human rights abuses, and in 1992 a new constitution was adopted, which among other things guaranteed human rights.
\par \tab Since 1974 Morocco has pressed its territorial claims to Western Sahara, an area long controlled by Spain. Morocco and Mauritania both protested Spain's plan to grant independence to the area. When a ruling by the World Court and a United Nations-sponsored referendum in Western Sahara favored self-determination, Hassan ordered a march of 350,000 unarmed civilians to take control of the territory. Spain withdrew in February 1976. Morocco annexed the northern part of the territory (Saguia el Hamra), including the phosphate mines at Bu Craa. In August 1979 Morocco occupied the southern sector (Rφo de Oro) when Mauritania renounced its claims.
\par \tab The Popular Front for the Liberation of Saguia el Hamra and Rφo de Oro, or Polisario Front, has fought for an independent state in Western Sahara. As international support increased for the Polisario Front and the government in exile that it established, resolution of claims to Western Sahara stalled.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab Gary L. Fowler\par \tab Located on Africa's southeastern coast, Mozambique is a former Portuguese colony that gained independence in 1975. It is bordered by Tanzania on the north and by Malawi, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Swaziland, and South Africa on the west. Mozambique's transport system is the key to transportation independence from South Africa for Botswana, Malawi, Zambia, and Zimbabwe.
\par {\b Land and People}
\par \tab Mozambique has a land area of 308,642 square miles (799,380 square kilometers). Marshy areas, particularly near the coast, are common. The Zambezi River cuts the country into northern and southern regions. The southern region is generally made up of flat coastal lowlands with elevations of less than 750 feet (230 meters) above sea level. The northern region consists of highlands from 5,000 to 7,000 feet (1,500 to 2,100 meters) high. Besides the Zambezi, other major rivers are the Limpopo in the south, the Pungwe, Save, Revue, and Buzi in the central part, and the Ruvuma, which forms the northern border with Tanzania. Several smaller rivers, including the Lugenda and L·rio, run through the hilly areas in the north.
\par \tab The climate is that of a tropical savanna. Heat and humidity prevail, moderated by elevation in hilly coastal areas of the north. There is a distinct rainy season from November to April with annual rainfall of less than 30 inches (76 centimeters).
\par \tab The Zambezi River also defines the major cultural regions of Mozambique. South of the river the people belong primarily to the Tsonga and Shona ethnic groups. The Tsonga people are believed to have migrated to Mozambique from what is now the Transvaal region of South Africa prior to the 4th century. Their historic links to the peoples of South Africa continue to influence the migration of present-day Mozambicans. The Shona are culturally tied to the inhabitants of northern Zimbabwe. This tie has influenced the movement of Shona-speaking Mozambicans who have become refugees from the civil war. North of the Zambezi the Maravi, Yao, Maconde, and Mucua-Loume peoples predominate.
\par \tab Arab traders are believed to have set up outposts in Mozambique as early as the 8th century, trading for ivory, gold, and slaves. By the time of the first Portuguese settlement in 1505, a distinct Islamic culture was in place, and the Islamic tradition is still strong in coastal areas. Portugal found the colony a ready source of slaves, particularly for export. Although Portugal banned slavery in 1878, the migration of Mozambican workers to other countries continues to this day. The 1980 census put the population at 12,130,000. The most populous city is Maputo, the capital, estimated at 1,069,727 in 1989.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab In addition to the slave trade, Portugal derived wealth from agriculture and from the colony's role as a transport corridor for other states. During the colonial period the agricultural economy of Mozambique was characterized by two types of farming systems--subsistence and plantation farming. Cassavas were then and continue to be the main subsistence crop, though white corn has also been grown for subsistence purposes. Plantations produced cotton, sugarcane, tea, coconuts, and cashews. The major exports of Mozambique are still agricultural products, but many of the farms have been collectivized. Cashews and shrimps are the most valuable crops exported.
\par \tab The Portuguese did little to develop industries other than transportation. Although Mozambique has the world's largest supply of tantalite--in addition to deposits of manganese, uranium, and natural gas--little has been done to develop a minerals-export industry. Petroleum must be imported. Today coal is the chief mineral exploited. The major energy export has been electricity generated at Cabora Bassa Dam, with South Africa the major customer. The Zambezi River dam is Africa's largest producer of hydroelectric power.
\par \tab The major development project under the Portuguese colonists was the building of railroads to link Mozambique's ports to the interior of southern Africa. Five independent networks of rail lines provide access to overseas trade for the landlocked states of Zimbabwe, Zambia, Botswana, and Malawi. There are international airports at Maputo, Beira, and Nampula.
\par \tab Although Mozambique was able to lessen its neighbors' reliance on South Africa for their foreign trade, it remained dependent on South Africa for its own economic well-being. The major sources of income are the profits from handling South African goods through Maputo and the earnings sent home by Mozambicans working in South Africa. In 1986 South Africa accused Mozambique of giving refuge to African National Congress rebels and, in retaliation, declared that it would not renew the work permits of the foreign laborers.
\par \tab The Mozambican economy has never quite recovered from the civil war that followed the struggle for independence, or from the steady emigration of experienced Portuguese workers. Managerial positions had also been controlled by the Portuguese, and the adult literacy rate was less than 15 percent. When independence was finally achieved in 1975, Mozambique lacked the skilled manpower to run its own economy. Even today more than 80 percent of the people above the age of 25 have had no formal schooling.
\par {\b Government and History}
\par \tab The Portuguese occupied the area after it was visited by Vasco da Gama in 1498. It became an overseas province in 1951. The struggle for independence began in 1962, when the Front for the Liberation of Mozambique (FRELIMO) was formed. Two years later it began a guerrilla movement against Portuguese colonial power. The rebel attacks were concentrated in the northern areas, where Portuguese control was historically weak and the guerrillas could use sanctuaries in Tanzania and Zambia. In 1974, after the government in Portugal collapsed in a military coup, a cease-fire was declared. When independence was granted, FRELIMO became the ruling organization. Mozambique's only political party, it proclaimed its allegiance to Marxist-Leninist ideology in 1977.
\par \tab FRELIMO was dedicated to two major ideals: the institution of a rigid socialist economy and support for the struggle for independence from Britain in neighboring Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe). FRELIMO allowed Zimbabwean rebels to operate from its territory and stopped handling Rhodesian exports and imports. The already depleted economy of the new nation never wholly recovered from its involvement in Rhodesia's problems, which ultimately led to civil war in Mozambique.
\par \tab To retaliate against Mozambique, Rhodesia began arming dissidents who were unhappy with FRELIMO's socialist rule. An organization to overthrow the government of Mozambique was formed in 1976 by white Rhodesian officials who were trying to prevent the establishment of black-majority rule in their own country. South African armed forces soon took over the Mozambique National Resistance (MNR)--better known by its Portuguese acronym, RENAMO. The RENAMO recruits opposed the nationalization of industry, the state-run agricultural policy that discouraged production, and the dominance of the government by peoples of the south.
\par \tab The guerrillas disrupted the economy by sabotaging vital facilities. Much of the transport system was destroyed by rebel attacks, and the government was unable to keep the rail network functioning without the help of Zimbabwean, Zambian, and Tanzanian troops. More than 100,000 deaths were reported. Fleeing poverty, drought, and the civil war, millions of refugees migrated into neighboring states. By 1989 FRELIMO's leaders had become disenchanted with Marxism-Leninism and advocated a mixed economy. A new constitution in late 1990 ended one-party rule and dropped the word "People's" from the name of the republic. It established a Western-style democracy. On Dec. 1, 1990, a partial cease-fire was signed. Population (1991 estimate), 14,628,000.\par \tab Situated on the southwestern coast of Africa, Namibia--long known as South-West Africa--was controlled by the government of South Africa from 1916 until it became a fully independent nation in 1990. The former territory covers an area of 318,251 square miles (824,266 square kilometers). Straddling the Tropic of Capricorn, the country is bordered by Angola on the north, Botswana on the east, South Africa on the south, and the Atlantic Ocean on the west. A narrow strip in the northeastern corner projects between Angola and Botswana and touches Zambia. Walvis Bay, about midway along the coast, is an enclave belonging to South Africa. Windhoek is the capital and the largest city.
\par \tab {\b Land.}
\par \tab Namibia's three major physiographic regions are the barren and inhospitable Namib Desert, along the Atlantic coast, which covers about one fifth of the total land area; the Central Plateau, rising from 3,200 to 6,500 feet (975 to 2,000 meters) and extending over half the country; and the sandy Kalahari Desert, which covers the eastern, northeastern, and northern parts. The only perennial rivers are the Okovango, Kunene, and Zambezi on the northern border and the Orange on Namibia's southern border.
\par \tab The climate is generally dry and hot. Summer temperatures can reach 120░ F (49░ C) in the Namib Desert. Rainfall ranges from 4 inches (10 centimeters) in the west to 25 inches (64 centimeters) in the extreme northeast. Most rain falls during the summer but is unreliable. There are prolonged droughts. Wildlife, Namibia's chief tourist attraction, includes the lion, leopard, elephant, rhinoceros, giraffe, zebra, ostrich, and antelope. Etosha National Park is one of the largest game parks in the world.
\par \tab {\b Economy.}
\par \tab Namibia is one of Africa's richest countries in mineral deposits. Mining is the major economic activity, producing diamonds, zinc, lead, copper, uranium, silver, and gold. The country has one of the world's richest alluvial deposits of gem diamonds. One of the most productive open-pit uranium mines in the world is at Rossing.
\par \tab Agriculture is dominated by the raising of cattle and sheep. The processing of meat and other livestock products is a major activity. Most livestock farms are located in the central part of the country. The Karakul (Persian lamb) sheep is raised in the arid south for its high-quality pelt. Some roots and tubers, corn (maize), millet, fruits, and vegetables are grown. Namibia has one of the richest potential fisheries in the world. Offshore fishing resources include anchovies, lobsters, mackerel, pilchards, and whitefish. Chief export items are gem diamonds, uranium, Karakul pelts, copper, tin, lead, and zinc; major imports are food, fuel, and manufactured products.
\par \tab {\b People.}
\par \tab More than 80 percent of the population are black African in origin. The largest ethnic groups are Ovambo, Kavango, Herero, Damara, and whites. Bushmen, living in the eastern section, are among the oldest inhabitants of Southern Africa. About two thirds of the Namibians live in rural areas, largely in the Central Plateau region. Except for the ports and mining centers in the Namib and the Kalahari area, where some Bushmen live, these regions are largely uninhabited. Whites are mainly of German, English, and Dutch descent. The Basters are people of mixed Nama and white ancestry. English is the official language; German and Afrikaans are also widely used. The majority of the population are Christian, and more than half of these are Lutherans.
\par \tab Education is compulsory between the ages of 7 and 16 and is free in public schools. The school system is segregated. There is a vast difference between white and nonwhite literacy rates--100 percent and about 30 percent, respectively. Health conditions are better than in many other African countries. Most rural areas are served by some kind of modern medical facility. There are about 4,450 persons per physician. Malaria and tuberculosis are prevalent.
\par \tab Namibia has a good road network. It also has nearly 1,500 miles (2,400 kilometers) of railway. Walvis Bay is the chief seaport; a smaller port is at Lⁿderitz. Windhoek has an international airport.
\par \tab {\b History.}
\par \tab Namibia was brought under British colonial rule in 1876, and it became a German protectorate in 1884. The first German settlers arrived in 1892 and displaced Africans on most of the good farmland. During World War I Namibia was captured by South African troops, and the territory was mandated to South Africa by the League of Nations in 1920. South Africa later questioned the legal authority of the United Nations (UN) and refused to place Namibia under UN trusteeship. In 1964 the UN voted to end the mandate, and in 1969 it demanded the withdrawal of South African administration.
\par \tab In 1988 Angola, Cuba, and South Africa signed the treaty that granted independence to Namibia. The treaty called for a one-year transition period (beginning on April 1, 1989) that included UN-supervised elections of an assembly later in the year to draft a constitution. As part of the agreement, Cuba was required to withdraw its 50,000 troops from Angola by early 1991. The transition was temporarily disrupted when rebels from Angola crossed the border into Namibia and battled with UN peacekeeping forces.
\par \tab Voters went to the polls during UN-supervised elections in November 1989 and gave the South West Africa People's Organization (SWAPO) a majority in the constituent assembly. A coalition drew up a constitution, and the new Republic of Namibia gained its independence on March 21, 1990, with Sam Nujoma as president. Population (1992 estimate), 1,511,600.\par \tab The Republic of Nauru, the smallest republic in the world, consists of an oval-shaped coral island of 8.2 square miles (21.2 square kilometers) in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. Situated 37 miles (60 kilometers) south of the equator, the island contains one of the world's richest deposits of phosphate, a mineral used in making fertilizers and Nauru's only export. Major imports are fuel, water, machinery, and building materials. The per capita income of Nauru is among the highest in the world.
\par \tab Nauru has a generally hot and humid tropical climate. Rainfall is high and irregular. Vegetation is mainly restricted to the narrow coastal belt and consists of coconut palms, pandanus, and scrubs.
\par \tab The majority of Nauruans are Christians. There are two well-equipped hospitals. Education is free and compulsory for children between the ages of 6 and 16. An international airport is at Yaren. The first European visited Nauru in 1798. It was dominated successively by Germany, Great Britain, New Zealand, and Australia. The island gained complete independence in 1968. Nauru is an associate member of the Commonwealth. Population (1985 estimate), 8,000.\par \tab The small independent kingdom of Nepal is located along the southern slopes of the Himalayan mountain range between India and the Tibet Autonomous Region of China. Covering an area of 56,827 square miles (147,181 square kilometers), Nepal is a landlocked country with about three fourths of its terrain mountainous. Mount Everest (known as Sagarmatha in Nepal), the world's highest peak, is on Nepal's northern border. From years of geographical and self-imposed isolation, Nepal is one of the least developed countries of the world.
\par \tab From south to north, Nepal can be divided into four physical belts: the Tarai, a low, flat, fertile land bordering India; the forested foothills of the Mahabharat Lekh range; the midmountain region enclosing the valleys of Kathmandu and Pokhara; and the Himalaya Range, rising to more than 29,000 feet (8,850 meters) with eight of the world's ten highest peaks. Nepal's climate varies from subtropical monsoon in the Tarai to Alpine in the northern Himalayan region. The monsoon rainfall occurring between June and September decreases from east (75 inches [190 centimeters]) to west (35 inches [89 centimeters]). Areas above 16,000 feet (4,900 meters) are permanently covered with snow. The vast forested area of the Himalaya Range bears valuable forests of spruce, fir, cypress, juniper, and birch. Nepal's wildlife includes the tiger, leopard, deer, rhinoceros, and musk deer. It is a belief held by some that a creature called Yeti, or "Abominable Snowman," inhabits the high snow-covered mountains.
\par \tab {\b Economy.}
\par \tab Timber and hydroelectric power are Nepal's two most valuable natural resources. Agriculture is the mainstay of the people and provides about half of the country's export earnings. Rice, pulses (edible seeds of some vegetable crops), barley, corn, cotton, jute, tobacco, spices, sugarcane, and wheat are the main crops.
\par \tab Terrace farming is practiced widely. Farmers also tend herds of sheep, cattle, and long-haired oxen known as yaks. The jute industry is Nepal's principal earner of foreign exchange. Other products include sugar, matches, leather, shoes, cigarettes, malt beverages, lumber, and paper.
\par \tab Major imports are textiles, salt, petroleum products, sugar, machinery, transport equipment, medicines, cement, iron and steel, and tea. Principal exports are food grains, medicinal herbs, jute, timber and wood products, oilseeds, potatoes, and cattle. A number of development projects in Nepal are financed by foreign aid, mostly from India and China.
\par \tab {\b People.}
\par \tab The Nepalese population is ethnically composed of indigenous Newars, Indo-Aryan migrants from India, and Mongoloid peoples from Tibet. The famous Nepalese Gurkhas in the British and Indian armies are regarded as among the finest soldiers in the world. Sherpas often accompany Himalayan expeditions as guides and porters. Over 90 percent of the Nepalese live in villages or in small market centers. In addition to Kathmandu, the capital city, Lalitpur and Bhaktapur are fast-developing towns. Biratnagar, Birganj, and Nepalganj are smaller urban centers along the Indian border.
\par \tab Nepali is the official language, and English is largely used by the educated class. Radio Nepal broadcasts in both. Education through the fifth grade is free. Tribhuvan University in Kathmandu--with faculties of arts, sciences, medicine, and education, among others--was founded in 1959. Literacy increased from 1 percent in the early 1950s to about 23 percent in the 1980s. The Royal Nepal Academy promotes sciences, arts, and literature.
\par \tab Hinduism is the main religion, with about 90 percent of the population as adherents. Hinduism and Buddhism have existed side by side in Nepal for centuries and have become closely interwoven. A rich artistic and cultural tradition has developed that often includes both Hindu and Buddhist themes in sculpture, paintings, and architecture. Many examples of intricately patterned woodcarving and stone sculpture are preserved in the many temples, stupas (Buddhist shrines), and pagodas.
\par \tab Although the government has taken steps to improve existing health facilities, diseases such as cholera, malaria, tuberculosis, typhoid, and leprosy still occur frequently. The infant mortality rate is high, and the average life expectancy is only about 46 years. Extensive malaria eradication and vaccination programs have been effective in some areas.
\par \tab Transport facilities are limited: there are only about 32 miles (51 kilometers) of railway and about 3,500 miles (5,630 kilometers) of road. The primary means of transportation--as it has been for centuries--is a network of footpaths. Tribhuvan International Airport is at Kathmandu.
\par \tab {\b Government and history.}
\par \tab Nepal is a constitutional monarchy with a partyless four-tier system of panchayats, or councils: village, district, zonal, and a 140-member Rashtriya (National) Panchayat. Executive power is vested in the king, who appoints a council of ministers from the Rashtriya Panchayat. The country is administratively divided into 14 zones and 75 development districts.
\par \tab Nepal's cultural and political history can be traced in ancient Indian classics to about 2,500 years ago. The Malla Dynasty became powerful in the 10th century and ruled until 1769, when it was defeated by the Gurkha king Prithvi Narayan Shah. He laid the foundation of modern Nepal by integrating a number of small independent kingdoms. The Shah rulers established a centralized political system but lost control to the Rana noble family, which provided the hereditary prime ministers from 1846 to 1951. A revolution overthrew the Rana government, and the sovereignty of the Crown was restored under King Tribhuvan Shah in 1951. A constitution was approved in 1959 and general elections held, but in 1960 King Mahendra Shah restored an absolute monarchy. A partyless form of government was established in 1962.
\par \tab King Mahendra died in 1972 and was succeeded by his son, Birendra Shah. King Birendra in 1980 approved a modified version of parliamentary government that provided for direct elections to the National Assembly. In April 1990 King Birendra lifted a 30-year ban on political activity. On April 16 he dissolved the National Assembly and approved Krishna Prasad Bhattarai, the leader of the Nepalese Congress party, as prime minister of an interim government. King Birendra signed a draft constitution in September that limited his power to that of a constitutional monarch and that gave the citizenry much wider freedoms. Parliamentary elections were tentatively scheduled for April 1991. Population (1990 estimate), 18,910,000.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab Pradyumna P. Karan\par \tab Although it is one of the smallest countries in Europe, the kingdom of The Netherlands played an important role in the history of the continent. At one time it was a great sea power and a trade rival of England on the oceans of the world. The Dutch established colonies on several continents. Today The Netherlands is no longer a colonial power, but it still plays a significant role in European affairs, and its location makes it a major gateway to Europe for sea, land, and air traffic.
\par {\b Land and Climate}
\par \tab The total area of The Netherlands is 16,034 square miles (41,528 square kilometers), of which some 13,100 square miles (33,900 square kilometers) is land. It extends for 175 miles (282 kilometers) north to south and for 110 miles (177 kilometers) east to west. It is bordered on the east by Germany, on the south by Belgium, and on the west and north by the North Sea.
\par \tab The Dutch name of the country, Nederland, means "low land." It consists of the western corner of the great North European Plain where a number of rivers enter the North Sea. Only in the extreme south are there hills. The West Frisian Islands, part of the Frisian Islands chain, are strung along the north coast.
\par \tab The Netherlands is divided into 12 provinces. The major ones historically are North and South Holland--hence the popular use of the name Holland to apply to the whole country.
\par \tab During the centuries the size of the land area has expanded considerably from the reclamation of land from the sea. At one time much of the land in the western part of the country lay under water, including swamps and shallow lakes. In the Middle Ages the first attempts were made to drain the land by building a surrounding dike, or wall, and pumping the water out by means of windmills. Until the invention of steam and electric pumps, the windmill was the major tool for land reclamation. Such a reclaimed area is known as a polder.
\par \tab In 1920 a start was made on the reclamation of the large inland sea known as the Zuider Zee. Between 1927 and 1932 a long dam was built across the mouth of the Zuider Zee, and large areas of land were drained.
\par \tab Five polders have been reclaimed, amounting to about 965 square miles (2,500 square kilometers). The Zuider Zee has been turned into a smaller freshwater lake, now called the IJsselmeer.
\par \tab Along the west coast there are a number of arms of the North Sea that penetrate inland. To prevent flooding by high tides, a series of dams was built across the mouths of the inlets. These dams can be opened and closed according to the level of the water. This Delta Project was completed in 1986.
\par \tab If not for the protection by the dikes and the row of large sand dunes along the coast, about one third of The Netherlands would lie under water. The water level is maintained by a government department known as Waterstaat.
\par \tab The areas of the country originally under water have in general clay soils, good for the growing of grain and other crops. In some areas in the west and north of the country there are peat deposits that resulted from the decomposition of vegetation in former swamps, known as fens. In the past this peat was used as fuel. Its removal resulted in a number of shallow lakes, some of which were drained, but others have been left as recreational areas.
\par \tab Along the rivers there are clay soils that are not as fertile as the sea clays. They are often used for grazing or fruit growing. In the eastern and southern parts of the country that lie above sea level, soils are generally poor.
\par \tab They consist mainly of sand that in places forms ridges of low hills, reaching more than 200 feet (60 meters) in height. The small "appendix" of The Netherlands, which extends southward between Belgium and Germany, is a region of chalk hills that reach 1,053 feet (321 meters) at the Vaalserberg, the highest point in The Netherlands.
\par \tab The Netherlands is crossed by two major rivers, the Maas and the Rhine. The Maas rises in France, where it is called the Meuse, and flows through Belgium to enter The Netherlands at its most southerly point. It flows northward and then westward to enter the North Sea. The Rhine enters the country from Germany and flows westward to the sea. It first divides into two branches, the Waal and the Rhine, and then the latter divides into the Rhine and the IJssel, which flows northward to the IJsselmeer. The western part of the Rhine is called the Lek. The Lek, Waal, and Maas flow parallel to one another and are connected by side streams and canals.
\par \tab The Netherlands has a typical maritime climate. The predominantly westerly winds bring much moisture in the form of rain. Winters are in general mild and summers cool from the influence of the sea. A common winter problem is fog. The coast is subject to strong gales that can cause considerable damage. The city of Utrecht has a typical climate for an inland location, with an average January temperature of 36░ F (2.3░ C) and a July temperature of 62░ F (16.6░ C). The climate, however, is very variable, and summers in Utrecht can be as hot as 95░ F (35░ C) and winters as cold as -5░ F (-20.5░ C). Average annual rainfall is 29 inches (74 centimeters).
\par {\b Natural Resources and Plant and Animal Life}
\par \tab At present about 65 percent of the land area is used for farming, and only 12 percent of the land is in its natural state with forests, heathlands, fens, and sand dunes. Most of the heathlands are found in the sandy regions of the east and south and are covered with heather, low bushes of gorse, broom and juniper, and other heath plants. Most of the forested areas also occur on sandy soils. They occupy about 9 percent of the total land area. Most are planted forests of coniferous trees, such as pine and spruce, which have commercial value. Most timber requirements are imported.
\par \tab Animal life is similar to that of most Western European countries. Such animals as hedgehogs, moles, badgers, otters, mice, and water rats occur, with foxes and squirrels in the higher areas. A large variety of sea and land birds is found.
\par \tab Resources for industry are largely lacking, but the few that exist are significant. In 1867 the southeastern province of Limburg--with its coalfields--became part of The Netherlands. Its good-quality coal was more than sufficient for the requirements of the country. In the 1930s about half was exported and the rest used in the iron and steel industry and for the production of gas. In 1960 the energy situation changed completely with the discovery of large fields of natural gas in the northern province of Groningen. This gas is sufficient for domestic requirements and for export abroad in large quantities by pipeline--in particular to Germany, Belgium, and France.
\par \tab This surplus of gas enabled the closing of all coal mines in the country in 1975. The sale of natural gas abroad has earned the Dutch much money and has helped to maintain their high standard of living. Recent drops in gas prices and the probability of the depletion of gas reserves by the end of the century, however, have caused some worries.
\par \tab Some small deposits of petroleum exist, but production is small, and The Netherlands must import most of its requirements. Some salt is mined for the chemical industry.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab The inhabitants of The Netherlands number about 14 1/2 million. Their language, Dutch, shares certain characteristics with both German and English. In the province of Friesland a language called Frisian is spoken, which has even closer links with English. When the area was originally settled by Germanic peoples, the north and west were occupied by the Frisians, the east by the Saxons, and the south by the Franks. The Dutch language developed mainly from the dialect of the Franks. Differences between the groups can still be noted in local dialects, customs, traditional folk costumes, and in types of farmhouses.
\par \tab Considerable numbers of foreigners have settled in the country. After the former Dutch colonies in the East Indies became independent in 1949 as Indonesia, people of Indonesian origin moved to The Netherlands. People from the former Dutch colony of Suriname also arrived after its independence in 1975. Apart from these immigrants, numbers of foreign workers--mainly Turks and Moroccans--have remained as permanent residents. About 4 percent of the population are foreigners.
\par \tab The largest metropolitan area is Rotterdam, with about 1 million inhabitants. Amsterdam, the capital, has just under a million. The Hague, which is the seat of government, has more than 670,000 inhabitants. Other major cities are Utrecht, Eindhoven, and Arnhem.
\par \tab The Netherlands is one of the most densely populated countries in Europe, with an average of more than 1,100 inhabitants per square mile (425 per square kilometer). In the west of the country the density rises to more than 2,800 per square mile (1,080 per square kilometer). The birthrate is low, however, and the population is increasing at a rate of only 0.4 percent per year.
\par \tab The largest single religious group is the Roman Catholics, who number more than 5 million. They live mainly in the southern provinces of North Brabant and Limburg. Protestants total about 4 million, of which the majority belong to the Dutch Reformed church. They live mainly in the north and west. More than 4 1/2 million people claim no religion.
\par \tab The Dutch have made great contributions to European culture. In particular the Dutch dominated European art in the 16th and 17th centuries. Some of the earlier painters were Dutch speaking but lived in what is now northern Belgium. The most famous Dutch painter of the early period was Hieronymus Bosch, whose work was based on fantastic themes.
\par \tab In the late 16th century, painters concentrated on portraits, still lifes, and landscapes. Frans Hals was best known for his portraits and humorous scenes. He was followed by Rembrandt van Rijn, without doubt the greatest of the Dutch painters. His portraits and groups were commissioned by the rich middle class that was produced by the success of Dutch trade. Rembrandt also painted themes from the Bible. Jan Vermeer, on the other hand, painted people engaged in the various activities of daily life. Willem van de Velde, Ferdinand Bol, Bartholomeus van der Holst, Paulus Potter, Jacob van Ruisdael, Jan Steen, and Meinert Hobbema also painted during the 17th century.
\par \tab In the 19th century there was a revival of Dutch art with such artists as Joseph Israels, the Maris brothers, and Anton Mauve. Vincent van Gogh went to France, where he painted under the influence of the French impressionists. The de Stijl group of Dutch artists in the early 20th century was headed by Piet Mondrian. Willem De Kooning was born in Rotterdam, though he went to New York City in 1926.
\par \tab Dutch architecture is notable. Church architecture flourished in the Middle Ages, and several churches date from this period. In the 17th century Dutch architects designed palaces and country and town houses. One of the major features is the use of large ornamental gables. Later periods in Dutch architecture were more influenced by foreign styles.
\par \tab Dutch literature has had some international recognition. Tales of chivalry, religious stories, and plays were popular in the Middle Ages. In the 16th century the influence of the Renaissance led to writing on philosophical and humanistic themes. The greatest of these writers was Desiderius Erasmus. Later writers were Pieter Cornelisz Hooft, Gerbrand Bredero, Constantijn Huygens, and Joost van den Vondel--all of whom wrote in the 17th century. Vondel is regarded as the greatest Dutch poet and playwright of the period. By the end of the 17th century, Dutch literature had gone into decline and was strongly under French influence. The only figure of significance in this period was Justus van Effen, who published a literary journal. At the end of the 18th century two woman writers--Betje Wolff and Aagje Deken--wrote novels together with great success.
\par \tab Literature in the 19th century also had a revival. Jacob van Lennep wrote historical novels, Nicolaas Beets produced humorous sketches of Dutch life, while Eduard Douwes Dekker described and criticized the life and administration of the Dutch East Indies. Writers who belong to the modern period of Dutch writing include Louis Couperus, Herman Heyermans, Henriette Roland-Horst van de Schalk, Arthur van Schendel, Top Naeff, and Jo van Ammers-Kⁿller. Most wrote during the period before World War II. After the war Dutch literature followed the trends of European literature in general and became more diverse in nature. Simon Vestdijk was the major writer of the period. One of the most successful authors was Jan de Hartog, whose novels were translated into many languages. Among present-day writers, Janwillem van de Wetering has achieved international success with his crime novels.
\par \tab The Dutch have not produced many musical composers of note since Jan Pieterszoon Sweelinck in the 16th to 17th century but have one of the world's greatest orchestras, the Amsterdam Concertgebouw. Its conductors Willem Mengelberg, Eduard van Beinum, and Bernard Haitink achieved international reputations. Among Dutch singers Elly Ameling has a worldwide career. Apart from classical music, modern pop music is popular, and there are many pop groups and singers of all kinds who tend to copy their American or British counterparts.
\par \tab The Dutch spend much time in their homes and give much attention to the furnishing and appearance of their interiors. Eating out in restaurants is still reserved mainly for special occasions. Visits to cafes for coffee or a drink are common forms of entertainment.
\par \tab Like most Europeans the Dutch are fervent followers of soccer. Dutch teams play in international competition for the European and world championships. Field hockey is also a favorite sport with both men and women. Skating is popular, and Dutch speed skaters have been successful in international competition. A cold spell in early 1985 allowed the Elfstedentocht, a traditional race around 11 cities in Friesland, to take place for the first time in 22 years. It attracted 16,000 competitors and caused skating fever to grip the country. On occasion Dutch women have won figure-skating titles. Sailing is also popular. Unlike most Europeans, the Dutch play some golf. Although the game of golf originated in The Netherlands, it has been borrowed in its modern form from Great Britain.
\par \tab Cycling is a sport, a form of recreation, and a method of transportation. The flat country is ideal for the use of the bicycle. Many people go to work or to school by bicycle. Cycle racing is popular, and Dutch teams compete in international events.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab Many people think of The Netherlands as a country of windmills, canals, tulips, and wooden shoes, with cheese and butter as its main products. This image of The Netherlands as a mainly agricultural country has not been true for a long time, as it is now as industrialized as most other Western European countries.
\par \tab Agriculture still provides a number of products, many of which are exported. More than half of the farmed area is under grass and is used for grazing or hay growing to feed dairy cows. Butter and cheese are exported; Edam and Gouda cheese are known around the world. Pigs are kept in large numbers, and Dutch hams and bacon are also exported. About two thirds of the income from agricultural production comes from the sale of livestock products. Such field crops as wheat, sugar beets, barley, and potatoes are grown. Horticulture, however, produces more than 60 percent of the total income from field agriculture. It consists of the growing of fruits, vegetables, and flowers--some in greenhouses. Tomatoes, lettuce, onions, and other vegetables are exported, especially to Germany and Great Britain. The export of flower bulbs, especially tulips, is also significant. The major fruits grown are apples, pears, plums, cherries, strawberries, and other berries. Dutch agriculture is efficient, and farmers are organized in cooperatives for the marketing of products and the purchase of seeds, fertilizers, and other requirements.
\par \tab Fishing is one of the traditional activities of the Dutch, who are major exporters of fish. The Dutch themselves eat much salted and pickled herring, and eels from the IJsselmeer are a particular delicacy.
\par \tab Industrialization began later in The Netherlands than in most other Western European countries because of the lack of raw materials. The development of coal mining in the province of Limburg led to the establishment of a chemicals and gas industry there. The coal was used in an iron and steel industry, which was established on the coast at IJmuiden. Now this plant operates only on imported coal and iron ore.
\par \tab Steel is used in the shipbuilding industry and in the manufacture of equipment for dredging and water management. It is also used by the oil and gas industry. Automobiles are built in several locations. The Fokker company produces small aircraft. Dutch industry, however, is dominated by three large firms. Philips, located in Eindhoven, produces electrical and electronic goods, including televisions, radios, and computers. Philips products are sold in the United States under the name Norelco. Unilever makes synthetic fibers, chemicals, and pharmaceuticals. Royal Dutch Shell is a major international oil and natural-gas producer. Petroleum refining is a major industry, largely located in the Rotterdam area.
\par \tab At one time there were textile and shoe industries, but overseas competition has put many firms out of business. Among minor industries are the manufacture of cocoa and chocolate, the canning of fruits and vegetables, and the cutting of diamonds.
\par \tab The Netherlands is also a center of international finance and trade. In 1948 The Netherlands formed a customs union with Belgium and Luxembourg known as Benelux. It abolished all customs duties on goods moving between the three countries. The union formed the basis on which the European Economic Community was later established.
\par {\b Transportation, Communication, and Education}
\par \tab There is an excellent network of highways, including more than 1,400 miles (2,250 kilometers) of four-lane highways that connect with the German and Belgian highway systems.
\par \tab Railroads are well organized, and a rapid service connects all major cities. There is also sea and inland-waterway traffic. Rotterdam handles the most cargo of any port in the world. Located at the mouth of the Rhine, it provides access to much of Germany, France, and Switzerland.
\par \tab A network of more than 2,320 miles (3,730 kilometers) of canals, along with rivers, is linked with the waterway systems of Belgium and Germany. The main international airport is Schiphol near Amsterdam. It is the headquarters of the Royal Dutch Airlines (KLM), one of the major airlines of the world.
\par \tab Television and radio services are controlled by organizations that represent various religious and political groups. The telephone and telegraph services are operated by the state postal authorities.
\par \tab Education is compulsory from ages 7 to 16. There are various levels and types of middle and high schools, including technical and vocational schools. There are 85 specialized institutions for higher education in addition to 13 universities. An Open University was established in 1984 to provide correspondence courses.
\par {\b Government}
\par \tab The Netherlands is a constitutional monarchy. The present monarch is Queen Beatrix, who ascended the throne in 1980. The parliament, known as the States-General, consists of two chambers. The First Chamber is made up of members elected by the assemblies of the 12 provinces, known as the Provincial States. Members of the Second Chamber are chosen by the electorate. The main political parties are the Christian Democratic Appeal (CDA), the Labor Party (PvdA), the People's Party for Freedom and Democracy (VVD), Democrats 66, and the Greens. The government elected in 1982 was a coalition of the CDA and VVD under Prime Minister Ruud Lubbers.
\par \tab Trial by jury is unknown in The Netherlands. Professional judges administer justice, and arbitration plays a significant role. All judges are appointed for life by the sovereign. The judiciary includes a supreme court and courts of appeal.
\par {\b Early History}
\par \tab During the Middle Ages the Low Countries--comprising the three countries now known as Belgium, The Netherlands, and Luxembourg--were divided into small states, duchies, and counties. Each was separately ruled, and each was constantly at war with its neighbors.
\par \tab The powerful Burgundian duke Philip the Bold finally got control of them, and between 1385 and 1433 he and his successors consolidated the states into a strong unit. When Charles the Bold of Burgundy was killed in 1477, the dukedom was inherited by his daughter, Mary. She married Maximilian I of Austria, a member of the House of Hapsburg, and for many years thereafter the Hapsburgs controlled the Low Countries.
\par \tab In 1556, when the Hapsburg emperor Charles V abdicated, Philip II of Spain became ruler of the kingdom that included the Netherlands. The Protestant Reformation had gained many adherents in the Low Countries, and the king, who was Roman Catholic, was determined to rout them. He sent the duke of Alba with an army to crush the Reformists. Many fled to Germany and England to escape torture and death. In 1568 the rebels won help from William I, the Silent, prince of Orange, who was German-born but had estates in the Netherlands. His fleet captured the cities at the mouths of the Maas and Scheldt rivers and drove the Spaniards out of that region. The Protestant states formed the Union of Utrecht in 1579 and declared themselves independent in 1581. William became the first hereditary stadtholder of the United Provinces, or Dutch Netherlands. In 1579 the provinces in the south formed the Union of Arras by which they allied with Spain and remained Catholic.
\par \tab Led by the statesman Jan van Olden Barneveldt and by William's sons, the United Provinces forced Spain to sign a truce that virtually recognized their independence in 1609. Formal recognition was delayed until the Treaty of Mⁿnster in 1648.
\par \tab In the first half of the 17th century, the United Provinces grew in wealth and power. They possessed the largest merchant fleet in the world, and they started to acquire the colonies that ultimately made them a world power.
\par {\b War with Neighbors}
\par \tab The stadtholdership of the House of Orange was suspended between 1650 and 1672. In 1653 the anti-Orangeists made Jan De Witt, one of their greatest statesmen, grand pensionary of Holland. His first task was to fight the English, who had begun to realize that they had a serious rival on the sea. Anglo-Dutch warfare was spread over three periods (1652 to 1654, 1665-67, and 1672-74). In the first period memorable engagements were fought between the Dutch admiral Martin H. Tromp--aided by one of his commanders, Michael A. de Ruyter--and the English admiral Robert Blake. In 1667 Admiral De Ruyter raided the Medway River in England, burned English vessels, and carried off the flagship to Holland.
\par \tab King Louis XIV of France invaded the Netherlands in 1672. The British, then his allies, attacked by sea. In this desperate situation the Dutch recalled young Prince William III of Orange. A born strategist and devoted patriot, he compelled the French to withdraw in 1674. Under De Ruyter the Dutch fleet had maintained its supremacy over the English, and in 1674 the English too made peace, but naval war with France continued. The Dutch fleet was ultimately defeated in the Mediterranean, and De Ruyter lost his life in 1676.
\par \tab Anglo-Dutch relations meanwhile improved. The rivalry ended in 1678 with the signing of a defensive alliance between the two countries. William III had married Mary, daughter of King James II of England. In 1689 he became the king of England when James was dethroned.
\par {\b Under France}
\par \tab In 1747 the office of stadtholder was restored to the House of Orange. In 1795 the Dutch people, dissatisfied with their ruler, William V, helped the invading French Revolutionary armies. The French overthrew the House of Orange and made the country a republic. When Napoleon became emperor, however, he made the Low Countries part of his empire.
\par \tab After Napoleon's defeat the Congress of Vienna reinstated the House of Orange and tried to make one nation of the northern and southern Low Countries. This new nation was named the Kingdom of The Netherlands. The prince of Orange was crowned King William I in 1815. Fifteen years later the southern provinces rebelled and set up the new kingdom of Belgium. The people of The Netherlands obtained many rights of self-government from Kings William II and III of Orange. As a result The Netherlands became a true constitutional monarchy.
\par \tab William III ruled from 1849 to 1890 and was succeeded by his daughter, Wilhelmina. She abdicated in 1948 in favor of her daughter, Juliana. Juliana and her husband, German Prince Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld, had four daughters. The eldest, Beatrix, became queen when Juliana abdicated in 1980.
\par {\b Modern History}
\par \tab During World War I the Dutch succeeded in remaining neutral. But on May 10, 1940, during World War II, the Germans bombed many cities without warning. The Nazi fifth column paralyzed resistance, and The Netherlands surrendered in five days. The royal family and the cabinet escaped and set up a government in London. The Nazis all but starved the people and deported many to labor camps in Germany. The Dutch underground resisted stubbornly with sabotage and reprisals. Some vessels of the Dutch navy escaped and helped patrol the Allied supply lines. In 1942 Japan seized the Netherlands East Indies.
\par \tab The liberation of The Netherlands began in September 1944, when the Allies drove the Nazis from the southern borders. Nazi forces held the lower Rhine until May 4, 1945, cutting dikes to slow the Allied advance.
\par \tab After the war the Dutch quickly restored their battered cities and flooded lands, but they lost control of their East Indies empire in Indonesian revolts from 1945 to 1948. In 1949 The Netherlands recognized the East Indies as independent. It became the Republic of Indonesia in 1950. In 1954 The Netherlands granted self-government to Suriname (formerly Dutch Guiana) and to the Netherlands Antilles (formerly the Dutch West Indies). In 1962 The Netherlands surrendered West New Guinea, the last of its East Indies holdings. Suriname finally became an independent republic in November 1975.
\par \tab Meanwhile, after Indonesia gained independence, Moluccas islands separatists proclaimed their own independence. Although the revolt was quelled, guerrilla warfare continued in the islands. During the late 1970s terrorist groups seized hostages in The Netherlands to demand independence for the islands.
\par \tab The Netherlands is one of the original members of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). In the early 1980s, however, the country was torn by whether or not it should allow NATO to deploy 48 cruise missiles within its borders. Dutch politics, like Dutch society in general, continues to practice verzuiling, or pillarization. This long-entrenched system is made up of religious-ideological "pillars"--Catholic, Protestant, and Humanist--that characterize political parties, labor unions, business organizations, social and sports clubs, and many professional groups. The system received official recognition in the Pacification of 1917, removing most of the controversy in Dutch politics, but it has kept ordinary Dutch citizens more separated from each other by religion than in most other Western European nations. There have been signs of disquiet over the system, however, and efforts have been made to form new political parties that cross religious lines.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by Ian Matley, Professor of Geography, Michigan State University.
\par \tab {\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR THE NETHERLANDS}
\par \tab Baedeker. Baedeker's Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg (Prentice, 1982).
\par \tab Fodor's Holland 1990 (McKay, 1989).
\par \tab James, Ian. The Netherlands (Watts, 1990).
\par \tab White, Colin and Boucke, Laurie. The UnDutchables: An Observation of the Netherlands (White-Boucke, 1991).\par \tab Netherlands Antilles (formerly Curacao, also called Netherlands West Indies), overseas territory of The Netherlands made up of two island groups about 550 mi (885 km) apart; total area 308 sq mi (798 sq km); one group, just n. of Venezuela, includes Curacao and Bonaire (Aruba withdrew Jan. 1, 1986); the other, at n.w. end of Leeward Islands, includes Saba, St. Eustatius, and s. portion of St. Martin; oil refineries on Curacao; territorial cap. Willemstad, on Curacao; complete internal autonomy 1954; pop. 192,000 .\par \tab A territory of France, New Caledonia is an island in the Pacific Ocean with small island dependencies. Its largest town, NoumΘa, is the territory's capital. New Caledonia lies about 700 miles (1,130 kilometers) east of Australia. The territory, including the dependencies, has an area of about 7,400 square miles (11,200 square kilometers). The mountainous main island is some 200 miles (320 kilometers) long and averages 30 miles (50 kilometers) in width. It has a tropical climate and is rich in minerals, the chief of which is nickel. New Caledonia has nearly one third of the world's known nickel reserves.
\par \tab Large areas of savanna with native grasses support cattle. Coffee and copra are raised for export. Coconuts, yams, taros, bananas, and cassavas are the staple domestic crops.
\par \tab France took possession of New Caledonia in 1853. The territory is administered by an executive council. Population (1985 estimate), 149,400.\par \tab Rising between the South Pacific Ocean and the Tasman Sea, New Zealand is a land of spectacular contrasts--fjords and beaches, glaciers and volcanoes, snowcapped mountains and subtropical bush, clear streams and geysers. Over wide areas the agricultural landscape, grass-green or checkered with crops, contributes to the scenic beauty. Cook Strait divides the two main areas, the North Island and the South Island. Stewart Island, much smaller than the two main islands, lies to the south. There are several outlying groups, including the Chathams, which lie 500 miles (800 kilometers) to the east.
\par \tab New Zealand lies in temperate latitudes of the Southern Hemisphere. The South Island is halfway between the equator and the South Pole, about 1,000 miles (1,600 kilometers) to the southeast of Australia. The main islands extend slightly more than 1,000 miles along the line of their curve "from North Cape to the Bluff," and their greatest width is 280 miles (450 kilometers). The indented coastline is over 3,500 miles (5,630 kilometers) long, and no settlement is more than 75 miles (120 kilometers) from the sea. Originally inhabited by the Maori, a Polynesian people, New Zealand was settled by Europeans after it became a British colony in 1840. It is now an independent nation and a member of the Commonwealth. Although the country is about the same size as Japan, it is not as densely populated; in 1992 the total population numbered about 3,481,000, including some 330,000 Maori. Three fourths of New Zealanders, including most of the Maori, live on the North Island.
\par \tab The capital of New Zealand is Wellington, at the southern tip of the North Island. The largest city and chief commercial center is Auckland, in the northern part of the North Island.
\par \tab The country is isolated, but not insulated. Isolation has played an decisive role in the development of New Zealand's social, cultural, and economic characteristics. Yet economically the country is heavily dependent upon the export of its agricultural products, which are derived chiefly from such livestock as sheep and cattle. Great Britain was traditionally its principal trading partner, but by the mid-1980s Britain had been surpassed by Australia, Japan, and the United States. New Zealand ranks among the leading countries of the world in value per capita of international trade.
\par \tab Since the 1930s manufacturing has increased and diversified considerably, along with the development of hydroelectric and other power resources. Besides the typical factories of modest size producing a wide variety of goods, chiefly for domestic consumption, New Zealand now has a steel mill, an aluminum smelter, an oil refinery, a synthetic gasoline plant, and several automobile assembly plants.
\par \tab The standard of living in New Zealand is high. The state provides extensive social services for the welfare of its citizens. New Zealanders have long enjoyed the benefits of a social security program and one of the most comprehensive health care programs in the world. However, since the mid-1980s, a sluggish economy has forced efforts to cut costs and ease economic strains. This has encouraged restructuring of public services and medical care, along with more reliance on private insurance.
{\b LAND}
\par \tab New Zealand's Maori name, Aotearoa, perhaps meaning "land of the long white cloud," suggests the cloudiness of its skies, particularly along its mountainous backbone. Extensive, rugged mountain ranges form a bold and continuous axis along the length of the South Island, and the alluvial fans that sprawl at their feet often come together to form expansive plains. In distinct contrast to the South Island, the North Island has prominent volcanic cones, a lower and more broken mountain axis, and a landscape with many hill and valley systems.
\par {\b Volcanoes and Fault Lines}
\par \tab New Zealand lies at the junction of two of the world's great tectonic plates, where the lighter rocks of the India-Australia plate are undercut by the westward thrust of the heavy Pacific plate. In recent geological times this transition zone has been subjected to stress and intermittent movement, both vertically and horizontally. The results of these movements are revealed vividly in the country's varied landscapes. A wide belt of thermal activity in the form of hot springs and geysers extends northeastward from the central volcanoes of the North Island to the sea. Several volcanoes, such as White Island, are intermittently active. Occasionally, as at Mount Tarawera in 1886, eruptions have been violent. New Zealand is also a land of moderate earthquake activity. Each year about 100 earthquakes are strong enough to be felt. Relatively few have been severe or damaging, but over 250 people were killed when the town of Napier was destroyed in 1931.
\par \tab Many mountain blocks have been lifted above the lowlands by faulting: the major Alpine Fault defines the western flank of the Southern Alps, which have 17 peaks rising above 10,000 feet (3,050 meters). In 1991 an avalanche reduced the highest peak, Mount Cook, from 12,349 feet (3,764 meters) to 12,315 feet (3,754 meters). During the last Ice Age, which ended about 12,000 years ago, height and latitude favored extensive glaciation in the South Island and smaller glaciers in the North. When the ice retreated, finger lakes and fjords filled some of the flanking valleys. About 360 glaciers still exist, the best known being the Tasman, Franz Josef, and Fox glaciers, all in the vicinity of Mount Cook.
\par \tab About one third of New Zealand's land area is devoted to national parks, wilderness areas, and other conservation efforts. These areas and the Ross Dependency in Antarctica are managed by the Department of Conservation. There are 12 national parks, of which Fiordland is the largest, at 3.2 million acres (1.3 million hectares). The total area under conservation management is 13.6 million acres (5.5 million hectares).
\par {\b Natural Regions}
\par \tab The two large islands differ significantly in their terrain. The North Island is only 18 percent mountainous, for instance, while the South Island is 70 percent mountainous. In addition to the division into two major islands, New Zealand has a number of regions, each with its distinctive natural qualities.
\par \tab {\b Northland.}
\par \tab The coast of the North Auckland peninsula, or Northland, is marked on the east by intricate bays and inlets and many offshore islands, and on the west by a regular line of almost continuous sandy beaches and dunes whipped up by westerly winds. The spectacular Ninety Mile Beach extends for 55 miles (89 kilometers) in the "Far North." Several areas have been reserved as national or maritime parks, notably the Bay of Islands area in the far north and the Hauraki Gulf area east and north of Auckland, and venerable kauri trees are preserved in Waipoua forest. A warm, moist climate promotes lush growth and subtropical fruits, though much land has poor soils and scrubby vegetation.
\par \tab {\b South Auckland.}
\par \tab The region south of Auckland is drained by the Waikato, New Zealand's longest river. On its northwesterly course from Lake Taupo toward Hamilton, the Waikato descends 984 feet (300 meters) and has been dammed at eight places for hydroelectric development. The lowland basins of the Waikato and other rivers extend in a wide belt from the west coast to the Bay of Plenty. They were formed by alluvial deposition, largely of volcanic ash from the Central North Island, and provide productive farmland, especially for dairying.
\par \tab {\b Central North Island.}
\par \tab The volcanic plateau of the Central North Island region rises steadily from the plains, culminating in a cluster of snowcapped mountains. The highest are two active volcanoes, Ruapehu and Ngauruhoe, reaching 9,175 feet (2,797 meters) and 7,515 feet (2,291 meters), respectively. Skiing facilities have been developed on the slopes of Ruapehu. Tongariro, a crater complex, is now dormant. Immediately to the north lies Lake Taupo, New Zealand's largest lake, and the hydroelectric developments of the Tongariro area. North of Lake Taupo, the Rotorua area, dotted with smaller lakes, is remarkable for its hot springs and geysers. At Wairakei and Ohaaki geothermal steam has been harnessed to generate over 1.2 million kilowatts of electricity for the national grid.
\par \tab A mantle of volcanic ash or pumice covers the central plateau. Though the soil is poor, one of the world's largest man-made pine forests flourishes here. Much of the region is relatively unpopulated; patches of native forest remain.
\par \tab {\b Taranaki.}
\par \tab The North Island extends westward to form the Taranaki region, centered on the extinct (or dormant) volcano of Mount Egmont, or Taranaki. A nearly perfect cone, it rises from the encircling lowlands to a height of 8,260 feet (2,518 meters). The peak is ringed by the native forests of Egmont National Park, which is completely surrounded by rolling pasture supporting New Zealand's most intensive dairying. Natural gas and some petroleum have been found in the region, both on land and offshore.
\par \tab {\b East Coast.}
\par \tab To the east, the backbone ranges of the North Island extend from East Cape to Cook Strait. Some areas of native forest remain, notably in Urewera National Park, where it is protected in perpetuity. Sheep and cattle graze in the mountains and in the extensive but often badly eroded hill country. The small lowland areas around Hawke and Poverty bays are notable for their intensive production of fruits, vines, and vegetables, which grow well in the dry warmth of the local climate.
\par \tab {\b Manawatu and Wairarapa.}
\par \tab East and west of the mountain backbone, the rolling lowlands of the Manawatu and Wairarapa regions support prosperous sheep and dairy farms. The marginal dunes of the Manawatu coast are planted with pine forests to hold the shifting sand. To the south, around Wellington, the coastal lowlands are crowded by ranges that end abruptly in Cook Strait. But they reappear across the strait, which indicates the geologically continuous structure of the North and South islands.
\par \tab {\b Nelson and Marlborough.}
\par \tab Across Cook Strait, which is 14 miles (23 kilometers) wide at its narrowest point, the South Island mountain ranges meet the sea in the intricate inlets of "the Sounds," a series of drowned valleys. The indented coast of the Nelson and Marlborough region, sheltered and sunny, is a popular vacation and retirement area. Apple orchards, vineyards, and tobacco farms dot the lowlands.
\par \tab {\b Westland.}
\par \tab The Southern Alps extend almost the entire length of the South Island, and they separate sharply different regions--the narrow, lowland strip of the wet west coast and the broad, dry plains of the east. The Westland region is heavily forested. The mountain slopes are often precipitous, and snow-fed rivers cascade down the steep valleys to the coast. Lakes and waterfalls are numerous, and glaciers descend from the Mount Cook area almost to sea level. Farmland is limited, but timber, coal, and tourism are important, and there is a little gold there.
\par \tab {\b Canterbury.}
\par \tab East of the Alps lies Canterbury, which includes the grassy side of the ranges, the most extensive plains in New Zealand, and the extinct volcanoes and crater-harbors of Banks Peninsula. Sheep ranching prevails in the uplands, but the fans of alluvial gravel that form the productive Canterbury Plains are divided into single-family farms, mostly growing wheat and other grains as well as fodder crops for livestock.
\par \tab {\b Otago.}
\par \tab South of Canterbury is Otago, including the dry ranges and basins of Central Otago and the rolling hills and lowlands of the coastal fringe. The brown-gray soils of Central Otago are thin and coarse-textured and, being dry, have high lime content. The two main rivers, the Clutha and especially the Waitaki, provide a major part of New Zealand's hydroelectric power, and irrigation for orchards. Scenic lakes, both natural and man-made, form tourist attractions.
\par \tab {\b Southland and Stewart Island.}
\par \tab In the far southwest, in the Fiordland region, the Alpine ranges merge into a rugged plateau penetrated by majestic coastal fjords and inland lakes. The Southland plain has been drained to form good crop and pastureland. Across Foveaux Strait, some 16 miles (26 kilometers) away, lies Stewart Island, 674 square miles (1,746 square kilometers) in area. Remote and forested, it is used by vacationers and fishermen but has few inhabitants.
\par {\b Climate}
\par \tab Situated in the mid-latitude westerly wind belt and surrounded by the open ocean, New Zealand has a generally temperate, moist, and maritime climate. Extending from 34░ to 47░ S., the country has a climate like that of northern California and Oregon.
\par \tab The mountains cause the westerly winds to rise across the land, producing abundant precipitation. This is heaviest on mountain slopes exposed to the prevailing winds. In parts of the Southern Alps, for instance, the annual average precipitation rises as high as 472 inches (1,200 centimeters). But east of the mountains, there is a marked rain shadow, and in the driest central Otago basins, precipitation dips to 13 inches (33 centimeters). For the country as a whole, rainfall approaches 80 inches (203 centimeters), but most settled areas experience between 25 and 60 inches (64 and 152 centimeters). Snow is common only in the mountains.
\par \tab Temperatures are moderate, with no great extremes except in limited areas of high altitude. As New Zealand lies south of the equator, temperatures are generally warmer in the north than in the south. The average sea-level temperature ranges from 59░ F (15░ C) in the far north to 48░ F (9░ C) in the far south.
\par \tab Although rain may fall in any season, skies quickly clear as cloudy fronts are followed by high-pressure zones. The eastern lowlands include the driest and sunniest local climates.
\par {\b Plant and Animal Life}
\par \tab The vegetation of New Zealand has considerable variety and a large number of species found nowhere else. These have developed during the country's prolonged isolation.
\par \tab Before humans arrived, most of New Zealand was forested. The native bush was commonly dense, dripping rain forest; but in the drier eastern districts bunch, or tussock, grass prevailed. Scrub was widespread, especially in the volcanic areas of the North Island. After the arrival of European settlers, the bush was cleared for farmland and timber. Today native forests survive mainly in unpopulated areas, reserves, and national parks. Most are mixed forest with broadleaf evergreens and podocarps (conifers), but the massive kauri tree is prominent in the warmer north, and southern beech predominates in cooler uplands.
\par \tab Notable among the trees brought to New Zealand is the radiata (or Monterey) pine, introduced from California. Extensive pine forests have been planted for commercial use and to help repair soil erosion.
\par \tab Sea creatures apart, no mammals could reach the isolated islands; the only native land mammals are two species of bats. Isolation also permitted the survival of a small lizardlike reptile, the tuatara, the last survivor of the rhyncocephalian ("beak-headed") order extinct elsewhere for more than 100 million years. It is still common on a number of offshore islands. There are 44 species of reptiles in the islands, but there are no snakes. New Zealand also boasts the world's heaviest insect, the giant weta.
\par \tab In addition to domestic animals, Europeans introduced many species, including the red deer, the Australian opossums, and the rabbit. Because these species caused untold damage to plants and soil, attempts were made to exterminate them. The red deer has long been hunted for sport and food.
\par \tab In the absence of predatory mammals, New Zealand was a paradise for birds, including many flightless species. At least a dozen species of moas were exterminated by Maori hunters. The kiwi, about the size of a large hen, survives only in secluded areas. The flightless takahe, thought to be extinct by 1900, was rediscovered in 1948 in a remote Fiordland valley where it is now protected. Other birds peculiar to New Zealand are the kakapo, the saddleback, and native thrushes. The huia is now extinct. Penguins, shags, and the royal albatross are found in New Zealand and the Antarctic. Migratory birds include the cuckoo, godwit, and gannet.
\par \tab The abundant fish of New Zealand include tropical species such as tuna and marlin, as well as cod and hake in the Antarctic currents. Groper, bass, and crayfish are found in coastal waters. The inland waters are stocked with acclimatized species of salmon and trout. Hector's dolphin, the world's smallest such mammal, is native to New Zealand waters.
{\b PEOPLE}
\par \tab New Zealand was first settled by the Maori, a brown-skinned Polynesian people. Their ancestors migrated from "Hawaiiki," somewhere among the tropical islands some 2,000 miles (3,200 kilometers) or more to the northeast--but not from Hawaii, despite the similarity in names. They traditionally trace their tribal origins to canoes once thought to have arrived about AD 1350. Archaeological evidence, however, indicates that the ancestors of the Maori were settled in New Zealand perhaps as early as AD 600 and certainly by AD 1000. These early Polynesians are now referred to as the Moahunters because they used the now-extinct moas--flightless birds ranging in size from turkeys to huge ostriches--for food, and they fashioned implements and ornaments from their bones.
\par \tab The islands remained unknown to the Western world until the Dutch sea captain Abel Tasman sailed along the western shoreline in 1642. An attempt at landing was discouraged by the violent reception given to his men by the Maori. More than a century passed before the voyages of the English explorer Capt. James Cook, who disproved theories of a great southern continent by circumnavigating New Zealand in 1769-70. He made contact with the Maori people at numerous places around the coast and was impressed by their social organization and their warlike qualities as well as by their arts and crafts. The establishment of the close links with Great Britain that shaped New Zealand life and culture dates from Captain Cook's day.
\par \tab The first European settlers were whale hunters, seal hunters, and traders seeking timber and flax. These early arrivals extracted the country's resources during the early 1800s. The first Christian mission was founded in 1814 at the Bay of Islands in the far north. Widespread, organized European settlement began in 1840, the date when British sovereignty was officially declared.
\par \tab At that time, the Treaty of Waitangi was signed by the British government's representative, Capt. William Hobson, and by Maori chiefs at the Bay of Islands. By it, all land sales were to be made directly to the government. This treaty is still regarded as a major cornerstone of relations between the Maori and the pakeha (the Maori term for a non-Maori, particularly a white person), despite a history of recurrent dispute over some aspects of the relationship--chiefly the ownership of land.
\par \tab The Maori people have four representatives in the New Zealand Parliament and have legal equality with people of European origin. There is little of the racial tension found in many other lands. Maori identity is strong, but Maori and Europeans freely intermarry and they have similar ways of life, though some aspects of social and cultural life tend to remain distinctly Maori or distinctly European.
\par \tab In the early years of European contact the Maori population declined, principally through diseases brought by the white immigrants. The native population was also affected by the import of firearms, which some Maori used in tribal warfare. Since the late 19th century, however, Maori numbers have increased, along with intermarriage. From fewer than 43,000 in 1892, the Maori population increased to 321,000 in 1991, 9.5 percent of all New Zealanders, or 512,000 if all persons with some Maori ancestry are included, 14.9 percent of all New Zealanders.
\par \tab Europeans, mostly of British origin, comprise about 74 percent of the population. Since the 1890s those born in New Zealand have outnumbered immigrants. The Eurasian residents include small groups of Danish, Dutch, German, Greek, Dalmatian (Croatian), Hungarian, Chinese, Indochinese, and Indian extraction. Some 122,000, about 3.5 percent, are immigrants from various Polynesian islands.
\par \tab The majority of New Zealanders live in urban areas, which have changed in their importance relative to each other. Early in the 20th century, the "big four" cities--Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin--shared leadership, but Auckland and Hamilton grew rapidly while Dunedin ceased to grow. A persistent drift to urban centers and to the north set in, and 85 percent of the people now live in cities.
\par \tab Auckland, whose metropolitan area is home to one quarter of the country's inhabitants, is the chief industrial, commercial, and international transportation center. Christchurch, which ranks second, is the urban center for the South Island. Ranking fifth, behind the Aukland suburbs of Manukau and North Shore, is Wellington, the national capital and transport link between the islands. The Aukland suburb of Waitakere ranks sixth and is in a scenic natural area. Dunedin was originally established by Scottish immigrants and has characteristics reminiscent of Edinburgh.
\par \tab Rural areas are served by regional towns, and districts with dairying and crop cultivation are moderately populous, but grazing regions are sparsely populated. North Island, which has larger cities, more intensive farming, and most of the Maori people, has more than twice the population of the larger South Island.
{\b CULTURE}
\par \tab The culture of New Zealand is an outgrowth of the country's history and geography and has been conditioned by the social structure. The transplanting of Victorian English society to isolated South Pacific islands where Maori culture was already established caused difficulties for both societies.
\par \tab For the Maori the problem has been to maintain a selection of their own traditions, including their language, while assimilating much of the dominant pakeha culture. For the Europeans the main problems have been distance from their roots; the difficulty of maintaining cultural activities in frontier communities dedicated to taming the land; a small population spread irregularly over two islands; and, in an egalitarian social structure, the absence of a wealthy leisure class to patronize the arts.
\par \tab The result has been a bicultural society in which the minority Maori culture has lost many of its traditions, while the dominant European culture has been marked by amateurism and the tendency of its talented artists and scientists to emigrate. Nonetheless, a national culture (including some elements of Maori tradition) has begun to emerge, expressing a sense of national identity. For a nation with a population no larger than that of many a sizable city, the cultural accomplishment has been substantial.
\par {\b Language and Religion}
\par \tab New Zealand is predominantly an English-speaking country. Most immigrants of foreign tongue adopt English as a second language, and their children are educated in English. Yet the Maori language has survived as the first language of about 50,000 people, and substantial efforts are being made to increase interest in Maori language and traditions. In 1987 Maori was declared an official language in courts of law.
\par \tab Although there are quite a few religious minorities, New Zealand is essentially Christian. Over three fifths of the population belong to the Anglican, Presbyterian, Roman Catholic, and Methodist churches.
\par {\b Way of Life and Recreation}
\par \tab New Zealanders enjoy a high standard of living. Most families own their homes. Whether in town or country, the home is usually a one-story house of brick or wood, set in a garden. In recent years, however, there has been a trend toward multistory apartment buildings. State housing programs, though being phased out, include mortgage loans for families with modest incomes and subsidies for low-income renters.
\par \tab Living in a land of pleasant climate and scenic beauty, New Zealanders spend much of their leisure time outdoors. Many devote weekends to outings to the beaches or the countryside, and many engage in active sports. There is an extensive network of hiking trails in New Zealand. Other popular activities include mountaineering, skiing, golf, tennis, and various water sports.
\par {\b Literature}
\par \tab Before the arrival of Europeans, Maori narrative expression was entirely oral, being without a written version until Christian missionaries devised one. The main literary forms were waiata (song), tangi (lamentation), and other forms of chanted or sung poetry; prose myths and legends; genealogical recitals; and spontaneous oratory. Much of this material has been preserved, notably in the collection made by Sir George Grey and first published in 1854. Little has been added to the tradition, however, for most Maori writers now write in English, using European forms, though expressing Maori themes.
\par \tab Literature in English was slow to develop. Poetry began to come of age in the 1920s through the distinctive voice of R.A.K. Mason, joined in the next decade by A.R.D. Fairburn, Denis Glover, Allen Curnow, Charles Brasch, and Ursula Bethal. They--and later poets such as James K. Baxter, Alistair Campbell, Kendrick Smithyman, and Hone Tuwhare--contributed lively and varied poetry to the national literature.
\par \tab A distinctive prose literature began in the late 1930s with the stories of Frank Sargeson. The tradition of critical realism established by Sargeson has been continued in the work of writers such as John Mulgan, Dan Davin, Maurice Shadbolt, Ian Cross, Maurice Duggan, and Maurice Gee, while Janet Frame and Keri Hulme have done significant work in a more impressionistic mode. The stories of Katherine Mansfield were written in England, though many of them dealt with New Zealand themes. Other internationally known writers born in New Zealand were Hugh Walpole, Ngaio Marsh, and Sylvia Ashton-Warner.
\par {\b Fine Arts}
\par \tab Maori decorative arts reached a high level of development in the 18th and 19th centuries. The primary forms were carvings in wood, stone, and bone; designs in plaited and woven flax; painting on wood and rock; and tattooing. Some of these arts, especially wood carving, still flourish and are exemplified in the work of Pine and John Taiapa. Contemporary Maori painters such as Ralph Hotere and Selwyn Muru make use of contemporary Western art styles while being loyal to their Maori heritage.
\par \tab Early European painting was mostly documentary and derivative, and sculpture was almost nonexistent. The most significant New Zealand painter, Frances Hodgkins, emigrated and did her major work abroad, as did the most important sculptor, the kineticist Len Lye. A truly New Zealand tradition began to emerge in the 1930s, however, with the work of such artists as M.T. Woollaston and Rita Angus. Their work, and the later work of Colin McCahon and others, helped to produce a New Zealand genre of great vitality and variety. Sculpture has developed more slowly. Carvings in wood, jade, ivory, and whalebone constituted the most important and sacred form of Maori art. Representative carvings can be found at the New Zealand Maori Arts and Crafts Institute in Rotorua. The ceramic arts have reached a high level in the work of Barry Brickell and other potters. Architecture ranges from grand Victorian palaces to skyscrapers to home-made inventions.
\par {\b Performing Arts}
\par \tab Traditional Maori music, performed mostly on the flute, has been almost completely supplanted by European music, and such outstanding Maori musicians as Inia Te Wiata and Kiri Te Kanawa have performed in European modes. Traditional Maori dances such as the haka, a combination of action-song and posture-dance, remain as a living art form.
\par \tab In a small, remote country, the professional opportunities for European performing arts have been limited. Standards of performance have improved, however, with public interest and government aid, though aid programs have been modified. The former Broadcasting Corporation of New Zealand has been replaced by separate companies and state-owned enterprises formed to manage radio, television, a cultural magazine called "The Listener," and the New Zealand Symphony Orchestra, which first formed in the 1940s. Funding--largely from lotteries and fees--is administered by the Department of Internal Affairs, but policy is now shaped by the Ministry of Cultural Affairs. Support for national and Maori culture has been expanded. Thus support is provided for a broad range of organizations and activities, including the national symphony orchestra, museums, art galleries, historical and cultural conservation, and a motion picture industry which has gained international recognition. The Arts Council of New Zealand delivers funding to arts organizations and artists.
\par \tab At the national and local levels, government financial support extends to individual writers, artists, playwrights, and composers. It also assists art and natural history museums, as well as libraries. There are more than 600 art galleries and museums. The principal museums, located in Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin, are notable for their collections of Maori and Pacific artifacts. The National Library in Wellington includes the Alexander Turnbull Library, with its documentary materials relating to New Zealand and the Pacific. Other comparable library collections include the Hocken Library at the University of Otago in Dunedin, the Auckland Institute and Museum, and public and university libraries in Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin.
\par {\b Education}
\par \tab Schooling in New Zealand is free and compulsory between the ages of 6 and 16, but most children start school at 5 years. Many children attend preschool classes. In addition to public and private schools, home education is also allowed. Some children are taught by a correspondence school method because they live in remote areas.
\par \tab The former Department of Education was replaced by eight education agencies in 1989. These took over different roles in the guidance and administration of state primary and secondary schools, but elected local boards of trustees have been assigned a major role in management. The secondary schools offer a broad general academic education with a common core to prepare students for the school certificate and for advanced studies. Some 3 percent of primary pupils and 5 percent of secondary pupils attend private schools as fee-paying students.
\par \tab There are seven universities in New Zealand--the University of Auckland; the University of Waikato, at Hamilton; Massey University, at Palmerston North; Victoria University of Wellington; the University of Canterbury, at Christchurch; Lincoln University, near Christchurch; and the University of Otago, at Dunedin. Agricultural courses are concentrated at the former agricultural colleges of Massey and Lincoln; and teacher training is offered at five colleges of education. There are also 25 polytechnic schools and a national Open Polytechnic network. Almost 98,000 students attend the universities; some receive various types of financial assistance.
\par \tab New Zealand has a variety of special schools, including schools for the handicapped. For children living in remote areas the Correspondence School, a national school based in Wellington and at Massey University, organizes regular radio lessons and written assignments countrywide.
\par \tab Since the early 1960s Maori education has received great attention. The Maori Education Trust was established in 1961 to encourage Maori students to proceed to secondary schools, colleges of education, and universities. The Ministry of Maori Development encourages higher levels of educational, social, and economic achievement, and the Maori unit of the Council for Educational Research emphasizes Maori education and language projects.
{\b ECONOMY}
\par \tab The economy of New Zealand is based largely upon agriculture, and export trade depends heavily on agricultural products--lamb, beef, wool, and dairy goods. (The country is the world's main exporter of sheep meat.) Particularly since World War II, however, manufacturing has developed, and farm machinery has replaced much manual labor. According to the 1991 census, less than 11 percent of the labor force worked in farming, forestry, and fishing. Manufacturing and construction employed 22 percent, and service occupations some 58 percent. From the early days of European settlement, New Zealand maintained close economic ties with Great Britain. New Zealand produced agricultural goods for Britain, while Britain supplied New Zealand with manufactured consumer and capital goods along with some raw materials and petroleum.
\par \tab After 1950, New Zealand began to diversify its products and markets, and after Britain's entry into the European Communities (EC) in 1973, the volume of agricultural exports to Britain fell sharply. Measured by value, New Zealand sold 66 percent of its exports to Britain in 1950 but only 7 percent in 1990. It bought 60 percent of its imports from Britain in 1950 but only 9 percent in 1990. New Zealand now exports a broad range of goods to over 100 markets around the world, especially to Japan, Australia, the EC, and the United States. Horticulture, forestry, fishing, and manufacturing have increased their contributions; and technical services are extended to less-developed countries.
\par {\b Agriculture}
\par \tab New Zealand's agricultural wealth is chiefly derived from sheep and cattle. Pigs are not significant, but goats and deer became important after 1980. Animals are 20 times as numerous as people, probably the highest ratio on Earth. The soil, except for pockets of alluvial and volcanic land, is not naturally fertile. Lush pastures, often improved by modern techniques such as aerial topdressing with seeds and fertilizer, are basic to New Zealand productivity.
\par \tab Crops are grown extensively on the Canterbury Plains and also in other, smaller lowland areas. The chief crops are wheat, barley, corn, and oats. Citrus and kiwifruit are grown mainly in warm, well-watered northern districts such as Northland and the Bay of Plenty, and apples and pears are grown in the lowlands of Hawkes Bay, in the eastern North Island, and Nelson, in the northern South Island. In recent years grapevine culture has expanded in the drier areas of both islands, such as the Hawkes Bay district. Here, too, large quantities of vegetables are grown; together with locally grown fruit, they supply a thriving canning industry. Government policy favors the owner-operated farm; but some large enterprises have developed.
\par {\b Forestry and Fishing}
\par \tab Forest products also make a substantial contribution to New Zealand's economy. The country's native forests are no longer a major source of timber, but the vast pine plantations of the North Island supply timber and support a flourishing pulp and paper industry as well. As the plantations have matured, the industry has produced two of New Zealand's largest industrial plants, at Kinleith and Kawerau.
\par \tab Fish of many varieties are caught in abundance, mostly for the export market. Exports include crayfish and oysters, some shipped from Bluff, the port of Invercargill in the far south, and other species such as orange roughy, hoki, and squid. To conserve fish populations the government has devised adjustable fishing quotas. The maritime Economic Zone is protected by access agreements with countries such as South Korea, Japan, and the republics of the former Soviet Union.
\par {\b Minerals and Energy}
\par \tab The mineral resources of New Zealand are limited; few minerals are found in commercial quantities. Coal is mined to a considerable extent in parts of both the North and South islands. Iron sands, found along stretches of the western shorelines, are extracted mainly in the North Island for export and to supply the steel mill near Auckland. Natural gas, found in Taranaki and its offshore waters, is significant. Useful limestone and clay resources and silver, ilmenite, bauxite, and tungsten ores are present. Alluvial gold is no longer a major resource, but mining--especially of hardrock gold--periodically revives, depending on international prices. Aluminum ore, brought from Australia to Bluff, is smelted using electricity from the Lake Manapouri hydroelectric complex.
\par \tab The country's substantial hydroelectric power potential has been developed in both islands--principally on the Waikato River in the North Island and on the Clutha and Waitaki rivers and Fiordland's Lake Manapouri-Doubtful Sound complex in the South. These stations supply most of the country's electricity needs at relatively low cost. About a quarter of New Zealand's power is generated by thermal stations using coal and natural gas and by geothermal plants using steam tapped in the central North Island volcanic area. Cables beneath Cook Strait carry surplus electricity produced in the South to the North Island to supplement its needs. The flow can be reversed to the South Island.
\par {\b Manufacturing}
\par \tab New Zealand's manufacturing sector supports--and is supported by--the export industry based on agriculture, but it also supplies many of the country's domestic needs. While some types of manufactured goods are still imported in large quantities, the output of New Zealand's factories now includes food, textiles and clothing, leather goods, carpets, furniture, plastics, pottery, chemicals, steel, aluminum, paper products, petroleum products, and transportation equipment--mostly for home consumption. Factories also produce farm machinery and process dairy products, meat, and wool, mostly for export. Aircraft are manufactured at Hamilton. Factories processing goods for export are large, but the typical factory producing for the home market is comparatively small.
\par \tab The chief manufacturing center is greater Auckland, followed by Wellington and Christchurch. Other leading industrial cities are Whangarei (where New Zealand's oil refinery is located), Hamilton, Tauranga, New Plymouth, Napier, and Palmerston North in the North Island; and Nelson, Dunedin, and Invercargill in the South Island.
\par {\b Transportation}
\par \tab In spite of the rugged nature of the terrain, most areas of New Zealand are readily accessible by road. The road system is good, even in rural districts, and modern motorways have been built around the main cities. Bus service links most centers. The north-south axis between Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin forms the main line of traffic movement.
\par \tab The railroad network, begun in the 1870s, is owned by the government, but is now commercially operated by New Zealand Rail, a state-owned corporation. This handles freight, passenger, and interisland services. The construction of the railways involved building numerous bridges and tunneling through mountains. For most of its length the main trunk is a single track of narrow gauge. Electrification was completed in 1988. The main line runs from Auckland to Wellington, with a rail ferry link from Wellington to Picton in the South Island, and from there to Christchurch, Dunedin, and Invercargill. Branch lines connect most large towns and many smaller ones. With the growth of air and automobile travel, rail passenger services have decreased; but the railroad remains efficient for the large-scale movement of goods over considerable distances.
\par \tab All major centers are linked by good air services. Restructuring has led to greater competition among domestic and international airlines. The national airline, Air New Zealand, acquired some smaller private operations which run cargo and tourist services, but it is now owned and operated by a consortium of New Zealand and overseas interests. It faces domestic competition from Ansett-New Zealand. Overseas services are provided by Air New Zealand and more than 20 international carriers. There are international airports at Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch. The formation of commercial companies to manage airports is being encouraged.
\par \tab Shipping services, always the lifeline of overseas trade, carry about 90 percent of the volume and 99 percent of the value of imports and exports. Official encouragement of nationally owned shipping companies proved costly, and a variable mix of international services is now favored. The government-backed Shipping Corporation of New Zealand was sold to overseas buyers in 1989, agreements were negotiated with competitive shipping lines, and more varied contacts were encouraged, especially with Australia and the Pacific Islands.
\par {\b Tourism}
\par \tab The scenic attractions of New Zealand are unrivaled for so small an area, and there are excellent opportunities for sight-seeing as well as for sports, including trout fishing, big-game fishing, hunting, mountaineering, and skiing. The state Tourist and Publicity Department initially promoted New Zealand overseas and stimulated hotel and motel building and other tourist services. With governmental restructuring, the national Tourism Board continues overseas promotion, the Tourist Industry Federation coordinates services at home, and state hotels were transferred to private enterprise. Overseas visitors, who numbered about 150,000 annually in the mid-1960s, increased to nearly 1,000,000 by the early 1990s.
{\b GOVERNMENT}
\par \tab New Zealand is a sovereign, independent state and a member of the Commonwealth. Its form of government reflects its historical association with Great Britain.
\par \tab The British monarch is the head of state, locally represented by the governor-general, who is normally appointed for a five-year term. He or she has ceremonial functions but, apart from reserve powers to guard the constitution, has authority to act only on the advice of government ministers, particularly the Executive Council. Previously scattered provisions and rules were consolidated in the 1986 Constitution Act, followed by a Bill of Rights Act, a Privacy of Information Act, and changes in the election system.
\par {\b Central Government}
\par \tab As in Great Britain, the legislature is called the Parliament. In New Zealand, however, Parliament consists of only a single chamber, the House of Representatives. Its members are elected every three years. There are 97 members, including one from each of the four Maori electoral districts. The New Zealand Constitution Act of 1852 provided for the General Assembly to include an appointed Legislative Council, but this upper house was abolished in 1950.
\par \tab There is universal suffrage for all citizens over the age of 18. In 1893 New Zealand became the first country to give women the right to vote. Maori voters may register on either a general or a Maori electoral roll. Elections are conducted on a party basis: the party gaining a majority of parliamentary seats forms the government. There are two major parties, National and Labour. The leader of the party in power becomes the prime minister, who, with appointed ministers, heads the formal Executive Council and the informal but influential cabinet.
\par \tab The business of government is carried out by 38 government departments, each responsible for one or more aspects of administration. Most ministers have charge of more than one department.
\par \tab To deal with possible injustices in a bureaucratic form of administration, the office of government investigator, or ombudsman, was created in 1962. Ombudsmen have wide powers of investigation in response to complaints from members of the general public but no direct power to reverse government decisions. In 1975 their scope was extended to include actions of local authorities and statutory boards. In addition to government departments charged with policy-making, there are many state-owned corporations that were formed to operate on a competitive commercial basis. Such government corporations operate, for instance, hydroelectric plants, the railways, airlines, postal services, telecommunications, television, and radio.
\par \tab New Zealand administered the United Nations Trust Territory of Western Samoa before it became an independent island nation in 1962. The Cook Islands and Niue chose to become "Free Association" states (including internal self-government) in 1965 and 1974 respectively. Overseas territories still under New Zealand's jurisdiction are the atoll cluster of Tokelau, north of Western Samoa, and the Ross Dependency, a wedge of Antarctica.
\par {\b Local Government}
\par \tab The local government system has been reorganized since the 1970s. After the abolition of the provinces in 1876, a multiplicity of local bodies and special-purpose boards--such as harbor, power, and water boards--grew up alongside the county, borough, and town authorities. The Local Government Act of 1974 initiated a restructuring process, and by 1990 hundreds of former local bodies had been replaced with a system based on 14 regional authorities broadly corresponding with river basins, 73 territorial (city and district) authorities linked with over 100 community boards, and five remaining special-purpose authorities. These must take social and environmental as well as financial considerations into account, coordinate their actions, and encourage the formation of appropriate public corporations. Although the former nationwide Planning Council has been dissolved, local authorities remain accountable to ombudsmen and subject to financial and legal review.
\par {\b Legal System}
\par \tab New Zealand law usually follows the precedents of English common law. It is administered by the Department of Justice through its general courts and upheld by the police force. The courts include District Courts, the High Court, and the Court of Appeal. The final court of appeal is the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, located in Britain. There is a jury system, and legal aid is provided for those who lack financial means to pay lawyers.
\par \tab The aim of the penal system is not so much to punish as to deter, reform, and rehabilitate. Attempts are made to use detention periods constructively through trade training, group therapy, and other means. There is no death penalty.
\par {\b Health and Welfare}
\par \tab New Zealand is a healthy country with a fresh, temperate climate, a low population density, and not much heavy industry. Nutrition is good, and provision for health care is universal. From the late 1800s to the 1930s, the country had the lowest mortality rates in the world, but its high ranking is now rivaled by other developed countries. In the late 1980s life expectancy was almost 72 years for males and 78 years for females. Public health services are supervised by the Department of Health, which shapes overall policy and seeks to coordinate the work implemented by local area health boards and, increasingly, by four regional health authorities. These integrate the hospitals with other facilities, and contract for the services of health providers, whether public, private, or voluntary. The national system, though being restructured to control costs, funds over three quarters of total health care from taxation. Many people receive free care, and basic costs are covered for all. But user charges scaled for three income levels are levied for hospital costs and pharmaceuticals, and by 1990, 45 percent of the population carried private health insurance. Many welfare services are also provided by the government of New Zealand, which pioneered national social security legislation. There are benefits for widows, orphans, the sick, the unemployed, and veterans; guaranteed retirement income for citizens over 65; and payments to low-income mothers for each dependent child.
{\b HISTORY}
\par \tab According to some interpretations of Maori tradition, the seven canoes of the Great Fleet carrying Polynesians from the central Pacific arrived about AD 1350, but archaeological evidence indicates that settlement had begun by AD 1000, if not as early as 600. These people of eastern Polynesian culture arrived from one or several tropical islands within the circle of the Marquesas, the Societies, and the Cooks. They brought the dog, the Polynesian rat, and several plants, including taro, yam, gourd, and, most importantly, sweet potato. How they made such a great journey is not yet known. At least after the Moahunting era most Polynesians lived in the warmer northern districts. In the isolation of Aotearoa (their name for the islands), the Maori developed their own culture. When the Europeans arrived, Maori probably numbered somewhere between one and two hundred thousand.
\par \tab In 1642 a Dutch navigator, Abel Tasman, sailed along the western shoreline of the land which was later named Nieuw Zeeland after a Dutch province. In 1769 the English explorer Capt. James Cook made his first landing on the east coast of the North Island. He circumnavigated both islands and established friendly relations with the Maori. Cook returned on two later voyages. His journals, translated into a dozen languages, created widespread interest and inspired other explorers to visit the islands.
\par {\b British Colonization}
\par \tab The first European shore stations in New Zealand, established after 1790, were chiefly for hunting seals and whales, obtaining timber and flax, and trade with the growing Australian colonies. A missionary visit in 1814 led to the founding of the first mission station at the Bay of Islands. Appointed in 1839 to represent the British government, Capt. William Hobson signed the Treaty of Waitangi with Maori chiefs in 1840. The Maori thereby ceded sovereignty to the British in return for protection of their land rights. Prior to Hobson's appointment as governor in 1841, he moved the infant capital from Russell in the Bay of Islands to what became the city of Auckland.
\par \tab The first organized British settlement, under the auspices of the New Zealand Company, began in 1840. Inconsistently with the Treaty of Waitangi, many settlers acquired land in private deals with the Maori. Introduced diseases, tribal warfare, and clashes with the British caused the decline of the Maori population to continue.
\par \tab Captain George Grey, first appointed as governor in 1845, was briefly able to promote harmony between the British settlers and the Maori. He bought land from the Maori in the name of the crown to try to prevent conflict. Grey also helped shape the New Zealand Constitution Act of 1852, which established six provincial governments. A decade of warfare between the settlers and the Maori, primarily over the issue of land, began on the North Island in the early 1860s. Never totally defeated by the British, some Maori sought refuge in Maori-controlled areas of the interior. The South Island was largely free of such conflicts. With grasslands open to sheep-grazing and grain-growing, and with the stimulus of gold rushes beginning in 1861, the South Island became the more prosperous. Not until the 20th century did the North Island regain its dominant economic position.
\par {\b Growth and Change}
\par \tab In 1876 the provincial governments, by then nine in number, were abolished. The central government, which had been moved to centrally placed Wellington in 1865, began to assume the leading role in the country's development. Free, compulsory education was established in 1877. The first refrigerated ship--carrying meat and butter--sailed for Great Britain in 1882. The development of refrigerated ships enabled New Zealand, a predominantly agricultural country, to add perishable meat, dairy produce, and fruit to its previous exports of wool, hides, gold, and timber. The Liberal party, in power from 1891 to 1912, introduced many of the economic and social measures that were basic to the welfare state. The Land for Settlements Act of 1892 promoted the division of large estates into smaller farms. In the early 1890s labor unions gained strength, and in 1898 more comprehensive social and welfare measures were passed.
\par {\b Self-Governing Dominion}
\par \tab In 1907 New Zealand assumed dominion status within the British Empire. During World War I New Zealand troops fought in Europe and elsewhere in the Allied cause. New Zealand signed the Treaty of Versailles and also joined the League of Nations. The national economy, largely dependent on overseas markets, suffered its worst decline during the depression of the 1930s. Social and economic distress led to the election in 1935 of the first Labour government, which introduced further social, economic, and industrial reforms.
\par \tab In World War II New Zealand troops fought with the Allies in the Middle East, Europe and the Pacific. United States troops were stationed in New Zealand, whose Pacific forces were under United States command. In 1944 New Zealand and Australia signed the Canberra Pact, claiming a voice in the settlement of postwar affairs in the Pacific.
\par {\b After 1945}
\par \tab In 1945 New Zealand became one of the founding members of the United Nations (UN). Two years later the 1931 Statute of Westminster was ratified by New Zealand, making the nation fully independent within the Commonwealth of Nations. In 1953 the term Dominion was quietly replaced with Realm. In 1951 Australia, New Zealand, and the United States signed the ANZUS Treaty, a Pacific defense alliance, though after 1985 the United States relinquished this link with New Zealand after the latter excluded nuclear warships of all nations from its harbors.
\par \tab New Zealand is a member of other regional organizations, including the Colombo Plan. This is an association of South and Southeast Asian nations for discussing economic development planning. New Zealand troops fought in wars in Malaysia, Korea, and Vietnam and serve on UN peacekeeping missions. Recently, New Zealand has increased its attention to its Pacific neighborhood, developing stronger links with Australia and the Pacific Islands. In 1983 an agreement for Closer Economic Relations (CER) with Australia initiated progress toward a common market. Working through the regional South Pacific Forum, these countries are following similar trade-and-aid policies toward their island neighbors.
\par \tab The 1970s and 1980s were difficult economically for New Zealand. Inflation skyrocketed, unemployment soared, and thousands emigrated to Australia. In a sweeping reversal of government policy, restrictions on free enterprise that had been imposed over the previous 50 years were lifted. In the early 1990s, issues related to the economy, race relations, foreign policy, the position of women and the family, sports, and the environment remained the most significant issues in public affairs.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by Gordon R. Lewthwaite, Professor of Geography, California State University, Northridge.
\par \tab {\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR NEW ZEALAND}
\par \tab Barrow, Terence. Decorative Arts of the New Zealand Maori (C.E. Tuttle, 1973).
\par \tab Burns, Geoff. Take a Trip to New Zealand (Watts, 1983).
\par \tab Fox, M.V. New Zealand (Childrens, 1991).
\par \tab Kanze, Edward. Notes from New Zealand (Holt, 1992).
\par \tab Keyworth, Valerie. New Zealand: Land of the Long White Cloud (Dillon Press, 1990).
\par \tab Kurian, G.T. Facts on File National Profiles: Australia and New Zealand (Facts on File, 1990).
\par \tab Sinclair, K.A. History of New Zealand, rev. ed. (Penguin, 1988).
\par \tab Wiremu, Graham. The Maoris of New Zealand (Rourke, 1989).\par \tab Located midway across Central America, Nicaragua, with 50,464 square miles (130,700 square kilometers), is the largest in area but one of the most sparsely populated nations of the region. Roughly triangular in shape with approximately 310 miles (500 kilometers) to a side, it is bordered on the east by the Caribbean Sea. To the north lies a mountainous frontier with Honduras. The southern limit of Nicaragua faces the small bordering nation of Costa Rica. The west side faces the Pacific Ocean.
\par {\b Land, Climate, and Natural Resources}
\par \tab A highly conspicuous feature in the landscape of Nicaragua is a long low-lying depression, or rift valley, measuring 31 miles (50 kilometers) wide and 310 miles (500 kilometers) long. It extends from the Gulf of Fonseca on the Pacific southeastward to the boundary region with Costa Rica along the Caribbean shoreline. Two large lakes, Managua and Nicaragua, occupy nearly half of the floor of the depression and are drained to the Caribbean by the San Juan River. An imposing row of volcanoes extends most of the length of the depression. Several of these form picturesque islands within the two lakes. The United States once planned the construction of an interoceanic canal through this trench, and in earlier times American capitalists fought for the control of traffic over this route. Within this region is one of Nicaragua's most productive agricultural areas. Most of the major cities, including the capital, Managua, are within this passageway between the oceans.
\par \tab The depression is separated from the Pacific shoreline, a short distance to the west, by a narrow range of hills and low mountains. To the east lies an extensive volcanic plateau that ranges in elevation to more than 5,000 feet (1,524 meters). This upland surface, a major coffee-growing region and source of timber and precious metals, gives way to an extensive rain-drenched Caribbean coastal plain known as Costa de Mosquitos (Mosquito Coast).
\par \tab Since elevations above 5,000 feet are restricted to the summits of only a few volcanoes and a limited area of the eastern uplands, tropical and subtropical climates prevail throughout most of the country. Rainfall of about 75 inches (191 centimeters) in the depression and the low Pacific coastal range is restricted to a six-month period during the summer. In the central highlands, rainfall ranges from about 70 inches (178 centimeters). In the Caribbean lowlands rainfall occurs throughout the year and averages almost 150 inches (380 centimeters) on the Costa Rican border. Forests in the more humid eastern regions have long been exploited for their fine timber. The conversion of forests to cropland and pastures, however, has brought about a gradual reduction in the numbers of monkeys, tropical birds, and other wild fauna.
\par \tab Throughout historic times Nicaragua has been subjected to numerous destructive eruptions and earthquakes, the most recent in late 1972 that destroyed much of Managua and killed more than 5,000 persons. Flooding caused by hurricanes sometimes occurs along the sparsely populated Caribbean shoreline, and western Nicaragua occasionally suffers from extended periods of drought.
\par {\b People and Culture}
\par \tab Attracted by gold, the Spanish settled within the rift valley to the south and west of Lake Managua. The supply of gold soon gave out, and with no large concentration of Indians within the region the area did not develop as a major settlement. A population of less than half a million in 1900 increased to 1 million in 1950 and currently stands at 3.6 million. More than 90 percent of the population live in the western half of the nation, and two thirds of these are concentrated in the rift valley to the north of Lake Managua and the nearby Pacific coast. The capital city of Managua, with a population of nearly 700,000, is the country's largest city. The much smaller cities of Chinandega, Le≤n, Masaya, and Granada lie within the rift valley along a line from northwest to southeast of Managua.
\par \tab Most people in western Nicaragua have an Indian and European ancestry. There is also a significant number of people of only European descent. In the eastern regions the much smaller and predominantly rural population has a higher proportion of Indians and descendants of black Africans. The greater isolation of this region and the commercial influence of Great Britain and the United States in earlier times contribute to the region's ethnic makeup.
\par \tab Nicaragua has a long tradition in the fields of art and literature. RubΘn Darφo was a Nicaraguan writer of international reputation.
\par {\b Economy, Transportation, and Education}
\par \tab In the colonial period two agricultural systems dominated Nicaragua's economy. One of these involved large haciendas devoted primarily to cattle. The second involved the small plots where peasants produced food for their own needs--primarily corn and beans. This basic heritage, involving inequities in patterns of land distribution, continued until 1979 and was one of the causes of the Sandinista rebellion.
\par \tab The planting of coffee near Managua after 1850 marked the beginning of commercial agriculture for export. Bananas were introduced into the Caribbean lowlands after 1900, along with black laborers from Jamaica. Later, locations concentrated in a northern sector of the rift valley became more favorable.
\par \tab After 1950 the production of cotton, beef, and sugar expanded significantly, and coffee and cotton generally made up more than half of all exports. Corn and beans continue to be major crops produced as the mainstay of peasants' diets. Rice and sorghum are other grain crops consumed within the country.
\par \tab Industrial activities are highly concentrated in Managua with secondary centers of production in Chinandega, Le≤n, and Granada. Three fourths of all activities are focused on the processing of foods, beverages, leather goods, textiles and clothing, wood, and paper products. Gold, silver, and timber are obtained from the eastern provinces, and fish and shrimp are taken from both Caribbean and Pacific waters.
\par \tab During the 1960s, aided by favorable prices for exports and an expanded regional market made possible by the establishment of the Central American Common Market, the Nicaraguan economy had sig nificant growth. Its per capita gross national product compared favorably with the most prosperous nations of Central America--Costa Rica and Panama. In the aftermath of the disastrous 1972 earthquake and the subsequent turmoil that attended the overthrow of the government of President Anastasio Somoza Debayle in 1979, the stagnating economy came to compare more closely with those of El Salvador and Honduras, two of the poorer nations of Central America. The withdrawal of financial assistance from the United States after 1980, a growing American embargo of imports from Nicaragua, and the United States overt support of contra forces dedicated to the overthrow of the Sandinista government further hampered economic recovery. United States purchases that accounted for 40 percent of Nicaragua's exports in 1980 dropped to less than 10 percent.
\par \tab The economic orientation of Nicaragua toward the Pacific is indicated by the location of its people, cities, and major areas of agricultural and industrial production. The nation's rail and road networks are also concentrated in the westernmost provinces.
\par \tab The highway network extends for several thousand miles. A 255-mile (410-kilometer) section of the Pan American Highway runs from Honduras to Costa Rica. There are a few hundred miles of railways and several airports. Most sea cargo passes through the Pacific ports of Corinto and Sandino.
\par \tab Education is free and compulsory for children between 6 and 13 years of age. Schools, however, can accommodate only about half of the children. Institutions of higher learning include a branch of the Central American University in Managua, and the National University of Nicaragua in Le≤n.
\par {\b History and Government}
\par \tab Christopher Columbus landed in Nicaragua in 1502. The settlements of Granada and Le≤n were founded in Nicaragua in 1523 and 1524 respectively. The cities were ruled by Spain until all the provinces of Central America declared their freedom from Spain in 1821. Nicaragua gained complete independence when it seceded from the new United Provinces of Central America in 1838. The eastern Caribbean lowlands belonged to the British until the mid-1800s.
\par \tab The actions of the American renegade William Walker and the railroad tycoon Cornelius Vanderbilt led to an initial involvement of United States forces in Nicaragua in the 1850s. In an attempt to maintain stability and to dissuade Europeans from interfering in the affairs of Nicaragua, the United States became involved in repeated interventions between 1909 and 1933. It was during the latter portion of this period that the stage was set for the conflict in the late 1970s between the forces of the Somoza dynasty and the followers of the guerrilla leader Augusto Sandino, who had been killed by Somoza forces in 1934.
\par \tab Victorious in 1979, the Sandinista forces established a government that increasingly demonstrated evidence of a political shift to the left. Daniel Ortega Saavedra was elected president in 1984. The United States, hoping to thwart the establishment of a Communist state on the mainland of the Americas, resorted to efforts to destabilize the Sandinista government. A civil war ensued between the United States-backed Nicaraguan resistance, called the contras, and the Sandinista government. At a meeting of Central American presidents in El Salvador in February 1989, an accord was reached to disband the contras in return for advancing elections to Feb. 25, 1990. Violeta Barrios de Chamorro, presidential candidate of the 14-party National Opposition Union, defeated Ortega. In June 1990 the civil war in Nicaragua ended when contra commanders surrendered their arms.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by Oscar H. Horst, Professor Emeritus of Geography, Western Michigan University.
\par \tab {\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR NICARAGUA}
\par \tab Gelman, R.G. Inside Nicaragua: Young People's Dreams and Fears (Watts, 1988).
\par \tab Waters, Mary-Alice. The Rise and Fall of the Nicaraguan Revolution (Pathfinder, 1992).\par \tab The Republic of Niger is a large landlocked West African country that was part of French West Africa prior to its independence in 1960. It is bordered on the north by Algeria and Libya, on the east by Chad, on the south by Nigeria, on the southwest by Benin and Burkina Faso, and on the west by Mali.
\par {\b Land and People}
\par \tab Niger has an area of 459,100 square miles (1,189,000 square kilometers). Much of the country, including the plateau regions of the west and south and the plains of the Lake Chad region, lies between 600 and 1,500 feet (180 and 460 meters) above sea level. In the north and northeast are highlands about 3,000 feet (900 meters) high with peaks in the A∩r Mountains rising to more than 6,500 feet (2,000 meters). Most rivers flow only during the rainy season. The only permanent bodies of water are the Niger River in the southwest and Lake Chad in the southeast.
\par \tab The climate is characterized by low and uncertain rainfall, which ranges from an annual average of just about 31 inches (79 centimeters) in the far south to less than 4 inches (10 centimeters) in the northern regions that are part of the Sahara. Rainfall varies widely from year to year, and droughts are frequent. Temperatures are high year-round with averages of between 81░ and 84░ F (27░ and 29░ C).
\par \tab The vegetation reflects the distribution of rainfall. The northern half of the country is a barren desert with few trees and a discontinuous grass cover. The density of trees and grass increases toward the south where rainfall conditions can support a savanna vegetation with a continuous grass cover and stands of trees and bushes. As the population has increased, however, the vegetation has been drastically reduced by the collecting of firewood and the clearing of land for cultivation and grazing. These actions, combined with the effects of drought, have created a potential for making it into a desert.
\par \tab In the late 1980s the population was estimated at 6,947,000. If it continues to grow at the present rate of 3 percent each year, the population will double in 26 years. More than 80 percent of the population live in rural areas. The majority are farmers in the south, where rainfall is sufficient for crop production. Here densities of more than 250 per square mile (100 per square kilometer) are found. Few people live in the dry northern regions. Most are nomadic herders, workers in the mines, and residents of such market towns as Agadez. Many have left the countryside for the towns as rural production has been reduced by drought. Niamey, the capital city, grew from 70,000 in 1970 to nearly 400,000 by 1983. The other principal towns are Zinder, Maradi, and Tahoua. The mining sites of Arhli (Arlit) and Akouta are adjacent to small but rapidly growing towns.
\par \tab The official language is French, but on a daily basis most people use the language of their ethnic group. The major groups are the Hausa, Djerma, Tuareg, and Fulani. Niger has placed great emphasis on education. Enrollment in primary and secondary schools is increasing as efforts are made to reduce adult illiteracy, which was 90 percent in 1980. Advanced education is provided at the University of Niamey, and many Nigerois study abroad.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab Niger is one of the world's poorest nations. Despite strenuous efforts by the government to boost agricultural production and the development of uranium mining, its gross national product has declined sharply. Agriculture is the principal activity of nearly 90 percent of the population and is restricted to areas that receive more than 14 inches (36 centimeters) of rainfall. Millet, sorghum, and beans are the major food crops and peanuts and cotton the major cash crops. Rice is grown along the banks of the Niger. After the drought of 1968 to 1974, the government implemented policies to make the country self-sufficient in food production. This was achieved in 1980, but in subsequent years drought caused food deficits. In the drier areas livestock production dominates with the raising of cattle, camels, sheep, and goats. There is fishing on the Niger and Lake Chad, with dried fish sold widely.
\par \tab Mining accounts for nearly 20 percent of gross domestic product. Uranium exports are a major source of national income. Uranium mines opened in 1971, and output rose rapidly, reaching a peak in 1981. Declining demand and falling world prices then led to a reduction in output. It is estimated that Niger has 10 percent of the world's uranium reserves. Coal is used to generate electricity for the mining towns. Other minerals include tin-bearing cassiterite, iron, and salt. Manufacturing consists mainly of food processing, textiles, and leather tanning, though Niamey has a diverse but small amount of industry.
\par \tab Increasing numbers of tourists, particularly from France, visit the country. Many go to the A∩r Mountains to see the sites of prehistoric settlements. The building of the roads to the nearby mines has made these sites more accessible. Elsewhere attractions include the national park near Niamey, with one of the most abundant wildlife populations in West Africa, and the National Museum in Niamey.
\par \tab Transportation links within the country are mainly by road. A tarmac road links the towns of the south with Niamey, and a road connects it to the northern mining towns. Links to neighboring countries are vital to the trade of this landlocked nation. It has good road links with Nigeria, but the bulk of its foreign trade is carried to Parakou in Benin, which is linked by rail to the seaport of Cotonou. There are plans to extend this line to Niamey. Niamey has an international airport.
\par {\b History and Government}
\par \tab There is evidence of human settlement in the A∩r Mountains 60,000 years ago. Much of the country was included in the ancient kingdoms of Songhai and Bornu, and during the 18th century the area came under Islamic rule. In the precolonial period its central position between the Mediterranean Sea and the Gulf of Guinea gave it a strategic location in trans-Saharan trade.
\par \tab The extension of French colonial rule at the beginning of the 20th century was fiercely resisted, and only after a series of battles was the country brought under French control in 1917. Niger became independent of France in 1960 and has a republican presidential form of government. The first president, Hamani Diori, governed from 1960 to 1974, when he was overthrown by a military coup. This met little resistance because of widespread discontent with the government's performance and in particular with its failure to distribute drought relief effectively from 1968 to 1974.
\par \tab Diori was replaced as president by Seyni KountchΘ, who served until his death in November 1987. Ali Seibou, the army chief of staff, was named acting president. Population (1987 estimate), 6,947,000.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab David John Campbell\par \tab The most populous and one of the most politically significant states in Africa, Nigeria is situated on the west coast of the continent. It occupies 356,669 square miles (923,768 square kilometers). Bounded by Benin, Niger, Chad, Cameroon, and the Gulf of Guinea, it extends some 900 miles (1,450 kilometers) from the semiarid savanna grasslands in the north to the humid tropical rain forests of the southern and coastal regions. Nigeria's capital is the newly built city of Abuja located near the center of the country.
\par \tab This former British colony is an oil-rich nation, but with the collapse of world petroleum prices in the early 1980s Nigeria's economic and political situations became very unstable. The elected government was overthrown by a military coup in 1983. A second military revolt occurred in 1985. Political upheaval diminished somewhat during the later 1980s, and President Ibrahim Babangida, an army general, promised a gradual return to civilian rule by the mid-1990s.
\par {\b Geography and Climate}
\par \tab Nigeria is a physically diverse country divided by the Niger-Benue river system into three sections. The northern section consists of gently rolling plains roughly 1,500 feet (460 meters) above sea level crossed by both permanent and seasonal rivers and streams and occasionally broken by large outcrops of granite. Lake Chad in the northeast is one of the few large, permanent, standing bodies of water. Its size fluctuates markedly in relation to the monsoon rainfall pattern. The middle belt has a more varied relief and is marked by rugged volcanic highlands--the Jos Plateau. The southern and coastal section consists primarily of low-lying plains and the southwestern uplands. The third section--the huge delta of the Niger River in the southeast--consists of mangroves, dense forests, and some of the richest petroleum deposits in Africa.
\par \tab Nigeria's climate is shaped by the moist, unstable air to the south and the dry, stable air of the Sahara to the north. The northward movement of moist air from the Atlantic Ocean brings precipitation to Nigeria. In the southern region humidity and temperatures are high year-round, and rainfall ranges from about 60 to 100 inches (150 to 250 centimeters) per year, distributed over at least eight months. In the middle belt there is greater contrast between seasons. Rainfall is from about 35 to 55 inches (90 to 140 centimeters) annually, and temperatures vary from a dry-season average of 86░ F (30░ C) to 77░ F (25░ C) in the wet season--May to November. In the north about 20 to 35 inches (50 to 90 centimeters) of rain fall between June and October. The dry season is very hot between February and May, and daily temperatures in April regularly exceed 95░ F (35░ C). Rainfall in the extreme north tends to be unpredictable. Droughts are quite common.
\par \tab The geographic patterns of tropical vegetation and animal life correspond closely to the zones of rainfall distribution. In the south, year-round rainfall, high humidity, solar radiation, and generally equatorial conditions produce tropical rain forests. The dense forests are some of the oldest, most complex, and diverse habitats in the world. Human activities--particularly burning, agriculture, and logging--have greatly reduced the area of natural rain forest. The landscape now resembles well-wooded grassland. Such moisture-demanding crops as yams, cassava, and rice and such tropical tree crops as rubber and cacao thrive in the forest environments.
\par \tab In the middle belt to the north, less rainfall and greater seasonal contrasts produce tropical woodlands and open grasslands. This region is less densely populated than other parts of the country because of the poor soil and the high incidence of disease.
\par \tab In the north, the hot, dry conditions and a short rainy season produce a characteristic grassland ecology usually called Sudan savanna. Heavily cultivated with such useful tree species as mango and baobab, the northern savanna resembles a farmed parkland. Dry or rain-fed farming of grains is widespread. Grasses, stunted shrubs, acacias, and other drought-resistant plants can survive meager or variable rainfall. In the extreme north there is often too little rainfall to grow crops, and nomads use the grasslands as pastures for their herds.
\par \tab Rapid population growth, inappropriate land-use practices, climatic change, and poor development policy have contributed to environmental degradation. In some parts of the north, soil quality has declined and desert conditions have spread. In the south deforestation has been extensive. Environmental change has dramatically influenced animal populations and local habitats. A few elephants, antelope, wild boars, and hippopotamuses are still found in northern savannas and in game reserves. Some species--such as monkeys, snakes, birds, and insects--survive in proximity to human settlement.
\par {\b Culture and Society}
\par \tab Long before colonial conquest by Great Britain in 1903, the area that was to become Nigeria was a region of great cultural diversity and political complexity. Traditions of metalworking, technical innovation, and elaborate city development existed among Yoruba-speaking peoples in the southwest prior to the 15th century. In the north the Muslim Hausa-speaking societies were renowned for their international trade, high-quality textile and craft production, and ancient centers of Islamic learning. In the 19th century the political system centered on northern Nigeria. The Sokoto Caliphate was probably the most powerful and complex state system in West and Central Africa.
\par \tab One effect of colonial rule, which lasted from 1903 to 1960, was the breaking of Nigeria into three major regions marked by different cultural and political backgrounds: the northern Hausa-speaking area, which was largely Muslim; the Christian and Muslim Yoruba region in the southwest; and the region in the east dominated by the Ibo, who were overwhelmingly Christian. Despite occasional conflicts, the boundaries between the peoples have been quite fluid. Nigeria is a country of enormous cultural diversity, and it is estimated that there are at least 250 different languages spoken in the country. English is the official language of administration and education.
\par \tab Despite the antiquity of some of its cities and cultural traditions, Nigeria is also dynamic and changing. This is evident in the country's highly distinctive music and recording industry, renowned popular theater tradition, vibrant artistic culture, and world-famous writing and publishing industry that in 1986 produced a Nobel prizewinner in literature, Wole Soyinka.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab Nigeria is a resource-rich country that has fallen victim to government mismanagement of its economy. Nigeria is the world's largest producer of columbite, a mineral containing iron, magnesium, and niobium. There are deposits of iron, tin, coal, lead, and zinc, along with smaller amounts of uranium and gold. But petroleum has been the mainstay of the economy since the early 1970s.
\par \tab Most of the oil fields are in the southeast and offshore in the delta region. Nigeria is a member of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) and the largest producer of petroleum in Africa. Its total reserves are estimated at 20 billion barrels. Most petroleum production and exploration are controlled by the Nigerian government in conjunction with multinational oil companies. The great surge in world oil prices beginning in 1973 provided a great boost to Nigeria's economy. The sale of petroleum contributed 65 percent of all government revenues and 95 percent of all export earnings in the early 1990s.
\par \tab The oil boom of the 1970s enabled the Nigerian government to undertake a massive program of construction, industrialization, and extension of social services. One of its projects was construction, from the ground up, of the new capital city of Abuja. This program was deeply flawed, however, and by the early 1980s Nigeria had major economic problems and was accumulating a large foreign debt--$31.5 billion in 1992. After the fall in oil prices in 1982, Nigeria faced severe austerity measures, including the reduction of its public expenditures. This resulted in unemployment, reduced imports, and political instability. The era of petroleum-based development in Nigeria is now recognized as a period of waste, inefficient use of wealth, and deteriorating standards of living.
\par \tab About 80 percent of Nigeria's land is suitable for farming and grazing. Thirteen percent of the land is forested and provides mahogany, iroko, ebony, and other woods. There are several plywood factories and sawmills. The variety of crops includes millet, sorghum, plaintains, corn (maize), cassava, yams, cocoa, and rice. Goats are the leading livestock, followed by sheep and cattle. For all of its potential, however, Nigeria's agriculture suffered a major decline when oil prices went up. Although it employs less than 45 percent of the workforce, agriculture accounts for only 2 percent of exports. Exports of traditional crops collapsed as the result of poor government policy and low prices on the world market. The government has attempted to stimulate agriculture through large irrigation schemes, an expansion of credit, the use of high-yielding seeds, and incentives to foreign business. Food production, however, has failed to keep up with population growth, which is increasing at 3 percent each year.
\par {\b Transportation and Education}
\par \tab By African standards Nigeria has an excellent system of communications and a large popular press. The growth in oil revenues facilitated an expansion of the Nigerian road system, which now connects the entire country. The national airline provides extensive service across all 30 states, and an automatic telephone and telex service is operated by the government. There are several major federal radio services to the regions, a national television network, more than a dozen national daily newspapers, and many national weeklies published in English or native languages.
\par \tab From the early 1970s Nigeria financed a universal primary education program that has dramatically increased literacy. There are 24 major universities and a host of other institutions of higher learning.
\par {\b History and Government}
\par \tab While northern Nigeria remained on the edges of European mercantile expansion until the 19th century, the south was directly integrated into an expanding world economy from the 1490s. This occurred through two centuries of slave trade, during which millions of Nigerians were forcibly removed to the New World. In the 19th century trade with European companies consisted of importing European manufactured goods in exchange for agricultural commodities.
\par \tab The period of British colonial rule was relatively short--from 1903 to 1960--but its effect was substantial. Imperial rule arbitrarily created Nigeria from a multitude of existing political systems. Beginning in 1945 Britain realized that Nigeria wanted independence, and constitutional changes were made in the 1950s for each of the three regions to create parliamentary institutions based on the English model.
\par \tab After independence the First Republic was wracked by regional political conflicts. They culminated in the political assassination of two regional premiers, a military takeover in 1966, and civil war the following year. Eastern Nigeria seceded from the federation as the republic of Biafra and was reintegrated only after three years of bloodshed and famine.
\par \tab Since the war Nigeria has been ruled largely by military governments. In 1979 the military gave power to a civilian government based on a constitution adopted in 1978. This document established a federal republic, in imitation of the American system. A northerner, President Shehu Shagari, presided over the government until economic difficulties overwhelmed him. This new kind of federal system was plagued by enormous political corruption, waste, and abuse from 1979 to 1983, when Shagari was finally ousted in a violent military coup.
\par \tab Nigeria suffered another military coup in 1985. Military rule lasted until late 1993, when a government made up of both civilians and army officers was installed. Meanwhile, in the midst of the political turmoil, the national capital was being moved from Lagos to Abuja.\par \tab The third largest of the continents, North America extends from Alaska, the Queen Elizabeth Islands, and Greenland to Panama's eastern border with Colombia in South America. Canada, the United States, Mexico, the Central American republics, the Bahama Islands and the Greater and Lesser Antilles are all parts of North America--more than 9,300,000 square miles (24,100,000 square kilometers), or more than 16 percent of the world's land area. North America's population of more than 370,000,000 is increasingly urban.
{\b NATURAL ENVIRONMENT}
\par \tab The topography of North America is oriented largely north and south. The old Appalachian Mountains form a highland area in the eastern part of the continent, while the younger Rocky Mountains form a higher, more rugged frame in the west. Between the two are the lower, flatter physiographic provinces: the Canadian Shield, the Interior Plains, and the Great Plains. East and south of the Appalachians is the Atlantic Coastal Plain (Yucatßn to New England), and west of the Rockies are the intermontane basins and plateaus, including the Great Basin and the Colorado Plateau, and the Pacific ranges. The broad Rocky Mountains frame of the west is carried southward in the Sierra Madre Oriental and the Sierra Madre Occidental, which enclose the Mexican Plateau. In the southern Mexican highlands the physiographic orientation changes abruptly from north-south to east-west. South of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, one mountain branch of the Central American-Antillean system extends from Mexico's Pacific coast through Chiapas and Oaxaca, the Cayman Islands, and southeastern Cuba to Haiti and the Dominican Republic. A second branch extends from Guatemala and Honduras to Jamaica and then on to Haiti and the Dominican Republic. Both branches merge to form the mountains of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. A string of volcanic mountains--the Lesser Antilles--continues to the south. Another string of volcanic mountains runs through Costa Rica and Panama.
\par {\b Water Flow}
\par \tab The physiographic frame of the continent has a great effect on water flow. Waters from the Great Lakes pour over Niagara Falls into the St. Lawrence River and to the sea. Rivers in the Canadian Shield flow into Hudson Bay. From the Appalachians, rivers flow eastward to the sea and westward into the Mississippi River drainage system. The Continental Divide along the Rocky Mountains frame separates the waters that flow eastward from those that flow westward. The Mississippi, for example, funnels the waters of the American interior into the Gulf of Mexico; the Colorado River goes to the Gulf of California; the Columbia and Fraser rivers flow to the Pacific Ocean; the Yukon to the Bering Sea. The rivers of Mexico, except for the Rio Grande, are comparatively short (Yaqui, Balsas, Usumacinta), as are those in Central America (Coca Segovia, San Juan) and in the Greater and Lesser Antilles.
\par {\b Climate}
\par \tab Latitude, topography, the position of the air masses, and the relationships between land and water tend to control the climates of the continent. In the Pacific Northwest the westerly winds, coming off the Pacific Ocean and striking the Pacific Ranges at right angles, deposit much rain on the windward side of the mountains. The leeward sides are much drier--strong evidence of topographic control. In the interior of the continent, climate is much affected by the violently colliding air masses that blow southward from the Arctic and northward from the Gulf of Mexico. The Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico are charged with the warm waters of the North Equatorial Current. Surface temperatures exceed 80░ F (27░ C) all year. Therefore the islands of the West Indies and the neighboring mainland enjoy a hot, humid climate. In general, North America is much wetter east of the 100th meridian than to the west. Charleston, S.C., receives 40 inches (102 centimeters) of precipitation annually; Cleveland, Ohio, 31 inches (79 centimeters); and Omaha, Neb., 25 inches (64 centimeters). But Denver, Colo., receives only 14 inches (36 centimeters) and Yuma, Ariz., less than 4 inches (10 centimeters). Most of the precipitation at these stations comes in the summer. In California and the Pacific Northwest much of the precipitation is likely to come in the winter. San Francisco receives slightly more than 20 inches (51 centimeters) of rain annually; 15 inches (38 centimeters) of it fall between December and March. The summer months are dry. Vancouver, B.C., receives 57 inches (145 centimeters), more than half of it between October and February. A unique feature of the Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico is the hurricane, whose tracks sweep over the West Indies, often striking the mainland between Texas and Florida, North Carolina, and New England.
\par {\b Vegetation}
\par \tab Temperature and rainfall affect the natural vegetation. In the well-watered Eastern United States, for example, a deciduous forest is the natural result. In Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois there is a tall-grass prairie and farther west a short-grass steppe. The Far South is dominated by a subtropical evergreen forest, and the little-watered West by desert shrub, semidesert, and desert. Most of the Canadian Shield is covered with a taiga, or coniferous forest, while the lands along the Arctic shore bear only tundra vegetation. Desert shrub and steppe dominate the Mexican north; semi-deciduous forest and selva, or tropical rain forest, the eastern Mexican coast and portions of Yucatßn, Belize, and Honduras. The rest of Central America is mountainous. The Greater Antilles are dominated in the wet areas by rain forest and in the drier areas by scrub woodland. The Lesser Antilles are mountainous; the low-lying islands are fringed by atolls.
\par {\b Soils}
\par \tab Soils are greatly influenced by the environment. Acid soils are found in wet areas, alkaline soils in dry areas. Under the United States Department of Agriculture's classification scheme, a wide variety of soils have been identified. In the great center of the continent are the mollisols, the naturally fertile soils that help to produce so much corn and wheat. In eastern North America are the alfisols--soils that are acidic but fertile when lime is added to reduce the acidity. Making up much of the Canadian Shield are the acidic spodosols, which are of little agricultural value, and the tundra soils, which are enveloped in permafrost, or permanently frozen ground. Ultisols, highly acidic soils that are often fertile, have developed in the American Southeast; aridisols, found in the dry Southwest, have little value for agriculture. Desert soils make up Mexico's north, though chestnut soils are found south of the Rio Grande and along portions of the Pacific coast. Black soils are found in large pockets of northern, central, and southern Mexico. Much of Central America's soil has been intensively weathered and leached. In the Greater Antilles, Cuba is known for Matanzas clay, a red limestone soil that supports sugarcane. Fine soils also support the economies of the Lesser Antilles.
\par {\b Geographic Regions}
\par \tab {\b The Northlands}
\par \tab The Northlands consist of the Canadian Shield and the Arctic shores and islands. Population is sparse. There are scattered Indian communities in the taiga and Inuit, or Eskimo, communities in the tundra. The environment is harsh. Logging, mining, and petroleum production are the leading economic endeavors. The region leads Canada in pulp and paper production. It ranks high as a producer of iron ore and nickel. Increasing amounts of petroleum move by pipeline from Alaska's North Slope, and there are possibilities for production from the Arctic islands. There are huge hydroelectric facilities at Churchill Falls and at James Bay.
\par \tab {\b The St. Lawrence Valley}
\par \tab The St. Lawrence Valley (southern Ontario and southern Quebec) is the industrial heartland of Canada. Half of Canada's 25 million people live here--80 percent of them in urban areas. Toronto, the largest city, is a diverse manufacturing center and tourist attraction. Oshawa makes automobiles; Hamilton makes steel. Montreal is the center of French culture and a petroleum refining center; it produces petrochemicals, clothing, electrical products, transportation equipment, heavy machinery, and foods. Windsor, like its United States neighbor Detroit, makes cars, and Sarnia is Canada's center for the manufacture of petrochemicals. The St. Lawrence Valley is the home of a large French-speaking population. Since 1969 there have been two official languages in Canada--English and French.
\par \tab {\b The New England-Maritime region}
\par \tab The New England-Maritime region on the sea early attracted manufacturing industries based on waterpower. Boston, Mass., and other New England communities are now high-technology centers. There are also agricultural centers in the region: the Aroostook Valley, famous for its potatoes; the Lake Champlain Lowland, milk; Prince Edward Island, seed potatoes; and Nova Scotia's Annapolis Valley, apples. Newfoundlanders, as of old, still go to sea. The 200-nautical-mile offshore management zone, proclaimed by the Canadian government, helps to protect Newfoundland's fishermen. Petroleum and natural gas fields have been discovered offshore. Canada's largest city in the region is Halifax.
\par \tab {\b The Middle Atlantic region}
\par \tab The Middle Atlantic region includes the states of New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Delaware. A diverse area, it has truck and dairy farms; rural, urban, and ethnic populations; great manufacturing centers; and large cities. New York City is the dominant urban area of the region and of the United States. It is the leading financial, tourist, and manufacturing center. Unlike Pittsburgh, which concentrates on steel, or Wilmington, on chemicals, New York City has an unusually diverse industrial base. It is a leading port and a transportation and trade center. It is a part of the megalopolis that extends from Boston to Washington, D.C.
\par \tab {\b The Middle West, Great Plains, and Prairie Provinces}
\par \tab The Middle West, Great Plains, and Prairie Provinces make up a premier agricultural area known as the American heartland. A corn belt grew up between central Ohio and central Nebraska. Not until 1979 did soybeans replace corn as the leading crop. On the drier steppe--from Texas north to the Prairie Provinces of Canada--winter and spring wheat predominate. The steppe is underlain by large coal, petroleum, and natural gas resources. The agricultural economy of Saskatchewan, for example, is bolstered by fine deposits of uranium and potash. Alberta is petroleum-rich. The American heartland also supports a large urban population.
\par \tab {\b The South}
\par \tab The South is one of North America's best defined areas. It reaches from Virginia and Kentucky to the Gulf of Mexico and includes much of Arkansas and eastern Texas. Its origins lie in plantation agriculture (tobacco, rice, and indigo) and, after the beginning of the 19th century, in the spread of cotton culture over much of the region. During the 1880s a new South was born. Textile manufacturing moved south from New England, tobacco farmers turned to cigarette manufacturing, and there were the beginnings of an iron and steel industry and the utilization of timber. During World Wars I and II many blacks left the region. The South was also becoming increasingly urban. Manufacturing industries increased dramatically. Agriculture, long dominated by cotton, also changed. Cotton remains a major crop, but soybeans, tobacco, sugarcane, peanuts, and rice are now significant. In Florida citrus fruits and vegetables dominate. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 also brought changes. Blacks, for example, became increasingly part of the American mainstream. The same can be said for the South as a region.
\par \tab {\b The Southwest}
\par \tab The Southwest--sunny and dry and made up of Anglo-American, Hispanic, and Indian populations--extends from the Rio Grande Valley in Texas to southern California, including most of New Mexico and Arizona. Most of the area became part of the United States in 1848 following the Mexican War (Texas had been acquired in 1845). Mexicans had earlier established churches, presidios, and pueblos (Santa Fe, Albuquerque, and Tucson) marked by rectangular plans and plazas. They had introduced the Spanish language and the Roman Catholic religion and had intermarried with the already existing Indian population. Following the Mexican War Mexican numbers increased, as did the numbers of Anglos. Unemployment and poverty in Mexico continue to send illegal immigrants to the borderland. In 1983 more than a million illegal immigrants were arrested at United States border points. The Indian population continues to live on reservations or in urban centers. Growth in the Anglo communities has been phenomenal. Retirees are notable among the new arrivals, but opportunities in manufacturing have also brought migrants.
\par \tab {\b The Mountainous West}
\par \tab The Mountainous West extends from the Southwest to Alaska and includes the Rocky Mountains and the plateau country between the Rockies and the far western mountain ranges (Sierra Nevadas and Cascades). Much of the region is semiarid, government owned, and sparsely populated. Brigham Young led the Mormons here in 1846. They established Salt Lake City and many other prosperous communities in the area. Much of Utah and neighboring Idaho is still home to the Mormons. Copper is the chief mineral, and the Bingham Mine outside Salt Lake City has been a big producer. Lead, zinc, molybdenum, uranium, and oil shale are all extracted from the region. Lumbering and ranching are other economic activities. Tourism is vital for the income it generates.
\par \tab {\b California}
\par \tab California is the area between the Southwest and the Pacific Northwest and between the Sierra Nevada Mountains and the Pacific Ocean. As such it includes the Coastal Ranges and valleys, the wetter north, the Great Central Valley, the drier south (an intrusion into the Southwest), and the Sierra Nevadas. Outstanding is the Great Central Valley, famous for its miles of fruit orchards and for its wheat, barley, rice, and cotton fields. Because water is naturally scarce, Californians have built structures to carry water from the Sacramento Valley in the north to the San Joaquin Valley in the south (the Delta-Mendota Canal and the California Aqueduct). Irrigation water is critical for crops in the dry south. In the foggy Coastal Range, vegetable crops thrive--lettuce, brussels sprouts, artichokes, and broccoli. The wetter north is famous for the California redwoods; the Sierras for their recreational opportunities; and the drier south for its citrus fruits and for Los Angeles and the Los Angeles Basin. California is becoming increasingly urban, and the city blocks are eating into California's farmland.
\par \tab {\b The Pacific Northwest}
\par \tab The Pacific Northwest extends from northwestern California to Alaska. Western Oregon, most of Washington, and the British Columbia, Yukon, and south Alaska coasts are all included. It is for the most part a wet land, though dryness comes quickly in areas east of the Cascades and Coast Mountains. It is a land of trees. Lumbering is consequently a major economic enterprise, as is mining. British Columbia, for example, exports coal and copper to Japan. Salmon fishing, inaugurated by the Indian tribes, is also a staple industry. The finest salmon fisheries have moved from Oregon and Washington to British Columbia and Alaska. Agriculture is also of great significance. The lowlands--the Willamette Valley, Puget Sound, and Fraser River delta--produce dairy products, fruits, and vegetables. Washington's apples are known widely over the continent. Eastern Washington is well known for the wheat of the Palouse. The region is also famous for harnessing its rivers by erecting large dams and producing electrical energy. From the North Slope of Alaska petroleum is sent to Valdez for shipment south.
\par \tab {\b Mexico}
\par \tab Mexico lies between the United States border (Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and California) and Central America. The country can be divided into the desert north, the interior plateau and mountains, and the tropical lowlands (Caribbean, Gulf, and Pacific). Altitudinal zones can also be distinguished: tierra caliente from sea level to just above 2,000 feet (600 meters); tierra templada, 2,000 to 6,000 feet (600 to 1,800 meters); and tierra fria, from 6,000 feet (1,800 meters) to 11,000 feet (3,350 meters). The country has more than 75 million people of Indian and Spanish origins. More than half of the population is mestizo. Most people are concentrated in the temperate areas of the central plateau. Corn, beans, squash, and wheat support dense rural populations, but people flock in increasing numbers to Mexico City, the old Aztec capital. The city, perhaps the largest in the world, has many urban problems--substandard housing, pollution, and unemployment among them. Petroleum discoveries have had a major influence on the Mexican economy. Tourism also plays a role. Americans and Europeans visit many parts of the country: Acapulco, Guadalajara, Mexico City, and the Yucatßn. But much poverty remains, prompting many Mexicans to move across the border to the United States in pursuit of jobs and a better life.
\par \tab {\b Central America}
\par \tab Central America is dominated by the high mountain frame that runs east-west across Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua and by the lower mountains that run through Costa Rica and Panama. Most of Central America's 25 million people live in the highland areas. They are largely of Indian, Spanish, and mestizo origins. A large black population lives along the wet, hot Caribbean coast. Guatemala is known for its Indian population and its coffee, sugar, and cotton haciendas; El Salvador for its coffee and cotton; Nicaragua for its coffee, cotton, and bananas; Costa Rica for its coffee and sugarcane; and Panama for the famous canal that joins the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.
\par \tab {\b The Antilles}
\par \tab The Antilles consists of the Greater Antilles (Cuba, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, and Jamaica) and the Lesser Antilles (the Leeward and Windward Islands). The islands were originally inhabited by Indian populations, but they succumbed to the white man's diseases. Black slaves were brought from Africa to work in the sugarcane fields. Sugarcane remains the major crop, but coffee and tobacco are also grown. Saint Vincent produces arrowroot; Grenada, cocoa and nutmeg; Saint Lucia, bananas. Jamaica is endowed with bauxite, a major mineral resource. Much of the area is quite poor--Haiti particularly so. Haitian "boat people" continue to go to the United States.
{\b PEOPLES AND CULTURES}
\par \tab Indian populations arrived from Asia via the Bering Land Bridge and populated the continent between 50,000 and 15,000 years ago. They established cultures--gathering, hunting, fishing, and farming--from Alaska to the Lesser Antilles. They may have numbered 20 million at the time of the coming of the first European immigrants. The Norsemen arrived in Newfoundland in AD 1000, but their influence on the region and its inhabitants was slight. In the wake of Christopher Columbus in 1492, however, the Spanish influence was devastating. The Spaniards settled in Hispaniola and the neighboring islands. Not immune to the diseases imported by the Spaniards, the Arawak and Carib populations declined sharply, the Arawak disappearing from the islands. The Aztecs and the Mayas of Mexico and Guatemala were also conquered, and their numbers also declined. On the islands, black Africans were brought to replace Indian workers. In Mexico and Central America the populations were increased by the descendants of intermarriages between Spanish and Indians. Along the St. Lawrence the French also intermarried with the Indian inhabitants. The English, Dutch, and Swedes profoundly reduced the Indian population in the Northeast.
\par \tab The Africans, originally brought to the Antilles, were compelled to move to Virginia in 1619. By 1790 they constituted 20 percent of the population of the United States and they were a majority in the South. Meanwhile, the Spanish-Mexican population pushed into the Southwest, and the influx of Europeans--especially from the British Isles and Germany--increased considerably. In 1913 nearly 9 million Europeans came to the United States, and 400,000 entered Canada. In the 1920s immigration was restricted, but it increased later. Today more than one quarter of North American immigrants come from Asia, another quarter from Europe, and the remainder from Central and South America. North America thus has a great variety of racial and ethnic types.
\par {\b Languages}
\par \tab The United States and Canada are largely English-speaking countries. But Spanish is widely spoken in the American Southwest, southern Florida, and in many large urban areas. French is dominant in Quebec and common in parts of New England and Louisiana. Moreover, European and Asian immigrants continue to bring different languages to the United States and Canada. In Mexico Spanish is dominant, and in the Antilles Spanish, French, and English are dominant in particular areas.
\par {\b Religions}
\par \tab The Christian religion has the greatest number of adherents. Roman Catholics make up the largest single denomination. Methodist numbers are greatest in the area between New York and Nebraska, Lutherans between Wisconsin and Montana, Baptists in the South, and Mormons in Utah. Catholicism has its greatest number of adherents in New England, the Southwest, and in urban areas. The Jewish population is largely urban. Eastern Orthodox, Old Catholic, Polish National Catholic, Armenian, Buddhist, and Muslim faiths have fewer adherents. In Canada, Roman Catholics are in a majority in Quebec, but Protestants dominate elsewhere. Roman Catholics are in the majority in Mexico, Central America, and the Antilles.
\par {\b Arts and Literature}
\par \tab The arts have been well expressed through painting, sculpture, architecture, music, dance, theater, photography, and filmmaking. American Indians are known for their ceramics, stone and metals work, house types, and painting and music.
\par \tab The Eskimo are celebrated for their work in stone and ivory. African, European, and Asian immigrants have also made significant contributions to North American art. Much of that work can be seen in the museums, theaters, and galleries scattered over the continent. North American photographers and filmmakers have helped to capture the essence of their times. Hollywood is a household word the world over. In English, French, and Spanish, poets, short-story writers, and novelists have made significant contributions.
\par {\b Health and Education}
\par \tab In Canada and the United States the standard of living and the quality of life are high. Life expectancy for whites in the United States is more than 70 years for males and more than 77 years for females. It is 65 and 70 years, respectively, for other races. North Americans have high incomes. They own homes and cars. They depend on machines and energy sources. They have a diet, dominated by meat, dairy products, fruits, and vegetables, that is perhaps the most varied in the world. The population is quite mobile. It pursues health and education. Diet, desired weight, and recommended food quantities are carefully considered. Hospital facilities are second to none. Heart disease, cancer, and cerebrovascular diseases are the chief causes of death. Despite its wealth, there is poverty and unemployment. Fine educational facilities, both public and private, are available from the primary grades through college and graduate school. In Mexico, Central America, and the Antilles, poverty is more prevalent, wealth is concentrated in fewer hands, and health and educational facilities are less available.
{\b ECONOMY}
\par {\b Minerals}
\par \tab North America is blessed with abundant fossil fuels and metallic mineral resources. Fifty percent of the United States' and 55 percent of Canada's energy sources are based on petroleum and related products. The major petroleum reserves occur in a broad arc from northern Alaska to Texas and in smaller arcs from Texas and Louisiana north to Michigan and along the continental shelf from Texas to Nova Scotia. Texas, Louisiana, and California are the major producing states, and Alberta is the leading producer among the Canadian provinces. Mexico is also a major producer. Natural gas supplies more than 30 percent of the United States' energy requirements and more than 25 percent of Canada's. Texas and Louisiana have the largest fields, and Alberta is a leader in Canada. The United States has much coal in its Appalachian, Eastern Interior, Western Interior, and Rocky Mountain fields. If petroleum and natural gas reserves are depleted, coal as an energy source may have a resurgence. The continent is endowed with iron ore (Great Lakes and Quebec-Labrador), copper (Canadian Shield and Southwest), lead and zinc (Canadian Shield and British Columbia), and nickel and molybdenum (Canadian Shield, British Columbia, and Colorado). Mexico produces silver. Jamaica has bauxite for the manufacture of aluminum. Canada also produces asbestos, sulfur, and potash.
\par {\b Manufacturing}
\par \tab The waterways of the continent--the Great Lakes and Ohio-Mississippi rivers--and the locations of the mineral resources have had a profound effect on the location of manufacturing. Iron ore from Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota (transported on the Great Lakes) and coal from Illinois and Pennsylvania (transported by rail and barge) help to support the steel mills in Chicago, Ill.; Gary, Ind.; Cleveland, Ohio; and Buffalo, N.Y., though the steel industry suffered in the 1970s and 1980s from the importation of cheaper foreign steel. Pittsburgh, Pa., and Youngstown, Ohio, have been major steel-manufacturing centers. Steel manufacture has also been a factor in the location of the automobile industry. Detroit, Windsor, and Oshawa are all leading automobile manufacturing centers. Overall there are considerable differences in manufacturing on a regional basis. New England, for example, has long been famous for manufacturing machinery and electrical equipment and for fabricating metals; the Midwestern areas for producing automobiles and food; the South for textiles and chemicals; and so on. The fastest growing industries today involve high levels of technology and innovation: information processing, communications (computers), and aerospace. These industries have been released from reliance on the locations of minerals and waterways. They find homes in the Sunbelt--the South and Southwest.
\par {\b Agriculture}
\par \tab Only 5 percent of the United States population and 6 percent of the Canadian population are engaged in agriculture, yet both countries rank among the leading exporters of agricultural products in the world. Southern Canada and the northeastern part of the United States are dominated by mixed farming, the South by general farming, with soybeans, tobacco, and cotton as major crops. The great center of the continent is dominated by corn and soybeans; beef cattle, pigs, and dairy cattle; and feed crops. Farther west the great winter and spring wheats become dominant. Irrigated crops and grazing are significant in the West (Great Basin), wheat in the Palouse, and mixed farming in the Pacific Northwest. California is famous for its mixed farming, vineyards, and citrus fruits. In both the United States and Canada, increasing production is largely the result of the application of commercial fertilizers. Since the 1940s the yield per acre of corn and potatoes has tripled; wheat, cotton, and tobacco yields have doubled. The yield of milk from dairy cows has also doubled. Beef animals are now slaughtered after two years of growth rather than three or four, having attained maximum growth at an earlier age. Improvements have been made in hybrid seed corn and in soybean, tobacco, wheat, and alfalfa strains. Many of America's farmers are not prospering, however. The combination of soaring interest rates on their loans and depressed prices for their farm products caused them serious financial difficulty in the 1980s and 1990s. Net income per farm has dropped considerably. In Mexico, Central America, and the Antilles the percentage of farmers in the population is high. Production is much less per acre, and the prospects are not very different from what they were in the 1960s and 1970s.
\par {\b Fishing}
\par \tab Less than 1 percent of the labor force in the United States and Canada is employed in commercial fishing. The great fisheries include the continental shelves, the Grand Banks off Newfoundland, and the Great Lakes. Both the United States and Canada have instituted a 200-nautical-mile limit, thus restricting the approach of foreign fishing vessels--principally Japanese and Russian. The Pacific coast is still famous for its salmon and tuna catches, the Grand Banks for cod, and the Great Lakes for whitefish. In the inshore fishery off Maine and Nova Scotia, lobster is a major catch. Most salmon are caught today off the Alaskan coast and in British Columbia. There are local fisheries in Mexico, Central America, and the Antilles.
\par {\b Forestry}
\par \tab Less than 1 percent of the labor force in the United States and Canada is employed in lumbering. The area covered by the lumbering enterprise, however, is large in both countries. The chief forest areas are in the Canadian Shield, the Pacific Northwest coast and California, the Rocky Mountains, the South, New England and the Maritimes, and the Great Lakes. The chief products are lumber, pulp and paper, and veneer. About half of the sawed timber in the United States comes from the West, more than 35 percent from the South, and most of the rest from New England. In Canada most sawed timber is derived from British Columbia, Quebec, and Ontario. Paper and pulp production has dominated the forest economy of the Canadian Shield throughout the 20th century. Almost 90 percent of the output is exported to the United States. The South is also a contributor of pulp and paper. Tropical rain forests, seasonal forests, and woodlands cover portions of Mexico, Central America, and the Antilles.
\par {\b Transportation}
\par \tab The great spaces of North America are linked by impressive rail, highway, and air networks. Waterways and pipelines have also contributed to the transportation network. In Canada the Canadian Pacific Railway and the Canadian National Railway join the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.
\par \tab In the United States a dense rail network covers the Middle West, the Middle Atlantic states, and southern New England. A less dense network covers the South and West. Because both countries operate standard-gauge tracks (4 feet 8 1/2 inches), rail lines from one to the other have no impediments. Since 1950 Mexico's railroads have also adopted the standard gauge. Mexico is connected with Guatemala by rail.
\par \tab There is a tendency for the highway network to parallel rail lines. The Trans-Canada Highway links the Atlantic and Pacific coasts. In the United States a vast federal program has developed a superior highway system. The Pan-American Highway connects the United States with Mexico and Central America.
\par \tab Airlines also join the large urban areas as well as many of the remote places on the continent. Bush pilots even fly to remote Eskimo villages.
\par \tab Extensive use is made of the continent's inland waterways, especially for shipping. The Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Seaway permits small oceangoing vessels to enter the Great Lakes. Other ships carry cargoes to Europe. Heavy barge traffic is maintained on the Ohio-Mississippi River waterway and along the Intracoastal Canal.
\par \tab Pipelines are increasingly significant as transportation vehicles. Petroleum and natural gas lines link the producing areas with their principal markets. Crude petroleum is sent by pipeline from Prudhoe Bay to Valdez in Alaska and transferred to shipping tankers.
{\b INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS}
\par \tab The countries of North America are all part of the larger world community. Most are members of the United Nations. The United States is a permanent member of the Security Council, helping to qualify it as one of the world's superpowers. Its influence is worldwide. Canada and the United States are both members of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), the major Western military alliance whose prime responsibility is safeguarding Europe--and therefore the Americas--from foreign aggression. All North American countries are members of the Organization of American States (OAS), which provides social, economic, political, and technical services for its members. In 1973 the Caribbean Community and Common Market was formed to promote economic union in the Caribbean. Canada and the United States, among the world's richest nations, are heavily involved in foreign economic assistance.
\par \tab In 1993 Canada, Mexico, and the United States adopted the North American Free Trade Agreement. Canada and the United States are among the leading trading nations in the world, and they are each the other's leading trading partner. About three fourths of Canada's exports, largely raw materials, go to its southern neighbor. In return the United States sends Canada manufactured products. The United States has penetrated deeply into the Canadian economy. Many American multinational corporations have large investments in Canada. Mining and smelting, petroleum and natural gas, and much of the manufacturing enterprise is dominated by American firms. In 1980 the Canadian government announced its National Energy Programme, an attempt to regain Canadian control of the oil and natural gas industry.
\par \tab The United States is also Mexico's leading trading partner. Petroleum, metals, machinery, equipment, cotton, and coffee are the leading Mexican exports. Mexico also sells to Japan and the countries of the European Union (EU). Mexico's trade balance also relies on tourism. Bananas, cotton, coffee, and cacao enter international trade from Central America. The Antilles contribute sugarcane, coffee, and cacao.
{\b HISTORY}
\par {\b Settlement and Expansion}
\par \tab North American settlement began with Asian immigrants--first the Native Americans and then the Inuit, or Eskimo. By the time the Norsemen, or Vikings, reached Newfoundland in AD 1000, Native Americans had effectively occupied the entire continent. True European settlement did not begin until the 16th and 17th centuries. The Spaniards occupied the Antilles and the Caribbean rim, the French entered the St. Lawrence Valley, and the English secured a foothold on the Virginia and Massachusetts coasts. By the mid-18th century the Spanish plaza and the Roman Catholic church could be found from Panama through Mexico, the Southwest, and the Southeast; French farms could be seen in the St. Lawrence Valley and the Midwest; and English settlement was pushing steadily westward. The struggle for the continent was an epic one. In the 1763 Treaty of Paris that concluded the French and Indian War, the English emerged as the victors. The French were reduced to holding several islands in the West Indies and the islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon; the Spaniards--a less powerful foe--still held dominion in the Antilles, Central America, Mexico, the Southwest, and the Southeast.
\par \tab English institutions gained a clear ascendancy in the eastern portions of the continent. But repressive English laws--and the creation of an American personality--led ultimately to the American Revolution and political freedom for the colonists. A Constitution for the United States was formulated in 1787, and the Northwest Ordinance the same year established a government for the Old Northwest. The United States was moving westward. American settlers, in the wake of Lewis and Clark, began to move to Oregon in the 1830s and 1840s. The Mexican War from 1846 to 1848 and the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo led to United States acquisition of the American Southwest. The Gadsden Purchase in 1853 brought final agreement on the United States-Mexico boundary.
\par \tab In Canada the movement, too, was westward. Settlement moved from Ontario into Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta, and finally into British Columbia. Confederation was achieved in 1867.
\par \tab Mexico survived the Mexican War and the Mexican Revolution (1910-15) to become a stable and coherent state. In Central America and the Antilles a canal opened for traffic across the isthmus of Panama in 1914, the English held British Honduras (later Belize), and European countries continued to administer territories in the Antilles.
\par {\b The Civil War and Its Aftermath}
\par \tab The United States experienced a disastrous Civil War from 1861 to 1865. At issue were the questions of black slavery and the Southern and Northern economies. The South became increasingly defiant of Northern opinion. South Carolina seceded from the Union, and other states followed suit. Armies were conscripted, and the Northern forces eventually won.
\par \tab In the years following the Civil War, the United States became the mecca for European immigrants. Europeans rejoiced in American freedom and in turn made great contributions to the labor force in the massive industrialization that took place in the United States in the decades after 1865. Between 1900 and 1914 more than 13 million immigrants entered the United States. In Canada a program brought Slavs, Hungarians, Poles, Germans, and Romanians to the Prairie Provinces. Immigrants also flocked to Ontario and British Columbia. In Mexico, Central America, and the Antilles, population increases were largely from natural causes.
\par {\b World Power, Great Depression, and New Deal}
\par \tab As a result of the Spanish-American War (1898) and World War I (1914-18), the United States emerged as a leading world power. In the 1920s the country grew prosperous. Tariffs were raised, immigration was reduced, and there was a reaction against imperialism and a tendency toward isolation from foreign involvement. The boom years ended with the stock market crash of 1929, signaling the start of the Great Depression. By 1932, about 12 million people were unemployed. Banks closed and the country faced economic paralysis. President Franklin D. Roosevelt created a program called the New Deal, spearheaded by the National Industrial Recovery Act of 1933. Notable New Deal innovations were the Public Works Administration (PWA), Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), and Social Security Act.
\par {\b World War II and Beyond}
\par \tab On Dec. 7, 1941, without warning, the Japanese air force and navy attacked Pearl Harbor in Hawaii, making a shambles of the United States Pacific fleet. The United States accordingly declared war on Japan and the other Axis powers--Germany and Italy. Canada did the same. North American forces fought well in all of the war zones. Germany finally surrendered on May 7, 1945. In August the United States dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. World War II was over.
\par \tab There were wars in Korea in the 1950s and Vietnam in the 1960s. In the 1980s United States forces served in the Middle East in Lebanon and invaded the island of Grenada. They also led the United Nations coalition in the Persian Gulf War of the 1990s.
\par \tab North American society changed considerably after the Vietnam War--particularly in the United States and Canada. Material wealth increased dramatically. Incomes rose. A majority of families owned their own homes, cars, and televisions and worked at good jobs. Work at home and on the farm became highly mechanized. Increasingly, North Americans moved to the suburbs, went to college, and sought more leisure time. The credit card and computer became North American institutions.
\par \tab But poverty, unemployment, prejudice, the denial of civil rights, ghettoization, and other social ills persisted. In Mexico, Central America, and the Antilles, there was less prosperity. Illegal Mexican immigrants continued to cross the United States border; Sandinistas and contras waged war in Nicaragua; Fidel Castro presided over a dictatorship in Cuba; and Haitians were gripped in abject poverty.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by Daniel Jacobson, Professor of Geography, Michigan State University, East Lansing, and author of 'Great Indian Tribes', 'The Hunters', 'The Fishermen', 'The Gatherers', 'Indians of North America', and 'The North Central States'.
\par \tab {\b BIBLIOGRAPHY FOR NORTH AMERICA}
\par \tab Anderson, M.K. Greenland: Island at the Top of the World (Dodd, 1983).
\par \tab Bailyn, Bernard. The Peopling of British North America (Knopf, 1986).
\par \tab Birdsall, S.S., and Florin, J.W. Regional Landscapes of the United States and Canada, 3rd ed. (Wiley, 1985).
\par \tab Boorstin, Daniel. Portraits from the Americans: The Democratic Experience (Random, 1975).
\par \tab Brandt, Keith. Mexico and Central America (Troll, 1985).
\par \tab Dickerman, Pat. Adventure Travel in North America (Holt, 1986).
\par \tab Rooney, J.F., Jr., and others, eds. This Remarkable Continent: An Atlas of U.S. and Canadian Society and Cultures (Texas A&M Univ. Press, 1982).
\par \tab Zaslowsky, Dvan. These American Lands: Parks, Wilderness, and the Public Lands (Holt, 1986).\par \tab Northern Mariana Islands (also called Marianas, formerly Ladrone Islands), group of 15 islands in Micronesia, Pacific Ocean, 1,500 mi (2,400 km) e. of Philippines; 450 sq mi (1,160 sq km); made Japanese mandate 1919 (except Guam, ceded to U.S. 1898); occupied by U.S. 1944; placed under U.S. trusteeship 1947; became commonwealth as Northern Marianas 1978; Compact of Free Association with U.S. 1986, ending trusteeship; Saipan is naval base; sugar, copra, bonito fisheries; pop. 43,345\par \tab Land and sea are very closely linked in Norway. A harsh climate and rugged terrain have made the Norwegians look to the sea for their livelihood. Hardworking and efficient, the Norwegians have created a high standard of living from limited resources. The discovery of petroleum in Norwegian waters has brought greater wealth to the country.
\par {\b Land and Climate}
\par \tab Norway has a total area of 125,057 square miles (323,895 square kilometers), including the many arms of the sea, known as fjords, that penetrate inland. It is 1,089 miles (1,753 kilometers) in length but only about 250 miles (400 kilometers) at its widest point. It is bounded on the north by the Arctic Ocean, on the west by the North Sea, on the south by the Skagerrak Straits, and on the east by Sweden, Finland, and Russia. The length of the coastline, not including the islands and the fjords, is about 2,000 miles (3,200 kilometers).
\par \tab Norway is largely mountainous with few areas of flatland. About 80 percent of the country is above 1,500 feet (460 meters) in height. Much of the southern part of Norway consists of a high plateau penetrated by valleys and by the fjords. The longest is Sognafjorden, which reaches 114 miles (183 kilometers) inland. The fjords were originally valleys scooped out by glaciers and are very deep. On the plateau there are areas of high mountains. The largest area is Jotunheimen, with Norway's two highest mountains--Galdh°piggen (8,100 feet, or 2,469 meters) and Glittertinden (8,104 feet, or 2,470 meters). There are more than 1,500 glaciers in Norway. The largest is Jostedalsbreen, west of Jotunheimen.
\par \tab The southeast is mainly flat. Long valleys, such as Gudbrandsdal, end in the flatland around the Oslofjord. There are also some flat areas around the south coast and at the heads of the fjords. The west coast is lined with more than 150,000 islands. The largest group is the Lofoten Islands, located north of the Arctic Circle. Farther north is the Nordkapp (North Cape), the most northerly point in Europe. There are many rivers, but most are short. The Glσma is the longest at 380 miles (612 kilometers). In the west the steep slopes create a number of spectacular waterfalls. Lake Mj°sa is the largest of Norway's 160,000 lakes.
\par \tab Norway controls the Svalbard archipelago, located in the Arctic Ocean at the edge of the polar ice cap. The largest group is the Spitsbergen Islands, which cover 24,095 square miles (62,406 square kilometers). They are mountainous and largely covered with ice.
\par \tab The climate of Norway is much more temperate than its northern location suggests. The North Atlantic Current brings warm water from the Gulf of Mexico across the Atlantic Ocean to as far north as the Nordkapp. This current prevents ice from forming along the coast and keeps air temperature high in winter. The predominantly southwest winds bring much moisture from the ocean. The climate of western Norway is typical of maritime regions. Bergen on the west coast has an average temperature of 35░ F (1.7░ C) in January and 61░ F (16.1░ C) in July. Annual rainfall averages 78 inches (198 centimeters). Oslo in the east has a colder average January temperature of 25░ F (-3.9░ C) and a warmer July temperature of 63░ F (17.2░ C). Annual precipitation at Oslo is only 27 inches (69 centimeters), some of it snow. Temperatures in northern Norway are lower than in the south, but even Troms° at almost 70░ N. latitude has winters milder than New England at 45░ N.
\par {\b Natural Resources and Plant and Animal Life}
\par \tab Norway's major resources are the sea, water power, and petroleum and natural gas. The sea has played a major role in Norwegian history. Almost every part of Norway is close to the sea or a fjord, and many Norwegians gain their livelihood from the water as fishermen or sailors. The mountain rivers are ideal for the development of hydroelectric power, which produces almost all of the electricity in the country at low cost.
\par \tab Petroleum was first extracted from the Norwegian-controlled area of the North Sea in 1966. Production is about seven times that required for domestic consumption, and most of it is exported. Because of the deep trench along the coast of Norway, it is not possible to bring oil to land by pipeline. Most of Norway's oil goes to northern Scotland. Natural gas is also found, and most of it is also exported. Some iron ore, copper, lead, zinc, magnesium, titanium, and nickel are found in small amounts, mainly in northern Norway.
\par \tab About 20 percent of the country is covered by forests, mainly coniferous, with pine and spruce predominating. Ash, oak, and elm trees are found in the south. The high plateaus and mountains are covered with mosses and lichens, grasses, and bushes.
\par \tab Such animals as hares, foxes, hedgehogs, and badgers are common. In the mountains and forests elks, wild reindeer, lemmings, and some wolves are found. Bears and beavers exist only in small numbers.
\par \tab Grouse, woodcocks, partridge, and various species of ducks and geese are common. Puffins, eiders, kittiwakes, and other sea birds are found on the coast. The seas are full of a variety of fish, and seals and whales are often seen. Trout and salmon are found in the rivers.
\par {\b People and Culture}
\par \tab The population is about 4 million. Norway is the most sparsely populated country in Europe, with 33 persons per square mile (13 per square kilometer). Many Norwegians are of Nordic descent with blond hair and blue eyes, though dark-haired people are found in some areas. The only minority group of any size is the Lapps, who live mainly in the north. They are reindeer herders. Although of short stature with small faces and dark hair, they are of European origin. There are about 30,000 Lapps in Norway and smaller numbers in Sweden and Finland. Because of intermarriage with Norwegians and others, estimates of the Lapp population vary.
\par \tab A sizable community of Russians lives on Spitzbergen in Svalbard. There are few foreigners living in Norway because of restrictions on admitting workers from abroad. Almost all Norwegians belong to the Lutheran Church of Norway.
\par \tab The largest city is the capital, Oslo, with more than 440,000 inhabitants. Bergen has a population of some 200,000, and the only other city above 100,000 is Trondheim. Most other towns are small.
\par \tab The Norwegian language belongs to the Scandinavian group and is similar to Danish and Swedish. There are many dialects, and no form of the language is acceptable to all Norwegians. There are two official forms--bokmσl and nynorsk (New Norwegian).
\par \tab Norway has made contributions to European culture in the fields of literature, music, and art. The oldest literature consists of tales of the old Norse gods, written in the 13th century. Norwegian settlers in Iceland composed sagas, which deal with the early history of Norway and Iceland. Little was written between that period and the 18th century, when Ludvig Holberg wrote plays, poems, and essays in Danish. In the 19th century Henrik Wergeland emerged as Norway's greatest poet. He developed a national style, whereas Johan Welhaven retained Danish forms. In the 19th century the novelists Jonas Lie, Alexander Kielland, and the playwrights and poets Bj°rnstjerne Bj°rnson and Henrik Ibsen dominated the literary scene
\par \tab The most famous Norwegian composer is Edvard Grieg (1843-1907), whose 'Peer Gynt Suite' and piano concerto are popular internationally. Johan Svendsen has had considerable influence on modern Norwegian music.
\par \tab Norwegian art is less well known abroad. The leading painter is Edvard Munch (1863-1944), who influenced modern expressionist art. The sculptor Gustav Vigeland is best known for his collection of sculptures at Frogner Park in Oslo.
\par \tab Winter sports are very popular, and Norwegians are especially successful at cross-country skiing, ski jumping, and speed skating. In the summer hiking, mountain climbing, and sailing are major forms of recreation. As crown prince, King Olav V won an Olympic gold medal for yachting in 1928.
\par \tab Education is compulsory between the ages of 7 and 16 and is free. Apart from primary and secondary schools, there are technical, art, and other vocational schools. There are four universities--in Oslo, Bergen, Trondheim, and Troms°--and eight other institutions with university status. There are also teachers' and engineers' colleges.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab Norway was once predominantly a country of farmers, fishermen, foresters, and sailors. Although these activities are still significant, industry is now the leading branch of the economy.
\par \tab Industrial development has been based mainly on inexpensive hydroelectric power. Norway is first in the world for the quantity of electric power produced per person. The production of such metals as aluminum, copper, nickel, zinc, and titanium uses large amounts of electric power, as does the manufacture of nitrogen for fertilizers and explosives.
\par \tab Pulp and paper manufacture uses both electric power and wood from the forests. Some iron and steel is produced in northern Norway. Other industries are shipbuilding and the construction of oil-drilling platforms and hydroelectric-power equipment. The North Sea petroleum industry created many jobs, including those in the manufacture of equipment and the provision of supplies and services. Drops in world oil prices caused problems for the high-cost North Sea petroleum industry.
\par \tab Only about 7 percent of the labor force is employed in agriculture. Farming is difficult because of the mountainous terrain and the lack of good soils--only about 3 percent of the total land area is suitable for farming. Conditions are most suitable for grazing livestock and growing hay. The production of milk and dairy products is sufficient for the country's needs. The main crops are oats and barley--with a little wheat. Potatoes and fodder crops are also grown. Grain and vegetables are imported. Farms are small, and most are owned by individual farmers. Cooperative societies for marketing and processing products and for buying supplies of seeds and equipment are prevalent.
\par \tab Forestry is a major activity and is often carried out by farmers, who own much of the forest land. Much of the timber goes to the pulp and paper factories, which export much of their output.
\par \tab Fishing consists of onshore fishing by farmers and others who live on the coast or a fjord and deep-sea fishing by modern trawlers and factory ships. Large amounts of fish are exported, especially frozen cod and canned sardines and herrings. Herrings are also turned into oil and fish meal. Whaling was once significant but has been discontinued.
\par \tab Norway's main exports are wood pulp, fish, crude petroleum, natural gas, metals, chemicals, and machinery. Norway is also the major supplier of natural gas to a number of European countries. It imports machinery, refined petroleum products, chemicals, and textiles. Major trading partners include Sweden, Germany, and the United Kingdom.
\par {\b Transportation and Communication}
\par \tab The mountains and fjords make the building of railroads and highways difficult. The railroad between Oslo and Bergen passes through 184 tunnels. The fjords are crossed by a large number of ferries. Major routes from Oslo follow the valleys or the coast. The highway system was improved with funds from petroleum revenues, but there are only a few miles of four-lane highways, in the Oslo area.
\par \tab There is much coastal shipping. Routes are sheltered by the string of islands along the coast. Norway's merchant fleet is one of the largest in the world. Its services bring considerable wealth to the country. Because of the rugged terrain and often bad weather, Norway is not an ideal country for air transportation. The long distances between cities, however, have encouraged the development of domestic air services. Small planes land with floats on fjords and provide medical emergency service for isolated districts. Norway, along with Sweden and Denmark, is a member of Scandinavian Airlines System (SAS), which pioneered the first polar-route flights from Europe to the United States and Japan. The main international airport is at Fornebu, near Oslo.
\par \tab Telegraph and telephone services are state owned. Radio and television are organized by the Norwegian National Broadcasting Service.
\par {\b Government and History}
\par \tab Norway's government is a constitutional monarchy. It is also a hereditary monarchy in a direct male line. When Olav V died in 1991, he was succeeded by his son, Harald V. According to the constitution, legislative power lies with the Storting, or parliament. It meets every year, and its 165 members are elected for four-year terms by district.
\par \tab The Storting is divided into two houses--the Lagting, consisting of one quarter of the members, and the Odelsting, with the remaining members. Bills are first considered by the Odelsting and, if passed, go to the Lagting, where they can be passed or returned to the Odelsting for further discussion. If no agreement is reached by the two houses, a joint session is called, where a two-thirds majority vote is needed to pass a bill. The major political parties are the Labor (socialist), Conservative, Progress, and Socialist Left parties.
\par \tab In spite of the difficult environment, human beings have lived in Norway since the Stone Age. The period of recorded history begins about 900, when the Vikings established control over various districts under the leadership of their chiefs. Harald Haarfager (Fairhair) became king of much of southern Norway.
\par \tab The whole of Norway was united by Olav II Haraldsson (Olaf II) by 1030. Olav was a Christian and began the conversion of his people. He was declared a saint after his death. The 12th century began with a period of peace and prosperity, but by 1130 civil wars had broken out as various claimants to the throne arose.
\par \tab In 1217 Haakon IV Haakonsson ascended the throne and was a powerful ruler. He developed cultural and trade contacts with the rest of Europe. He also signed a treaty with the German city of Lⁿbeck giving the Hanseatic League special rights to trade in Norway. Bergen became the league's major port, and by 1300 all trade was in the hands of the Germans. This German monopoly led to an economic decline. In 1349 the Black Death (bubonic plague) reached Norway from England and killed probably about half of the population.
\par \tab In 1319 the death of Haakon V Magnusson ended the Norwegian royal line, and the throne went first to the Swedish and then to the Danish royal families. In 1380 Olav, the son of Haakon VI of Norway and Margrethe of Denmark, became king of both Norway and Denmark, a union that lasted for more than 400 years. At the death of her son, Margrethe became queen, and by 1397 she had united Norway, Denmark, and Sweden in the Union of Kalmar. In 1543 Sweden left the union, while Norway came increasingly under Danish control and influence. Norway suffered in the conflicts between Sweden and Denmark and was on occasion invaded by Swedish armies. Danish shipping led to prosperity, but by the early 18th century the fleet had suffered losses from further fighting. By the end of the century the export of timber and the growing mining industry improved the economy.
\par \tab The Napoleonic wars and the British blockade of Denmark, an ally of Napoleon, resulted in the isolation of Norway from Denmark and the virtual independence of Norway from 1809 to 1812. In 1814 Norway was taken from Denmark and annexed by Sweden. The Norwegians declared their independence and proclaimed a constitution. Sweden refused to recognize this act and invaded Norway, forcing the Norwegians to accept the union of the two countries. But the Norwegian constitution and a parliament were allowed to function, and in 1884 the parliament was recognized as the main governing body of the country. In 1905 Norway declared its independence from Sweden. Prince Charles of Denmark was offered the throne, which he accepted as Haakon VII.
\par \tab The period before World War I was one of prosperity. A railroad joining Oslo and Bergen was built with great difficulty, and a start was made on the development of waterpower resources. Norway declared itself neutral at the outbreak of the war. Large profits were made by carrying cargoes for the British in spite of considerable loss of life and ships. Political life was marked by the rise of the Labor (socialist) party, which has played a major role in modern Norwegian politics.
\par \tab During the earlier centuries Norway lost control over most of the Atlantic islands such as Iceland, the Orkneys, and the Shetlands. In 1925 its sovereignty over the Svalbard archipelago was recognized on the condition that other countries have access to coal and other mineral deposits found there. In 1933 Norway yielded its rights in Greenland to Denmark. The international depression of the 1930s caused a rise in unemployment. In 1935 a Labor government was elected. Norwegian politics have since been dominated by the Labor party, which laid the foundation for the modern Norwegian welfare state. But large segments of the economy remain privately owned.
\par \tab Norway announced its intention in 1939 of remaining neutral in the event of a European war. But Norway did not remain neutral. After the outbreak of World War II, the British objected to the use of fjords and islands by German ships seeking shelter and began to mine Norwegian coastal waters. The Norwegians, who thought that their neutrality was most threatened by the British, were shocked when their country was invaded by Germany on April 9, 1940. The king and the government escaped to northern Norway and then to Great Britain, where a government in exile was established. Allied troops that had been sent to Norway to assist Norwegian resistance were evacuated from the northern port of Narvik. Most of the Norwegian merchant fleet was at sea and was able to join the Allies.
\par \tab In Norway a pro-German government was set up with Vidkun Quisling, a Norwegian Nazi sympathizer, in charge. The Norwegians summarily rejected Quisling as a leader, and an underground movement known as the Home Front remained in touch with the Norwegian government in London. In May 1945 Norway was liberated, and the German forces left. Quisling was tried for treason and executed.
\par \tab Northern Norway had suffered damage from retreating German troops, and the economy of the country was in ruins. About half the merchant fleet had been sunk. Further development of waterpower and the establishment of new industries were undertaken by a new Labor government. Convinced that neutrality did not work, the Norwegians joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in 1949. No foreign troops or nuclear weapons, however, are permitted on Norwegian soil.
\par \tab Norway's trade position caused some problems. It rejected membership in a Nordic Common Market and instead in 1959 joined the European Free Trade Association (EFTA), of which Great Britain was then a member. When Britain left to join the European Economic Community (EEC) (now the European Union, or EU) in 1973, Norway did not follow. It continued as a partner in EFTA along with Finland, Sweden, Iceland, Austria, and Switzerland.
\par \tab The revenues from the petroleum industry created great prosperity in the 1970s. Norway controlled extraction by maintaining a rate of production that would not exhaust deposits too quickly. Petroleum revenues were used not only to support the welfare state but also to ensure the development of industries that would support the economy after the petroleum deposits were exhausted.
\par \tab In 1981 a Conservative government took office with Kaare Willoch as prime minister. It succeeded a Labor government headed by Gro Harlem Brundtland, Norway's first woman prime minister. The drop in oil prices in 1985 hit Norway hard and reduced revenues. In May 1986 Brundtland and a Labor government again came to power.
\par \tab In 1989 elections, Labor lost ground after 50 years of domination, and Brundtland resigned on October 13. Jan Peder Syse, leader of the Conservative party, succeeded her as prime minister, but Brundtland once again took office in 1990. Half of Brundtland's cabinet as well as the leaders of two of the government's main opposition parties were female.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by Ian M. Matley, Professor of Geography, Michigan State University, East Lansing.
\par \tab Selbyg, Arne. Norway Today: An Introduction to Modern Norwegian Society (Oxford Univ. Press, 1986).
\par \tab Sturluson, Snorri. Heimskringla: History of the Kings of Norway (Univ. of Tex. Press, 1991).
\par \tab Vanberg, Bent. Of Norwegian Ways (Harper, 1984).\par \tab An independent Arab sultanate, Oman is located on the southeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula. Covering an area of 120,000 square miles (310,000 square kilometers), Oman is bordered by the Strait of Hormuz and the Gulf of Oman on the north, the Arabian Sea on the east, Yemen on the southwest, and Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates on the west. A small part of the kingdom lies to the north of the United Arab Emirates.
\par \tab Most of Oman is rocky and sandy. The coastal plains--Batina in the northeast and the Dhofar region in the southwest--are Oman's only fertile, prosperous, and populous regions. Al Hajar mountains, reaching a height of 10,194 feet (3,107 meters), separate Batina from the vast gravel desert in the south that covers almost three fourths of the country.
\par \tab Oman has a hot and arid climate. Annual rainfall, ranging from 2 to 4 inches (5 to 10 centimeters), is concentrated between the months of June and September. The temperature can reach 120░ F (49░ C) during the summer months, making Oman one of the hottest countries in the world. Tropical vegetation grows in the Dhofar region, which is well known for the frankincense that is extracted from its trees. Less than 1 percent of the country's land area is under cultivation, with another 5 percent of meadows and pastures. Restricted by intense heat and insufficient water, Omani farmers produce small amounts of alfalfa, bananas, limes, mangoes, melons, onions, pomegranates, tobacco, and wheat. Agriculture depends largely on the traditional irrigation system known as falaj, where water is carried in a network of canals that were built in ancient times. Date palm cultivation is concentrated on the northeastern coastal plains and cattle raising in the Dhofar region. Omani-bred camels are the best in the Arabian Peninsula. Good supplies of sardines, rock cod, snapper, cuttlefish, and oysters are found off the Omani coasts.
\par \tab Oman's economy depends heavily on its petroleum industry, which provides nearly 85 percent of the country's income and accounts for almost 99 percent of its total exports. A refinery is at Mina al Fahal, which is also Oman's main oil-exporting center. Chief imports include machinery and transport equipment, manufactured goods, food items, and chemicals.
\par \tab Muscat, the capital of Oman, and Matrah, the commercial center, have some modern high-rise buildings. More than 90 percent of Oman's population live in rural villages, where flat-roofed houses are commonly built of palm thatch or wood with mud and stone walls. Islam is the official religion.
\par \tab Although diseases such as tuberculosis, trachoma, and whooping cough have been largely controlled, health conditions in Oman are generally poor. The country's infant mortality rate is among the highest in the world. A remarkable change in the country's education system was the introduction of schooling for girls. Oman now has women in banking, the foreign service, and the domestic civil service. English is taught as a second language in Omani schools. Oman's first university opened in 1986. Radio Oman broadcasts daily in Arabic, the official language, and in English. An international airport is at Seeb.
\par \tab Arabs entered Oman around the 9th century BC. The majority converted to Islam in the 7th century AD. Oman was ruled by Muslim leaders known as imams until 1154, when a dynasty of kings was established. Portugal gained control of the Omani coast in 1507 but was forced out by local Arabs in 1650. There have been several insurrections since the early 18th century, but the last of these ended in 1959 when British troops helped restore peace. Modernization of Oman began in 1970 when Sultan Qabus ibn Sa'id launched a program of social reforms and economic development.
\par \tab Oman is an absolute monarchy. There is no formal constitution or legislature, and there are no political parties. The sultan appoints a council to assist him. The country is divided into 50 governorates. Each has a governor who is appointed by the sultan. The legal system is based on the Koran, the holy book of Islam. In 1990 there was an estimated population of 1,468,000. No census has ever been taken.\par \tab The major feature of the Pacific Ocean is its enormous size: not only is it the largest ocean in the world, it is also the world's largest single physical feature. With an area of about 64 million square miles (166 million square kilometers), it is twice the size of the Atlantic Ocean and occupies nearly a third of the surface of the Earth--more than the area of all the Earth's land surfaces. The Pacific reaches about 9,300 miles (15,000 kilometers) from Antarctica almost to the Arctic Circle in the Bering Sea. Its greatest dimension stretches from east to west, with nearly half the length of the equator lying across its surface--11,000 miles (18,000 kilometers).
\par \tab Its average depth is the greatest of any ocean, and it also contains the deepest oceanic trenches. The deepest, the Mariana Trench, with a depth of about 36,000 feet (11,000 meters), has a greater vertical dimension than the world's highest mountain--Mount Everest, at 29,028 feet (8,848 meters).
\par {\b Ocean Floor}
\par \tab Many of the major features of the Pacific--its floor, islands, and coasts--can be accounted for by the theory of continental drift. This theory notes that the crust of the Earth is divided into thin, rigid plates that are moving. In addition there are oceanic ridges forming interconnected chains of mountains that extend into the three principal oceans--the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian. New crustal material is formed along these ridges by volcanic action. This addition of new material pushes the plates apart and is thus the source of their motion.
\par \tab As the oceanic plates are pushed toward the continental plates from the mid-ocean ridges, they descend below the continental plates into the Earth's interior. As they descend, oceanic trenches are formed. These are relatively narrow, linear, and very deep valleys that lie parallel to the continental coasts. The Pacific has the greatest number of these trenches.
\par \tab As the oceanic plates descend through the trenches, they are destroyed. Drilling has found no oceanic plate rock more than 200 million years old. Thus it appears that oceanic crust is formed at the ridges as it is destroyed in the trenches--in cycles that take place over millions of years.
\par \tab Most of the Pacific Ocean is underlain by the very large Pacific Plate. In the eastern Pacific, off Central America, is the small Cocos Plate, and west of South America is the Nazca Plate. The Philippine Sea Plate is east of the islands of the same name, and the Eurasian Plate underlies the seas west of the islands of East Asia.
\par \tab The floor of the Pacific is divided into two dissimilar parts, each roughly half of the floor. The eastern half has few mountains or ridges, and hence few islands, but the western half has many of both. The eastern part, but not the western, is crossed by many cracks arranged in bands called fracture zones that run parallel to each other--mostly at right angles to the coasts of the Americas.
\par \tab The eastern Pacific contains the East Pacific Rise, a section of the 40,000-mile- (64,000-kilometer-) long Mid-Ocean Ridge. The East Pacific Rise lies more or less parallel to the coast of South America but several thousand miles west. Several fracture zones cross it. It approaches North America near southwestern Mexico.
\par \tab The greatest length of trenches is found in the western Pacific, where there are ten of varying lengths, located mostly in the Northern Hemisphere. The eastern Pacific has only two--the relatively short Middle America Trench off Central America and the much longer Peru-Chile Trench. In contrast the Indian Ocean has only one trench and the Atlantic only three short ones.
\par \tab The third major feature of the ocean floor is the basins, or plains. They contain little relief. The abyssal plains are the most extensive flat parts of the Earth's crust. The plains are bounded by rises, continental shelves, and ridges. One classification identifies nine basins and two abyssal plains on the Pacific Plate.
\par \tab The major relief features of these ocean basins are volcanoes, of which there are estimated to be about 20,000 on the ocean bottoms of the world. Some of these form single mountains, and others join with other volcanoes to form ridges. The highest ones rise above the surface of the water as islands, which in many cases form linear groups such as the Hawaiian Islands.
\par \tab Island groups are simply the highest summits of ridges. The submerged part of the Hawaiian Islands is among the largest and longest of these volcanic ridges--more than 1,500 miles (2,400 kilometers) long.
\par \tab Many island groups of the Pacific are linear in form, with the largest and highest island of the group at one end and the lowest and smallest at the other. This feature is true of the Hawaiian Islands, explained as the result of intermittent movement of the plate over what is called a hot spot. Molten volcanic material is ejected from it and results in the formation of a large mass of material if the plate pauses for a sufficient length of time at the spot. In this way a volcanic island, or ridge, is built. The plate moves, and another part of it lies over the hot spot, receiving fresh volcanic material. Meanwhile the older material, if it has become an island, is subject to erosion and thus is worn down.
\par \tab The Hawaiian Islands illustrate this point well. They are oriented in a northwest-southeast direction, with the smallest, lowest, and oldest islands in the northwest and the largest, highest, youngest island (Hawaii) in the southeast. The oldest rocks on Hawaii are only about 700,000 years old, whereas the youngest on Oahu--about 140 miles (225 kilometers) to the northwest--are about 2 million years old. The island of Hawaii has the only active volcanoes of the chain. Kilauea, on Mauna Loa, produces more lava than any other volcano in the world.
\par \tab Kilauea is different from the volcanoes of the continental rim of the Pacific in that it is not an explosive volcano. Volcanoes such as Kilauea are called shield volcanoes because their profiles resemble that of a shield. Shield volcanoes are built by many lava flows rather than violent or explosive ejections of ash and other material.
\par \tab After a volcanic island is formed, its weight causes the plate to sag locally, and thus the island begins to sink. As it sinks, coral reefs begin to grow upward to maintain themselves near the surface if the water is warm and clear. Finally the volcanic center may disappear beneath the ocean, leaving an atoll, a ring of coral reef and islets formed of coral sand surrounding a shallow lagoon. The atoll's continued existence depends on the maintenance of current sea level. If the sea level rises, the atoll is likely to disappear.
\par \tab Charles Darwin developed this theory of the development of atolls. He observed marine shells at high elevations in the Andes Mountains and thought that the great uplift the mountains had experienced was compensated for by the sinking of the Pacific islands.
\par \tab Few atolls can support many people at a level regarded as acceptable. The Micronesians of Kwajalein Atoll, for example, have some of the worst living conditions in the Pacific. They are crowded on a small islet on a very large atoll.
\par {\b Ring of Fire}
\par \tab Around the boundaries of the Pacific Plate are many active volcanoes and frequent earthquakes. The presence of numerous volcanoes has caused the circum-Pacific rim to be called the Ring of Fire. Most of the world's active volcanoes are in the ring. Many are in densely populated areas, as is Nevado del Ruiz in Colombia, which erupted in 1985 and took more than 20,000 lives. Mount St. Helens in the Cascade Range is in the ring, and its eruption in 1980 caused considerable ashfall in nearby Portland, Ore. Others in the Cascades could erupt, endangering cities and towns in the northwestern United States and British Columbia.
\par \tab Earthquakes are more common in the Ring of Fire than are volcanic eruptions, and they have caused much damage, often made worse by unsuitable building methods and materials. In Central America and Mexico, for example, many houses are built of adobe, or sundried bricks. Walls of this material do not withstand the lateral motions of a quake well. Because populations are increasing rapidly in many parts of the Ring of Fire, including the United States, increasing damage from quakes and eruptions can be expected. Many of these people live in poor countries, as in Latin America and the Philippines, where such damage plays an adverse role in economic development. In 1972 a quake destroyed or badly damaged 75 percent of the buildings in Managua, Nicaragua. More than 11,000 people died, and more than 300,000 were left homeless. Little of the city center was rebuilt even years after the quake in this poor country.
\par {\b Pacific Climate}
\par \tab The oceans are bound to the atmosphere by interactions and exchanges of water and energy that make it impossible to separate them. Most of the Pacific Ocean is in low latitudes between 35░ N. and 35░ S. and is thus mostly tropical and subtropical in climate. It is an enormous absorbent of solar radiation, unlike the adjacent land. Over huge areas there is little variation in temperature either in time--from night to day or season to season--or from place to place. The interactions between the atmosphere and the relatively uniform surface of this huge reservoir are a major contributor to the Earth's climate.
\par \tab As in the eastern Atlantic Ocean, there are two subtropical, semipermanent high-pressure cells in the eastern Pacific. They are called semipermanent because they move little from day to day and oceanic because they are mostly over the oceans, but they greatly influence the climate and weather of the adjacent land. These highs are among the major features of atmospheric circulation. The movement of air around them drives the currents of the surface water of the oceans. In the Northern Hemisphere the winds and surface waters move clockwise around the center of the high, and in the Southern Hemisphere they move counterclockwise. The wind systems that result from this circulation are called trade winds on the equatorial sides of the highs and westerlies on the polar sides.
\par \tab The currents are distinguished by temperature. The equatorial currents that flow westward are warm, as are those that flow toward the poles on the western side of the Pacific. The currents driven by the westerlies are cold, as are those that flow toward the equator parallel to the eastern coasts of the Pacific.
\par \tab The trade winds, or tropical easterlies, are the strongest and most persistent winds on Earth. As they move toward the equator, they pick up great quantities of moisture from the warm sea. If they are strong--moving faster than about 21 feet (6.4 meters) per second--the sea surface breaks into whitecaps. This greatly increases the rate at which water evaporates and incorporates the latent heat, or energy, of evaporation into the air. When the trade winds reach the area called the doldrums in the Intertropical Convergence Zone the air rises and condensation occurs. Most of the latent energy and moisture are released.
\par \tab If one thinks of the circulation of the Earth's atmosphere as an engine, it can be said that much of the fuel that runs this engine comes from the moisture and latent energy picked up by the Pacific trade winds as they move toward the equator. The great size of the Pacific and the fact that most of it is in low latitudes makes it the largest area covered by trade winds and thus of major significance to the circulation of the Earth's atmosphere.
\par \tab Like the north Atlantic, the Pacific Ocean experiences hurricanes, but here they are called tropical cyclones, typhoons, or baguios in the Philippines. A big difference, however, is that they occur in greater numbers in the western Pacific and, because of high densities of population, they cause more damage. The larger numbers of hurricanes may be a result of the greater width of the Pacific, enabling more disturbances or storms to develop into hurricanes.
\par \tab The hurricanes and other atmospheric disturbances make the western tropical Pacific the largest region on Earth of high rainfall--more than 80 inches (200 centimeters) per year. Most of the inhabitants of Pacific islands live in this wet area. In spite of the high rainfall, most islands experience at least a short dry season. In some years this may become a drought.
\par {\b Water Circulation}
\par \tab As in any ocean, there are different movements of water at the surface, in the depths, and near coastlines. At the surface are the currents; in the depths there are well-defined layers; and along the shore are the tides.
\par \tab {\b Currents.}
\par \tab The surface waters of the Pacific are driven east to west by trade winds to form the North and South Equatorial currents. The North Equatorial Current has its axis approximately on the parallel of 15░ N., and the South Equatorial Current generally follows the equator. Between the two is the Equatorial Countercurrent flowing eastward.
\par \tab The North Equatorial Current swings north and east near the Philippines and forms the warm-water Kuroshio to the east of Japan. The Kuroshio (also known as the Japan Current) is the Pacific's counterpart of the Atlantic Ocean's Gulf Stream and has a similar moderating impact on the weather of nearby land masses.
\par \tab In the summer months this current flows into the Sea of Japan and through Tsushima Strait to form the Tsushima Current. When the Kuroshio leaves the coast of Japan, it heads east as the Kuroshio Extension. Most of this warm water turns south before the stream reaches the Hawaiian Islands. A small section of the extension passes to the north of the Hawaiian Islands and comes to within 600 miles (966 kilometers) of North America. Some branches of the Kuroshio turn north from Japan and meet the colder waters of the Oyashio, or Okhotsk Current, a southward flow of the Kamchatka Current. As this cold-water current nears North America, part of it heads into the Gulf of Alaska, while the rest forms the cold California Current.
\par \tab The South Equatorial Current flows west until it reaches the Solomon Islands. It then heads southward to form the East Australian Current. This current links up with the South Pacific circulation system and moves eastward toward South America. When it reaches the coast, at 45░ S., one branch flows north as the Humboldt (or Peru) Current; and the other flows south through the Drake Passage between Antarctica and South America.
\par \tab In the winter, during January and February--but sometimes later--the Equatorial Countercurrent shifts southward from the Gulf of Panama to the coast of South America. It brings warm water into the normally cold waters and forms a current called El Ni±o. The name refers to the Christ child and was given because the current appears about the time of the Christmas season. This mass of warm water can have striking effects on weather in the Americas, causing severe storms, drought, or flooding in the winter. It can also bring disaster to the South American fisheries by killing off many life forms that cannot tolerate the heat. Appearances of El Ni±o have been documented as far back as 1726.
\par \tab {\b Deepwater circulation.}
\par \tab The main influence on the underwater vertical circulation in the Pacific is the massive amount of cold water generated around Antarctica. This very cold water sinks and moves northward to form the bottom water layer for most of the ocean. Some of this deep water has come from the Atlantic and as far away as the Mediterranean. The bottom water is characterized by a fairly uniform temperature and salinity amount. At great depths the water becomes warmer because of compression.
\par \tab Deepwater circulation is influenced by zones of convergence in the Pacific. A convergence takes place when surface waters moving in different directions meet. At these zones surface water descends. At the Pacific Tropical Convergence, for example, water sinks to about 300 feet (90 meters) before spreading sideways. The depth of sinking water increases at a convergence as the distance from the equator increases. The major convergence in the Pacific is the Antarctic. At the opposite pole there is an Arctic Convergence. To balance the downward flow, some water rises along convergence zones--especially along the cold water zones.
\par \tab {\b Tides.}
\par \tab The Pacific Ocean has both diurnal (once-a-day cycle) tides and mixed tides (two high tides with a slight low tide between them, followed by a deep low). Daily tides occur in the Gulf of Tonkin (Southeast Asia), Vancouver Island, and the Torres Strait between Australia and New Guinea. Mixed tides are common along the western coast of the United States. Tidal ranges throughout the Pacific are small.
\par {\b Ocean Resources}
\par \tab The mineral resources of the Pacific are enormous and inexhaustible, though only a few have been exploited. Salt, bromine, and magnesium have been mined; and there has been some underwater drilling for oil off the coasts of Norway, California, and China. Vast deposits of natural gas also exist in the continental shelf of both hemispheres.
\par \tab There is also a vast array of marine life in the ocean, and in contrast to the mineral resources, these have been heavily exploited. Notable are the salmon fisheries of the American Northwest. Fisheries in Japan and Russia harvest huge quantities of herring, bonito, cod, tunny, lobster, crab, shrimp, and prawn. Anchovies are taken off the coast of Peru. The history of whaling in the Pacific from the 18th century onward is well known. Seaweed is processed for food in some countries, notably Japan and Korea.
\par {\b Exploration}
\par \tab The first Europeans known to have seen the Pacific Ocean were members of an expedition led by Vasco N·±ez de Balboa, who crossed the Isthmus of Panama in 1513. Because they were facing south as they viewed the ocean, these explorers called it the South Sea. It was named Pacific by Ferdinand Magellan, leader of the first European expedition to cross it. The Pacific was long regarded as "the Spanish lake," but the incursion of Francis Drake in 1572 changed that perception, and he was followed by other English, Dutch, and French expeditions. Of these the expeditions of Jean-Franτois de Galaup, comte de La PΘrouse, and especially Capt. James Cook in the late 18th century were notable.
\par \tab In spite of this interest, maps of the mid- and late 18th century show few of the many islands of the Pacific. This lack of knowledge continued until shortly after World War II, when the large numbers of people living in the Papua New Guinea highlands and other island areas were discovered.
\par \tab Scientific exploration of the Pacific Basin in the late 20th century has revealed much about its oceanography and its floor. Exploration has also contributed to the development of the theory of continental drift to explain the features of the ocean floor, but much remains to be learned about this vast ocean.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by Ward Barrett, Professor of Geography, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, and author of 'Mission in the Marianas' and 'The Sugar Hacienda of the Marqueses del Valle'._\par \tab Established under traumatic circumstances, modern Pakistan was carved from British India--first by partition in 1947 and later by war with India in 1971. The latter established the new country of Bangladesh from what had been East Pakistan.
\par \tab Pakistan is one of the world's major Islamic nations. It is in effect the only remaining vestige of the Mughal Empire of Islamic rulers from whom the British wrested control in the 18th and 19th centuries.
\par {\b Landscape}
\par \tab Pakistan is divided into three major natural regions: the northern highlands, the Indus River plain, and the Baluchistan Plateau. The northern highlands are a region of some of the most rugged, formidable mountains anywhere. Huge glaciers and roaring rivers traverse a landscape of the highest relief. The Himalayas sweep across northern Pakistan in a great arc from northern India in the east to the Hindu Kush and Pamir Mountains of Afghanistan to the west and north. The Karakoram Range and the Great Himalayas of Pakistan are the world's greatest masses of high mountains. The northern highlands pass westward into the Hindu Kush and western border ranges of Swat, Dir, and Chitral. The low Khyber Pass (3,500 feet; 1,000 meters), through which so many famous conquering armies have passed, is at the north end of the Koh-i-Safed Range. Farther east the Lesser and Sub-Himalayas are progressively lower elevations, including the Margalla Hills above the capital city of Islamabad. From here the Potwar Plateau extends southward to the Salt Range and westward across the Indus River to the basins of Peshawar, Kohat, and others.
\par \tab The Baluchistan Plateau of western Pakistan is a varied arid landscape of mountains, plateaus, and basins. Except for the Toba Kakar Range, which is dotted here and there with juniper, tamarisk, and pistachio trees, most of the mountains are naked and bleak. They are eroded by rare but torrential desert rainstorms, but little water ever reaches the dry basins (hamoon) between the ranges.
\par \tab The Indus River plain has two subdivisions that correspond roughly to the provinces of Punjab and Sind. The northern part is traversed by the five rivers of the Punjab--the word Punjab being derived from panj, "five" and ab, "water." From northwest to southeast the tributaries to the Indus are the Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej.
\par \tab {\b Weather and climate.}
\par \tab Pakistan is in the warm Temperate Zone with general aridity, hot summers, and cool or cold winters. The winds in winter blow northeast to southwest and reverse in summer to bring the monsoon. The cold-weather season from December through February is characterized by somewhat low temperatures. Some precipitation sweeps across Iran and Afghanistan into Pakistan from small low-pressure disturbances that form along the Mediterranean front. During the dry, hot-weather season from March through May and into June, the daily temperatures rise under the hot sun to a searing 105░ to 115░ F (41░ to 46░ C). Temperatures in the middle 120░s F (low 50░s C) are common. This heat causes progressively lower pressures that pull the monsoon winds and rain from the Indian Ocean in June through September. Temperatures decrease, but the humidity increases so that it feels little different. In October and November the high pressures and cooler temperatures reestablish themselves to produce a comfortable autumn.
\par \tab Mean annual rainfall is under 5 inches (13 centimeters) in northwestern Baluchistan near Iran and Afghanistan and in much of Sind toward India to the east. Precipitation rises to more than 40 inches (102 centimeters) in the foothills and mountains of the Great Himalayas. In the rain shadow to the northeast beyond these ranges, precipitation declines to a few inches in the deep, arid valleys where summer temperatures directly adjacent to ice glaciers commonly rise above 100░ F (38░ C).
\par \tab {\b Natural vegetation.}
\par \tab Forests, shrubs, and grasses are grouped into three main divisions. The Saharo-Sindian flora is predominantly tropical or subtropical and is as diverse as mangrove coastal swamps, desert and savannah scrubs, and seasonally flooded aquatic or semiaquatic species. The Irano-Turanian floras are discontinuous areas of semiarid open shrublands and such forests as the pencil junipers, pistachio, ash, and Chilghoza pines of Baluchistan. This floral type extends well into the dry mountain valleys of the Himalayas and includes spruce, willow, and other woody species. The Sino-Japanese flora makes up a narrow belt that extends across the well-watered foothills and lower frontal ranges of the Himalayas and includes horse chestnut, hazel, cherry, several oak species, and various pines, spruce, and cedar.
\par \tab {\b Animal life.}
\par \tab Animal life is hard pressed by the expanding human population and declining natural habitat. Several species have become extinct since being first reported in the 19th century. Limited governmental protection is provided for endangered species. Among the unusual animals present are the snow leopard of the high mountains, common leopard, Marco Polo sheep, Indian wild ass, Baluchistan bear, and blind Indus dolphin--now reduced to fewer than 350 animals. Other rare or endangered species include the green turtle, gavials and crocodiles, bustard birds, musk and hog deer, weasels, otters, lynx, ratels, hyenas, wolves, martens, goitered gazelles, and the gray goral and Himalayan tahr, which are species of wild goats. More than 600 bird species are known, including many migratory water and game birds. The Indus Delta complex is a wintering area for them. There are more than 188 species of mammals, including various rodents, bats, insectivores, primates, and cetaceans. Of the 25 hooved mammals, the urial and baral (blue sheep) and ibex and markhor goats are the most common.
\par {\b People and Culture}
\par \tab The population in the early 1990s was about 126 million, a sevenfold increase since the early 20th century and one of the highest growth rates anywhere. This seventh-most populous nation in the world has about four fifths of its people living in the riverine tracts of Punjab and Sind. Overall population density in 1983 was 346 people per square mile (133 per square kilometer), varying from 34 (12) in Baluchistan to 636 (245) in Punjab. In 1987 approximately 68 percent of the population was rural. About 70 percent was under 30 years of age, and more than 70 percent was under 15.
\par \tab Pakistan is divided into four provinces largely on the basis of linguistic groups--Punjab, Sind, Baluchistan, and the North-West Frontier--as well as Pakistan-held Jammu and Kashmir, Gilgit, and Baltistan in the northern mountains. Baluchistan is the largest province but Punjab is the most populous. Along the border with Afghanistan are the seven federally administered tribal areas of Bajaur, Mohmand, Khyber, Orakzai, Kurrum, and North and South Waziristan. These areas are basically outside direct administration by the government because they maintain their independence by direct force of arms.
\par \tab The principal ethnic groups are the Baluchi-Brahui, Paktun (Pashtun), Punjabi, and Sindhi. Each group is further divided into numerous subunits. By and large these groups are based in their provinces, but large numbers are over the borders in neighboring Iran, Afghanistan, and India. Each of the main groups has its own language, but there are 16 other ethnic groups as well. In addition there are many mountain tribes as well as muhajirs, or emigrants from India following partition, and the Bihari refugees from Bangladesh. Close proximity of the diverse ethnic groups in the burgeoning cities has resulted in violence.
\par \tab Other pressure comes from the 3.7 million refugees from the war in Afghanistan. An agreement signed between Pakistan and Afghanistan in April 1988 was expected to bring about a massive repatriation of these refugees; however, as of the early 1990s this had not yet occurred.
\par \tab The people of Pakistan are largely a mixture of Indo-Iranian lineage. They tend to be taller and lighter in complexion than their Indian neighbors. Although the official religion of Islam is basically egalitarian, concepts of status and caste are still prevalent.
\par \tab Most country people live in mud or mud-brick homes, though concrete and fired brick buildings are springing up everywhere. Traditional dress for both men and women consists of the shalwar kemiz--loose cotton trousers and a long or short shirt or skirt worn outside over the pants. Women usually wear a long dupatta, or scarf, draped around the head and shoulders. In the more traditional towns a tentlike burkha or chadri with a square of netting across the eyes is used to conceal the entire body. Women tend to be secluded according to custom, but some women wear the more revealing Indian sari.
\par \tab In the cities and among educated people, many Western customs have been adopted. Nevertheless, young people are trained to respect and obey their fathers and elders. Marriages are usually arranged in the belief that close family alliances have a greater chance of success than Western-style couplings.
\par \tab {\b Arts and crafts.}
\par \tab The most ancient cultural remnants are from the Indus Valley culture that flourished from 4,000 to 5,000 years ago in Harappa and Mohenjo-daro. Brick buildings, jewelry, and various utensils have been unearthed there. Perhaps the most spectacular of the ancient work is that of the Gandharan civilization dating back about 2,500 years. It was this civilization that Alexander the Great traveled from Greece to conquer. Taxila in northwestern Punjab was a great and influential center of Buddhist architecture, sculpture, education, and religion. Stupas, monastic establishments, and stone carvings from this period dot the northern plains and mountains.
\par \tab Most of the greatest surviving architecture, arts, and handicrafts of today, however, trace back to the Muslim influence that began more than 1,000 years ago. The mosques, tombs, shrines, forts, and formal gardens are among the world's largest and most beautiful, with the finest examples dating from the Mughal period of about 500 to 200 years ago.
\par \tab Traditional arts and handicrafts are diverse and linked to tribal cultures. Weaving of cotton, wool, and silk; block printing of fabrics; embroidery; mirror work; and carpet making are done all over Pakistan. Pottery is an essential craft and is painted after low-temperature firing. Hammered copper and brass, woodwork, lacquer, jewelry, leather work, and inlays in iron and brass add to the rich artistic culture. Fine miniature paintings, decorative calligraphy paintings, and inlaid tile work on buildings also add great beauty.
\par \tab A wide variety of tribal dances, songs, and music are performed, though classical ragas are the summit of musical endeavor. Musical instruments include various drums, pipes and flutes, sitar stringed instruments, and the mouth harp. Pakistanis revere fine verse, and one of their great heroes, Muhammad Iqbal (1877?-1938), was not only a poet-philosopher but was instrumental in the formation of the country.
\par {\b Education}
\par \tab Enrollment in schools has increased more than sevenfold since independence. A general 5.8-percent increase per year has been achieved, and the number of females attending school has increased at 7.6 percent per year. Despite these impressive statistics, literacy is low, with only a 25 percent rate in those over 10 years of age. It drops to as low as 5.5 percent for rural women.
\par \tab Urdu, the national language, evolved during the Mughal rule as the working language between the Muslim rulers, who spoke Persian or Turkish, and the people, who spoke different languages in different areas. The nominal language of instruction has been decreed to be Urdu, but this is fraught with difficulties. It is the native tongue of only about 10 percent of the populace and is unfamiliar to many. Punjabi is spoken by about 60 percent, Sindhi by 12 percent, Paktu by 11 percent, and Baluchi and Brahui each by about 4 percent. Access to the world community of scholarship, business, and development is perceived to be through the English language.
\par \tab Education has had a disappointing relationship to future job prospects for many students, with the result that frustration is high and emigration of trained people is common. Ensuring the return home of Pakistanis sent abroad for higher degrees is also a problem. Special incentives in land and salaries have been implemented to attract overseas Pakistanis back to the country.
\par {\b Religion}
\par \tab Hindus and Christians number about a million adherents each, and there are some Buddhists and Parsis, but about 98 percent of all Pakistanis are Muslims. From its inception in 1947, the country defined itself as an Islamic republic. Islam, however, is complex with its many divisions and controversies.
\par \tab The Sunnites are predominant over the Shi'ites, who constitute 15 to 25 percent of the population. Shi'ites are particularly prone to schism, and one of their most successful and prosperous groups is the Isma'ilis. They are further divided into the Musta'lis and the Nizaris, who pay allegiance to the Aga Khan. In addition some 500,000 to 700,000 Zikri Muslims in Baluchistan adhere to the teachings of a mahdi who came after Muhammad.
\par \tab The Ahmadiyas are another Islamic sect, numbering about 2 million. They were formed in India in 1900. Their high literacy rate and general industriousness have won considerable success. The resulting enmity and antireligious fervor caused their religion to be forbidden in 1984.
\par \tab Government Islamization programs in the 1970s and 1980s led to much unrest among these minority sects, who fear that Sunnite orthodoxy may be planned. Islamization has led to beneficial programs and reforms, especially in welfare, anticorruption, news reporting, more efficient and speedy legal procedures, and public accountability by officials. The revival of whippings, stoning, and amputation for various offenses and the ruling that evidence submitted by a man in court cases is twice as significant as that submitted by a woman, however, are condemned by many Pakistanis.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab The gross national product (GNP) was 28.7 billion dollars in 1983, or 328 dollars per capita. Exports were about 2.5 billion dollars in value--mainly cotton and manufactured textiles, rice, surplus refined petroleum products, surgical instruments, and leather. Imports were 5.5 billion dollars--mainly crude oil and refined products, vegetable oils, machinery and transport equipment, and iron and steel products. Pakistan's major trading partners are the United States, Great Britain, Germany, Saudi Arabia, Japan, and China.
\par \tab {\b Agriculture.}
\par \tab Pakistan is among the largest nations lacking sufficient precipitation to support dryland cropping. For more than 3,000 years it has been an agricultural center based primarily on irrigation from the Indus River.
\par \tab The country has the world's largest contiguous irrigation system. More than 35 million acres (14 million hectares) can be irrigated by bringing water through more than 36,000 miles (58,000 kilometers) of canals and 1.6 million farm and field ditches. This massive irrigation effort also brings in ever-increasing waterlogging and salts that form toxic plant-killing crusts in farm fields.
\par \tab About 31 percent of the gross domestic product is in agriculture and involves 55 percent of the labor force. Farming methods are generally traditional and primitive, with most farms small and fragmented. Hand labor and draft animals are common despite dramatic increases in the number of tractors, small threshing machines, and other agricultural equipment.
\par \tab Food crops are essential to the large population, with wheat forming the staple food. In 1986 the production of wheat was nearly 14 million tons, up 22 percent from the preceding two years as a result of increased use of high-yield seeds. Rice is the other major food grain, with an annual production of less than 3 million tons in the mid-1980s. In the late 1970s Pakistan was among the leading rice-exporting nations, with about 1 million tons exported each year. Other foods are millet, sorghum, corn, barley, chickpeas, and various vegetables and spices. More than 3.6 million tons of fruits were produced in 1986. Cotton is the major commercial crop. Production was more than 7.1 million bales in 1986, up 90 percent from 1982. Other cash crops include sugarcane, sugar beets, tobacco, peanuts, and minor oil seeds. The country is largely dependent upon imported vegetable oils that require precious foreign currency.
\par \tab Animals provide draft power as well as food, dung fuel, manure, wool, and hides. Overgrazing is rampant, especially in arid Baluchistan, but some 30 million sheep and goats provide a cash crop and much of the meat that is eaten locally. There are also cattle, water buffalo, donkeys, camels, horses, and mules. Commercial chicken farming is increasing dramatically.
\par \tab Forests are a significant resource in this arid country, and wood is very expensive. Illegal deforestation is widespread and difficult to control. The removal of protective vegetation is responsible for widespread soil erosion, downstream siltation, and flooding. Because government forests produce less than 3 percent of what is needed to meet the demand, much wood is imported, some of it by smuggling.
\par \tab {\b Mineral resources.}
\par \tab The geologic history and structure of Pakistan suggest the existence of potentially significant mineral resources. Exploration has barely begun, but considerable geologic education, research, and fieldwork are under way. Large deposits of chromite occur in northeastern Baluchistan and have been extensively exploited. Some 27,300 tons were produced in 1971, but low international demand kept exports low. Iron ore, antimony ore, and large quantities of limestone, marble, sand, rock salt, and clays for ceramics are known to exist.
\par \tab The Saindak Integrated Mineral Project in Baluchistan was a major mining development effort begun in 1983. Three large deposits of copper ore, totaling 412 million tons, occur, as well as iron ore, gold, silver, 800 tons of sulfur, and large reserves of molybdenum. More than 50 other sites of mineral potential have been located in the vicinity as well.
\par \tab {\b Industry.}
\par \tab At partition only about 5 percent of the larger industrial facilities of British India were in Pakistan. Nearly 90 percent of all raw materials were exported. Great strides continue to be essential because of the overwhelming population growth. By 1987 there had been a 94 percent increase (in constant rupee value) in manufacturing GNP and a 96 percent increase in construction GNP. Industry constituted about 20 percent of the gross domestic product.
\par \tab Chief industries are food manufacturing, textiles, petroleum refining, ginning and baling of fibers, iron and steel, tobacco, chemicals, nonmetallic minerals, transport equipment, pharmaceuticals, electrical and nonelectrical machinery, leather goods, and rubber products. Food accounts for 21 percent of the value of production and 13 percent of employment. Textiles account for 18 percent of the value of production and 38 percent of employment.
\par \tab {\b Small and household industry.}
\par \tab Woven carpets are a major handicraft, with designs borrowed freely from neighboring countries. Workmanship is fine, but the use of cotton reduces value. Woven cloth, embroidery, and fancy needlework are other products, as are leather goods, pottery, furniture, and metalwork.
\par \tab {\b Energy.}
\par \tab By 1983 nearly half of the total domestic energy was produced by wood, dung, and crushed residue of sugarcane. Of the domestic energy supplied by other internal means, 41 percent was natural gas, 37 percent petroleum, 16 percent hydroelectric, 6 percent coal, and 0.2 percent nuclear. These accounted for about two thirds of the primary commercial energy needs, with the remainder supplied by imports of costly foreign petroleum. Exploration for hydrocarbons continued, with some discoveries in spite of the withdrawal of several foreign companies after unsuccessful drilling. About 4 million barrels of petroleum are produced each year from the fields of the Potwar Plateau, but this meets only 8 percent of requirements.
\par \tab The large Sui natural-gas field in Baluchistan and other discoveries in the area provide a valuable energy source that is delivered around the country by pipeline. Hydroelectric power is the other main energy source. Much of this is produced by the giant Tarbela Dam, the world's largest earth-filled dam, across the Indus River at its exit from the Himalayas.
\par \tab {\b Transport and communications.}
\par \tab Railways total about 5,663 miles (9,114 kilometers). Most are in the Indus Valley, from Karachi to the Punjab, with a few lines into the North-West Frontier and one westward across northern Baluchistan to the Iranian border.
\par \tab There are about 65,000 miles (105,000 kilometers) of roads, of which 28,600 miles (46,000 kilometers) are paved. The rest are graveled or unimproved tracks. Road traffic is increasing to nearly overwhelming proportions, with mixtures of animal carts, high-speed cars, buses, and trucks.
\par \tab Pakistan is served by numerous international airlines, mainly at Karachi and Islamabad. Domestic air service is subsidized by the government, and ticket prices are quite low. Flights into Gilgit and Skardu in the middle of the Karakoram Range are among the most spectacular in the world. Seventy other airports exist as well, with 69 having paved runways.
\par \tab Ocean shipping through Karachi is extensive; 15 million tons of imports and exports are shipped annually. The port has more than 20 berths, plus a petroleum berth. Nominal handling capacity is 4.3 million tons at a time, but actual handling is double this figure because many ships are double berthed.
\par \tab Pakistan enjoys good international telecommunications links via microwave and satellite. Domestic telephone service is inadequate, however, with only about a half million phones available. More than 140 international telex circuits are in place, but domestic radio communications are poor.
\par {\b History}
\par \tab Pakistan and India had the same history until they became independent at partition in 1947. This separation was the culmination of events set in motion by the formation of the All-India Muslim League in 1906 to seek political rights for Muslims. Mohammed Ali Jinnah, called Qa'id-e-A'zam (Great Leader), served as the league's president and was the main force behind partition. At first he worked with India's Congress party for a free united India, but the Muslims doubted that a Hindu majority would respect their rights. In 1940 Jinnah demanded a separate Islamic state, and when the British departed in 1947 Pakistan came into being as a member of the British Commonwealth of Nations. Karachi was made the administrative capital, and Dhaka in East Pakistan later became the legislative capital. Jinnah ruled as governor-general until his death in 1948.
\par \tab When the British left, millions of Hindus fled to India, and millions of Muslims poured into Pakistan. This left Pakistan with a shortage of trained workers, because the Hindus had held most of the skilled jobs in both business and in the professions. Religious riots broke out in both countries, and an undeclared, inconclusive war was fought over Kashmir. Pakistan gained control over the northwestern portions--including Gilgit, Baltistan, and Azad (Free) Kashmir. India retained the Vale of Kashmir.
\par \tab In 1956 Pakistan adopted a constitution under which it became the Islamic Republic of Pakistan. In 1958 Gen. Mohammad Ayub Khan came to power in a bloodless revolution. He was elected president in 1960, and he proclaimed a new constitution in 1962. Pakistan's administrative capital was moved from Karachi to Rawalpindi in 1959 and then to Islamabad in 1967.
\par \tab In 1960 Pakistan and India agreed to share the waters of the Indus River system for irrigation. The Kashmir dispute erupted again in 1965 but was ended by a United Nations (UN) truce in 1966. In 1968 Pakistan was swept by strikes and political violence. The threat of economic and political chaos led President Ayub Khan to resign in 1969. He turned over control to a military regime headed by Gen. Agha Mohammad Yahya Khan, who suspended the constitution, declared martial law, and promised reforms.
\par \tab In 1971, after a brief civil war and invasion by India, East Pakistan split away and became Bangladesh. President Yahya Khan resigned, and Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, the deputy premier and foreign minister, became president. In 1972 Bhutto nationalized some major industries and withdrew Pakistan from the Commonwealth when some member states recognized Bangladesh. In 1974, however, Pakistan granted diplomatic recognition to Bangladesh and in 1989 rejoined the Commonwealth.
\par \tab When a new constitution was adopted in 1973, Bhutto became prime minister, but political unrest continued. A military coup led by Gen. Mohammad Zia ul-Haq deposed Bhutto, and martial law was declared once again. In 1978 Bhutto was found guilty of political murder and was hanged in 1979. A strong hand against the populace inspired protests through 1985. Limited civilian rule returned with the election of Mohammad Khan Junejo as prime minister, but Zia remained in power as president. In May 1988 Zia fired Junejo and dissolved the Parliament. He decreed the Islamic legal code to be the sole law.
\par \tab Zia was killed in a plane crash in August. National Assembly elections were held in November. In December, Benazir Bhutto, the daughter of the executed former premier, became prime minister. Ghulam Ishaq Khan was elected president. Ethnic unrest continued and a general strike paralized Karachi in February 1990. Accusing Bhutto of corruption, Ishaq Khan dismissed her in August. Nawar Sharif became prime minister three months later. In a close 1993 election, Bhutto was returned to office.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by John F. Shroder, Jr., Professor of Geography and Geology, University of Nebraska at Omaha.
\par \tab {\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR PAKISTAN}
\par \tab Lye, Keith. Take a Trip to Pakistan (Watts, 1985).
\par \tab Naqvi, Jamal and others. Inside Pakistan (South Asia, 1987).
\par \tab Nasr, Seyyed V. The Vanguard of the Islamic Revolution (University of California Press, 1994).
\par \tab Scarsbrook, Ailsa and Scarsbrook, Alan. A Family in Pakistan (Lerner, 1985).\par \tab Palau, Republic of (or Belau, formerly Palau, or Pelew Islands), archipelago (26 main islands) in Pacific e. of Philippines, part of w. Caroline Islands; 188 sq mi (487 sq km); cap. Koror; copra, sugar, breadfruit, bananas; bauxite, phosphates; discovered by Spanish 1543; sold to Germany 1899; made Japanese mandate 1919; became headquarters for entire Japanese South Seas government; naval and air base in World War II; occupied by U.S. 1944; made U.S. trusteeship 1947; internally self-governing 1980; granted total independence 1994; pop. 15,105\par \tab More so than any other nation in Central America, Panama is a product of its strategic location. Its history, culture, economy, and political relations with regional neighbors and the United States are largely derived from this circumstance.
\par {\b Natural Environment}
\par \tab Extending in an undulating arclike fashion for a distance of 480 miles (772 kilometers) from the South American mainland nation of Colombia on the east to Costa Rica on the west, Panama rarely exceeds a width of more than 75 miles (120 kilometers). It encompasses an area of 28,753 square miles (74,470 square kilometers). Whereas the northern Caribbean shoreline is relatively straight, the Pacific margin is interrupted by a number of peninsulas, and a number of island groups lie offshore.
\par \tab The western half of Panama is dominated by a single mountain range known as the Serranφa de Tabasarß. More than 6,500 feet (1,980 meters) high near the Costa Rican border, it descends to less than 1,000 feet (300 meters) in the vicinity of the Panama Canal. The range is surmounted by several volcanoes, the highest being Bar· (formerly known as Chiriquφ), which reaches 11,400 feet (3,475 meters) above sea level. Extending in a southeasterly direction from the Canal Zone is an elongated valley separated from the Caribbean by narrow 3,000- to 4,000-foot (900- to 1,200-meter) ranges of the Cordillera de San Blas and Serranφa del DariΘn and from the Pacific by the equally high Serranφas de MajΘ and del Sapo and the Sierra de Jungurud≤.
\par \tab Located well within the tropics, Panama is dominated by easterly trade winds. Tropical climates prevail except at higher elevations to the west of the Canal Zone. Winters tend to be drier than summers. Along the Pacific coastal plain and in the eastern interior valley, annual precipitation ranges between 55 and 126 inches (140 and 320 centimeters). There may be three to five months without rain. Along the northern Caribbean shoreline and in the mountains, annual rainfall is uniformly in excess of 126 inches (320 centimeters) and may reach 236 inches (600 centimeters). In these areas periods of drought are less common and rarely last more than one or two months. Heavier rainfall along the Caribbean shoreline provides for a tropical rain forest. Lighter rainfall along the Pacific gives rise to grasslands and a more scrubby and seasonally leafless forest cover.
\par {\b Peoples and Cultures}
\par \tab Except for Belize the population in Panama is racially more diverse than elsewhere in Central America. Nearly half are descendants of black Africans, 10 percent are white, 32 percent are mestizos (of mixed Indian and black or white heritage), 7 percent are Indians, and the remainder are of Asian descent. Blacks tend to be concentrated in the Canal Zone and the banana-producing areas of Panama's western Caribbean shoreline. A majority of Panamanians are Roman Catholics, and many blacks are Protestants. Spanish is the official language, though English and Indian dialects are also spoken. The Indians are located in isolated highland pockets and along the Caribbean shoreline east of the Canal Zone. The mestizo population is concentrated within the Canal Zone and along the Pacific lowlands of western Panama.
\par \tab The population of Panama is about 2.3 million, of whom about half are concentrated within the region dominated by the Canal Zone. Most of the remainder reside in the Pacific lowlands west of the Canal Zone. Other parts of the country are sparsely populated. Two of the largest cities--Panama (City), the capital, with a population of nearly 700,000 in the metropolitan area, and Col≤n with almost 70,000 inhabitants--lie respectively at the Pacific and Caribbean entrances to the Panama Canal. The city of David is on the western Pacific coastal plain.
\par \tab The relative well-being of the populace, compared with Panama's sister Central American republics, is indicated by a number of factors. Until the late 1980s it had the highest per capita gross national product. It is the most highly urbanized, has one of the slowest rates of population growth, and--with Costa Rica--has the highest rate of literacy within the region.
\par {\b Economy, Transportation, and Communication}
\par \tab In certain respects the economy of Panama mirrors that of its Central American neighbors. Agriculture dominates as a way of life for nearly a third of the population, most of whom are impoverished and scratch out livings on small farms. From plantations and large estates come an array of agricultural products that are exported.
\par \tab The relative ease of interoceanic passage across Panama, however, has fostered distinctive economic activities. The construction of the canal led to the development of many services related to shipping. Among these are warehousing, insurance, and banking activities; the registration of ships under the Panamanian flag; the maintenance of transport facilities; and provision of services for American armed forces. Revenue is also earned from canal operations.
\par \tab The value of Panama's catch of fish exceeds the combined fishing total in the economy of its neighbors; nearly a fifth of Panama's foreign income is earned from the sale of shrimps and fish meal. The contribution of agriculture, however, is relatively less in Panama than elsewhere in Central America. From Panama's westernmost lowlands come bananas and cacao, and from the highlands, coffee. Sugar and cattle tend to be concentrated along the Pacific coast west of the Canal Zone. Small-scale farming provides grain crops, vegetables, and fruits for consumption within the country. In Panama, unlike most Central American nations, rice is traditionally more common in the diet than corn.
\par \tab Manufacturing in Panama is devoted to food processing, textiles, clothing, and nondurable consumer products. The remoteness of Panama from the core markets of Central America and the fact that it is not a member of the Central American Common Market have curtailed its sale of manufactured products to neighboring countries. Petroleum imported from Venezuela, Ecuador, and Mexico is refined in a refinery that supplies bunker fuel for ships in transit and aviation fuel for aircraft.
\par \tab Since the Spanish conquest of the New World, the Isthmus of Panama has served as a primary route of commerce and communication between the Pacific and Atlantic oceans. The wealth of the South American Andes passed by way of this route in transit to Europe. During the mid-19th century the first railroad to connect the opposite shores of the Americas was constructed across the isthmus, largely for those en route to the goldfields of California.
\par \tab After French attempts to build a canal across the isthmus failed, the Americans managed to open one in 1914. The focus of transportation in Panama is within the region dominated by the canal. A railroad and trans-isthmian highway connect the two shores of Panama. A petroleum pipeline across western Panama began operation in 1982. The Omar Torrijos International Airport in Panama (City) serves as a major hub. East-west transportation in Panama is essentially limited to the Inter-American Highway and linking tributary routes concentrated along the Pacific coast west of the Canal Zone.
\par \tab In the 1980s the economy of Panama endured a period of slow growth, but the diversity of economic activities shielded it from the more severe setbacks experienced elsewhere in Central America. A relatively more stable political environment also worked to Panama's advantage. The outlook for the nation's economic health, however, has been clouded by a heavy per capita foreign-debt load and the United States economic sanctions of 1988.
\par {\b History and Government}
\par \tab Upon their arrival in the New World, the Spanish found the region of Panama sparsely populated and dominated by independent chiefdoms. Its culture was primarily oriented toward the more advanced civilizations of Andean Colombia. On his final voyage to the Americas, between 1502 and 1504, Christopher Columbus became the first European explorer to navigate along the Caribbean shoreline of Panama. It was in 1513 that Vasco Nu±ez de Balboa crossed the isthmus and first laid sight on the Pacific Ocean. Until late in colonial times the isthmian crossing served as the major thoroughfare for trade between Spain and its colonies in western South America.
\par \tab Panama was originally an outlying province of the Viceroyalty of New Granada. After liberation from Spain in 1821, Panama became incorporated in the fledgling nation of Gran Colombia. In 1830 this entity was divided into the present-day nations of Venezuela, Ecuador, and Colombia. Panama gained its independence from Colombia in 1903.
\par \tab A treaty signed with the United States in 1903 provided for the establishment of a canal zone 10 miles (16 kilometers) wide, extending approximately 50 miles (80 kilometers) between Col≤n and Panama. Subject to interpretations, this zone was conveyed to the United States in perpetuity. In 1963 Panamanian dissatisfaction with the treaty led to serious riots.
\par \tab In 1979 a treaty went into effect to transfer complete control of the canal to Panama by the year 2000. A major role in the final shaping of the treaty was played by Col. Omar Torrijos Herrera, who, as commander of the National Guard, was the virtual dictator of Panama until his death in 1981. The next Panamanian strongman was Gen. Manuel Antonio Noriega, who took over the Guard (now the National Defense Forces) in 1982. In 1988 the United States indicted him on drug trafficking charges and placed severe economic sanctions on the country in an effort to force his resignation. Increased unemployment and decreased productivity and sales resulted.
\par \tab Panama has had a succession of figurehead presidents. The results of the May 1989 election were nullified by Noriega after unofficial counts indicated a decisive victory by the opposition slate headed by Guillermo Endara. In October Noriega survived an attempted coup by Panamanian soldiers. On Dec. 15, 1989, Noriega was named to the newly created post of head of state by his legislature to handle a declared "state of war" with the United States. On December 20, United States troops invaded Panama in an effort to capture Noriega, and Endara took the oath of office as president. Noriega, who had taken refuge at the Vatican mission in Panama City, surrendered to the United States on Jan. 3, 1990, and was flown to the United States for trial on drug-trafficking charges. In March 1990 President George Bush and Congress put together an aid package to help Panama rebuild its economy. Democratic Revolutionary party candidate Ernesto PΘrez Balladares won the presidency in a May 1994 election.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab Oscar H. Horst\par \tab An island nation located just north of Australia in the southwest Pacific Ocean, Papua New Guinea is known for its variety. More than 700 languages are spoken. There are dense jungles, snowcapped mountains, exotic birds of paradise, and Stone Age cultures.
\par \tab The country is composed of the eastern half of the island of New Guinea and a chain of tropical islands, including the Bismarck Archipelago and Bougainville. Its area totals 178,703 square miles (462,839 square kilometers). To the west of the mainland portion is Irian Jaya, a province of Indonesia.
\par \tab The terrain ranges from swampy lowlands in the northwest to central mountains. The highest peak is Mount Wilhelm at 14,793 feet (4,509 meters). More than 70 percent of the country is covered with dense tropical rain forest. Major rivers on the mainland are the Sepik and the Fly. The larger outlying islands are mainly volcanic types surrounded by coral formations. The climate is tropical in the lowland areas and coasts but much cooler in the highlands.
\par \tab The geographical extremes have kept peoples separate, resulting in more than 700 different languages being spoken. Although English is the official language, Melanesian Pidgin and Motu are used by half of the populace. Protestantism and Roman Catholicism are the main religions, but traditional beliefs are still common. In 1983 the Hagahai, a previously unknown group of seminomadic hunters and gatherers were found living in the highlands of Papua New Guinea.
\par \tab Port Moresby is the capital and largest city, with a population of 152,100 (1987 estimate). Prominent institutions include the National Museum and Art Gallery and the National Botanic Gardens, which features orchids. Mainland cities include Lae, Madang, and Wewak. The Highlands Singsing, an annual festival, alternates between Mount Hagen and Goroka. The Mud Men at Asaro are known for their traditional dance.
\par \tab Agriculture is the largest segment of the economy and consists mostly of subsistence farming of sweet potatoes, taro, yams, and bananas. Exports are coffee, copra, palm oil, cocoa beans, and rubber. Timber, tuna, copper, gold, and silver are valuable exports. Manufacturing is limited to small-scale production of foods and beverages, textiles, chemicals, and metal products.
\par \tab Transportation by air is extensive; there are few roads. Education is free on the primary and secondary levels. The two universities are the University of Papua New Guinea at Port Moresby and the University of Technology at Lae.
\par \tab The government is led by the prime minister, who heads the majority party in the single-chamber National Parliament. Papua New Guinea is a member of the Commonwealth. The British monarch, as head of state, is represented by a governor-general.
\par \tab In 1884 Germany and Great Britain set up protectorates in what is now Papua New Guinea. Australia took over the British Territory of Papua in 1906. German New Guinea later came under Australian control as well. The Japanese occupied much of the island during World War II. After the war the Territory of Papua and New Guinea was created by Australia, which granted it self-government in 1973 and full independence in 1975.
\par \tab In 1988 militant landowners waged a war against an Australian industrial group, resulting in a forced closure of the Bougainville copper mine and the assassination of a government official in 1989. The unrest continued in 1990 when the Bougainville Revolutionary Army declared Bougainville's independence. Although the declaration was rejected, the Endeavor Accord was written as an interim peace pact in the conflict until further talks could be resumed. Population (1989 estimate), 3,592,900.\par \tab Located in the interior of southern South America, Paraguay is one of the smaller countries of the continent, with an area of 157,048 square miles (406,752 square kilometers). Its population is about 3.9 million. Argentina on the south and west, Brazil on the east, and Bolivia on the west and north surround the country. The Argentina boundary is entirely of rivers, with the Paranß, Paraguay, and Pilcomayo half encircling the country. The Paraguay River cuts the country into two parts and in its upper course forms much of the eastern boundary with Brazil. West of the river is the Gran Chaco, with 60 percent of Paraguay's territory and less than 5 percent of its population.
\par {\b Climate, Land, and Natural Resources}
\par \tab With the Tropic of Capricorn crossing the north-central part of the country, Paraguay has a semitropical climate with high heat and humidity in spring, summer, and fall. Winters are generally warm but are interrupted by a few cold periods when cold air masses sweep in unobstructed from the Argentine Pampas and Patagonia.
\par \tab Rainfall in eastern Paraguay exceeds 60 inches (152 centimeters) per year, except along the Paraguay River, and is well distributed. Average rainfall in the Chaco exceeds 50 inches (127 centimeters) along the river but decreases steadily westward to less than 25 inches (64 centimeters). The Chaco is also subject to severe droughts in which surface water disappears, and in extensive areas wells produce only salt water.
\par \tab Two different air masses affect the country. Most of the time a hot humid mass drifts southward from the Amazon Basin. The weather is stifling, but rain normally does not fall until a cold air mass comes in from the south. Then there are torrential rains, followed by a few days of pleasant--or in winter, cold--weather.
\par \tab The Chaco is a nearly featureless plain that slopes imperceptibly upward toward the west. The Andean foothills lie beyond the Paraguay border. Land near the Paraguay River frequently floods and carries a marsh grass vegetation and clumps of palm trees. It can be pastured and the cattle moved 10 or 20 miles (16 or 32 kilometers) westward during floods. Where floods do not reach, a drought-resistant, semideciduous, often thorny forest alternates with grassy marshes. Trees reach 50 feet (15 meters) in the east, declining to 10 feet (3 meters) in the west. In the eastern 80 miles (130 kilometers) of this forest are found the quebracho (break-axe) trees, which are rich in tannin. At one time tannin was Paraguay's principal export. The trees are slow growing, and accessible stands are depleted.
\par \tab The eastern half of eastern Paraguay is the western extension of the Paranß Plateau of Brazil, separated from that country and Argentina by the gorge of the Paranß River. The plateau is 1,000 to 2,000 feet (300 to 600 meters) high and is composed principally of ancient lava flows. Except where it is dissected around the edges, it is fairly level. The basaltic rocks have weathered into deep red soils that are quite fertile. Until recent times it was a near wilderness, covered with a great forest of semideciduous tropical hardwoods. Agricultural colonies have been planted in the cleared land, some by immigrant communities--Asian and European--and some from the crowded tiny farms around Asunci≤n. Brazilian investors have purchased extensive farms and introduced mechanized soybean cultivation.
\par \tab This volcanic plateau is without mineral deposits, but the hydroelectric potential of the Paranß Gorge and its tributaries may be Paraguay's greatest natural resource. The Acaray Dam on a minor tributary generates all the power Paraguay can consume, but the main river has been dammed at Itaip·. Urban settlements have grown up around the dam construction. The dam is shared with Brazil and is 650 feet (198 meters) high.
\par \tab When generators are installed, it will have the greatest generating capacity in the world. Paraguay pays its share of the project's cost by selling electricity to Brazil. Two more dams farther down the Paranß River will be shared with Argentina, with the bulk of the electricity to be sold to that country. Because of the enormous and uniform flow of the Paranß, large reservoirs are not needed.
\par \tab Two broad belts of irregular terrain extend from the Paraguay River eastward to the volcanic plateau--one centered on Asunci≤n and the other near the northern border of eastern Paraguay. The area between them and to the south is flat, grass covered, and subject to flooding. Grazing cattle on large estates is the principal economic activity.
\par \tab The irregular terrain that extends eastward from Asunci≤n is the country's traditional center of agriculture. Included are marshy grasslands used for grazing and steep slopes that carry second-growth forests. On the rolling, drained surfaces there are many small farms of fewer than 25 acres (10 hectares) each, where subsistence crops are raised, with a little surplus for sale. Except for building stone and limestone for cement, no exploitable mineral resources have been found in these areas.
\par {\b People and Culture}
\par \tab Few Spaniards came to the colony, so virtually every Paraguayan family can claim some Indian ancestry. The Indian language, Guaranφ, continues to be spoken by the majority of Paraguayans, and bilingualism in Spanish and Guaranφ is the norm. Spanish is used in the schools, business, and government. Poetry and plays are written in Guaranφ. By holding on to their Indian language, Paraguayans can maintain a national identity that they feel is threatened by Argentina.
\par \tab The basic foods in the Paraguayan diet come from Indian sources, and the social drinking of bitter matΘ may also have a native origin. Artisanship in ceramics, leather, wood, and textiles is well developed in rural areas. The fine open lacework, ±andutφ, said to be modeled from spiderwebs and uniquely Paraguayan, is a derivative of the European lacemaking tradition.
\par \tab Because of heavy loss of life in the Paraguayan War (1864-70) and the Chaco War (1932-35), Paraguay has felt itself underpopulated and has welcomed immigration. The underdeveloped economy, however, could not attract salaried workers. Colonists have been encouraged to devote themselves to agriculture and are often given concessions and immunities. Colonies have been formed by Germans, Italians, French, Australians, and Japanese--some seeking to form distinctive religious or utopian communities.
\par {\b Economic Development}
\par \tab The Paraguay and Paranß rivers were for more than 400 years Paraguay's main connection with the outside world. A railroad was begun from Asunci≤n toward the southeast in the 1850s, but it was not until 1913 that it was connected with the Argentina rail system by a ferry from Encarnaci≤n to Posadas, Argentina. These modes of transport were both expensive and slow. Only valuable and durable goods could be imported or exported.
\par \tab Consequently, Paraguay's industrial development focused on the processing of agricultural and forest products into foodstuffs, clothing, and soap--primarily for local consumption. Only matΘ, quebracho extract, special vegetable oils, beef extract, and cotton could bear the costs of exporting. Imports were limited to essential industrial items and luxuries for the wealthy.
\par \tab Since the 1950s the emphasis has been on road transport, both within and to the borders of the country. Since 1965 a paved road from Asunci≤n to the free port of Paranaguß, Brazil, has been the route of choice for both imports and exports. But transport costs are still high. The bulk of trade with Argentina uses trucks ferried over the Paraguay River to the Argentine Chaco and its road system. Delays caused by the capriciousness of Argentina's customs agents makes shipping perishables risky. The Paranß-Paraguay river-transport system is now limited mostly to petroleum imports and lumber exports.
\par \tab The booming development in the export of hardwood logs from the nearly primeval forests of easternmost Paraguay to Brazil is rapidly depleting a valuable resource. Cattle are Paraguay's greatest agricultural resource. Only during and immediately following World War II, however, was it possible to get beef to world markets. Packing plants constructed by foreign investors were then closed. The imminent availability of enormous amounts of hydroelectric energy may lead to major industrialization. Paraguay's small market, however, means that it will have to concentrate on the production of such commodities as aluminum, in which energy is a major cost.
\par {\b Government and History}
\par \tab Paraguay is governed under a constitution written in 1967. The president serves as head of state and government and is popularly elected for a five-year term. The 30 members of the Senate and the 60 members of the Chamber of Deputies form the National Congress and are directly elected for five-year terms.
\par \tab Asunci≤n, founded in 1537, was the first permanent Spanish settlement in eastern South America. Settlement was by treaty rather than by conquest of the local Indians. The Guaranφ sought the aid of the Spanish in their wars with neighboring tribes, and Spanish governors encouraged intermarriage.
\par \tab Jesuit missions in the Guairß, begun in the early 1600s, were given autonomy to defend against Portuguese advances and slave raiding, but they could not hold east of the Paranß. The missions and surviving Indians moved southward along both banks of the Paranß, where they established an almost theocratic state that endured until the Jesuits were expelled in 1767.
\par \tab Paraguay's declaration of independence in 1811 was not against Spain but against the Buenos Aires revolutionaries who were trying to make an independent state of the Viceroyalty of La Plata. Paraguay's first dictator, JosΘ Gaspar Rodrφguez de Francia, who ruled until his death in 1840, successfully cut off Paraguay from both the turmoil and the progress of the outside world. The next dictator, Carlos Antonio L≤pez, opened the country to modernization, but his son, Francisco Solano L≤pez, led Paraguay into a disastrous war with Argentina, Brazil, and Uruguay.
\par \tab Political turmoil and a successful but costly war with Bolivia over the Chaco hindered development through the 1960s. In 1954 Gen. Alfredo Stroessner came to power with the backing of both the military and the massive National Republican Association (Colorado party). Stroessner dominated both institutions and was reelected seven times. Although favoritism and corruption were rampant, the political stability enabled Paraguay to make notable economic progress. Stroessner was overthrown in a bloody military coup on Feb. 3, 1989, led by Gen. Andres Rodriguez, who was sworn in as president the same day. In a May 1993 election, Paraguayans elected Juan Carlos Wasmosy, candidate of the Colorado party. This was the first democratic election in Paraguay's history.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab Homer Aschmann
{\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR PARAGUAY}
\par \tab Cunninghame Graham, R.B. A Vanished Arcadia (Century, 1988).
\par \tab Haverstock, N.A. Paraguay in Pictures, rev. and updated ed. (Lerner, 1992).
\par \tab Lewis, P.H. Paraguay Under Stroessner (Univ. of N.C. Press, 1980).
\par \tab Nickson, R.A. Paraguay (Clio, 1987).\par \tab The Republic of Peru is a land of contrasts: high mountains, dense jungles, and barren deserts are all found in close proximity. The country is the third largest in South America and is one of the major nations bordering on the South Pacific Ocean. Peru has great natural wealth--particularly from its mineral resources--but a rapidly expanding population and serious economic problems have hindered development.
\par \tab The Andes, the mountain system that forms Peru's backbone, were the home of advanced Indian civilizations centuries before Europeans arrived. Museums around the world display textiles, pottery, and other artifacts from these pre-Columbian cultures. In the Andes of southern Peru there are many archaeological sites, the remains of the great Inca empire. Tourists marvel at such places as Machu Picchu, a deserted mountaintop village that was discovered in 1911, and Cuzco, once the Inca capital city.
\par \tab A small Spanish army led by the conquistador Francisco Pizarro captured the Inca king and seized his empire in 1532. For more than two centuries Peru was the richest and most powerful of the Spanish viceroyalties in the New World. In Lima, Cuzco, and other cities, fine old churches and public buildings are reminders of the colonial period.
\par \tab Peru's history since it became independent of Spain in 1821 has been a story with few bright spots. Economic progress toward modernization and industrialization has been slow. In the past Peruvians lacked the wealth and technical skills they needed to develop their resources. Foreign money, skills, and ideas have therefore played a large role in the construction of modern facilities.
\par {\b Land and Climate}
\par \tab Peru shares boundaries with Ecuador, Colombia, Brazil, Bolivia, and Chile. With the exception of the Lake Titicaca basin in the south, its borders run through sparsely inhabited zones--deserts, mountains, and the tropical forests of the Amazon region. The 496,224 square miles (1,285,215 square kilometers) of Peru are equal to the combined area of Great Britain, France, and Spain.
\par \tab Although Peru lies just south of the equator, only the Amazon region east of the Andes has the year-round heat and heavy rainfall associated with the tropics. In the mountains temperatures drop with elevation, and the highest peaks are always snow covered. The western slopes of the Andes and the narrow coastal plain along the Pacific are dry. The mountains block the moisture-laden trade winds that would otherwise blow westward from the Amazon region. The cold Peru, or Humboldt, Current from the Antarctic flows northward along the coast, lowering temperatures in the coastal region. Air masses moving landward from the South Pacific high-pressure system are cool and stable, producing clouds and fog but little rain.
\par \tab Peru can be divided into three regions. They consist of the desert coastal plain, 20 to 100 miles (30 to 160 kilometers) wide, comprising about one eighth of the country; the Andean, or sierra, region, with more than a quarter of Peru's territory; and the monta±a, or Amazon, region, comprising about three fifths of the country.
\par \tab {\b The Coastal Plain.}
\par \tab The coastal plain is a barren desert except for the scattered oases that are found wherever rivers flow westward from the Andes. Much of the coastal region has scattered low hills or mountains, leaving relatively little flat land for settlement. Offshore along the coast is a string of small islands, remnants of an ancient mountain range. The millions of seabirds that roost on these islands have over the centuries deposited tons of guano--a valuable source of fertilizer.
\par \tab {\b The Sierra.}
\par \tab The sierra is for the most part rugged and barren. Much of the highlands, particularly in the southern part, is a high plateau with an elevation of 13,000 feet (4,000 meters) or more. This is the region known as the altiplano. Here Quechua and Aymara Indians live by farming and herding, much as their ancestors did in Inca times.
\par \tab {\b The Monta±a.}
\par \tab The monta±a is a hot, humid region, covered with the dense vegetation typical of a tropical forest zone. Only a few roads connect the monta±a to the sierra and coast, permitting shipment of timber and tropical fruits and vegetables to markets in the cities of Peru. A number of large rivers flow north- and eastward out of the sierra, crossing the plains of eastern Peru to join the Amazon River system. The largest of these headwaters of the Amazon are the Mara±≤n and the Ucayali.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab Peru was the most densely settled area in South America in pre-Hispanic times. Although the exact population of Inca Peru is unknown, it probably was more than 6 million. During the first century of Spanish domination, the number of Indians declined by almost 80 percent--the result of the introduction of European diseases (smallpox and measles, for example), overwork, and malnutrition. The country's first accurate census (in 1795) showed the terrible effect of Hispanic domination of the Incas: the population had declined to slightly more than 1 million.
\par \tab Since World War II the population has grown rapidly. Most parts of the country have had a sharp decline in death rates, caused mainly by sanitation improvements (such as better drinking water and sewage disposal) and better health care. At the same time birthrates have remained high. In 1940 Peru had slightly more than 6 million people; however, by the 1981 census the population had increased to 17,762,231. In 1987 the country had an estimated 20.7 million people.
\par \tab Peruvian society consists of three broad social groups: people of European ancestry, people of mixed European and Indian descent, and Indians. These groups, however, are based not only on biological inheritance but also on such factors as education, occupation, and wealth. People of relatively unmixed European ancestry form the class of elite rulers of Peruvian society. They are usually well educated, speak Spanish (and usually English or French as a second language), and have high-paying jobs. Peruvians of mixed European and Indian descent speak Spanish (though they may understand one of the Indian languages), can read and write, and usually have an active role in the national political and economic systems. Indians speak little or no Spanish (though they may understand it), usually cannot read or write, wear homemade clothes, and work mainly as rural farmers and herders. In Peruvian society, however, upward mobility is quite possible. Rural Indians can move to a city, become educated, change their clothing style, begin a good job, and thus move into the class of mixed heritage. In addition to these three groups, there are small numbers of people of black African, Chinese, and Japanese ancestry.
\par {\b Regional Cultures and Economies}
\par \tab The three regions of Peru are so different from each other that they seem to be worlds unto themselves. Not only are the physical features and climates different, but the cultures and economic conditions of the three zones vary greatly. As a result the inhabitants of one zone often find it difficult to adjust to living conditions in the other areas. For example, the Indians of the high mountain regions have become adapted to hard physical labor in the thin air found in the altiplano region. They can work in mines and fields at altitudes where lowland people have trouble breathing. But the highland Indians are often subject to lung diseases when they move to coastal cities. Both highland and coastal peoples dislike the high humidity and high temperatures found in the monta±a.
\par \tab {\b Desert coast.}
\par \tab The coastal region is the economic heart of Peru and is its most densely settled area. In the pre-Hispanic period the oases of this region were the home of cultures that arose centuries before the time of the Incas. When the Spanish arrived they built their capital city along the coast so that they could have easy communication back to Spain. Lima is still the capital of Peru and, with a population of more than 5 million people, is clearly the dominant urban center in the country. In fact, more than one quarter of Peru's people live in the Lima metropolitan area.
\par \tab Several other large cities are located along the coast, particularly in the north. Trujillo, for example, has nearly 500,000 inhabitants and is a manufacturing center. Chimbote, south of Trujillo, has Peru's only large steel mill. In the far north Piura and Chiclayo serve as commercial and political centers. Other cities and towns of the coastal region are ports or distribution centers within the oases where the local agricultural output is processed and marketed. The typical crops of the coastal plain include cotton near Piura, rice near Chiclayo, sugarcane near Trujillo, grapes south of Lima, and fruits and vegetables in the zone around the capital city.
\par \tab {\b Andean region.}
\par \tab The rough and rugged mountains of highland Peru are divided into many parallel ranges. The highest peaks, found in the Cordillera Blanca north of Lima, have elevations of more than 22,000 feet (6,700 meters). In southern Peru many of the mountains are volcanoes. Although they are not as high as the Cordillera Blanca, these volcanoes have beautiful symmetrical cones that are often snowcapped. The high elevations and rough terrain of this region make travel difficult.
\par \tab Since before the time of the Incas, farming and herding have been the main occupations of the people of the Andean region. Such native plants as potatoes and quinoa (a nutritious grain that is high in protein) have long been domesticated in the Andes. Corn was also grown in this region before the arrival of the Spanish. Many European crops--including wheat, barley, and alfalfa--have been added to the farms of this region. On land too steep and rugged to cultivate or at elevations too high for agriculture, coarse grasses provide pasture for sheep and cattle as well as for two domesticated animals native to the Andes: llamas and alpacas. A related species, the vicu±a, lives wild at the highest elevations.
\par \tab The native Indians of the Andes region, descendants of the Incas, live much the same as did their ancestors. In some areas haciendas, or large farms, still exist where the peasants do the owner's work in exchange for the use of small plots on which they can raise their own food. Such peasants--called campesinos--rarely have a surplus of crops to sell and thus contribute little to the national economy. A land-reform program, begun in the 1960s and applied widely in the 1970s, created agricultural cooperatives by expropriating the haciendas of many wealthy families. Unfortunately, the land-reform program was not very successful, and most cooperatives failed.
\par \tab Scattered throughout the highland region of Peru are a number of cities. Some serve only as market centers for the areas around them or as regional capitals from which the authority of the national government is dispensed. A few cities, however, have developed more significantly. Arequipa in southern Peru has a population of more than 500,000 people and is in the middle of a rich agricultural zone. The altiplano east of Arequipa is one of the major wool-producing regions. The city serves as an outlet for the wool as well as a textile center for the production of alpaca and llama goods. The only other large city in the Andes is Cuzco, which has become a major tourist center. Cuzco was the capital of the Inca empire, and today tourists from around the world visit the city.
\par \tab {\b Monta±a region.}
\par \tab The eastern part of Peru, though comprising more than half of the territory, contributes little to the economy. Settlement has taken place in only scattered spots along some of the major rivers. The great difficulties of communication and transportation between the monta±a region and the rest of the country have limited the development of this region. Near Pucallpa northeast of Lima and in the zone around Iquitos--where the Peruvian, Colombian, and Brazilian borders meet--there is exploitation of such forest resources as hardwoods (for veneers) and softwoods (for pulp and plywood). Another development in the monta±a has been the discovery of petroleum in the northern part of the region, near the Ecuadorian border. Unfortunately, the quantity of oil found has not been great, and because of the isolation of the region production costs are very high. A pipeline over the Andes connects the oil-producing area with the coastal town of Paita.
\par \tab Many of the Indian inhabitants of the monta±a area live by hunting, gathering, and fishing. Later immigrants to the region also depend on primitive forms of agriculture; others have developed commercial plantations of such tropical crops as bananas, tea, coffee, and oil palms. Cattle are raised in many parts of the region--on pastures cleared from the tropical forests. In other places, however, the main crop is coca, a shrub from whose leaves cocaine is extracted. The production of cocaine in illegal laboratories hidden deep within the forests presents Peruvian law-enforcement agencies with a tremendous problem. Detection of the illegal fields and laboratories is difficult, and the production and distribution of the cocaine is often controlled by dangerous foreign gangs. The illegal profits from the drug industry do not contribute to the Peruvian economy but serve to subvert the role of government in the administration of large segments of the country. Peruvian police, aided by several international agencies, have worked hard to combat the production of cocaine.
\par {\b Mining}
\par \tab During the colonial period the major minerals were silver (from mines near Potosφ in what is today Bolivia), gold, and mercury. Today copper is the leading mineral export, but lead, zinc, iron, antimony, and manganese are all mined in significant amounts.
\par \tab Many of the mines in Peru are located high in the Andes--at elevations of 13,000 feet (4,000 meters) or more. Working conditions in the mines are often harsh because of the cold temperatures and thin air at such elevations and the isolation of many of the mineral deposits. Before 1970 foreign companies owned most of the mines and smelters, but government nationalization in the 1970s turned the mining operations over to several public agencies. Poor planning and administration of the mines have lessened output. By the late 1970s foreign companies were once again encouraged to invest in Peru.
\par \tab The monta±a region contains little in the way of mineral deposits, but the coastal region has an abundance of minerals--particularly coal and phosphorus. Both the eastern and western slopes of the Andes have great potential for hydroelectric power development. The Canon del Pato near Chimbote, the Urubamba River near Machu Picchu, and the rivers east of Lima are sites of hydroelectric projects.
\par {\b Transportation}
\par \tab The development of a modern transportation system has been a major problem for Peru. The main transportation route was along the Pacific Ocean, which permitted coastal steamers to sail to small ports north and south of Lima. From these ports a network of mule trails fanned out into the interior of the country in a system that changed little from the beginning of the colonial period. Modern transportation began in the late 19th century with the construction of railroads. The Central Railway, which taps the mineral wealth of the central Andes, is a vital link, as is the southern route that connects several Pacific ports with Arequipa and, across the altiplano, Lake Titicaca. From Puno on the shores of the lake, steamships carry trains to Bolivia.
\par \tab There are some 43,500 miles (70,000 kilometers) of roads in Peru, but fewer than 4,660 miles (7,500 kilometers) are paved. The major road is the Pan-American Highway, which runs southward from the Ecuadorian border to Lima and then on to Arequipa. At Arequipa the Pan-American Highway forks--one branch crosses the altiplano to Bolivia, the other heads southward to the Chilean border. All of this highway is paved, but most of it is narrow with barely one lane in each direction. Near Lima it has four lanes, but only a very small part is a modern controlled-access freeway.
\par \tab Penetration roads cross the Andes in several places. In northern Peru at least three routes extend over the Andes. In the area of Lima the Central Highway is the only all-weather road, but even it is sometimes closed by snow and ice. Ticlio Pass, east of Lima, is 15,807 feet (4,818 meters) high. In southern Peru two main routes connect the coast with the monta±a region. Running parallel to the Andes on the east side is the Carretera Marginal de la Selva--a road cut through heavy forest vegetation. The Carretera Marginal is designed to open extensive areas of the country for settlement and to link with several of the trans-Andean penetration roads. The road has not been completed, and, given the difficulties encountered in its construction and maintenance, it may never be finished.
\par \tab The fastest means of travel in Peru is by airplane, but the country lacks an adequate infrastructure for the development of air travel. International air traffic focuses on Lima, which has the only large airport in the country. Many international airlines provide flights to and from Lima. Domestic routes stretch north- and southward from the capital and also to the eastern parts of the country. Few airports in the interior have paved runways, and even fewer are equipped for night operations. In the monta±a region many floatplanes use the extensive river systems for their landing areas. Poor maintenance and the lack of trained mechanics and pilots make air travel dangerous.
\par {\b Trade and Industry}
\par \tab Peru is a significant producer and exporter of raw materials. The principal ores exported are copper, silver, iron, lead, and zinc. Agricultural exports include cotton, sugar, coffee, and woolen products. In the 1960s Peru became a major source of fish products, principally fish meal and fish oil, sold abroad for poultry and pig food. Overfishing reduced catches by the early 1970s, however, and by the 1980s greater emphasis was placed on the catching of fish for human consumption. Tuna, swordfish, shrimp, and other fish are frozen or canned and then exported.
\par \tab Traditionally Peru's factories have processed its raw materials and turned out such consumer goods as textiles, boots and shoes, foods and beverages, and building materials. In the late 20th century more complex factories were built. These include the Chimbote steel mill and chemical plants that produce paints, plastics, pharmaceuticals, and fertilizers. Several modern factories also build automobiles, trucks, and buses, using packages of parts imported as ready-to-assemble kits. Although the Peruvian government has tried to disperse industrial production, more than two thirds of Peruvian factories are located within the greater Lima area.
\par \tab Imports have varied greatly with the political decisions of successive governments. During the 1970s, for example, importation of automobiles was prohibited to protect the domestic assembly industry. A new government in 1980 allowed the importation of cars but added a very high import duty to raise money for the government. The importation of consumer electronic goods, processed foods, and wines and liquors has been alternately prohibited and encouraged. Major imports also include machinery, grains, meats, chemicals, and textiles.
\par {\b Government}
\par \tab Peruvian voters adopted a new constitution on Oct. 31, 1993. It reduced the Congress to a one-house legislature consisting of 120 members and allowed the president to run for more than one term. The new constitution also banned economic activity by the government, and it imposed the death penalty for terrorism.
\par {\b History}
\par \tab After its conquest by Francisco Pizarro in the 1530s, Peru was ruled as a colony of Spain. In 1820 an army from Argentina, led by Gen. JosΘ de San Martφn, began the battle to free Peru from Spanish rule. Final independence was gained in 1824, aided by a liberating army from Colombia under Gen. Sim≤n Bolφvar. Between 1879 and 1883 Peru fought a disastrous war with Chile over nitrate deposits located in the Atacama Desert.
\par \tab Since the 1940s the political situation in Peru has been unstable, with the military intervening several times. A coup in 1968 ended four years of civilian rule by President Fernando Bela·nde Terry. Military governments ruled until 1980, when Bela·nde Terry won the first election held under the constitution of 1979. In 1985 Alan Garcφa PΘrez succeeded Bela·nde Terry as president. Civilian rule was made difficult, however, by the terrorist activities of Sendero Luminoso (Shining Path), a Maoist revolutionary group that executed public officials and peasants loyal to the government. By 1989 an estimated 15,000 people, including foreign-aid workers and tourists, had died or disappeared since Sendero Luminoso began operations. Alberto Fujimori won the 1990 presidential elections with strong left-wing and rural support. On April 5, 1992, President Fujimori carried out an auto-golpe (self-coup) when he closed Congress, fired the judiciary, and set up a new government. Both the army and the vast majority of the population rallied behind the president. In September police arrested Abimael Guzman Reynoso, leader of the Sendero Luminoso. Charged with terrorist offenses related to some 22,500 deaths, he was found guilty of treason and sentenced to life imprisonment.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by James S. Kus, Professor and Chairman, Department of Geography, California State University, Fresno.
\par \tab {\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR PERU}
\par \tab Hudson, R.A., ed. Peru: A Country Study (Library of Congress, 1993).
\par \tab Lepthein, E.U. Peru (Children's, 1992).
\par \tab Meyerson, Julia. Tambo: Life in an Andean Village (Univ. of Tex. Press, 1990).\par \tab The Republic of the Philippines is the only predominantly Christian nation in Asia and has a unique heritage of Malay, Spanish, and American cultures. Ruled by Spain for nearly 330 years until 1898, its cultural characteristics are today in some ways more like those of the nations of Latin America than those of Southeast Asia, the ten-nation geographic region to which it belongs. The Spanish language, however, is spoken by less than 1 percent of the population, in spite of Spain's long colonial rule. On the other hand, the Spanish heritage is visible in other features of national life. For example, about 85 percent of the population is Roman Catholic; there is a predominance of Spanish place-names and family names, and the patterns of land tenancy and ownership can be traced to the Spanish period.
\par \tab American colonial influence prevailed from about 1901 until the late 1940s. Major legacies of that period are an American-style educational system and, with it, the teaching of English, which today is spoken as a second language by about two fifths of the population. Along with Pilipino, a language derived from Tagalog, English is one of the two official languages.
\par \tab The Philippines achieved full political independence in 1946, following four years of occupation by Japanese armed forces during World War II. The period since independence has been marked by repeated crises--political upheavals, including peasant insurrections, student demonstrations, Communist insurgencies, and Muslim rebellions; and natural disasters, including typhoons, floods, earthquakes, and volcanic eruptions. High birthrates, combined with high population densities in some areas, are evidence that overpopulation is a significant problem in the country. This is a common feature in many less developed countries.
\par \tab Although there has been some economic improvement since World War II, the Philippines has not made as much progress as other Asian nations--notably Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, and Singapore. The persistence of political, environmental, and population problems make it difficult to raise the general level of prosperity. Another long-term problem has been the nation's overdependence on income from exporting such primary commodities as sugar, timber, copper, gold, and coconuts. Nations that supply such raw materials are often at the mercy of world market prices, over which they have no control. The Philippines' overdependence on raw material exports has diminished somewhat during recent years, but some of the newer economic activities, such as garment manufacturing, create only low-skill and low-wage jobs that have not greatly raised the standard of living for a majority of the people.
\par \tab The Philippines is one of the five founding members of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), an economic common market that was formed on Aug. 8, 1967. The other founding members were Indonesia, Thailand, Malaysia, and Singapore. These are all generally free-market economies that are closely tied to the United States, Japan, and the nations of Western Europe by political alliances and trade and aid relations. The Islamic sultanate of Brunei joined ASEAN in 1984.
{\b LAND}
\par \tab The Philippines is an archipelago, or chain of islands. It consists of more than 7,000 islands and islets. The 11 largest islands account for more than 90 percent of the total national land area. The two largest islands, Luzon and Mindanao, comprise more than 70 percent of the land area and contain more than 70 percent of the population. Luzon is the largest island in the northern part of the archipelago, while Mindanao is the major island of the southern part. Between them are most of the other islands. The westernmost islands are set apart, across the Sulu Sea.
\par \tab The total area of the Philippines is 115,800 square miles (299,900 square kilometers). The distance from northern Luzon to southern Mindanao is about 1,000 miles (1,600 kilometers); the east-west width extends as much as 300 miles (480 kilometers). The islands are located on the western margin of the Pacific "Ring of Fire" and are undergoing mountain building through volcanic activity. The islands therefore have some very rugged terrain, and there is a very limited amount of land suitable for agriculture. The region is also noted for its great amount of earthquake activity.
\par \tab The archipelago includes a number of large predominantly mountainous islands as well as many tiny coral atolls. The nation has an extensive coastline with good harbors--it has the longest discontinuous coastline of any nation in the world at 21,500 miles (34,600 kilometers). There are more than 60 natural harbors, and half of them are developed and extensively used. Manila Bay has an area of more than 750 square miles (1,940 square kilometers) and is among the finest harbors in the Far East.
\par \tab The big islands began to form 50 million years ago as a result of two large, undersea tectonic plates named the Philippine and Eurasian plates. Many of the tiny islets, by contrast, are atolls built by coral formation. Because the Philippine islands lie near the juncture of these two plates, they are still experiencing earthquakes and volcanic activity. On average, there is noticeable earthquake activity somewhere in the Philippines approximately every two days. Many other land tremors are too weak to be felt but are sufficiently strong to be picked up by a seismograph. A particularly strong earthquake shook the Philippines on July 16, 1990, causing about 1,600 deaths in the resort city of Baguio.
\par \tab The larger islands have high mountains. The highest peak is Mindanao's Mount Apo, at 9,688 feet (2,953 meters), but the Cordillera Central on northern Luzon is the largest and most rugged mountain system. There are about 50 volcanoes in the Philippines, 14 of which are still active. Well known for its nearly perfect symmetry is Mount Mayon (8,075 feet; 2,461 meters), located on southern Luzon's Bicol Peninsula.
\par \tab Mount Pinatubo, a 5,842-foot (1,781-meter) peak in central Luzon, erupted explosively in 1991 after lying dormant for more than 600 years. Along with associated earthquakes, heavy accumulations of ash, and heavy rains, this volcanic eruption took 330 lives and destroyed much property. It was the chief reason for the closing of the United States Clark Air Base in the nearby city of Angeles. So much ash and debris were thrown upward into the Earth's atmosphere that weather patterns around the globe were affected during 1992.
\par {\b The Two Large Islands}
\par \tab Luzon, the largest island, has an area of 40,420 square miles (104,690 square kilometers). In addition to having the nation's highest mountain range, the Cordillera Central, Luzon also has several of its longest rivers. Among them are the Cagayan, the Agno, and the Pampanga. The best known of Luzon's rivers, however, is the Pasig, one of the island's shortest rivers, which originates in the nation's largest lake, Laguna de Bay, and passes through Manila before emptying into Manila Bay.
\par \tab The Cordillera Central lies in northwestern Luzon. The highest of its peaks and second highest in the islands is Mount Pulog, at 9,612 feet (2930 meters). A shortage of flat, arable land has made it necessary to use some mountainsides and hills for agriculture. The world-renowned rice terraces in the area around Banaue in the North Luzon Highlands are a distinctive agricultural phenomena. These terraces cut deep steps into the slope of the Cordillera Central. This "eighth wonder of the world," as the terraces have been called, have vertical steps that often exceed 20 feet (6 meters) in height.
\par \tab Another mountain system, the Sierra Madre, rises in northeastern Luzon. Some of its peaks attain elevations of nearly 5,000 feet (1,525 meters). Along the west-central coast of the island lie the Zambales Mountains, which extend from the Lingayen Gulf in the north to the Bataan Peninsula in the south. Luzon includes two of the country's four major lowland areas: the Central Plain and the Cagayan Valley. (The other two are on Mindanao.) These lowlands are a rich agricultural region. Alluvial soils derived partly form rich volcanic ash have left generally excellent soils in lowland Luzon. Upland areas, however, have much poorer soils that have become weathered from hard crystalline rocks or have eroded rapidly because of deforestation.
\par \tab The Central Plain is the largest lowland in the Philippines. It extends about 150 miles (240 kilometers) from north to south and has an average width of 40 miles (64 kilometers). Manila is on the southern edge of the plain, which is drained by the Agno and Pampanga rivers. The size of the plain has made it the nation's largest rice producing region.
\par \tab The Cagayan Valley, sandwiched between the Cordillera Central and the Sierra Madre, is drained by the Cagayan River. A valley of some 4,000 square miles (10,360 square kilometers), it is nearly 40 miles (64 kilometers) wide. More sparsely populated than the Central Plain, the Cagayan Valley became a destination for agricultural settlers mainly in the 20th century, especially from the nearby Ilocos coastal region--a more densely populated area. Thus the Cagayan Valley has also become a significant producer of rice.
\par \tab Luzon's largest city is Manila, the national capital. Quezon City, the second largest urban area, is just northeast of Manila and is part of the same metropolitan area. It served as the capital from 1948 to 1976, and many government buildings are still there. Other sizable population centers are Pasay, Cabanatuan, Legaspi, Baguio, Batangas, and Laoag.
\par \tab Mindanao, the second largest island, has an area of 36,537 square miles (94,630 square kilometers). The Pacific Cordillera runs along the island's east coast, leaving almost no coastal plain. To the west, in the Cordillera Central, are the two inactive volcanic peaks of Mount Apo, the country's highest, and Mount Matutum, at 7,529 feet (2,295 meters). Two major lowland plains, the Agusan Valley and the Cotabato Valley, are drained by rivers of the same name. The diverse topographical features include the large Bukidnon and Lanao plateaus, which occupy much of the north-central part of the island. The largest body of inland water on Mindanao is Lake Sultan-Alonto--more commonly known as Lake Lanao--which lies in the western part of the island. With an area of 137 square miles (355 square kilometers), it is the second largest lake in the Philippines.
\par \tab Several rivers have cut deep gorges into the surface of the plateaus. One river, the short, 22-mile (35-kilometer) Agus River, falls from an elevation of 2,300 feet (700 meters) at Lake Sultan-Alonto down to the sea--creating in its path a series of rapids and falls, including Maria Cristina Falls. Almost half the nation's hydroelectric potential is located in the falls. There are several populous cities on Mindanao. Zamboanga City is in western Mindanao, near the tip of the peninsula of the same name. Located on Basilan Strait, it is a busy port city. Cotabato is a city in southern Mindanao, near the Moro Gulf and in the heart of an agricultural region. Davao City, in the southeast, is near the head of Davao Gulf. It is a port city with facilities for deepwater vessels as well as for local shipping. Cagayan de Oro, in the north, is near the head of Macajalar Bay. It serves as the commercial and transportation center for the north part of the island. Butuan, also in the north, is on Butuan Bay and is a busy port serving the nearby lumber industry.
\par \tab On the western part of Mindanao the long, semicircular Zamboanga Peninsula, which stretches for 150 miles (240 kilometers) into the Sulu Sea. The rugged Zamboanga Cordillera forms the backbone of the peninsula. Basilan Island and the Sulu Archipelago form a bridge between the peninsula and the part of northeastern Borneo called Sabah--a section of Malaysia.
\par {\b The Other Large Islands}
\par \tab There are eight other big islands, although none is nearly as large as either Luzon or Mindanao. Seven of these islands belong to the group called the Visayan Islands, which lie in the central and eastern Philippines, between the two largest islands. The other major islands are Mindoro, just to the south of Luzon, and Palawan, the most detached of the big islands southwest of Luzon, between the Sulu and Luzon seas.
\par \tab The Visayan Islands are Samar, Negros, Panay, Leyte, Cebu, Bohol, Masbate, and the Romblon group. Of these, Samar and Negros are the largest. The Visayans make up more than one fifth of the total Philippine land area with a total of 23,582 square miles (61,077 square kilometers). Interspersed among the seven islands are hundreds of smaller islands.
\par \tab Samar consists largely of low, rolling hills, whereas Negros has a high volcanic mountain system. The Tablas Plateau occupies southwestern Negros, and there are extensive lowlands along the island's north and west coasts. Much of the nation's sugarcane is grown near these coasts.
\par \tab Rough topography is found along the west coast of Panay, but there are lowlands along the north coast and in the sizable Iloilo Basin. Mountains dominate the western portion of Leyte, although a major lowland--the Leyte Valley--occupies the northwest corner of the island. Cebu, one of the nation's most densely populated islands, has a deeply dissected hilly interior and no significant lowlands. Bohol consists mainly of plateaus and low hills, including the island's most noted feature, the Chocolate Hills. Named for their appearance in summer when the grass is dry and brown, the Chocolate Hills rise about 100 feet (30 meters) above an otherwise flat terrain. Palawan and Mindoro are the nation's fifth and seventh largest islands. In contrast to the other islands in the Philippines, these two rest upon the same geologic rock platform, the Sunda Shelf, as does the island of Borneo. It is probably owing to their geologic history that the soils of both islands are rather poor. During the Pleistocene Epoch, from 2 million to 10,000 years ago, Palawan was connected to Borneo by a land bridge. Life forms, both plant and animal, were able to migrate from Borneo northeast into Palawan.
\par \tab Today Palawan has the appearance of the remains of such a land bridge. It is long and narrow, lying between the Sulu Sea to the east and the South China Sea to the northwest. Palawan is only 24 miles (39 kilometers) wide, but its length is 270 miles (435 kilometers). It has a mountainous spine running its entire length. Total land area is 4,550 square miles (11,785 square kilometers). At 6,840 feet (2,085 meters), Mount Mantalingajan is its highest peak.
\par \tab Mindoro, to the northeast of Palawan, lies across the Verde Island Passage just south of Luzon. Its land area is 3,759 square miles (9,736 square kilometers). Running from north to south is a mountain chain surrounded on both sides by a coastal plain. The highest peak is Mount Halcon, 8,487 feet (2,587 meters). There are two small cities, Calapan and Mamburao.
\par {\b Climate}
\par \tab The Philippines lies between about 5░ and 20░ N. latitude, entirely within the humid tropics. Monsoon climates (large wind systems that reverse directions seasonally) predominate, so most of the islands experience distinctive wet and dry seasons. Because the islands are so near the equator, warm temperatures prevail throughout the year. Rarely are monthly averages at sea level less than 75░ F (24░ C). Day-to-night variations are generally greater than monthly variations. Higher altitudes offer much cooler temperatures, decreasing about 3░F (1.7░ C) for every 1,000-foot (300-meter) increase in elevation. The climate accounts in great part for the soil conditions, vegetation, and animal life found in the islands.
\par \tab Annual temperature ranges between the coolest and warmest months are less than 10░ F (5.6░ C). In the extreme south the variation is less than 2░ F (1.1░ C). During the day, temperatures normally climb into the high 80s and low 90s F (low 30s C). At night they fall into the low 70s F (low 20s C), or, occasionally, into the 60sF (high teens C). The lowest temperature recorded in Manila was 59░ F (15░ C). Temperatures are usually highest during the dry season, from March through June, when the sun is almost directly overhead in cloudless skies.
\par \tab Warm, moist southwestern winds--the summer monsoon--prevail from June through October. During the winter monsoon, from November to March, drier northeastern winds predominate. As a result, the western portion of the Philippines receives most of its rainfall when the monsoon comes from the southwest; and the eastern side of the archipelago gets most of its rainfall when the northeastern winds are blowing.
\par \tab The most southerly islands, including Mindanao and the Sulu Archipelago, receive precipitation during the entire year, since they are less affected by monsoon patterns. In addition, a zone of converging air called the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ), affects the southern Philippines all year. But the ITCZ affects the northern islands only during the summer. There are, therefore, great variations in the total amounts and seasonal distributions of rainfall. Land elevation also has an effect on rainfall amounts. Rain shadow areas--regions of reduced rainfall sheltered by mountains--such as portions of Cebu Island average 40 to 60 inches (100 to 150 centimeters) of rain yearly. Exposed coastal and mountain stations may have much greater annual amounts, reaching 200 inches (500 centimeters) or more.
\par \tab Most rain arrives in short, heavy showers, often causing severe flooding. The northern and eastern sections of the Philippines are exposed to violent tropical storms called baguios, or typhoons. These cyclonic storms originate in the western Pacific Ocean, normally during the summer and early fall months. There are, on average, six typhoons each year. Similar to Atlantic hurricanes, the typhoons are characterized by extremely powerful winds, typically in excess of 100 miles (160 kilometers) per hour, and very heavy rains. One such typhoon in 1911 deposited 46 inches (117 centimeters) of rain on the upland resort city of Baguio, on Luzon, within a 24-hour period--a world record. The winds, heavy rains, and their associated high seas and flooding can be very destructive. The southern part of the Philippines, the area south of 8░ N. latitude, is nearly free of typhoons.
\par \tab Manila is a typical example of sea-level climate in the Philippines--hot and humid most of the year. Average monthly temperatures range between a low of 76░ F (24░ C) in December and January to a high of about 82░ F (28░ C) in April and May. Relief from the heat occurs at night, when temperatures drop about 15░ F (8.4░ C) from their daytime highs. The rainiest period in Manila is from June through September. During those months about 60 inches (150 centimeters) of rain, or nearly 75 percent of the annual total of 81 inches (206 centimeters), falls. Because Manila lies on the western side of Luzon, it experiences the effects of the Southwest, or summer, monsoon.
\par \tab Relief from the heat can be obtained by traveling to the highlands, the best known of which is the upland city of Baguio, about 150 miles (240 kilometers) from Manila at an elevation of 5,000 feet (1,524 meters). Baguio is called the City of Pines because of the pine trees associated with its cooler climate. Temperatures there average 15░F (8.4░ C) lower than at sea level, but the resort city does feel the effects of the summer monsoon. Of its average annual rainfall of 164 inches (417 centimeters), about 75 percent falls in the four-month period from June through September.
\par {\b Soils}
\par \tab Areas such as the Philippines that are warm and moist year-round typically have relatively infertile soils that have undergone a process known as laterization. Such soils have been leached of their nutrients because of bacteria and because the persistent rainfall dissolves the basic elements in the soil as it seeps down through the upper layers. Some insoluble minerals, such as iron, are left behind, often giving the soil a distinctive red or reddish brown color. What remains, in the end, are laterites--decayed mineral rocks. Such soils provide little potential for growing crops.
\par \tab There are, nevertheless, some tropical forest species that have adapted their root systems to the shallow soil, where they are nurtured by rapidly decaying plant matter and microorganisms. Once this natural vegetative cover is burned off or cut down because of commercial exploitation, expansion of population settlement, shifting cultivation, or natural causes, then the soil erodes even further. It is leached of its nutrients much more rapidly than under natural conditions, since it is now exposed to direct sunlight and heavy rains.
\par \tab There are two very significant exceptions to the generally poor soil quality: volcanic and alluvial deposits. Soils derived from recent volcanic ash, when composed of basic rather than acidic materials, can be extremely fertile. Among the better known areas for such soils is the Bicol Peninsula of southern Luzon. Alluvial, or water-deposited, soils are found in the floodplains and deltas of the nation's river systems. The sediments carried by the rivers constantly renew the fertility of such areas, often allowing for dense agricultural settlements.
\par \tab Alluvium occupies about 15 percent of the nation's land surface. Luzon's Central Plain is a good example of extensive alluvial deposits. Such soils are also found in the rice terraces of the North Luzon Highlands. Water control on these terraces helps sustain soil quality. Water is normally introduced at the top of the terraces, and the downslope flow is carefully monitored. As the water flows it naturally carries sediments with it.
\par {\b Plant and Animal Life}
\par \tab The Philippines were almost completely forested prior to human settlement. Today less than half the total land area has stands of trees, and with each passing day more forests are destroyed, perhaps forever. The plant life that remains is highly diversified and typical of tropical humid forests.
\par \tab Monsoon forests include many species of trees and other plant life. Among tree species, some 50 varieties of dipterocarps predominate and account for perhaps 70 percent of the commercial timber. This family of trees consists of species that are usually quite tall. They have evergreen leaves and contain aromatic resins. These tropical hardwoods usually occur in relatively dense stands. Among the more commercially useful are the Philippine mahoganies (or lauan). Although not true mahoganies, they provide a good source of revenue. In addition to trees, Philippine forests contain thousands of species of flowering plants and ferns and some 800 species of orchids. Most of the extensive forested areas that still exist are located on Mindanao, Palawan, and Mindoro.
\par \tab Large areas of grasslands, or cogonales, have appeared as a result of repeated man-made burn-offs. These grasslands are characterized by tall grasses, often 3 to 6 feet (1 to 2 meters) high, with coarse and sharp blades. They have no commercial value. Mangrove and nipa (creeping palm) swamps are found occasionally in the coastal lowlands.
\par \tab Countless species of small mammals, birds, and reptiles live in the forests. Unfortunately, some species have become extinct because of the destruction of forests to provide space either for agriculture or for urban use. Among the animals that still exist are monkeys, rats, sambars (a type of deer), civet cats, bats, poisonous Philippine cobras, and a rare species of wild buffalo called the tamarau. This animal, found only on Mindoro Island, numbers only in the hundreds. Wild pigs that roam the forests are descendants of formerly domesticated pigs. Animals thought to be extinct include the crocodiles and the monkey-eating eagle. The tropical forests provide ideal haunts for insects, which are abundant.
\par {\b Minerals}
\par \tab While the Philippines has abundant deposits of a few mineral and energy resources, it cannot be called rich in such resources because it lacks many of those considered essential to a modern urban and industrial society. It must import about 90 percent of the fuel it consumes. By the early 1990s this accounted for nearly 15 percent of its imports.
\par \tab Unlike nearby Indonesia and Malaysia, extensive exploration for offshore oil and natural gas has not yet revealed sufficient quantities to justify commercial exploitation. It was hoped that large quantities of oil would be found in the area of the Sunda Shelf surrounding Palawan Island, but this has not yet proved to be the case. Similarly, the small amount of coal that is mined is not enough to have a significant impact on the nation's energy or manufacturing needs. The coal that exists is generally of low quality.
\par \tab The Philippines does have significant amounts of hydroelectric potential. The most notable development has been built at the Maria Cristina Falls near Iligan on northern Mindanao. There is also hydroelectric power on Luzon. Geothermal generating plants have been built on Luzon and on Leyte. The Philippines is the world's second largest producer of geothermal power, after the United States, but this source still supplies a small share of the nation's total energy needs.
\par \tab A variety of metal ores is abundant on the islands. The most valuable are gold, copper, nickel, and chromite, which together make up nearly all of the total mineral exports. These minerals are, of course, subject to fluctuations in world market prices, so their value to the Philippines is not consistent. In 1980, for example, these metals made up approximately one fifth of total exports, whereas in 1983 the minerals comprised less than one tenth of total exports. A sharp drop in commodity prices worldwide had occurred in the meantime.
\par \tab The Philippines is the largest copper producer in Southeast Asia and is among the top ten producers in the world. Most of the copper is mined in the North Luzon Highlands and on Cebu Island, the site of Asia's largest single copper mine. Two fifths of the nation's total production comes from this central Visayan Island. Gold and silver are abundant in northern Luzon, northern Mindanao, and on several of the Visayan Islands. Benguet Province on Luzon is the top producer. The Philippines is also among the world's leading exporters of chromite. Large deposits of the mineral are found in Zambales Province on Luzon. Small amounts of zinc, manganese, iron ore, and cobalt are produced when world prices justify it. Undeveloped deposits of iron and nickel are located in Surigao, northeastern Mindanao.
{\b PEOPLE}
\par \tab According to the 1990 census the population of the Philippines was 62,354,000, a 28 percent increase over 1980. It is the 14th most populous nation in the world and the third most populous in Southeast Asia after Indonesia and Vietnam. As in nearly all less-developed countries, the majority of the people live in rural areas--more than 60 percent in the case of the Philippines. They work in agriculture helping to produce rice, corn (maize), sugarcane, and coconut--the country's leading crops.
\par \tab More than two fifths of the population lives in cities. The majority of city dwellers, about 12 percent of the total population, reside in the Manila metropolitan area, the nation's capital and largest urban center. This huge metropolitan agglomeration of more than 8 million people is Southeast Asia's second largest--after Jakarta, Indonesia--and ranks 23rd among the world's metropolitan areas. The United Nations estimates that Manila will be the world's 20th largest city by the year 2000, with a population in excess of 11 million. Nearly the entire Philippine population consists of Malay peoples of the Mongoloid race. Collectively called Filipinos, the population is subdivided into a number of ethnolinguistic groups that come within the overall classification of the Austronesian, or Malayo-Polynesian, family of languages. The groups are divided more on the basis of language than any clear-cut ethnicity.
\par \tab The largest of these ethnolinguistic groups are the Tagalog, Ilocano, Bicol, Pampangan, and Pangasinan of Luzon; and the Cebuano, Waray-Waray (or Samar-Leyte), and Hiligaynon (or Ilongo) of the Visayan Islands. With about 30 percent of the population, the Tagalog--the native people of the Manila region--and the Cebuano, with about one fourth of the population, are the largest single groups.
\par \tab There are still a few short-statured, dark-skinned non-Malay peoples known as Negritos who live in the upland areas of Luzon, Mindanao, Panay, and a few other islands. In 1971 the existence of the Tasaday, a previously unknown Negrito tribe of about 25 persons on Mindanao, was reported. They appeared to be living in caves, much as Stone Age people did. In 1986 questions about their authenticity were raised by some anthropologists, who today believe that this discovery was a hoax.
\par \tab Pilipino, the national language of the Philippines, is based on the Tagalog language. English, which has been taught in the islands since the American conquest early in the century, is the most common second language; and it and Pilipino are the two official languages of the country. Both languages are taught in the schools, although English has remained the primary medium of instruction.
\par {\b Population Distribution and Change}
\par \tab The Philippine population is very unevenly distributed, with major concentrations on the Central Plain and the Ilocos coast of Luzon, and on the Visayan islands of Cebu, Negros, Panay, and Bohol. Since the 1930s there has been considerable out-migration to the less densely settled rural areas, especially on Mindanao and in the Cagayan Valley of northern Luzon. This population redistribution has resulted in a more even spread of people throughout the nation, with about half now residing on Luzon, one fourth on the Visayan Islands, and one fourth on Mindanao.
\par \tab During the past several decades the population has been increasing at an annual rate of between 2.5 and 3 percent--among the highest growth rates in the world. This is the result of a high crude birth rate (CBR), which has ranged from about 30 to 45 per thousand since the 1950s, and a low crude death rate (CDR). The CDR has declined from about 15 per thousand in the 1950s to 7 per 1,000 in the early 1990s. Therefore, even though fertility rates have declined, so, too, have mortality rates, which means that the overall growth rates remain at a high level. The current annual growth rate, implies that the population will double in about 28 years. Even if the rate of growth drops to 2 percent--an unlikely possibility--in 35 years the population of the Philippines will double from the current 62 million.
\par {\b Urban and Rural Areas}
\par \tab Although the Philippines is still a predominantly rural nation, more than two fifths of the people reside in urban areas. This is a higher proportion than in any other Southeast Asian nation except the microstates of Singapore and Brunei. Manila is by far the largest metropolitan area. Its population in 1993 was over 8 million, accounting for 12 percent of the national total. The second largest city is Cebu City, located on Cebu in the Visayan Islands. Yet it is only one tenth the size of Manila. (Quezon City, which is much larger than Cebu City, is considered part of the Manila metropolitan area.) Other cities of note are Davao City, Cagayan de Oro, and Zamboanga City on Mindanao; Bacolod and Iloilo in the Visayans; and Angeles City, Olongapo, and Baguio on Luzon.
\par \tab Manila is the nation's chief port for international trade, as well as its leading industrial, financial, cultural, political, and educational center. The city is also the chief destination for tourists visiting the islandsapproximately 800,000 arrive annually. Numerous points of interest in the city, combined with well-known Filipino hospitality, attract visitors from all over the world.
\par \tab Many of Manila's tourist sites are found in the old downtown area and along Roxas Boulevard, which parallels Manila Bay. The newer part of the capital is in the rapidly expanding peripheral areas, or suburbs. For example, Makati is the modern center for finance and business. Wealthy Filipinos, international businessmen, and government officials reside there. Quezon City, which served as the national capital for a few years, is the site of the new government buildings, medical centers, and the University of the Philippines. Other population centers that are really sections of the Manila metropolitan area include Caloocan, Pasay, and Pasig. Interspersed throughout the suburbs and in the older parts of the city are the poor, who live in the slum and squatter neighborhoods typical of less-developed countries.
\par \tab Since World War II the major type of internal migration has been the movement of the rural poor to urban areas looking for work. Manila, the largest city, has also proved the chief magnet for these people. As a result of this heavy in-migration, Manila and a number of smaller cities have grown much more rapidly than the national average of population increase. There has also been a sizable out-migration from the islands. In the 1980s, for instance, Filipinos became the largest among the Asian groups among immigrants to the United States.
\par \tab In spite of city growth, the Philippines is still mainly an agricultural society. Most of the people live in rural areas, especially in villages called barangays, formerly called barrios (neighborhoods). Dispersed farmsteads are common in the more sparsely populated frontier areas. A number of barangays make up a municipality. The commercial and administrative center of a municipality is called the poblaci≤n. Poblaciones are often large enough to be classified as urban.
\par \tab The basic administrative division of the nation is the province, which is comprised of municipalities. The province is comparable to an American or Australian state. Today there are 74 provinces. These are further organized into the National Capital Region (the Manila metropolitan area) and 12 administrative districts: Ilocos; Cagayan Valley; Central Luzon; Southern Tagalog; Bicol; Western, Central, and Eastern Visayas; and Western, Northern, Southern, and Central Mindanao.
{\b CULTURE}
\par \tab The Philippines is one of the most Westernized Asian nations. As noted above, its dominant religion is Roman Catholicism (although many Muslims live in the southern islands). This is a remnant of Spanish colonialism. The preponderance of English speakers is a result of more than four decades of control by the United States. Westernization has taken hold most strongly in the cities, while in the countryside more traditional ways of life still predominate. This contrast has been a factor in the growing conflict between the rural and urban populations, and fuel for Communist and Muslim insurgencies. In addition, the society as a whole is characterized by sharp distinctions between rich and poor, majorities and minorities, privileged and underprivileged. The existence and perpetration of these divisions is part of the Spanish Catholic heritage; similar social divisions have held back economic development in Latin America.
\par {\b Family and Society}
\par \tab The basic social unit in the Philippines has traditionally been the family, often the extended family that includes grandparents and other relatives. Strong kinship ties also extend to other relatives and even to nonrelatives, such as godparents and godchildren. (In the cities, however, the traditional family ties are being weakened.) In traditional homes, men are heads of households and are responsible for the financial welfare of the family. Women, however, are not restricted to child-rearing; they often work outside the home. Filipino women work in a variety of city jobs and own or run businesses. Many women have entered the professions of medicine, law, and teaching. The high status of women in the Philippines is indicated by the fact that the head of state for much of the 1980s was Corazon Aquino.
\par \tab Filipino children learn at an early age to depend on their families for their basic needs. They learn that they must, in turn, fulfill obligations to their families. As children, their responsibilities include respect for elders, the care of younger siblings, the performance of household chores, and behavior that will bring honor to the family.
\par \tab Children in Roman Catholic families are baptized when they are one or two weeks old. They are confirmed between the ages of 5 and 8. The baptism and confirmation ceremonies have a social as well as a religious significance. At each ceremony a set of godparents, called compadre and comadre (co-father and co-mother), are regarded as the co-parents of the child. They thus become members of the kinship group. They have the same obligations to the godchild as to their own children, an obligation that must be fulfilled if something happens to the child's natural parents. To reciprocate, the child treats the godparents with the same respect owed to the natural parents. The relationship between parents and godparents is called compadrazgo.
\par \tab Filipinos are generally not considered adults until they marry and begin raising a family. The marriage links two families together, and the birth of children strengthens the tie. Thus, marriage does not weaken the obligations of the bride and groom to their respective parents, as it generally does in Western societies.
\par \tab Housing conditions vary with the location of a home (rural or urban) and with the socioeconomic status of the family. A traditional rural dwelling consists of one or two rooms. This small building is usually raised several feet above the ground on wooden pilings to protect the house from flooding and pests and to provide a shelter and storage area for animals, crops, and fam implements. Prize roosters are often sheltered in cages under the house. These birds are used in the weekly cockfights, probably the most popular sport in the islands. These contests are held every Sunday in almost every small town and city. Palm leaf (from the nipa palm) or grass thatch are the most common roofing materials. Either sawali (woven bamboo) or rough sawn lumber is used as siding. In coastal communities, where fishing is the primary occupation, houses on pilings are built directly over water.
\par \tab Because of the extensive country-to-city migration, combined with natural rates of population increase, a severe housing shortage has existed in the cities for some time. This is especially true in Manila's metropolitan area. Low-income families in the cities are crowded into slum and squatter settlements with inadequate water supplies, poor sanitation, and often without electricity. They live in houses made from purchased or scavenged materials, including tin, galvanized iron sheets, and scrap lumber. Some estimates place the proportion of the population in Manila living in such conditions at from one fourth to one third of the total.
\par \tab The more prosperous Manila residents, or Manilenos, own houses in the traditional two-storied Spanish style or in the more modern ranch style. All large cities in the Philippines have luxurious residential areas. These neighborhoods are physically segregated from the rest of a city by high concrete walls, with broken glass or barbed wire embedded in the top. Guardhouses are manned at the entries to these areas. Forbes Park and Bel Air Village in the Manila suburb of Makati are examples of these neighborhoods.
\par {\b Food and Clothing}
\par \tab The staple food of the vast majority of Filipinos is rice. This is supplemented with fish and other seafood, chicken, and pork (or goat, if one is a Muslim). Corn (maize) is the staple for about one fifth of the population, who live in areas not suitable for rice production or cannot afford rice. Root crops, including yams, sweet potatoes, and cassava, provide basic foodstuffs for smaller numbers of low-income families. Diets also include an array of tropical fruits: bananas, plantains, star apples, mangoes, papayas, and the strong-smelling durian. The durian is native to Southeast Asia. It is a tree that provides a coconut-sized hard-shelled fruit with edible pulp inside. Although the pulp has a sweet taste, it has a rather pungent odor.
\par \tab A typical meal in the Philippines may include boiled rice, bihon (rice noodles), fish, stewed vegetables, and fruits. Lechon, a whole pig stuffed with rice or banana leaves, is prepared on special occasions, such as the annual fiesta celebrated in barangays, towns, and cities across the Roman Catholic parts of the Philippines. The pig is roasted on a bamboo spit and served with a sauce made from pig's liver. Bibingka, made from rice dough, is a popular dessert. Native alcoholic drinks include tuba (fermented coconut juice), basi (fermented sugarcane juice), and lambanog, which is distilled from fermented rice. Balut, a partially formed duck embryo in an egg that has been boiled for a few moments, is sold by street vendors in the evenings in the Manila area. It is recommended that those who try this delicacy for the first time should eat it in the dark, so they cannot see what they are about to swallow.
\par \tab A traditional garment for men is the barong tagalog, an embroidered outer shirt. Although it is an everyday garment, a version of it can be often worn on the most formal occasions. Women wear the heavily starched, butterfly-sleeved terno on formal occasions. The various Muslim groups in the south and the mountain tribes have their own distinctive garments. The Maranao Muslims of southern Mindanao, for instance, have the colorful malong. It is a large cloth wrapped around the body and is worn by both men and women.
\par {\b Ethno-linguistic Groups}
\par \tab The Philippines, like the Southeast Asia region generally, is quite diverse in both its ethnic and linguistic makeup. All of the approximately 90 indigenous languages and dialects belong to the Austronesian, or Malayo-Polynesian, family of languages. Only eight of these languages have more than 1 million speakers each. The more prominent languages and the percentages of the population speaking them are: Tagalog, in its standardized form known as Pilipino (30 percent); Cebuano (24 percent); Ilocano (10 percent); Hiligaynon, or Ilongo (9 percent); Bicol (6 percent); Waray-Waray, or Samar-Leyte (4 percent); Pampangan (3 percent); and Pangasinan (2 percent). Persons who speak one of these eight languages as a mother tongue make up nearly 90 percent of the population.
\par \tab This diversity of languages, together with the introduction of an alien schooling system during the American colonial period, facilitated the adoption of English as the major secondary language. English is the most widely spoken single language and is the medium of instruction in schools throughout the nation. Pilipino and English were designated the two official languages in 1962.
\par \tab Other minor nonnative languages include Chinese and Spanish. Chinese is spoken by the Chinese minority that resides mainly in the cities. Visitors to the islands often assume that Spanish is widely spoken because of the long era of colonial rule by Spain. However, Spanish is spoken today by less than 1 percent of the people--mostly members of the old aristocracy in the cities or on the sugar plantations on Negros and Panay islands.
\par {\b Religion}
\par \tab The Philippines is the only nation in Southeast Asia with a Christian majority population. (Islam and Buddhism are the dominant religions of the region.) About 83 percent of Filipinos are Roman Catholic. More than 5 percent belong to Protestant denominations brought to the islands by missionaries during the era of American rule. Two Christian denominations of local origin have also emerged: Iglesia ni Cristo (Tagalog for "Church of Christ") and the Aglipayan or Philippine Independent Church (PIC). The former group accounts for nearly 2.5 percent of the population, and the PIC, about 2.6 percent. The PIC began in 1888 as a protest against domination of the Roman Catholic church by Spanish clergy. Nevertheless, Aglipayans have remained strongly Roman Catholic in their practices. Iglesia ni Cristo was founded in 1914 and today is a closely knit and very nationalistic sect. Its distinctively large, modern, whitewashed church buildings can be found in the large cities all over the Philippines. By far the largest one is in Quezon City near the University of the Philippines campus. This building also houses the international headquarters of the denomination.
\par \tab Islam first appeared in the southern Philippines in the 13th or 14th century. The first Muslims to arrive were probably traders from the Middle East or from neighboring areas of what are today Indonesia and Malaysia. A long history of clashes between the more powerful and numerous Spaniards and the Muslims kept Islam from extending its influence into the central and northern islands. Nevertheless, neither the Spaniards, the Americans, nor the Filipino Christians could dislodge the Muslims from their homelands in Mindanao and the Sulu Archipelago. Muslims now make up about 4 percent of the population. Buddhists and other religions account for 2 percent of the population.
\par {\b Literature}
\par \tab Philippine literature dates from the era before the Spanish conquest. The early Tagalog and a few other groups had a script which they used in writing on strips of bamboo or palm. Most of these early writings were destroyed by the Spanish missionaries. Of what remained, few pieces survive because of the highly perishable materials on which they were written. Native Filipino stories have, however, been passed from one generation to another as oral narratives. Among these stories are "Hudhod" and "Alim," told by the Ifugao people of northern Luzon, and the "Daranaga" of the Maranao Muslims of Mindanao.
\par \tab The first book produced in Spanish in the Philippines was a religious work, 'Doctrina Cristiana' (Christian Teaching), which missionaries printed by means of wood blocks in 1593. The first book to be printed from movable type came out a few years later. It is titled 'Pastrimerias' and was written by Francisco de San Jose, a priest. Most of the early printed works had religious themes and were written by Spaniards.
\par \tab The best known of the early native writers was Francisco Balagtas, who is known as the Prince of Filipino Poets. His classic political satire, 'Florante and Laura', was written in the mid-19th century.
\par \tab Following the opening of Spanish schools to Filipinos during the second half of the 19th century, more publications by native writers began to appear. Poems, essays, and novels flourished in the 1890s during the Filipino movement for independence. Among the major literary figures of the period were Marcelo H. del Pilar, Graciano L≤pez Jaena, and--most prominently--JosΘ Rizal, an eminent physician and patriot as well as a man of letters. Rizal wrote the novels 'Noli me tangere' (published as 'The Social Cancer', 1886) and 'El filibusterismo' (The Reign of Greed, 1891). His most famous poem, '┌ltimo adi≤s' (Last Farewell) was written in 1896, shortly before he was executed by the Spanish authorities. After the islands were liberated from Spain in 1898, writing in Spanish began a general decline. By the 1930s, with the passing of the last Spanish-educated generation, it nearly disappeared--to be replaced by English, Tagalog (Pilipino), and other native tongues.
\par \tab The early Filipino writers who used Tagalog often evoked nationalistic sentiments through their poetry and plays. Some of their works were banned as subversive by American administrators. During the period 1910-25, often called the "golden age of Philippine drama," the foremost dramatists who wrote in Tagalog were Severino Reyes and Patricio Mariano. With the introduction of English in the schools, it quickly became the principal language of literature.
\par {\b The Fine Arts}
\par \tab Native and foreign influences have combined to create a blend of many cultural overlays in the fine arts of the Philippines. Only a few fragments of precolonial painting and sculpture have survived because most of the early artifacts were made of wood and were thus destroyed by the elements over the centuries. After Spaniards arrived in the 16th century, the principal efforts of local artists were devoted to the production of religious art. In the late 18th century, painters turned to executing portraits, which were in demand form the rising middle class. Damian Domingo founded the first art school in the islands in about 1820.
\par \tab By the late 19th century, Filipino artists were achieving an international reputation. Juan Luna was noted for his historical and allegorical works. Felix Resurreccion Hidalgo painted bold landscapes and seascapes. Fabian de la Rosa was renowned for his genre paintings. In the early 20th century a number of Filipino painters were attracted by the art movement known as impressionism, and one artist, Fernando Amorsolo, became the most prominent Philippine artist of the time. The artists of the mid-20th century have also been highly regarded. The most celebrated of them, Victorio C. Edades, Galo B. Ocampo, and Carlos V. Francisco, were known as the Triumvirate.
\par \tab Other fine arts, including sculpture, pottery, and weaving had distinguished traditions dating from the precolonial era. Brightly colored garments decorated with intricate designs, along with artistic shields and weapons, have characterized native Philippine craftsmanship from the earliest times to the present.
\par \tab Knowledge of pre-Spanish architecture is largely derived from current structures which follow earlier models. Simple rooms built on four rooted tree stumps offered protection from weather, landslides, animals, and enemies. Spanish rule naturally brought new techniques and styles, including the division of buildings into separate functional areas. The Spaniards also introduced the use of mortar and masonry, decorative grilles for windows, and roof tiles. Roman Catholic missionaries promoted the construction of monumental cathedrals and universities. A good example of the latter is Manila's University of Santo Tomßs, founded by Dominicans in 1611, predating Harvard University by a quarter of a century. The Spanish also introduced city planning, which featured large central plazas and buildings arranged according to their use. The layout of small cities and towns all over the Philippines reflects these early colonial plans.
\par {\b The Performing Arts}
\par \tab The Philippines is notable for its native dances, songs, and instrumental music which are lighthearted and invite participation. The most popular folk dance, the tinikling--also called the bamboo dance--suggests the quick movements of ricebirds and seems to be a purely native expression.
\par \tab Today, Philippine music is a blend of native, Malay, Muslim, Spanish, and Western influences. Many of the best jazz and rock musicians in the entire Southeast Asia region are Filipinos. The Cultural Center of the Philippines in Manila offers symphonies, operas, ballets, plays, and other productions. Most of these works originate in other countries, while Filipino composers, musicians, and playwrights tend to pattern their efforts on contemporary Western models. Attempts to combine Philippine themes with Western techniques have been made by such troupes as the Bayanihan Dance Company, whose repertoire consists of theatrical versions of folk dancing.
\par {\b Education and Recreation}
\par \tab Elementary schooling in the Philippines is compulsory through the sixth grade in the cities and through the fourth grade in rural areas. Although about one third of the national budget is designated for education, schooling is not available to many children because the funds appropriated are inadequate. Many primary school pupils, especially in the countryside, drop out of school early. In spite of this, the reported literacy rate of 85 percent for persons over 15 years of age is very high in a region that includes the more prosperous countries of Japan, Taiwan, and Singapore. But literacy in this case is defined only as the "ability of a person to read and write a simple message in any language or dialect." Male and female literacy rates are nearly equal, offering further support for the high status of women in the Philippines relative to other Asian nations.
\par \tab The educational system, generally modeled after that of the United States, was reorganized in the 1970s. A policy of bilingualism requires the use of Pilipino and English for instruction in specific subject areas. Arabic is a teaching language in Muslim areas.
\par \tab There are both public and private secondary schools. Most of the colleges and universities, however, are privately financed. The University of the Philippines, which has campuses in several parts of the nation, is the largest public university. Among the better-known private institutions are: the University of Santo Tomßs, the Ateneo de Manila University, and the University of the East. Most of these schools are in the Manila metropolitan area. Schools in other parts of the Philippines include the University of San Carlos, in Cebu; Silliman University, in Dumaguete; and Xavier University, in Cagayan de Oro.
\par \tab Filipinos enjoy recreation of all types. Fiestas and dances are common throughout the country. Cinemas are inexpensive and can be found in all the cities. American-made action films are especially popular, but the Philippines does have its own movie industry. Films in Tagalog are well received where the language is spoken. Manila has more than 100 movie theaters, and the Philippines is the second largest foreign market for Hollywood films after Japan.
\par \tab Baseball, soccer, basketball, boxing, and--above all--cockfighting are very popular spectator sports. Every town and city in the islands has one or more cockpits, and every Sunday the raucous noise from the tupada (cockfight) can be heard. It is a sport for the rich, who import expensive specially bred fighting roosters from the United States. The poor use roosters they have hand-raised in their houses. Much money changes hands, since gambling is the main reason for cockfighting--not unlike horse racing in other countries.
\par \tab Other sports, such as the Spanish-derived jai alai, arnis de mano, and sipa are also popular. Arnis de mano is a type of fencing using sticks. Sipa is similar to tennis or volleyball except that the players keep the ball going with their knees and feet instead of with their hands or a racket.
{\b ECONOMY}
\par \tab Private enterprise is predominant in the Philippines, as it is in the other countries belonging to the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). Nevertheless, the government maintains considerable control over utilization of the nation's natural resources.
\par \tab The Philippines is still largely agricultural, with nearly two thirds of the labor force living in rural areas and half of them in farm-related work. Yet it is also true that the number of persons employed in mining, manufacturing, and service-related jobs has increased. The value of exports of agricultural and other primary commodities, while still a very large share of total exports, has declined relative to manufactured goods. One major reason for this is the increasing efficiency of agriculture around the world, making more nations self-sufficient. Another reason is the use of subsidies by some governments to promote their own farm products and diminish competition from imports.
\par \tab The Philippine economy was dominated first by Spain, then by the United States, during the long colonial period. Since Philippine independence, foreign economic control has remained significant. Japan and the United States in particular exercise control in the form of investment and aid, which have been vital to Philippine economic development. The Philippine government is, however, seeking to increase local ownership of business and industry.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by Richard Ulack, Chairman of the Department of Geography at the University of Kentucky.
\par \tab {\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR THE PHILIPPINES}
\par \tab Brands, H.W. Bound to Empire: The United States and the Philippines (Oxford Univ. Press, 1992).
\par \tab Eder, James, and Youngblood, Robert, eds. Patterns of Power and Politics in the Philippines (Ariz. State Univ. Press, 1994).
\par \tab Karnow, Stanley. In Our Image: America's Empire in the Philippines (Random, 1989).
\par \tab Macaranas, Natividad. Growing Up in the Philippines (Carlton, 1995).
\par \tab Pomeroy, W.J. The Philippines: Colonialism, Collaboration, and Resistance (International Publishers Co., 1992).
\par \tab Steinberg, David. The Philippines: A Singular and Plural Place, 3rd ed. (Westview, 1994).
\par \tab Thompson, W.S. The Philippines in Crisis (St. Martin's, 1992).
\par \tab Wurfel, David. Democracy in the Philippines? The Precarious Aquino Regime (Westview, 1993).\par \tab One of the largest of the countries of Eastern Europe, Poland was the first of these countries to liberate its government from the Communist domination endured for 45 years. It was the relegalization of the trade union Solidarity and the agreement to hold partially free parliamentary elections that appeared to have opened the floodgates of radical reforms that spilled over into other countries of the Soviet bloc. In 1989, a year of drama unmatched in modern history, government after government collapsed in Eastern Europe and politically transformed not only Poland but also East Germany, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, Romania, and the Soviet Union itself.
\par {\b Land and Climate}
\par \tab Poland has an area of 120,728 square miles (312,684 square kilometers). It extends 403 miles (649 kilometers) from north to south and 428 miles (689 kilometers) from west to east. It is located in the east-central portion of Europe and is bordered on the east by Russia, Lithuania, Belarus, and Ukraine, on the west by Germany, on the south by the Czech Republic and Slovakia, and on the north by the Baltic Sea. Poland lacks strongly defined natural boundaries in the west and east, and its borders have changed many times in the past.
\par \tab The most extensive physical feature is the great plain that covers the northern two thirds of the country. It is part of the North European Plain, which extends from The Netherlands, through Germany and Poland, eastward toward Russia.
\par \tab The North European Plain is mainly flat, but in places there are chains of small hills formed by glacial deposits. The highest of these hills are the Baltic Heights, which are more than 400 feet (120 meters) high and stretch across the country in the north. North of the heights a plain extends along the coast of the Baltic Sea. In the east the smooth coastline is broken by two lagoons. In the west another lagoon forms part of the border with Germany. To the south of the heights, the central plain contains some wide, shallow valleys through which rivers flowed in ancient times.
\par \tab The southern third of the country consists of hills and mountains. In the southwest the Sudetic Mountains form part of the border with the Czech Republic. They are the broken remnants of an ancient massif. In places they reach more than 3,300 feet (1,000 meters). Farther east several ranges of the western Carpathian Mountains continue along the border. The major range is the Beskids. Farther south part of the Tatra Mountain range is located on Polish territory and contains Rysy, the highest mountain in Poland at 8,199 feet (2,499 meters). To the north of the Carpathians there are areas of hills, of which the most notable are the Holy Cross Mountains, which reach more than 2,000 feet (610 meters).
\par \tab The longest river in Poland is the Vistula, which rises in the Beskids and flows for 664 miles (1,069 kilometers) in a wide, S-shaped curve across Poland until it reaches the Baltic Sea. Its major tributary is the Bug River. The Oder River has its source in the Czech Republic and flows for 461 miles (742 kilometers) through Polish territory. It forms part of the border with Germany. Its major tributaries are the Notec and Warta rivers.
\par \tab There are no large lakes in Poland, but in the north there are many small lakes of glacial origin in the area of the Baltic Heights. The largest lakes are found in the Masurian Lakelands in the northeast.
\par \tab The climate of Poland is transitional between the maritime climate of the west and the continental climate of the east. In January all parts of the country average temperatures below the freezing point, but the western border areas are somewhat warmer in the winter than those of the east. Summer temperatures are more uniform over the whole country and are generally moderate. Precipitation levels are not very high except in mountain regions. The capital city, Warsaw, has an average January temperature of 26.8░ F (-2.9░ C), an average July temperature of 65.5░ F (18.6░ C), and an average yearly precipitation of 20.9 inches (53 centimeters).
\par \tab About one quarter of the country is forested. Most trees are evergreens, including pine and spruce. Deciduous trees are mainly beech and oak. Although many of the forests have been planted, some natural forests occur in the east. Alpine meadows are found on the highest mountains. Much of the country's original forest cover has been removed over the centuries to create farm and grazing land.
\par \tab The quality of soils for farming varies considerably from one region to another. Many areas in northern and central Poland have sandy soils mixed in places with clay. These soils are not very fertile. Areas of former marshland and along rivers are more fertile. The best soils are found in the south, where dust created by retreating glaciers was blown southward, creating thick deposits of fertile loess soils.
\par {\b Animal and Mineral Resources}
\par \tab The animals of Poland are similar to those of other Central European countries. Deer, wild boars, and a few beavers and elks are found in the forests, while chamois, marmots, bears, wildcats, and lynx are found in the Carpathian Mountains. Some European bison (wisent) are preserved in a forest reserve in the east. Grouse, capercaillies, swans, and cranes are common birds of the forests and lakes. Fish include trout, perch, pike, bream, and eels.
\par \tab Poland's main mineral wealth is coal. Most of this coal is found in Upper Silesia in the southwest of the country, and there are smaller deposits in the east. Poland has some of the richest coal reserves in Europe. Deposits of copper, zinc, lead, and aluminum are also significant. Small reserves of petroleum and natural gas are located in the southeast.
\par {\b People and Culture}
\par \tab The population of Poland totals about 38 million. It increases yearly by some 4.8 people per 1,000. During World War II 6 million people--about one sixth of the population--died, including nearly 3 million Jews murdered in Nazi death camps. After the war most of the population of German origin was expelled, while some Ukrainians were resettled in the Soviet Union. At present more than 98 percent of the people are Poles, with small groups of Ukrainians, Belorussians, Germans, Slovaks, and Lithuanians.
\par \tab The Poles speak a Slavic language and belong to the western branch of the Slavic peoples. Religion plays a major role in Polish life, and the Poles have remained faithful followers of the Roman Catholic church. Their religious feelings strengthened their opposition to the Communist regime. Talks between Solidarity leaders and representatives of the Communist government included church representatives as a vital part of Polish public life. Visits by John Paul II, the first pope of Polish origin, have helped to maintain the religious faith of the Polish people.
\par \tab Because of large-scale emigration in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, there are many Poles living abroad, especially in the United States. Many of these Poles have maintained their culture and contacts with their land of origin.
\par \tab About 60 percent of the population lives in cities. There are a number of large cities, including five with populations of more than 500,000. The largest is Warsaw, the capital, with about 1.7 million inhabitants. L≤dz has approximately 850,000 people. Other large cities are Krak≤w (Cracow), Wroclaw, Poznan, Gdansk, and Szczecin.
\par \tab One of the major cultural contributions of Poland to the world has been its literature. The earliest writings in Polish date from the 15th century, though Poles were writing in Latin at an earlier date. Most of this early literature was religious in nature. One of the first writers to use Polish exclusively was Mikolaj Rej (1505-69), who wrote poetry and prose.
\par \tab The literature of the 18th century showed the influence of contacts with Western Europe. The first major Polish woman writer, Elzbieta Druzbacka, appeared at this time. The establishment of a national theater in Warsaw in 1765 encouraged a number of dramatists such as Wojciech Boguslawski and Franciszek Zablocki. Aleksander Fredro wrote popular comedies.
\par \tab The Romantic period of the early 19th century produced some of Poland's greatest poets, of whom the most famous was Adam Mickiewicz. Much of his work was written in exile in Russia, including his great national epic, 'Pan Tadeusz' (1834). Other poets and dramatists of the period were Juliusz Slowacki, Zygmunt Krasinski, and Cyprian Norwid.
\par \tab At the end of the 19th century writers emerged such as Aleksander Glowacki, a supporter of realism who wrote under the name Boleslaw Prus, and Henryk Sienkiewicz, whose novel 'Quo Vadis?' (1896) became internationally famous. Sienkiewicz also wrote novels about heroic periods in Poland's past.
\par \tab In the early 20th century a notable writer was Wladyslaw Reymont, whose four-volume novel 'The Peasants' (1902-09) achieved worldwide fame. Reymont and Sienkiewicz both won Nobel prizes in literature. Stefan Zeromski wrote novels, stories, and plays, while Stanislaw Wyspianski was a playwright.
\par \tab During the period between World Wars I and II, a number of talented writers appeared. The most notable were the poets Julian Tuwim and Kazimierz Wierzynski and the novelists Maria Dabrowska, Jaroslaw Iwaszkiewicz, and Jan Parandowski.
\par \tab With the establishment of the Communist regime after World War II, political controls were imposed on writers. Many began to follow socialist models. In spite of these restrictions some writers of note appeared. Jerzy Andrzejewski achieved recognition for his novel 'Ashes and Diamonds'. Some writers, such as Marek Hlasko, wrote pessimistic novels about Polish life, while Slawomir Mrozek went into exile in 1968 rather than continue writing in Poland. Czeslaw Milosz won the Nobel prize for literature in 1980. Stanislaw Lem gained fame abroad for his science-fiction stories. Later writers were able to work under less pressure, and an underground press helped to circulate widely their writings and ideas.
\par \tab Music is a significant part of Polish culture. Poland's greatest composer was FrΘdΘric Chopin, whose work reflects the Polish national spirit. Also in the 19th century were Stanislaw Moniuszko, who composed the first national opera, 'Halka', in 1847, and the violinist-composer Henryk Wieniawski. The 20th century was marked by the appearance of such world-famous pianists as Ignacy Paderewski, Leopold Godowsky, Artur Rubinstein, and Witold Malcuzynski; the harpsichordist Wanda Landowska; and violinist Henryk Szeryng. Later composers include Karol Szymanowski, Witold Lutoslawski, and Krzysztof Penderecki. There are a number of symphony orchestras and chamber music groups.
\par \tab Folk music is very much alive in Poland. It is often played to accompany traditional dances such as the mazur, krakowiak, and kujawiak. Folk songs are sung by soloists or by choirs, of which there are many in Poland. Dancers and singers wear costumes from various districts.
\par \tab The greatest Polish painter is Jan Matejko. He painted large pictures of scenes from Poland's past. The finest realist painter of the 19th century was J≤zef Chelmonski. Among modern painters are Jan Cybis, Juliusz Studnicki, and Czeslaw Rzepinski.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab Before World War II Poland was predominantly an agricultural country. Much land was held by large landowners, but there were also many small uneconomical peasant farms. After the war and the establishment of Communist control, attempts were made to turn peasant farms into socialist-style cooperative farms. Strong resistance from the peasants, however, resulted in the disbanding of most cooperative farms after 1956. About 49 percent of the land area is cultivated--with rye, wheat, oats, barley, potatoes, sugar beets, and fodder for livestock as the major crops. About 13 percent is pastureland.
\par \tab Dairy cattle and sheep are kept throughout the country, but the most numerous farm animals are pigs. Polish ham is a major export product. Horses are still common as draft animals. Poultry are valuable as a source of eggs, which are also exported. Small farms and the lack of modern technology have hampered agricultural production, and supplies of certain foodstuffs, such as meat, are often insufficient. Grain must be imported. About 27 percent of the country's labor force works in agriculture. Since World War II the Poles have built a fishing industry--not only in the Baltic Sea but also on the Atlantic Ocean.
\par \tab In industry, priority is given to the production of iron and steel, chemicals, and electricity. Katowice is the center of the iron-and-steel industry. The largest plant, however, is at Nowa Huta, near Krak≤w. The iron-and-steel and the electric-power industries depend on supplies of coal. Hard coal comes from the Upper Silesian field. Poland ranks fourth in the world in coal production and exports large amounts. About 80 percent of electric-power production comes from coal. There is little production of hydroelectric power. Production of metals also includes zinc, copper, and aluminum. Most iron ore is imported.
\par \tab The chemical industry is significant. Sulfuric acid, salts, and fertilizers are major products. Plastics and artificial fibers are also produced. The largest nitrogen-fertilizer plant in Europe is located at Pulawy, south of Warsaw. Chemical products are exported.
\par \tab The Polish engineering industry produces a variety of items, including ships, transport equipment, agricultural machinery, machine tools, and equipment for various industries. The leading products for export are locomotives, freight wagons, automobiles, trucks, tractors, and ships. A large factory in Warsaw produces Polish Fiat automobiles.
\par \tab Textile production is a traditional branch of Polish industry, and linen and cotton textiles are exported. Most of the industry is located in L≤dz.
\par \tab Economic development in Poland has been hampered by problems of poor organization and quality and by labor unrest. Strikes and other forms of demonstration during the early 1980s led to a serious decline in industrial production, including coal mining. Heavy borrowing from Western banks resulted in a major debt problem. Much of the money borrowed was used to buy machinery from the West, which proved unsuitable for Poland's industrial requirements. The steadily worsening economy was a major factor in the collapse of the Communist government. Inflation approached 200 percent. To end the massive labor strikes of 1988, the government agreed to hold talks with Solidarity, which led to its relegalization as a trade union in 1989 and its triumph at the polls in June of that year. Government bonds were issued on October 1 as a step toward creation of a capital market. In the early 1990s industrial restructuring and the privatization of state enterprises were underway. Poland ranks fifth in Europe in the length of its railroad network with 16,551 miles (26,636 kilometers) of track. The highway system is less developed.
\par \tab The major internal waterways are the Oder and Vistula rivers and connecting canals. The Oder River reaches the Baltic Sea at the port of Szczecin, while the major ports of Gdansk and Gdynia are at the mouth of the Vistula River. The Bydgoszcz Canal connects the Vistula River with the Oder River, via the Notec River, while the Gliwice Canal connects the Oder River with the Upper Silesian industrial region. Poland's national airline is LOT, which is based in Warsaw.
\par \tab Radio and television broadcasting was long controlled by the state. Telephone and telegraph services were also government controlled until 1989.
\par {\b Education and Government}
\par \tab Education is compulsory for all children from 7 to 15 years of age. There are general, vocational, and technical secondary schools. The oldest university in Poland is in Krak≤w, with others in Warsaw, Poznan, Lublin, Wroclaw, Torun, L≤dz, and Katowice. There is also a Roman Catholic university in Lublin. There are colleges of engineering, agriculture, and economics.
\par \tab Until June 1989 the major political party was the Polish United Workers' (Communist) party. On Jan. 29, 1990, Poland's Communist party voted to dissolve itself. Its successor, a new party called the Social Democratic party, committed itself to the concept of parliamentary democracy and the rule of law. Another party that was formed, the Social Democratic Union, was backed by Lech Walesa. Members of the Sejm, or parliament, are elected for four-year terms by all citizens over age 18. In the first free elections since 1947, Polish voters overwhelmingly gave Solidarity candidates their vote and thoroughly defeated the Communist government's list. Tadeusz Mazowiecki of Solidarity became Poland's first non-Communist prime minister since World War II. The office of president was also created. The prime minister is chosen by the president with the approval of the Sejm.
\par {\b History}
\par \tab The first Polish state was established in the 10th century by Mieszko I. Under him the Poles became Christians. Mieszko's descendants, known as the Piast Dynasty, expanded Polish power. Major enemies at this time were the German Teutonic Knights and the Tatars. After a period of political unrest Wladyslaw I reunited the kingdom in 1320, and his son Casimir III the Great protected it from its enemies and developed its economy and society.
\par \tab In 1386 Queen Jadwiga married Wladyslaw II Jagiello, the grand duke of Lithuania, uniting two powerful states. In 1410 their armies defeated the German Teutonic Knights at the battle of Tannenberg.
\par \tab In the 16th century, Poland and Lithuania expanded eastward to annex much of the Ukraine and some Russian territory. From this time the Russians also became one of Poland's major opponents. The greatest king of this period was Sigismund II Augustus.
\par \tab In 1572 Sigismund II died without an heir. Under the following Vasa Dynasty, Poland became involved in wars with Sweden, Russia, and Turkey. In 1610 the Poles succeeded in occupying Moscow, but this success was short-lived. Russian advances on Polish territory and a Swedish invasion in 1655 created a major crisis. The Poles fought back, however, and the Swedish invasion was checked while a truce with Russia was obtained. John III Sobieski defended Vienna against the Turks in 1683 and saved Western Europe from a Turkish invasion.
\par \tab Prussia, Russia, and Austria all annexed parts of Poland in 1772. A small Polish state was left at the mercy of its enemies. In 1793 Poland was further partitioned among the three powers. The patriot Thaddeus Kosciusko led a peasant army in a national insurrection against the Russians.
\par \tab In 1795 Poland's last remaining territory was occupied by the three partitioning powers. Many Poles fled the country. In 1807 Napoleon supported the formation of a small and weak Polish state, but after Napoleon's defeat by Russia the Russians returned.
\par \tab Czar Alexander I of Russia permitted the existence of a Russian-controlled Polish kingdom. An uprising of the Poles in 1830 was put down by the Russians, who then began a period of suppression of Polish culture and institutions. In 1863 another insurrection resulted in the total extinction of Poland as a separate political unit.
\par \tab During World War I Russia fought Austria and Germany, often on Polish territory, and during this time the population suffered greatly. The Polish leaders, however, gained the support of the Allies, especially France, and in 1918 an independent Poland again appeared with J≤zef Pilsudski as head of state. The pianist Ignacy Paderewski became prime minister.
\par \tab In 1921 the Soviets and the Poles signed a peace treaty, which gave Poland substantial territories in the east that were mainly populated by Ukrainians and Belorussians. The internal political situation in Poland was not very stable, and in 1926 Pilsudski took control as president of the republic and head of the government. He was thus a virtual dictator. After his death in 1935 political unrest again developed, but this period ended with the outbreak of World War II.
\par \tab During the 1930s Nazi Germany put forward demands for the annexation of the free city of Gdansk (Danzig) and began to organize incidents on the Polish-German border. On Sept. 1, 1939, Germany invaded Poland, forcing Britain and France (who both supported Poland) to declare war.
\par \tab The German campaign in Poland was short. The Polish position was made impossible by the invasion of eastern Poland on Sept. 17, 1939, by Soviet forces in accordance with a secret agreement made between the Soviets and Nazi Germany. Germany and the Soviet Union annexed parts of Polish territories. Much of the Jewish population was forced into ghettos and later removed to such death camps as Auschwitz (Oswiecim), Majdanek, and Treblinka. In 1943 an unsuccessful uprising in the Warsaw ghetto was brutally suppressed by the Germans. Many Christian Poles also died in the camps, while others were taken to Germany as laborers.
\par \tab In April 1943 mass graves of 4,300 Polish officers were discovered in the Katyn Forest near Smolensk in the Soviet Union. The Soviets claimed the German army had executed the officers in July 1941. Later investigations revealed that it was actually the Soviet security authorities who had executed the Poles in the spring of 1940. The Soviet Union acknowledged responsibility for the killings in 1990.
\par \tab The Polish government in exile in London formed a Polish army, navy, and air force composed of refugee Poles. A Polish home army of underground fighters was in radio contact with the London government. When the Soviet Army entered Poland in 1944 and was approaching Warsaw, the home army received orders to liberate the capital city from the Germans before the Soviets arrived. After two months of fighting, however, the home army surrendered to the Germans, and Warsaw was virtually destroyed. The Soviets made no attempt to help the Polish fighters.
\par \tab When the Soviet Army first reached Polish territory, it established a committee of national liberation in Lublin. This committee later became a provisional government based in Warsaw.
\par \tab Polish frontiers underwent a major shift after the Allied conference in Potsdam, Germany, in 1945. The Soviet Union retained control of the territories that it had obtained in 1939, while Poland gained large areas of former German territory in the west, including the industrial region of Upper Silesia, the ports of Gdansk and Szczecin, and a long Baltic coastline. Poles from the Soviet-occupied areas were resettled on lands in the west that had expelled Germans.
\par \tab Communist control was intensified with the removal of more liberal political leaders such as Wladyslaw Gomulka in 1949. In 1956, however, a major political upheaval led to the return of Gomulka as first secretary of Poland's Communist party with the support of Nikita Khrushchev, the new Soviet leader.
\par \tab In 1970 the authoritarian Gomulka government fell after the eruption of bloody riots and strikes in several cities because of rises in food prices. Edward Gierek was appointed party leader. Further price increases in 1976 and 1980 created more unrest. In Gdansk a committee led by Lech Walesa, an electrical worker, demanded the right to form independent trade unions. A national confederation of trade unions called Solidarity was formed. Gierek resigned, and Stanislaw Kania succeeded him as first secretary of the party. Kania resigned in 1981 and was replaced by Gen. Wojciech Jaruzelski, who banned Solidarity. Only unions pledging allegiance to the Communist party were permitted. In 1985 Jaruzelski resigned as prime minister and was replaced by Zbigniew Messner.
\par \tab In September 1988 Messner and his cabinet resigned amid growing furor over the economy. Mieczyslaw Rakowski became prime minister. On April 5, 1989, Solidarity was legally restored. In July parliamentary elections, Solidarity won the majority of seats in the new Senate and all of the seats allocated to opposition parties in the Sejm, or lower house. Jaruzelski became president. Rakowski resigned in August. Communist attempts to form a government failed. Tadeusz Mazowiecki of Solidarity then became Poland's first non-Communist prime minister in more than 40 years. The second half of 1989 was dominated by a growing economic crisis brought on by the government's introduction of market pricing for agricultural products and skyrocketing inflation. In 1990 the Communist party disbanded and reorganized as the Social Democratic party, an opposition party to Solidarity. The country's first fully democratic elections since World War II were held on May 27, when the local councils were chosen. On December 9 Walesa won the presidential election. The October 1993 election restored many former Communists to power. Waldemar Pawlak became prime minister.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by Ian Matley, Professor of Geography, Michigan State University.
{\b BIBLIOGRAPHY FOR POLAND}
\par \tab Donica, Ewa, and Sharman, Tim. We Live in Poland (Watts, 1985).
\par \tab Lopinski, Maciej, and others. Konspira: Solidarity Underground (Univ. of Calif. Press, 1990).
\par \tab Pfeiffer, Christine. Poland: Land of Freedom Fighters (Dillon, 1984).
\par \tab Sandak, C.R. Poland (Watts, 1986).\par \tab One of the smallest and least developed nations in Western Europe, Portugal played a far greater role in history than it does in modern world affairs. The socioeconomic gap between Portugal and its partners in the European Union is so great that it will probably take generations to narrow the chasm.
\par {\b Environment}
\par \tab Mainland Portugal, excluding its possessions, the Azores and Madeira, is the southwestern corner of Europe. Its hills and mountains are the western edge of the Iberian Plateau, whose narrow western coastal plain faces the Atlantic Ocean. This maritime location has been one of the factors of its destiny, for the sea dominates much of Portuguese life. The proportion of its coastline to land area is more than twice that of Western Europe. Portugal's shape is a modified rectangle, running 360 miles (580 kilometers) from north to south and varying from 80 to 140 miles (130 to 225 kilometers) in width.
\par \tab Contiguous with Spain, eastern Portugal is a continuation of the Spanish Meseta. The region is rugged, barren, and sparsely populated. The hills and plateaus run close to the sea north of the Tagus River and in an east-west-trending ridge in the Algarve of the southern part of the country. The highest peak in Portugal, Malhπo da Estrela at 6,532 feet (1,991 meters), lies in the Serra da Estrela. Nevertheless the general terrain pattern of western Portugal is basically low hills and plains. Northern Portugal is quite hilly, especially north of the Douro River. Between the Tagus and the Douro, there is a coastal plain. South of the Tagus, which divides the country roughly in half, the land generally lies below 600 feet (180 meters). The region is best described as a gently rolling landscape. Other rivers that reach the coast are the Mondego and the Sado. The Douro reaches the sea at Oporto, while the Tagus descends to Lisbon--both key urban centers of modern Portugal.
\par {\b Climate and Vegetation}
\par \tab Portugal has a Mediterranean climate, with mild, rainy winters and hot, dry summers. Its temperatures and rainfall reflect the influence of the sea. Northern Portugal has temperatures in the 40s F (4░-9░ C) in the winter and the 70s F (21░-26░ C) in the summer. Its rainfall averages 35 inches (89 centimeters) per year. In contrast, southern Portugal has a climate resembling that of the Costa del Sol of Spain, with winter temperatures in the 50s F (10░-15░ C) and summers near 80░ F (27░ C). Its rainfall is lower--20 inches (51 centimeters)--and the summers are very dry.
\par \tab Portugal's natural vegetation resembles that of Spain, but as a result of its damp climate the north has more forests than does the north of Spain. The trees are typically oak, chestnut, and pine (sandy plains), while in the center cork and oak predominate, with bush and grasslands farther south.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab The people of Portugal are remarkably homogeneous, with physical characteristics that are common to the Mediterranean region. They tend to be somewhat shorter than the European average, however, and commonly have darker complexions. In the late 1980s the population of Portugal was 10.3 million, or a quarter that of Spain. The average density was about 289 per square mile (112 per square kilometer). Vital rates resemble those of Western Europe, with a stable birthrate of 12 per 1,000, a death rate of ten per 1,000, and an infant mortality rate of 17 per 1,000. The north is rather densely populated and urbanized, while the south is far less so. There has been significant rural-urban migration, and the country has assimilated more than 600,000 refugees from its former overseas empire. During the 1950s and 1960s there were significant labor flows to the more industrialized nations of Western Europe. Their remittances have measurably aided the national economy. Such opportunities no longer exist in Western Europe and there has been a return migration that has added to the country's high unemployment rate of 15 percent.
\par \tab Three out of five Portuguese have not finished the first four years of elementary education. The number of illiterates in the population above 14 years of age is estimated to be 1 1/2 million, or nearly 25 percent. The number of people 20 to 60 are equal to the population under 20 and over 60--a dependency that is a major burden on the active members of the labor force.
\par {\b Cultural Life}
\par \tab Portugal's daily cultural life centers on the home and family. The great majority of people are practicing Roman Catholics, so the church is also a center of religious and cultural activity. People tend to gather in the evening in cafΘs, where entertainers sing melancholy folk songs called fados. Another area of entertainment is the popular bull ring, where animals are not slaughtered as is the common practice in Spain. The Portuguese national sport is futeball--called football in the rest of Europe and soccer in America.
\par \tab The most significant cultural achievements of the past date from the 15th and 16th centuries. 'The Lusiads', the finest works in Portuguese literature, were written by Luφs de Cam⌡es; a distinctive architectural style--the Manueline--emerged in the ornate monasteries and cathedrals of BelΘm and Coimbra; and the noted paintings of Nuno Gonτalves date from that era of discovery.
\par \tab Modern fiction has taken two forms: one with regional overtones and the other stark realism. In the latter group there are fictional studies of Portuguese rural life typified in works by JosΘ Maria de Eτa de Queir≤s, EugΘnio de Castro, and Miguel Torga. Regionally oriented fiction has depicted life in Brazil, the Azores, and East Africa. Lyric poetry, however, remains of great significance, and abstract painting and sculpture have a strong following.
\par \tab Portugal's capital, Lisbon, with more than 830,000 inhabitants, is a quasi-modern metropolis. It offers a strong contrast to the dominantly rural countryside. Not only is it the nation's largest city, but it is a major port, commercial center, and the hub of the country's heavy industries. Lisbon was almost destroyed by an earthquake in 1755, but remnants of the earlier era are still charming tourist attractions. Oporto is the second largest city. Both possess institutions of higher learning, but the major university is at Coimbra. Braga in the north is the leading religious center--an attraction for Portuguese and foreign pilgrims.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab Portugal is the poorest nation in the European Union, largely because it has never created a significant manufacturing sector. In the mid-1990s its per capita gross national product (GNP) was only about one fourth of the Western European average. Even Greece and Ireland were well ahead of Portugal, though they were also underdeveloped.
\par \tab From the 1970s the Portuguese economy has been in a constant state of crisis, largely due to the domestic shortcomings. A large number of Portugal's trading partners are economically troubled; thus the market for its products has declined. This, coupled with excessive overseas purchases, has resulted in a negative balance of trade that contributes to the budgetary deficit.
\par \tab Internally, capital and labor productivity are both very low, and few enterprises are in the technically advanced high-growth sectors. Expenditures on research and development are also very low. A large share of economic activity lies in the hands of state agencies. Energy, transportation, banking, insurance, and heavy industry were nationalized in 1974. Despite some privatization since then, the general structure remains largely unchanged. In Portugal such activities often operate at a loss.
\par \tab The role of agriculture has been greatly reduced since 1974. It now accounts for less than 10 percent of the GNP and employs roughly a quarter of the labor force. About 45 percent of the land of Portugal is arable. The remainder is handicapped by steep slopes, infertile soils, and, in the south, by low and erratic precipitation. The major portion of the cultivated area is devoted to the production of cereal grains--mainly wheat. Portugal is one of the world's leading wine producers. Its best-known export is port wine, which is produced mainly in the Douro Valley. Olive oil is also a leading export. Such fruits as apples, pears, and peaches are raised in the north, while oranges are grown in the warmer south. Limited amounts of these fruits are exported.
\par \tab Land reform, though initially troubled, has eased the lot of Portuguese farmers. Yet actual improvements in irrigation, fertilizers, and mechanization have lagged far behind initial plans. Thus agricultural productivity is still very low. The country continues to be a major importer of grain and other foodstuffs.
\par \tab There are reported scattered reserves of nonferrous ores, but the only significant product is tungsten, which is a major export. Although some coal is mined, it is of low quality, and the country depends on imports of petroleum and natural gas. This is a considerable drain on Portugal's balance of payments.
\par \tab Manufacturing has risen to 30 percent of the GNP. Light industries predominate, and handicraft production is still significant. These industries produce textiles, apparel, leather goods, ceramics, cork products, and canned fish (anchovies, sardines, and tuna). Heavy industries produce steel, metal products, machinery, and petrochemicals. In regional terms the Oporto-Braga area in the north focuses on labor-intensive light industries, while the Lisbon-Set·bal urban centers are dominated by capital-intensive heavy industries. High-tech plants exist, but their production is not significant. From the 1970s Portugal greatly improved its transportation network, but its infrastructure is still that of an underdeveloped country. A key problem is the railroad gauge, which differs from that of the rest of Western Europe.
\par {\b Government and History}
\par \tab Portugal has been a republic since the monarchy was overthrown in 1910. It has a single-chamber legislature, the Assembly of the Republic, with 230 members who serve four-year terms. Their selection is by popular vote and proportional representation. The president, who is head of state, serves a five-year term subject to renewal. He presides over the Council of State and appoints the prime minister, who presides over the Council of Ministers. This council, comparable to a cabinet, must have majority support in the Assembly.
\par \tab The president sets election dates, directs foreign policy, serves as commander in chief of the armed forces, and decides on the constitutionality of laws passed by the Assembly. The prime minister, as head of government, directs government policy and approves the national budget. It is the responsibility of the Council of Ministers to draw up a government program and present it to the Assembly shortly after a prime minister is appointed. The Assembly votes on policies and laws suggested by the prime minister and the council. The country is divided into 18 districts. The district governors are appointed by the minister of the interior.
\par \tab People first appeared in Iberia more than 500,000 years ago, but the first identifiable culture is that of the Iberians. Relics from their period have been dated to roughly 5000 BC. Several thousand years later there was an invasion of fierce marauders known as Celts, who ultimately conquered the original inhabitants of Iberia. As a result of intermarriage and assimilation, "new" Celts emerged whom scholars term Lusitanians.
\par \tab Rome conquered Iberia (Lusitania) in the 2nd century BC. Portugal was merely the western segment of the peninsula. Roman rule progressively rose and declined over the next six centuries. Ultimately the region was abandoned to Germanic tribes, who ruled until the Muslim invasion of AD 711, which left only northern Portugal under Christian rule. It was not until 1139 that Afonso Henriques became monarch of the new Portuguese kingdom that helped the Spanish to expel the Moors. Forty years later, in 1179, Pope Alexander III recognized the new state.
\par \tab Portugal's unique position on the Atlantic Ocean gave it an advantage when Europe began searching for new routes to the East. What has been called the Golden Age of Discovery began with the support of Prince Henry of Portugal. Explorers who sailed under Portuguese patronage included Bartholomew Diaz and Vasco da Gama, who pioneered routes around Africa to the Orient. Beginning in the 16th century Portugal amassed a huge empire in the Far East, Africa, and South America--an overseas empire about 23 times the size of the home country. In addition to the Azores and Madeira (now autonomous regions), the empire included Portuguese Timor; the peninsula of Macao, attached to China; the African colonies of Angola, the Cape Verde Islands, Mozambique, Portuguese Guinea (now Guinea-Bissau), and Sπo TomΘ e Prφncipe; Brazil, now the largest nation in Latin America; and the little colonies of Goa, Daman, and Diu on the Indian Ocean.
\par \tab In 1580 the Portuguese royal family died out. Philip II of Spain had his forces occupy the country. He was soon accepted as Philip I of Portugal. He and his successors ruled Portugal until 1640 amidst gradually increasing resentment. Finally, while Spain was embroiled in war with France, Portugal threw off the Spanish yoke. John, duke of Braganτa, was selected to become the new king. He was crowned as John IV on Dec. 15, 1640. The house of Braganτa remained on the throne of Portugal until 1910, although its hold on power was frequently challenged.
\par \tab Portugal forged a new and enduring alliance with England that lasted through the Napoleonic era in the early 19th century. Throughout much of this time Portugal's security was difficult to maintain, because its two allies--France and England--were often at war with each other. Difficulties were greatest during the Napoleonic wars, which devastated much of Portugal. When Napoleon's armies overran the Iberian Peninsula in 1807, they forced the Portuguese King John VI to flee to Brazil. The Peninsular War lasted until 1814, when the duke of Wellington finally defeated the French armies. John VI returned in 1821, but Brazil declared its independence a year later, ending Portuguese power in Latin America. Internal strife continued for several decades, however.
\par \tab By 1892 Portugal had been plunged into bankruptcy. Internal dissension culminated in the assassination of Carlos I and his eldest son, Luis, in 1908. Two years later his successor, Manuel II, was forced to abdicate, and Portugal was proclaimed a republic.
\par \tab Civil strife nevertheless persisted until 1926, when a military dictatorship gained control. Ant≤nio de Oliveira Salazar became premier in 1932. With the establishment of his "new state" in 1933, he was given dictatorial powers. Salazar ruled Portugal for 36 years. When Salazar became ill in 1968, he was replaced by Marcello Caetanao. This new dictator was determined to hold onto the remnants of empire at all costs. This led to his overthrow by army officers on April 25, 1974. The new president, Gen. Ant≤nio de Spφnola, pledged decolonization. Soon the colonies were abandoned, one by one. Portuguese Guinea (now Guinea-Bissau) became independent in 1974. Angola and the other African colonies followed in 1975. By 1976 only Macao was left, and that was scheduled to revert to China at the end of the century.
\par \tab After two years of turbulence and military rule, a new constitution was adopted in April 1976, and the first free elections in 50 years were held. At first the new government had strong Marxist leanings, but the failed economic policies of the Communists lost them support.
\par \tab Constitutional reforms in 1982 made it more difficult for the Communists to return to power. The Social Democratic party, under the leadership of Prime Minister Caraco Silva, managed to stay in power into the early 1990s. In July 1989 over 200 changes to the 1976 constitution were made to ensure the removal of Marxist elements. Faced with a distressed economy, the Social Democrats quickly abandoned their socialist principles.
\par \tab Portugal, along with Spain, joined the European Union (EU) in 1986. A strong five-year expansion of the economy, boosted by strong consumer spending, investment, and privatization of businesses, resulted.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by Allan Rodgers, Professor of Geography, Pennsylvania State University.
\par \tab {\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR PORTUGAL}
\par \tab Birmingham, David. A Concise History of Portugal (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1993).
\par \tab De Skalon, Anna, and Stadtler, Christa. We Live in Portugal (Watts, 1987).
\par \tab Selfridge, John. Portugal (Chelsea House, 1990).\par \tab Among all the Caribbean territories Puerto Rico has the closest association with the United States. In 1952 a new constitution made Puerto Rico an autonomous part of the United States called the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, or Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico. This subtropical island has developed into the only Caribbean island where industry and commerce exceed primary agricultural production. The island and its approximately 3.3 million citizens are self-governed as a free associated state of the United States.
\par \tab The people of Puerto Rico have a love of their country, or patria, that accepts the free association with the mainland but emphasizes loyalty to their own culture, way of life, spirit, folklore, hospitality, and ways of getting along with others. Many Puerto Ricans move between the island and United States mainland to get the "best of both worlds"--culture, identity, and a familiar environment in the former; material wealth, education, acquisition of skills, and opportunities for their children from temporary residence in the United States. Many return to the Caribbean; many stay in the United States; and the constant circulation of Puerto Ricans between homes is now an enduring feature of the island's experience.
\par \tab Economically Puerto Rico has a greater variety of industrial, commercial, and financial service activities and a better developed transportation network than other Caribbean islands. Statistics show that it has some of the most favorable economic and demographic conditions in Latin America and the Caribbean. In comparison to the United States, however, Puerto Rico's position is still below that of the poorest state of the Union, Mississippi.
\par {\b Land and Climate}
\par \tab Puerto Rico lies at the eastern end of the major island chain of the Caribbean, the Greater Antilles. The other islands in the chain--Cuba, Jamaica, and Hispaniola (Haiti and the Dominican Republic)--are larger and geographically more diverse. Puerto Rico's total area, including the neighboring islands it administers, is about 3,515 square miles (9,104 square kilometers). The two largest island dependencies--Vieques and Culebra--lie east of Puerto Rico proper. In the west are three smaller island dependencies--Mona, Monito, and Desecheo. The relatively smooth coastline is fringed by many small islands and cays, especially in the south and east. The island is roughly rectangular in shape and stretches for 110 miles (180 kilometers) from east to west between Punta Jiguero and Punta Puerca, with a width from north to south averaging 35 miles (56 kilometers).
\par \tab Relatively deep oceanic waters fringe Puerto Rico. The Mona Passage, which separates the island from Hispaniola to the west, is about 75 miles (120 kilometers) wide and more than 3,300 feet (1,000 meters) deep. Off the northern coast is the 28,000-foot- (8,500-meter-) deep Puerto Rico Trench, and to the south the sea bottom descends to the 16,400-foot- (5,000-meter-) deep Venezuelan Basin of the Caribbean. Only to the east is there a broad continental shelf where the islands of Vieques and Culebra are structural continuations of the nearby Virgin Islands.
\par \tab Puerto Rico is topographically rugged; its surface consists largely of hills, slopes, and mountains. The mountainous core is formed by the Cordillera Central and the Sierra de Luquillo, continuations of the Cordillera Central on neighboring Hispaniola. Both mountain ranges represent uplifted old surfaces strongly dissected by river erosion. Hill regions of equal irregularity and unevenness extend north and south of these mountains. Only 30 percent of the island can be classified as level or undulating, mostly in the form of an encircling narrow coastal plain.
\par \tab The topographical structure affects Puerto Rico's climate and soils. The soil lacks depth and plant nutrients, with less than a third--that of the coastal plain--having average to good qualities for agriculture. Overuse of low-quality and inadequate soil, especially in the hilly regions and mountainous interior, has contributed to damaging erosion of hillsides and gullies. Intensive conservation practices are encouraged in order to limit land use to pasture or forest development and to conserve water resources for the generation of hydroelectric energy.
\par \tab The island is situated firmly within the zone of the trade winds, which blow from the east and northeast most of the year, and it has equitable temperature ranges differentiated only by altitude: tierra caliente (hot, tropical) on the plains and low hills and tierra templada (moderate, subtropical) in the mountains. Extreme temperatures are rare, the average minimum and maximum being 63░ F (17░ C) in February and 88░ F (31░ C) in August. Great variability in precipitation, however, is the norm. Easterly waves, las ondas alisais, move westward within the trade-wind zone and cause frequent intense rains that at times last two to three days without interruption. Hurricanes rarely devastate Puerto Rico, but every year some pass near enough to affect the island's climate--particularly causing heavy precipitation during early fall, August to October. Cold fronts during the winter months occasionally bring relatively cold north winds, nortes, which drop the island's north coast temperatures to the island minimum of about 60░ F (16░ C).
\par \tab North of the mountainous interior it is wet--between 80 and 120 inches (200 and 300 centimeters) of rain annually, and in the rain shadow south of the mountain backbone it is relatively dry--between 40 and 50 inches (100 and 125 centimeters). The high temperatures throughout the year result in high evaporation rates of surface moisture so that much of Puerto Rico has semiarid conditions.
\par \tab The natural vegetation of the island before it became inhabited was forest. It ranged from low scrubby woodland, cactus scrub, and mangrove in tidal lagoons along windswept coasts to luxuriant tropical evergreen forests of the cordillera and sierras. Most has disappeared, as virtually all of the island's lands have been cultivated innumerable times. Only in those areas not amenable to agricultural exploitation of any kind was natural vegetation allowed to stand. Sites like the forest reserves of the Sierra de Luquillo in the northeast and some swamps on private lands are the sole remains of the once dense forest cover. Evergreen tropical rain forest and mountain forest at higher altitudes still survive at Luquillo. Tropical palm trees and tree ferns still grow densely right up to the mountain crests. Elsewhere semievergreen seasonal forests are found in the southern hills, and dry woodland scrub and cactus savannas remain in coastal areas of the south.
\par \tab By 1970 government efforts to conserve the remaining natural forest and to create and increase forest reserves began to have an effect on the serious rates of deforestation that had reduced the tree cover to about a quarter of the island. Trees have been planted on lands whose agricultural productivity declined as a result of erosion, while small groves have also been established in regions of agriculture and pasture. New forests have been planted with such fast-growing trees as eucalyptus, teak, and Honduran pine. Perhaps as significant is Puerto Rico's policy of relying on imports to supply lumber, paper, and their by-products. The island is large enough to produce all of its lumber requirements if it succeeds with its reforestation and conservation programs.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab Puerto Rico was known as BorinquΘn to the indigenous Arawak Indians who had settled the Greater Antilles as traditional hoe-and-garden cultivators, fishermen, and gatherers. When Europeans first settled the island in 1508, the prosperity of the Arawaks prompted the notion that here indeed was a "rich port." Imported diseases soon decimated the Arawak population. From a population of more than 30,000 before the arrival of the Europeans, missionary reports of 1515 recorded only 4,000. Deprived of their laborers, the European settlers soon abandoned their plantations and either returned to Spain or moved on to other Spanish settlements. A few colonists, administrators, and merchants remained in San Juan and Ponce, while most of the nearby interior was turned over to range for cattle. Puerto Rico remained a Spanish colony for the next three centuries, but it never matched the prosperity of its neighbors.
\par \tab Although slavery brought an African presence to Puerto Rico in the 18th and 19th centuries, there was a rebirth of European influences. Immigration movements first brought Biscayans, then Catalonians, and finally Asturians, Gallegos, and Majorcans from Spain. A network of new colonial towns developed around the coastal plains. Thriving on sugar production, Puerto Rico prospered. Venezuelans, Dominicans, Spanish loyalists, and French planters fleeing the revolutionary movements and bloodshed in other Spanish-American possessions found refuge in Puerto Rico.
\par \tab The decline of "king sugar" began in the 19th century, and by 1898, when Puerto Rico was ceded to the United States at the end of the Spanish-American War, the country's demographic and economic balance was in jeopardy. The population of nearly 1 million was predominantly rural (83 percent in 1899). Reliance on sugar as the country's export mainstay continued with ever-declining results as world prices dropped and Caribbean neighbors outproduced and outmarketed Puerto Rico's sugar industry. The farmers, jibaros, had always relied on labor-intensive cultivation and harvesting techniques. While this supported fairly high rural population densities, the changing circumstances led to pressure on the system when the island's population increased.
\par \tab Puerto Rico experienced a population explosion in the 20th century, through both continued immigration and natural increase. This growth undermined the island's agricultural base and increased the need for structural and economic changes. The population rose to 1.3 million by 1920, to 2.2 million by 1950, and to 3.3 million in 1985--a growth of more than 300 percent since 1899. The ethnic composition, however, remained as it was at the beginning of the century--approximately 80 percent being Caucasian of Spanish heritage and the remainder Afro-Caribbean.
\par \tab The 20th-century experience of Puerto Rico, however, is a story of two sides. During the 1940s rural and urban Puerto Ricans undertook migration as a way to survive and to find better circumstances. The island experienced a rural exodus, and the capital of San Juan and other large cities experienced very rapid growth. San Juan now has a population exceeding 400,000, and Bayam≤n, the second largest city, has well over 100,000 people.
\par \tab Emigration to the United States began in earnest after 1950 and rapidly swelled to a mass exodus. In 1953, for example, 75,000 emigrants left the island. New York City now has a Puerto Rican community in excess of three quarters of a million, and other Puerto Rican concentrations are found in several United States cities. This out-migration, however, was matched by return migration. Since 1965 the numbers of Puerto Ricans returning home have either equaled or exceeded those leaving. This circulation pattern and willingness to spend some time "off the island" is common among Puerto Ricans of all ages, and it serves as a continuing reinforcement of the interdependence of the island with its mainland partner. Patria and feelings of love for their island home are not diminished by this dual existence. Rather, Puerto Ricans adopt a practical approach to this way of getting the "best of both worlds."
\par {\b Culture}
\par \tab Puerto Rican culture retains a distinctly Latin flavor but is becoming increasingly permeated by American culture and traditions. The continuous interchange of people and ideas between the mainland and Puerto Rico is largely responsible for this cultural blending.
\par \tab Racial harmony has been commonplace in Puerto Rico since the time of the first European settlers 400 years ago; however, there are signs of discrimination. Puerto Ricans with darker skin color tend to occupy the lower rungs of the job market.
\par \tab Puerto Ricans are renowned for their warm-hearted and responsive natures and their family-oriented society. The return migration of Puerto Ricans from the United States and the modernization and Americanization as a result of industrialization, however, have had a major influence on traditional Puerto Rican values and norms. The extended family is slowly being replaced by the nuclear family. The customary Puerto Rican workday that allows a leisurely two-hour lunch break is being replaced by the 8 AM to 5 PM office schedule.
\par \tab The extended family remains a significant part of Puerto Rican society despite these changes. The compadrazgo tradition in which godparents have a certain responsibility for the raising of children also ensures a close and secure social environment. Compadrazgo has its roots in the Latino culture as does machismo, in which men show their manhood through certain attitudes toward women and life in general. Equality of the sexes has not developed as it has in the United States, and the man continues to be very much the head of a Puerto Rican household.
\par \tab Fiestas take up a major portion of the Puerto Rican calendar. Every town has its own saint or saint's day, which entails a week of music, dancing, games, and fancy dress. On San Juan Bautista Day, celebrations culminate in a midnight dip fully clothed in order to bring suerte, or "luck," for the coming year.
\par \tab Puerto Ricans now celebrate such American holidays as July 4 and Memorial Day. Traditionally Christmas was celebrated on Three Kings Day (Epiphany, January 6). Since shops and television programs announce the arrival of Santa Claus on December 25, however, both days are celebrated.
\par \tab Sports played by Puerto Ricans include bΘisbol (baseball) and baloncesto (basketball). There is a fierce commitment to local teams, and many Puerto Rican players make the big leagues in the United States. Horse racing and cockfighting have traditionally been enjoyed by Puerto Ricans, and these activities retain a large following.
\par \tab American food and music have infiltrated the island, and at the same time such traditional dishes as arroz con pollo, or "rice with chicken," are still widely enjoyed. Puerto Rican music holds its own with popular music. To counter the Americanization of the society, efforts have been made by a number of government and nongovernment organizations to preserve Puerto Rico's cultural heritage. There is no doubt that patria persists.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab The major feature of the 20th-century development of the Puerto Rican economy has been the rapid transition from agriculture to industry and commerce. This transition occurred mainly from 1940 to 1960. Large-scale agriculture, primarily sugar plantations, was first introduced by the Spanish as early as the 16th century, but a real commercial, export-oriented economy was not developed until the 19th century. Sugar plantations were owned by a small minority of families and were located on the flat or undulating coastal plains most suited to this type of agriculture. Cattle ranching and subsistence agriculture prevailed in the more mountainous interior.
\par \tab With United States interests dominating from 1898, there was increased interest in developing Puerto Rico's agricultural export potential. Between 1898 and 1930 sugar output increased by 900 percent and accounted for 40 percent of cultivated land, almost 50 percent of agricultural labor, and more than 30 percent of Puerto Rico's economic activity. Inequalities initiated during the Spanish colonial era increased, as jibaros were forced to leave their land and to work on sugar, tobacco, and coffee estates. In addition to sugar, tobacco production for the United States market increased fivefold during this period.
\par \tab Despite the dramatic growth in both sugar and tobacco output between 1898 and 1930, Puerto Rico experienced increasing economic problems because of the drop in price of these commodities on the world market and powerful competition from Caribbean neighbors. It was decided to transform the economy from this monoculture agricultural base to a predominantly industrial base.
\par \tab Initial moves toward industrialization were made by the government in 1942, but the launching of Operation Bootstrap in 1948 marked the real beginning. The basis was "industrialization by invitation"--the Puerto Rican government provided incentives for industries in the United States to locate in Puerto Rico. Incentives included the exemption from Puerto Rican taxes for 10 to 30 years and the provision of infrastructure, factory buildings, and trained workers. A law also exempted investors from paying federal taxes on income earned in Puerto Rico.
\par \tab Rapid structural change and economic reform followed. Whereas in 1947 only 13 United States factories were operating in Puerto Rico, by 1980 more than 2,000 factories were producing goods for the United States market. Industry overtook agriculture as the main contributor to Puerto Rico's gross national product (GNP) in 1956. Correspondingly the percentage of the labor force in agriculture fell from 21 percent in 1960 to 5 percent in 1985.
\par \tab From the 1940s to 1960 light industry made use of the available cheap labor in addition to the other incentives offered by the Puerto Rican government. In the early 1960s, however, the United States minimum-wage law caused much of this light industry to move from Puerto Rico to such sources of cheap labor as Haiti and Mexico.
\par \tab The labor-intensive industry of this early period has largely been replaced and augmented by capital-intensive, high-technology industry. The petrochemical industry and its satellites are central to this phase. The pharmaceutical industry now produces 17 percent of all pharmaceuticals marketed in the world. In 1985 chemicals accounted for 25 percent of Puerto Rico's exports, petroleum products 14 percent, machinery 15 percent, clothing 11 percent, and fish 8 percent. The United States is the chief trading partner, accounting for 84 percent of Puerto Rico's exports and 64 percent of its imports.
\par \tab Agriculture continues to play a role in the economy but accounts for only 4 percent of the GNP. During the early part of the 20th century, land became concentrated in the hands of a very few wealthy landowners. More small farms emerged as a result of the Land Law of 1941, but no comprehensive change of agrarian social structure came about. In 1950, 68 percent of Puerto Rico's agricultural land was still owned by only 6 percent of farm owners.
\par \tab Most farms are now of medium size and highly mechanized. Dairy and meat products lead in the agricultural economy, but sugar, tobacco, and coffee are still produced, and fruits--particularly pineapples--are grown for export. Sixty percent of arable land lies fallow, and 90 percent of food consumed is imported.
\par \tab The tourist industry is important to Puerto Rico as it is to many Caribbean nations. It is a sector greatly encouraged by the government. Many large hotels and resorts have been built in coastal areas, and tourism supplies more than 600 million dollars a year to the Puerto Rican economy, 75 percent of this coming from United States visitors.
\par \tab The economy is now firmly rooted in industry and is often quoted as a model for Caribbean development. Despite its prosperity relative to most Caribbean nations, problems remain--many stemming from the industrialization program itself. Unemployment has increased at an unprecedented rate, with capital-intensive agriculture and industry unable to absorb the expanding, but idle, work force. Emigration has relieved some of the pressure, but 11 percent unemployment in 1940 rose to 25 percent in the early 1980s.
\par \tab A second problem is environmental pollution. Puerto Rico is believed to be the most polluted island in the Caribbean. Toxic wastes from industrial processes find their way into rivers, streams, and drinking water, and huge quantities of hazardous solid and gaseous waste are deposited with little attention to public health or the environment. Responsibility lies both with the politicians, who failed to regulate pollution at the onset of the drive for industrialization, and with some of the industrialists.
\par \tab A further problem is the growing trade imbalance and public debt. Debt reached 8.2 billion dollars in the early 1980s, equaling 65 percent of the island's GNP. Close links with the declining United States economy in the early 1980s also weakened the Puerto Rican economy. If it were not for these close links, Puerto Rico's debt problem would be assessed as one of the worst in the developing world.
\par {\b Transportation and Education}
\par \tab Puerto Rico's road network expanded rapidly to coincide with agricultural and industrial development. More than 3,700 miles (6,000 kilometers) of roads connect centers of economic activity and the island's cities and towns. The network is most developed around the periphery and particularly in the vicinity of San Juan, where industrial and commercial activity is most intense. A relic of past technologies, the coastal railroad that once encircled the island was closed in 1957.
\par \tab The international airport at San Juan is essential to the tourist industry and international trade. An internal air service connects larger towns and cities and also services the Virgin Islands. Puerto Rico now serves as a major hub for flights to the northern Caribbean from the United States.
\par \tab The increase in volume and variety of goods with the onset of industrialization called for modernization of the island's ports. The majority of shipping is now handled at San Juan, Ponce, and Mayagⁿez, and all these ports are now entirely mechanized. Puerto Rican ports are used increasingly in the transshipment of goods between Pacific and Atlantic ports of the United States. Such ports as Ponce process and reexport to the United States fish from both the Pacific and the Caribbean.
\par \tab During the 1950s and 1960s up to 26 percent of the annual budget was allocated to education. Whereas only 50 percent of school-age children attended school in 1940, 85 percent did so by 1956. Eighty-nine percent of the population were said to be literate in the mid-1980s. Much emphasis has been placed on vocational training to provide skilled workers for new jobs in industry. Higher education is available at the University of Puerto Rico, the Inter-American University of Puerto Rico, the University of the Sacred Heart, and the Catholic University of Puerto Rico. Puerto Ricans also migrate to the United States to take advantage of educational opportunities there.
\par {\b History and Government}
\par \tab Christopher Columbus claimed Puerto Rico for Spain in 1493, but the arrival of the first governor--Juan Ponce de Le≤n--and the first Spanish settlers did not occur until 1508. The island remained Spanish despite harassment and conquest attempts by buccaneers and pirates and English and Dutch expeditions. To defend the island against these threats, two forts--El Morro and San Crist≤bal--were built to guard the approaches to San Juan harbor. Defense of these forts foiled attempts by Sir Francis Drake in 1595, by another English fleet in 1598, and by the Dutch in 1625 to capture Puerto Rico for their respective empires. The defeat of the British in 1797 finally thwarted that country's designs on the island, and the Spanish realm was kept intact.
\par \tab Puerto Rico was characterized primarily by peasant agriculture until the early 19th century, when Spanish law was changed to allow unrestricted trade. Concentration of land into the hands of a small elite followed, and export-oriented agriculture became prominent.
\par \tab Puerto Ricans revolted against Spanish domination in 1868, and in 1897 home rule was established. Puerto Rico was given the status of a Spanish dominion. This autonomy was short lived, however, as the United States defeated Spain in the Spanish-American War and was ceded Puerto Rico in 1898.
\par \tab By the Jones act of 1917, Puerto Ricans became American citizens, and Puerto Rico became an unincorporated territory of the United States. Partial self-government was granted in 1947, enabling citizens to elect their own governor. Further autonomy was granted in 1951, when Puerto Ricans wrote their own constitution and elected a nonvoting commissioner to represent them in Washington.
\par \tab Puerto Ricans now have most of the benefits of American citizenship. These include federal welfare aid, which is of major benefit to the island. The largest portion of federal aid--the food stamp program--benefits approximately 50 percent of the population. Puerto Ricans are unable to vote in United States presidential elections despite being subject to service in the armed forces. Domination of Puerto Rico by the United States is a major political issue. The independistas call for total independence as a nation-state; others support the present commonwealth status; and some advocate statehood, hoping to see Puerto Rico become the 51st state. In March 1991 the governor, Rafael Hernßndez Col≤n, signed into law a bill making Spanish the only official language.
\par \tab In September of 1989 Hurricane Hugo tore through Puerto Rico, where it left six people dead and 50,000 homeless and caused an estimated 700 million dollars in insured losses. The eastern coast and Culebra and Vieques islands were hardest hit, and much of the island's agriculture was wiped out.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by Dennis Conway, Associate Professor of Geography and Director, Center for Latin American and Caribbean Studies, Indiana University, Bloomington.
{\b BIBLIOGRAPHY FOR PUERTO RICO}
\par \tab Carri≤n, Arturo. Puerto Rico: A Political and Cultural History (Norton, 1983).
\par \tab Foran, T.J. Puerto Rico (McGraw, 1976).
\par \tab Gonzßlez, J.L. Puerto Rico: The Four-Storeyed Country (Waterfront Press, 1990).
\par \tab Newton, Clarke. Famous Puerto Ricans (Dodd, Mead, 1975).
\par \tab Robinson, Kathryn. The Other Puerto Rico (Hunter, 1988).
\par \tab White, Trumbull. Puerto Rico and Its People (Ayer, 1975).\par \tab The State of Qatar is situated on a small peninsula jutting northward from Arabia into the Persian Gulf. The peninsula is 100 miles (160 kilometers) long, and has a maximum width of 50 miles (80 kilometers). The total land area is approximately 4,400 square miles (11,400 square kilometers). Its land boundaries meet the United Arab Emirates and Saudi Arabia. The capital city, Doha, is located on the east coast. Until the discovery of petroleum in 1939 Doha was a small fishing village. With a population of 236,131 (1987 census), it is home to almost half of the country's people. The island of Halul, 60 miles (97 kilometers) east of the capital, is the collecting and storage site for the nation's offshore oil fields.
\par \tab Qatar is primarily a windblown desert, with sand dunes, salt flats, and arid plains. Since the discovery of petroleum and the prosperity it has brought, some land has been turned to agriculture. There is little rainfall, but there is sufficient groundwater for growing fruits and vegetables. Distilled seawater provides most drinking water.
\par \tab The majority of the population is composed of emigrants from other Arab states, South Asia, and Iran. Only about 20 percent are native Qataris. This immigration resulted from the development of the petroleum and related industries. Arabic is spoken by most of the people, but English is also commonly used. Like its neighboring Arab countries, Qatar is an Islamic state, but it is not as strict in its observance as is Saudi Arabia. Prosperity helped to liberalize the country, but many of the people still retain traditional dress and customs.
\par \tab Although Qatar's petroleum output represents less than 1 percent of world production, it has made the nation prosperous. To offset its dwindling reserves, however, the government has promoted the development of other sources of income. Natural gas reserves are expected to make up for some loss of oil income. In addition to Qatar's petrochemical refineries, there is a steel mill, a fertilizer plant, and a flour mill. Qatar has a good road system, port facilities, and several airfields.
\par \tab Qatar is a constitutional monarchy whose head of state is called an emir. After World War I Great Britain assumed a protectorate over the region. The protectorate was terminated on Sept. 1, 197l, and Qatar declared its independence. The government took its present form in 1972, when the king became emir. In the early 1980s he also became prime minister. Population (1993 estimate), 521,000.\par \tab An island in the western Indian Ocean, RΘunion is located about 450 miles (720 kilometers) east of Madagascar. Roughly oval in shape, it covers an area of 970 square miles (2,512 square kilometers). It was a French colony until 1946, when it became a French overseas department. Volcanic in origin, its landform is dominated by volcanic cones, craters, and high plateaus. There are irregular eruptions. Frequent tropical cyclones result in abundant annual rainfall.
\par \tab The economy is largely based on sugar, which makes up about three fourths of RΘunion's total export. Vanilla beans, tobacco, vegetables, and geraniums--used in making perfume--are grown primarily for export. Tourism, fishing, and rum distilling also contribute to the economy. The island's trade is mainly with France. Road vehicles, petroleum products, cement, and foodstuffs are major imports. A paved road encircles the island. St-Denis, the capital and largest city, has an international airport.
\par \tab RΘunion's population consists largely of Creoles and East Indians. The majority of the population is Roman Catholic. French is the official language, but Creole is the language in common use. School is taught in French. There is a teacher-training college. RΘunion has several hospitals and a health-services network.
\par \tab First visited by Portuguese explorers in the early 1500s, RΘunion was settled by the French in the 17th century. The island has been the headquarters of French military forces in the Indian Ocean since 1973. Population (1986 estimate), 556,000.\par \tab Once part of the Roman Empire, as its name and language indicate, Romania has had a long and varied history. At various times its territory has been occupied by Hungarians, Turks, and Russians, but after World War I Romania emerged as a united country. A member of the Soviet bloc for more than 40 years, Romania was the last unreconstructed stronghold of old-line Stalinist Communism to fall as democratic reforms swept the rest of Eastern Europe in late 1989.
\par {\b Land and Climate}
\par \tab The area of Romania is 91,699 square miles (237,500 square kilometers). It is bounded on the north and east by Ukraine and Moldova, on the northwest by Hungary, on the southwest by Yugoslavia, on the south by Bulgaria, and on the southeast by the Black Sea.
\par \tab About 30 percent of the country is covered by mountains. The main ranges are the Eastern and Southern Carpathians. Some peaks in the Eastern Carpathians reach more than 7,500 feet (2,280 meters) in height, while the Southern Carpathians reach 8,346 feet (2,544 meters) at the peak of Moldoveanul, the highest point in Romania. In the west there is a smaller area of mountains known as the Western Carpathians. They reach more than 5,900 feet (1,800 meters) in height.
\par \tab Bordering the Carpathian ranges are zones of hills and tablelands. To the east of the Eastern Carpathians there is the Moldovan Plateau, while to the west is the large Transylvanian Plateau. In the east the Dobrogea Plateau extends from the Danube River to the Black Sea. To the south of the zone of foothills and plateaus lies the great Walachian Plain. In the west of the country the smaller Tisza River plain extends from the Western Carpathians to the Hungarian border. Another area of flatland is the Danube River delta. The delta is in an area of swamps, sandbanks, and floating reed islands.
\par \tab The longest river is the Danube, which flows for 668 miles (1,075 kilometers) through Romanian territory to the Black Sea. Most other rivers are tributaries of the Danube; the major ones are the Jiu, Olt, Arge, and Ialomia--all of which flow across the Walachian Plain. The Siret and the Prut flow from the northeast. The second longest river, the Mure, flows for 477 miles (768 kilometers) westward to join in Hungary the Tisza, a tributary of the Danube. There are no lakes of any large size.
\par \tab The soils of Romania vary greatly. The most fertile are the black-earth soils of the plains, but much of the country is covered by brown forest soils of moderate fertility. The soils of the mountain and hill regions are less fertile.
\par \tab Romania has a variety of mineral resources. The major sources of energy are natural gas and petroleum. Extraction of petroleum began as early as the 1850s, and reserves are now small. They are expected to be exhausted by the mid-1990s. Natural gas reserves are much larger. Coal supplies are limited and include hard coal and lignite.
\par \tab Metallic minerals include copper, lead, zinc, bauxite, iron ore, chromium, manganese, and uranium. Gold, silver, and other rare metals are also found. Most of these deposits are sufficient for domestic requirements. The country does not have enough iron ore for its needs, however, and some must be imported.
\par \tab Romania's climate is continental, with hot summers and cold winters. Winters in the mountains are particularly severe. Precipitation varies from region to region with highest levels in the mountains. On the whole the climate is good for farming. Bucharest, on the Walachian Plain, has an average July temperature of 74░ F (23.3░ C) and a January temperature of 27░ F (-2.8░ C). Annual precipitation averages 22.8 inches (58 centimeters).
\par {\b Plants and Animals}
\par \tab About a quarter of the country's area is covered by forests, of which about 60 percent are in the mountains. Fir and spruce are the most common trees in the mountains, while the lower slopes have forests of deciduous trees such as beech and oak. The plains and tablelands have grass vegetation with scattered trees. The Danube Delta has vast areas of reeds and other aquatic plants.
\par \tab Animal life includes such animals as the chamois, bear, lynx, deer, wolf, fox, badger, and polecat. A large variety of birds includes the eagle, vulture, and hawk. Pelicans are common in the Danube Delta. A large number of species of sea and freshwater fishes are also found.
\par {\b People and Culture}
\par \tab The population of Romania is more than 23 million. Of these the majority (88 percent) are Romanians. There are about 1.8 million Hungarians (about 8 percent of the population), who live mainly in the center of the country. There are about 371,000 Germans. They are permitted to immigrate to Germany, but Hungarians may not move to Hungary. There are about 255,000 Gypsies and about 26,000 Jews. Emigration of Jews is permitted.
\par \tab The Romanian language is a Romance language akin to Italian and Spanish but containing some Slavic words. The Romanians are proud of their Latin heritage, which distinguishes them from their Slav and Hungarian neighbors.
\par \tab The Romanians belong mainly to the Romanian Orthodox church, which receives considerable government recognition and support. Most other Romanians are Greek Orthodox or Muslim. There are some Protestants.
\par \tab About 53 percent of the population live in cities. The largest city is the capital, Bucharest, with more than 2.3 million inhabitants, or about 19 percent of the urban population of the country. Other large cities are Braov, Timioara, Iai, Cluj-Napoca, Constana, Galai, Craiova, Ploieti, and Brila.
\par \tab Education is free and compulsory from ages 6 to 16. There are six universities--in Bucharest, Iai, Cluj-Napoca, Timioara, Craiova, and Braov. There are also several institutes and colleges of higher education.
\par \tab Romania has a rich and varied folk culture. Folk music is popular, as is folk poetry. Each of the country's regions has its own costumes, art, and customs.
\par \tab From this folk culture modern Romanian artists, musicians, and writers have gained much of their inspiration. Romanian poets such as Mihail Eminescu, writers such as Mihail Sadoveanu, and musicians such as Georges Enesco--have drawn on the rich heritage of Romanian folk life. Artists, such as the sculptor Constantin Brancusi and the painter Nicolae Grigorescu, were influenced by French ideas.
\par {\b Economy and Transportation}
\par \tab Agriculture still plays a large role in the Romanian economy, with about 20 percent of the population engaged in farming. Agriculture had been collectivized by the government, and most farms are cooperatives or are state-owned. Corn (maize) is the major crop, followed by wheat, potatoes, sugar beets, grapes, and cabbages. Romania is noted for its orchards and vineyards, and a variety of wines are produced and exported. Sheep and pigs are kept in large numbers, along with cattle.
\par \tab Industry in Romania is state-owned, though a few businesses are cooperatives. Particular attention has been given to the iron and steel industry, engineering, and petrochemicals. A large investment in petrochemical plants coincided with a decrease in Romania's reserves and the need to import oil.
\par \tab The manufacturing industry produces tractors, motor vehicles, ships, machine tools, and other equipment. The textile industry is significant and produces clothing for export. The forestry industry supplies material to be used in the manufacture of furniture and pulp and paper.
\par \tab Compared with other European countries, the production of electric power lags despite the construction of the largest hydroelectric power station in Europe. It is located on the Danube River. Electric-power supplies to homes are strictly controlled at a low level. Romania's economy is in a poor state because of inefficiency, bad planning, and lack of any incentive for the population.
\par \tab The railroad is the major form of transportation but has a relatively sparse network. The road network is larger, but there are few major highways. The Danube River, the main water route, is connected with the Black Sea by a new canal to the port of Constana. The national airline is Tarom, which operates from the Bucharest airport. Radio and television broadcasting was controlled by the state, as was telephone and telegraph service until 1990, when the state broadcasting service was renamed Romanian Free Television with major programming changes. A new independent press agency and a variety of newspapers flourished.
\par {\b Government and History}
\par \tab For more than 40 years Romania was a socialist republic controlled by the Romanian Communist party, led by the general secretary, Nicolae Ceausescu. His regime was overthrown in December 1989. On Jan. 12, 1990, the Communist party was outlawed, and a popular front introduced measures to lead the country to a free-market economy.
\par \tab When the Romans, under the command of the emperor Trajan, invaded and occupied the territory of present-day Romania in AD 101, they found it populated by the Dacians. Latin-speaking colonists from other parts of the empire arrived, and eventually a mixed Dacian-Roman population developed. They were ancestors of the modern Romanians.
\par \tab Little is known of Romania until about the 10th century. At that time Hungarians arrived from the east and settled in the province known as Transylvania. For centuries thereafter Transylvania was a disputed territory with both Romanians and Hungarians claiming possession.
\par \tab Transylvania became part of the Hungarian state, and Romanian states were established in Walachia, south of the Carpathians, and in Moldavia to the east. These states suffered during the Turkish invasion and occupation of southeastern Europe in the 14th and 15th centuries. One of the Turkish-appointed rulers of Walachia, Michael the Brave (Mihai Viteazul), revolted against the Turks and defeated them in 1595. He crossed into Transylvania and defeated a Hungarian army. In 1600 he declared himself ruler of Walachia, Moldavia, and Transylvania and was thus the first ruler of a united Romania. The following year he was murdered, and the Turks resumed control.
\par \tab After the Russo-Turkish War of 1828-29, the Russians became a major power in the region. Although the Turks still controlled most of the Romanian lands, their power had weakened. In 1859 Walachia and Moldavia were united under the name Romania. In 1877 Turkish control of Romania ended, but Russia retained Bessarabia. International recognition came after the signing in 1878 of the Treaty of Berlin. Transylvania remained under Hungarian control. In 1881 Charles I became the first king of Romania. World War I and the defeat of Austria-Hungary by the Allies gave Romania the opportunity to occupy Transylvania in 1918. At the same time Bessarabia was reunited with Romania. The 1920s and 1930s were marked by considerable political unrest. King Carol II, who came to the throne in 1930, yielded to Soviet pressure in 1940 to surrender Bessarabia and to German pressure to yield part of Transylvania to Hungary. Carol fled the country, and his son Michael was declared king. The country was run, however, by Gen. Ion Antonescu, who had German support.
\par \tab Antonescu took part in the 1941 German invasion of the Soviet Union, regaining Bessarabia. This participation, however, was disastrous for the Romanians, who lost some 350,000 men in the fighting. When the Soviet army entered Romania in 1944, King Michael arrested Antonescu and pledged support for the Soviet Union against Germany.
\par \tab At the end of World War II the Soviets gave Transylvania back to Romania as a reward for participation on their side but kept Bessarabia. In 1947 the Communists seized power with Soviet support, and King Michael abdicated. Local Communists proclaimed the Romanian People's Republic in 1948. Romania began to develop its own foreign policy while maintaining a rigid Communist system at home. This policy was continued by Nicolae Ceausescu, who became party leader in 1965 and ruled with a fist of iron for the next 24 years. As other Communist governments began to fall in late 1989, he vowed never to relinquish power. His regime collapsed after he ordered troops to fire on a crowd of protesters. Thousands of antigovernment protesters were killed by the security forces. Ceausescu and his wife fled but were captured by the armed forces, summarily tried, and executed by firing squad on Dec. 25, 1989.
\par \tab From the December revolution to Feb. 1, 1990, the country was ruled by the 145-member National Salvation Front. A coalition of parties replaced the Front until May 20, when Romania held its first free national elections in 53 years. The presidential candidate of the Front, former Communist Ion Iliescu, easily won. The lack of a strong opposition worried Romanians who saw in later government crackdowns on anti-Communist protesters evidence that the new government might be little different from the old Communist regime. Western industrialized nations agreed in 1991 to allow Romania into an economic aid program set up to help the emerging democracies in Eastern Europe. A coal miners' strike over economic issues forced a change of government in September 1991.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by Ian M. Matley, Professor of Geography, Michigan State University, East Lansing; author of 'Romania: A Profile' (1970).
\par \tab {\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR ROMANIA}
\par \tab Brinkle, Lydle. Hippocrene Companion Guide to Romania (Hippocrene, 1990).
\par \tab Carran, Betty. Romania (Childrens, 1988).
\par \tab Lye, Keith. Take a Trip to Romania (Watts, 1988).
\par \tab Otetea, Andrei and MacKenzie, Andrew, eds. A Concise History of Romania (St. Martin's, 1985).
\par \tab Turnock, David. The Romanian Economy in the Twentieth Century (St. Martin, 1986).\par \tab Formerly the preeminent republic of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, Russia has been an independent nation since the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. As part of the Soviet Union, it was called the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic, or the Russian Federation.
\par \tab With an area of 6,592,800 square miles (17,075,300 square kilometers), it is the world's largest country, almost twice the size of either China or the United States. Covering much of Eastern Europe as well as the whole of Northern Asia, Russia extends nearly halfway around the Northern Hemisphere. It stretches some 4,800 miles (7,700 kilometers) along the Arctic Circle and from 1,250 to 1,800 miles (2,000 to 2,900 kilometers) north to south. Its most characteristic landscape is a rolling to flat plain. Two such plains are divided by the Ural Mountains that form the traditional boundary between Europe and Asia. In contrast, eastern Siberia is hilly to mountainous tableland. There are active volcanoes on the Kamchatka Peninsula and the Kuril Islands.
\par \tab More than 80 percent of the 149 million people who live in Russia are ethnic Russians. There are also some 75 ethnic groups. Almost three quarters of the people live in urban areas. The chief cities are St. Petersburg, Novosibirsk, Nizhni Novgorod, and the capital, Moscow, which was also the capital of both the Russian Federation and the Soviet Union.
{\b LAND}
\par \tab Russia has the longest border of any country on Earth. In the west it borders Norway, Finland, the Gulf of Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Belarus. (A small exclave of Russia, Kaliningrad--formerly East Prussia--borders the Baltic Sea on the west, Poland on the south, and Lithuania on the east and north.) In the southwest Russia borders Ukraine, and in the south it touches the Sea of Azov, the Black Sea, Georgia, Azerbaijan, the Caspian Sea, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, China, and North Korea. In the east and north it borders various branches of the Pacific and Arctic oceans, respectively.
\par {\b Surface Features}
\par \tab Russia contains two stable blocks--the Eastern European and Siberian platforms. The suture that ties the two platforms together is the 250-million-year-old Ural Mountain chain. Around these platforms are folded mountain systems of younger ages. The platforms' ancient rocks (more than 550 million years old) are exposed on the Fenno-Scandian Shield, in the southern Urals, and on Siberia's Aldan and Anabar shields. The youngest materials are the sediments of the Azov-Caspian and West Siberian plains.
\par \tab The European part is covered by sediments except in the northwest (Kola-Karelia). The highest elevations outside the Urals in the west are in the Khibin Mountains of the Kola Peninsula--some 3,000 feet (900 meters) above sea level. Elsewhere the region consists of low-lying plains and peat bogs, except in the Valday Hills, which have a maximum elevation of 1,138 feet (347 meters); the Smolensk-Moscow Ridge and the Central Russian Upland--both approximately 1,000 feet (300 meters); and the pre-Volga Heights. The Valday Hills and Smolensk-Moscow Ridge are morainal deposits that trapped meltwater from Pleistocene glaciers and created proglacial lakes and marshes.
\par \tab On the southern lip of the Crimean Peninsula in neighboring Ukraine begins the first of a long string of bordering mountain ranges that penetrate into eastern Siberia and the Russian Far East. The Crimean, or Yaila, Mountains are separated from the Greater Caucasus by the Kerch' Peninsula in Ukraine and Kerch' Strait. The Greater Caucasus are flanked on the north by the broad Stavropol' Upland. Many of the mountains of the range are igneous, including Mount El'brus--at 18,481 feet (5,633 meters) the highest peak in Europe.
\par \tab The Ural Mountains are low-lying remnants of much higher ranges. The northern Urals are highest. The central Urals are lowest and are the location of the main transportation routes, including the Trans-Siberian Railroad. The southern Urals are of medium elevation but broad. For more than 200 million years the once-mighty Urals have been attacked by the Volga-Kama system and the rivers of the Ob' network. Sediments have filled basins on both sides of the divide, but none so remarkably as the West Siberian Plain.
\par \tab For 1,000 miles (1,600 kilometers) from the Urals eastward to the Yenisey, and for 1,200 miles (1,900 kilometers) north to south, the West Siberian Plain never rises more than approximately 600 feet (180 meters) above sea level. The Ob' River and its tributaries flow slowly across this massive "pool table" into the Arctic Ocean. When the southern tributaries swell with meltwater in the spring, the main trunk, the Ob', is still ice-dammed in the north. The flooding is extensive, creating the world's largest sphagnum bog, the Vasyugan Swamps, on the world's largest plain.
\par \tab East of the Yenisey River lies the Central Siberian Plateau, from which flow the major tributaries of the Yenisey and Lena. In the south the mountain arc continues as the Altai Range, where the Ob' River is born. Two arms of the Altai system confine a valley of the Tom' River, a right-bank tributary of the Ob'. Within the valley (the Kuznetsk Basin), deposits of high-quality coal have been unearthed. The Altai merges with the Sayan Range in the east.
\par \tab Beyond the Sayans is Lake Baikal (or Baykal), in an active rift valley that is separating at a rate of 1 to 2 inches (2.5 to 5 centimeters) per year. Baikal's surface area is relatively unimpressive--the size of Belgium--but it is the world's deepest lake. More than 1 mile (1,600 meters) deep in the late 1980s, Baikal gets deeper with every earthquake, and in several million years it will become a new ocean. It contains a fifth of the world's fresh water--more water than all five of the Great Lakes of North America combined. If Baikal could be drained, it would take all the rivers of the Earth nearly a year to fill it again. Truly unique on Earth, Baikal is home to more than 1,700 species of plants and animals, two thirds of which can be found nowhere else in the world.
\par \tab Lake Baikal forms a tectonic divide. In the west is the pre-Baikal Upland. In the east is Transbaikalia, which merges in the southeast with the Yablonovyy Range. Swinging arclike first eastward and then northward along the coast of the Sea of Okhotsk are the Stanovoy, Dzhugdzhur, and Kolyma ranges. The Anadyr', Koryak, and Kamchatka ranges compose the Chukchi and Kamchatka peninsulas. The latter is one of the Earth's most volcanically active regions. This is also true of the Kuril (derived from the Russian verb "to smoke") Islands. In the southeast the Amur River is flanked in the north by the Bureya Range and in the south by the Sikhote-Alin'. Deep in the interior along the eastern bank of the Lena is the Verkhoyansk Range, which links with the Cherskiy Range.
\par \tab In eastern Siberia lowlands are dispersed. The Central Siberian Lowland divides the same-named upland from the hilly Taymyr Peninsula. The Lena River creates the Central Yakut Lowland in its middle course near Yakutsk. Likewise the Kolyma Lowland is the product of the Kolyma River's winding course. Along the Amur is the fertile Zeya-Bureya Plain, and along the Ussuri River, a right-bank tributary of the Amur, is the Ussuri Lowland.
\par {\b Major Rivers and Lakes}
\par \tab Of its 100,000 rivers, Russia contains some of the world's longest. Of these five the shortest, the Volga, is the most famous--not only because it is the longest river in Europe but also because of its major role in Russian history. The other four are in Asia: Ob'-Irtysh, Amur, Lena, and Yenisey. All but the Amur flow northward into the Arctic Ocean. The "Mother Volga" flows southward but into the world's largest "lake," the landlocked, saltwater Caspian Sea. Finally, 336 rivers flow into Lake Baikal, and only one, the mighty Angara, a tributary of the Yenisey, flows out. If all 336 influents ceased to flow, it would take the Angara 307 years to drain the lake.
\par \tab The Land of Lakes is in Karelia south to the Valday Hills. Here Pleistocene glaciers left thousands of bodies of water as they receded. The largest of these are Lake Ladoga and Lake Onega. Other sizable lakes are found in Central Asia.
\par {\b Natural Resources}
\par \tab Russia, especially the Urals and Siberia, is rich in industrial resources. It contains perhaps the world's largest iron-ore deposit, the Kursk Magnetic Anomaly. The Urals contain almost every mineral but are short of coal. Coal is mined in the Pechora, Kuznetsk, and Kansk-Achinsk basins. Petroleum and natural gas are extracted in western Siberia and also in the Volga-Urals fields and the North Caucasus.
\par {\b Climate and Vegetation}
\par \tab Because of its size Russia displays both monotony and diversity. As with its topography, its climates, vegetation, and soils span vast distances. The climates of both European and Asian Russia are continental except for the tundra and the extreme southeast. Great ranges of temperature are typical. In winter temperatures get colder both from south to north and from west to east. Summers can be quite hot and humid, even in Siberia.
\par \tab Russia also has low annual precipitation that almost everywhere averages less than 20 inches (51 centimeters) and peaks in summer--usually in July or August. The continental interiors are the driest areas.
\par \tab From north to south the East European Plain is clad sequentially in tundra, coniferous forest (taiga), mixed forest, broadleaf forest, grassland (steppe), and semidesert (fringing the Caspian Sea) as the changes in vegetation reflect the changes in climate. Siberia supports a similar sequence but lacks the mixed forest. Most of Siberia is taiga. Soils vary from rich, black loams in the steppe to very acidic podzols in the taiga to bog types in the tundra and Siberian swamps.
{\b PEOPLE AND CULTURE}
\par \tab With a population of more than 148.5 million in the early 1990s, Russia ranks sixth in the world after China, India, the United States, Brazil, and Indonesia. Of all the 15 former Soviet Union republics, Russia has the greatest ethnic diversity, with about 75 distinct nationalities. Russians make up about 82 percent of the total, and only three others (Tatars, Ukrainians, and Chuvash) constitute more than 1 percent each. Language groups include Indo-European, comprising Eastern Slavic and Iranian tongues; Altaic, including Turkic, Mongolian, and Manchu-Tungus; Uralic, including Finno-Ugric and Samoyedic; and Caucasian, comprising Abkhazo-Adyghian and Nakho-Dagestani. In addition, there are several Paleo-Asiatic groups in far eastern Siberia.
\par \tab As a whole, Russia's rate of population growth is well below that of previous decades, resulting primarily from a decline in the birthrate of the Russian majority. Rates among minority peoples continue to grow, particularly those with Muslim backgrounds. Migration from European Russia to Siberia and the Far East has resulted in regional variations.
\par {\b Settlement Patterns}
\par \tab By 1990 more than 74 percent of Russia's population was classified as urban. The largest numbers lived in the European section, where from 1960 to 1990 the rural population fell by nearly 30 percent. This resulted in about 160 cities with more than 100,000 inhabitants and 13 with more than 1 million each. Moscow and St. Petersburg are by far the largest, with more than 8 million and 5 million, respectively. Other concentrated urban areas include the banks of the Volga River, the Donets Coal Basin industrial zone, the mining and industrial centers of the Ural Mountains, the Kuznetsk Coal Basin east of the Urals, and a number of widely separated towns along the entire length of the Trans-Siberian Railroad. There are isolated ports and mining centers in the far north, resort towns on the Black Sea, and the capitals of oblasts and other administrative centers.
\par \tab Most rural dwellers live in large villages associated with collective and state farms established during the Soviet era. These carry on the long-established Russian tradition of communal farming.
\par {\b Education}
\par \tab During the Soviet period, education was highly centralized, and indoctrination into Marxist-Leninist theory was a major element of schooling. The end of Communism led to extensive curriculum revision.
\par \tab Many preschool children attend crΦches, or nursery schools. They are not compulsory, and parents must contribute financially to them. Free, compulsory education begins when a child reaches the age of 7 and lasts for a minimum of eight years. More than 60 percent of students, however, attend for ten years. Minority children are taught in their own languages, but the study of Russian is required at the secondary level.
\par \tab Entry to higher education is selective and highly competitive. Most undergraduate courses require five years. Higher education is almost entirely in Russian, though a few institutions--mostly in minority areas--use the local language as well.
\par {\b Russian Language}
\par \tab Russian, the language of the Great Russian people, is one of the three families of the Eastern Slavic branch of the Indo-European linguistic family. The roots of the Russian language are some 3,000 to 4,000 years old.
\par \tab As a result of the work on Old Church Slavonic begun by Saints Cyril and Methodius in the 800s, the Russians in AD 988 received Christianity in their own language. Russian thus was influenced strongly by Greek (by way of Byzantium) and the language of the Eastern Orthodox church. Russian was shaped by the 300-year occupation of the country by Mongol-Tatars. Through the years it was also influenced by Polish, German, French, Italian, and Latin. Since World War II it has borrowed many American terms. In turn Russian exerted its own influence on Old Church Slavonic and on other neighboring languages spoken in Russia.
\par \tab The earliest written texts, the Chronicles, originated in the 1100s in a mixture of original Russian and Old Church Slavonic. Peter the Great made his mark on the language by altering the Old Church Slavonic alphabet in the early 1700s. Peter's alphabet was further simplified in 1918 to form the current system of 33 letters.
\par {\b Literature}
\par \tab The Russian language reflects a rich oral literary tradition, consisting of proverbs, folk tales, legends, and heroic ballads that may be traced to the earliest Eastern Slavic tribes. The Chronicles date from the time when Kiev was the cultural center of Russia, from 988 to 1240. From that time until the reign of Peter the Great in the late 17th and early 18th centuries, written literature was mainly the handmaiden of the Russian Orthodox church.
\par \tab The 1800s are recognized as the Golden Age of Russian literature, a time when it began to show a conscience, especially regarding serfdom and the downtrodden. The so-called "Russian Shakespeare," Aleksandr Pushkin, blended European and native Russian influences to perfection.
\par \tab "Russia's Byron," Mikhail Lermontov, is considered Russia's greatest Romanticist, and he was the first Russian poet to describe not only the beauty of the Caucasus Mountains but also Caucasian culture and folk art. Other great writers of the Golden Age include Nikolai Gogol, Ivan Goncharov, Ivan Turgenev, Fedor Dostoevski, Leo Tolstoi, Anton Chekhov, Maksim Gorki, and Aleksandr Blok. Anton Chekhov, Maksim Gorki, and the poet Aleksandr Blok wrote works that overlapped the 19th and 20th centuries. With them came another literary and artistic revival, designated sometimes as Russia's Silver Age.
\par \tab Soviet literature served the political regime. In 1932 Soviet writers were organized into the Union of Soviet Writers, which was guided by the Stalinist doctrine of socialist realism. Outstanding Russian writers of the Soviet period were Boris Pasternak, Alexander Solzhenitsyn, Vladimir Mayakovski, Mikhail Sholokhov, and the poets Yevgeny Yevtushenko and Andrei Voznesensky.
\par {\b Visual Arts}
\par \tab Like literature, Russian art was the servant of the Orthodox church until the reign of Peter the Great. Until then borrowings from the Scythians, Sarmatians, Huns, and Turko-Mongols were the basis for the rich background of folk art that entered the liturgical tradition by way of embroidery, metalwork, leatherwork, wood carving, and some bas-relief sculpture.
\par \tab {\b Painting and sculpture.}
\par \tab Sculpture did not play a role in Russian art until relatively recent times because the church forbade the display of the human body in three-dimensional form. This also explains why the figures in icons are so two-dimensional in appearance. A serious art, icon painting was brought to its zenith as a Russian art form in the 14th and 15th centuries by Theophanes the Greek and Andrei Rublev. Until the late 1600s the icon and the mosaic were the Russian artist's sole outlet.
\par \tab Modern Westernized painting and sculpture date from Peter's reforms after 1700. Perhaps the most famous Russian artist in the last 200 years was Ilya Repin, who flourished in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The stress on socialist realism in art as well as literature hampered artistic creativity from 1917. Modern art typically was banned and forced underground. In the 1980s, however, Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev permitted public exhibits of Soviet modern art.
\par \tab {\b Architecture.}
\par \tab Byzantium also influenced Russian architecture, but Russian buildings from the outset had a higher, narrower silhouette than their Byzantine models. Russians experimented with the dome, which was derived from the nomadic yurt (felt tent). This led to the onion-shaped outer shell that is seen on most Russian domed churches.
\par \tab Early Russian architecture cannot be divided into periods like Gothic or baroque. Rather it sprang from different city centers: Kiev, Novgorod, Moscow, and later St. Petersburg. Soviet buildings were pragmatic products of standardized architecture, largely the result of the need to build quickly after the decimation of World War II. Some Stalinist "wedding-cake" architecture dots the streets of Moscow. Since the 1960s more innovative architectural styles have appeared around the country.
\par {\b Performing Arts}
\par \tab {\b Ballet.}
\par \tab Ballet began as court entertainment in 1732, spreading to the wealthy estates in the middle of the century. Simultaneously, imperial ballet theaters and companies were created. In the 1800s the distinctive style of Russian ballet was strongly influenced by French, Italian, and Swedish choreographers and dancers, including Marius Petipa, considered the father of modern ballet. Only late in the century did the first Russian choreographers arise--Lev Ivanov and Michel Fokine.
\par \tab The great Russian dancers asserted themselves at the same time--Anna Pavlova and Vaslav Nijinsky--and truly Russian ballet reached a high technical and stylistic level. In 1909 the impresario Sergei Diaghilev founded the Ballets Russes and took Russian ballet to the capitals of Europe.
\par \tab Soviet ballet continued the 19th-century traditions. The Bolshoi Ballet in Moscow and the Kirov in St. Petersburg remain famous throughout the world.
\par \tab {\b Theater.}
\par \tab Theater originally was inspired by folk entertainment. Peasant companies performed for serfs and nobility alike, sometimes traveling from estate to estate. Later Russian theater was influenced by foreign models much like the ballet. The first Russian dramatists appeared in about 1750. Under Catherine the Great, herself an author of comedies, theater reached new highs, but most of the works were of foreign origin. Great Russian comedy came in the 1800s with the work of Aleksandr Griboedov ('Woe from Wit', 1833) and Nikolai Gogol ('The Inspector General', 1836).
\par \tab At the end of the century Konstantin Stanislavsky founded the Moscow Art Theatre, where Russian theater art came of age. Realistic plays produced there, among them the works of Chekhov and Gorki, stimulated the modern "method" school of acting. Nonrealistic theater, called conditional theater by producer-director-actor Vsevolod Meyerhold, flourished through the early Soviet period. As in literature under Stalin, experimental theater was replaced by socialist realism. Not until the Gorbachev administration was the performance of controversial works permitted.
\par \tab {\b Music.}
\par \tab Because musical instruments were forbidden in Russian Orthodox church services, Russian music and consequently opera were delayed in development as an art form until more recent times. Typically, Russian choruses chanted and sang without accompaniment except for an occasional drumbeat. Secular vocal music did not develop until the 1800s. Since then Russian operas, symphonies, instrumental compositions, and art songs have flourished. Most are based on the melodic and rhythmic patterns of Russian folk music and nationalistic themes. The latter were particularly stressed during the Soviet period.
\par \tab The most ancient Russian folk instrument was a kind of zither, the gusli. Other traditional stringed instruments are the domra, gudok, and balalaika. The last, a triangular, three-stringed, short-necked instrument, was made popular in the 1800s in both city salons and in the countryside. Wind instruments include the flutelike dudka and suirel.
\par \tab Russian music came of age in 1836 with the performance of Mikhail Glinka's 'A Life for the Czar', later called 'Ivan Susanin'. Glinka also produced a musical fairy tale based on Pushkin's poem 'Ruslan and Lyudmila' (1842), but Glinka's operas contain many examples of Italian style.
\par \tab The Russian nationalist school was founded by Modest Musorgski with the production of the opera 'Boris Godunov' (1869). Musorgski was one of a group of Russian composers whom critics at the time called "the Five." The group included Mili Balakirev, Nikolai Rimski-Korsakov, Aleksandr Borodin, and CΘsar Cui. Balakirev is noted for his classical renderings of Russian folk music. Rimski-Korsakov developed Orientalism to near perfection in his fairy-tale operas and in the brilliant symphonic suite 'Sheherazade'. Borodin also followed this pattern in his opera 'Prince Igor'. Cui composed miniature forms.
\par \tab Not one of the Five, but the most famous of all Russian composers, is Peter Ilich Tchaikovsky, composer of the well-known '1812 Overture', and many other works, including symphonies, symphonic poems, operas, ballets, concertos, and piano pieces. Distinctively Russian, Tchaikovsky's melancholic lyricism was perpetuated by the music of Sergei Rachmaninoff, the last of the Russian romantic composers.
\par \tab Famous Russian composers of the 20th century were Igor Stravinsky, Sergei Prokofiev, Nikolai Miaskovsky, Nikolai Medtner, Aleksandr Scriabin, and Dimitri Shostakovich. Stravinsky, however, was a resident of France and the United States for most of his creative life. Prokofiev left Russia in 1918 after conducting the first performance of his well-known 'Classical Symphony'. He did not return permanently until 1932. Shostakovich composed 15 symphonies and two operas, some of which received severe criticism for not following the line of socialist realism.
\par \tab {\b Cultural institutions.}
\par \tab There are more than 1,100 museums in Russia, some of them world famous: the Central Lenin Museum, the Central Museum of the Revolution, the State Historical Museum, and the State Tretyakov Gallery in Moscow; the Hermitage and the State Russian Museum in St. Petersburg; the museum-estate of Leo Tolstoi at Yasnaya Polyana, near Tula; and the A.S. Pushkin Museum in Mikhaylovka. In addition to the Moscow Art Theatre, world-renowned Russian theaters include the Bolshoi Theater of Opera and Ballet, the Maly Theater, the Vakhtangov Theater, and the State Central Puppet Theater in Moscow; the Kirov State Academic Theater of Opera and Ballet and the St. Petersburg Bolshoi Dramatic Theater in St. Petersburg; and the Novosibirsk Theater of Opera and Ballet in Novosibirsk.
\par \tab {\b Publishing.}
\par \tab Russia is the leader among the former Soviet republics in book, newspaper, and journal publications. More than 50,000 books are published annually, the majority in Russian but many others in two dozen other languages. There are nearly 5,000 newspapers published in Russia, including several hundred in minority languages, and about 4,000 journals.
{\b ECONOMY}
\par \tab Because of its great size, its natural resources, and its political domination, the Russian Federation played a leading role in the economy of the Soviet Union. In the years preceding the dissolution of the union in 1991, the economy of Russia and the union as a whole was in decline. In 1992, immediately after the dissolution, the Russian government implemented a series of radical reforms. Price controls were abolished as the beginning of a transition from a centrally controlled economy to a market economy. An immediate series of sharp price increases caused extreme hardships for the Russian people.
\par {\b Fuel and Power}
\par \tab Russia has by far the largest coal reserves among the former Soviet republics. It is also one of the world's leading producers of petroleum and natural gas. Extensive pipeline systems link producing districts to all parts of Russia and across the border to many European countries. Much of the country's fuel is converted to electricity, but about a third of the electricity is produced by hydroelectric plants. The largest of these are on the Volga, Kama, Ob', Yenisey, and Angara rivers. High-voltage transmission lines move large amounts of electricity from Siberia to the European part of the country.
\par {\b Industry}
\par \tab The country's machine-building industry satisfies most of Russia's requirements for electric generators, steam boilers and turbines, grain combines, electric locomotives, and automobiles. It also fills much of its demand for machine tools, instruments, and automation components. Major automobile factories are in Moscow, Nizhni Novgorod, Yaroslavl', Ul'yanovsk, Izhevsk, and Togliatti. There is a heavy truck factory at Naberezhnye Chelny.
\par \tab Chemical industries originally developed in areas that use mineral salts, coke oven and smelter gases, timber, and food products. Rubber factories were built in areas of large-scale potato crops (north and south of Moscow); sulfuric acid plants where there was nonferrous metallurgy (east of the Urals); and fertilizer plants near deposits of potassium salts and phosphorites (the Urals and near the Belarus border). After the 1950s and the massive increase in the production of petroleum and natural gas provided new raw materials for the chemical industries. New plants were built both in the petroleum- and gas-producing areas in the Volga-Ural zone and the North Caucasus and in areas served by pipelines. Cellulose is produced in Siberia, where both timber and electricity are plentiful.
\par \tab The textile industry is concentrated in the central part of the European sector of the country. Cotton textiles dominate, with raw cotton coming from the Central Asian areas. Between the Volga and Oka rivers there are some 30 cotton-textile producing centers. Such durable consumer goods as home appliances and electronic equipment are manufactured mainly in areas with a tradition of skilled workers, notably in and around Moscow and St. Petersburg.
\par {\b Agriculture}
\par \tab Because of the harshness of the Russian environment, less than one sixth of the land is dedicated to agriculture. About three fifths of the farmland is used for growing crops, with the remainder devoted to pasture.
\par \tab The grasslands have been converted to large collective and state farms, which produce mainly grains--winter and spring wheat, barley, rye, oats, and buckwheat. Sweet corn (maize), rice, and grapes are grown in the North Caucasus. Elsewhere corn is raised strictly as livestock silage and fodder. Millet and melons are grown along the lower Volga River. Sunflowers are widespread. Beef cattle and pigs are raised in the grasslands as well. Sheep, horses, and goats are raised east of Moscow and in the North Caucasus. Dairying is combined with the growing of rye and oats in the mixed forest zones, western Siberia, and on the outskirts of cities, where vegetables are also cultivated. Potatoes and flax are grown northwest of Moscow. Apples, pears, and hemp are grown mainly south of the capital. Crops are irrigated along the lower Volga and in the North Caucasus.
\par \tab {\b Forestry.}
\par \tab Russia has the world's largest forest reserves, which supply lumber, pulp and paper, and raw material for woodworking industries. Needle-leaf trees predominate, with the country producing more than a fifth of the world's softwood. Since World War II lumbering activities have spread increasingly to the east of the Urals.
\par \tab {\b Fishing.}
\par \tab With access to three of the world's oceans--the Atlantic, Arctic, and Pacific--Russian fishing fleets are a major contributor to the economy. The chief fishing ports are Kaliningrad and St. Petersburg on the Baltic Sea (which connects with the Atlantic), Murmansk and Archangel on the Barents Sea (Arctic), and Vladivostok on the Sea of Japan (Pacific). The inland Azov, Black, and Caspian seas have smaller-scale fishing, but reduced river flows and pollution are serious problems. Nevertheless, the Caspian is the source of what is considered the finest caviar in the world. There are also fisheries on inland lakes and rivers, including considerable fish farming.
\par {\b Transportation}
\par \tab Russia's great expanse and the resulting long distances between points--especially between sources of raw materials and foodstuffs and the consuming areas for which they are intended--require a major system of transportation. The railroad continues to dominate, hauling about half of the freight and one third of all the passengers. The rail system is densest in the central part of the European area and sparsest in Siberia and the Far East. East of the Urals it consists of only a few major trunk routes--Trans-Siberian Railroad and Baikal-Amur Mainline--with feeder branches to areas of economic significance.
\par \tab Other than highways that link major cities in the European section, the road system is underdeveloped. It carries less than 2 percent of the total freight, most of this for short distances to the nearest rail terminal. Inland waterways carry a much greater volume, most notably the Volga and its tributaries. The huge areas north of the Trans-Siberian and Baikal-Amur rail lines in Siberia depend on river transport.
\par \tab Ports on the Arctic seaboard are linked by maritime transport, though only part of the year. With the aid of icebreakers, Murmansk remains open throughout the year, but Archangel is open for only 175 days and Nizhniye Kresty, at the mouth of the Kolyma River, for only 110. From Murmansk on the Barents Sea to Vladivostok on the Sea of Japan is a voyage of some 6,500 miles (10,460 kilometers).
\par \tab Airlines carry nearly 20 percent of all passengers, with Aeroflot, the world's largest airline, carrying more than 80 million passengers a year. Only a tiny percentage of Russia's freight is hauled by air. Air freight is confined chiefly to high-value items and haulage to and from remote parts of Siberia, where aircraft are sometimes the only means of transport.
{\b GOVERNMENT}
\par \tab In November 1917 the Bolsheviks first created the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic. Shortly afterward a declaration of peoples' rights permitted the formation of autonomous units within the federation. In 1922, with the formation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the Russian Federation became a separate republic and, like the other union republics (which eventually numbered 15), was subject to the various constitutions of 1918, 1924, 1936, and 1977. Until the late 1980s the structure of all Soviet government, including that of the individual republics, was dominated at all levels by the Communist party. After the failed coup of August 1991, the Communist party was stripped of its power and all of its property was confiscated.
\par \tab Multinational Russia includes 24 minority republics, four autonomous oblasts (provinces), four autonomous okrugs (districts), six krays (regions), and 49 oblasts. The people are governed by a parliament, the Congress of People's Deputies. In 1991 the new post of president was created to head the executive branch and to be elected by popular vote. In elections held in June of that year Boris Yeltsin became the first democratically elected leader of the republic. He outlined a plan to give greater political and economic authority to the federation and to diminish the role of the central government. Yeltsin's defiance of the coup that briefly deposed Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev in August inspired a popular uprising that led to the unraveling of the old central controls. The Soviet Union officially disbanded in December 1991, Russia became an independent state officially known as the Russian Federation, and it joined with ten of the other former Soviet republics to form the new Commonwealth of Independent States.
\par \tab {\b Courts.}
\par \tab The highest judicial body in the Russian Federation during the Soviet period was the Supreme Court. It supervised the activities of all other judicial bodies. Court proceedings in Russia are carried on either in Russian or in the language of the prevailing nationality. Constitutional justice in the court is based on the equality of all citizens. Judges are independent and subject only to the law. Trials are to be open, and the accused is guaranteed a defense.
{\b HISTORY}
\par \tab Russia has been inhabited for at least 4,000 years. Waves of nomadic invasions occurred until the 13th century. Goths, Huns, Bulgars, Avars, Khazars, Turks, Magyars, and other invaders marauded the steppes and influenced Slavic culture, including that of the Russians.
\par {\b Slavs}
\par \tab Slavic origins are obscure. They evidently diffused from their homeland north of the Carpathian Mountains at the beginning of the Christian era. Some tribes moved eastward into the areas now called Ukraine, Belarus, and Russia. There they met Finnic tribes, whom they pushed farther north. By the 3rd and 4th centuries the steppes and forests of the region south and west of contemporary Moscow were home to various eastern Slavs. By AD 600 Slavic trading villages were on all the rivers west of the Ural Mountains.
\par \tab Slavic ethnic distinction probably crystallized during a period of prolonged peace brought about by the domination of the Volga trade route by the Khazars. This era is known as the Pax Khazarica and lasted from 720 to 860. Lively commerce was carried on between Scandinavia and Baghdad by way of the Volga, and the Khazars kept the route safe from marauding nomads. In time the Khazar dominion stretched as far west as the Dnepr River, the focus of Slavic culture in the Antes Confederation.
\par {\b Beginnings of the Russian Empire}
\par \tab Long before the rise of the first Slavic state--Kievan Rus--during the late 800s, southern Russia was occupied by Cimmerians, Scythians, Sarmatians, Goths, Huns, Turkic Bulgars, Avars, and Khazars. The Slavs endured them all. Loosely knit and socially bound mainly by extended families, the Slavs seemed to be interested only in farming and welcomed the protection they received from powerful warriors like the Khazars.
\par \tab During the Pax Khazarica, Scandinavians traded not only with Baghdad but also with Byzantium by way of the Dnepr. These Norsemen, or Varangians, as the Slavs called them, traveled inland over lakes and rivers, hauling their boats overland from one body of water to the next. At Novgorod they portaged to the Dnepr watershed, which led them to the Black Sea. Near Kiev the Dnepr bends eastward and is plagued by rapids, forcing the Varangians to make another portage at Kiev.
\par \tab In the 800s the Slavs were in complete turmoil. They had great respect for the Varangians, and the people of Novgorod asked the Norsemen for a ruler to organize them. The Scandinavians sent Rurik, chieftain of the Rus trading company, in 862--the year from which the Russians date their first dynasty. Shortly after Rurik's death his relative Oleg became grand duke of Novgorod and soon added Kiev to his domains, making it his capital. During the next century the influence of Kiev was felt from the Danube to the Volga.
\par {\b Kievan Rus (878-1240)}
\par \tab In 988 Vladimir, grand prince of Kiev, became a Christian in the Byzantine, or Eastern Orthodox, tradition. Greek missionaries moved into Russia, bringing their religion and art and architecture. The missionaries also developed the Cyrillic alphabet. For the next four centuries Kievan Rus developed into a well-organized, democratic, urban, commercial society. At the height of its glory in the 11th century, Kievan Rus was populated by 7 to 8 million people and included the cities of Kiev, Novgorod, and Smolensk. It was the largest and most populous state in Europe.
\par \tab In the 12th century Kievan Rus began to decay because of a fragmented power structure and the inability to ward off attacks from steppe nomads. Moreover, the Volga River trade route began to experience a rebirth.
\par \tab A new trading center grew at Moscow. Between 1237 and 1240 Kievan Rus was finally crushed by the onslaught of the Mongols, who were also known as Tatars. The Mongols were under the leadership of Batu, grandson of Genghis Khan. The once-flourishing populace either perished or fled into the neighboring forests.
\par {\b Mongol Yoke (1237-1480)}
\par \tab The Mongols formed a kingdom with a capital at Sarai on a tributary of the Volga River. The influence of the so-called "Golden Horde" was felt almost everywhere in Russia. They did not attempt to settle the land but exacted tribute through Russian intermediaries. Asian customs and ways of thought became a part of Russian culture, but as long as they paid tribute the Russians were free to practice their religion and native customs.
\par \tab The Golden Horde soon split into three separate Tatar hordes focused on Kazan', Astrakhan', and the Crimea. Although they controlled the Moscow area, they never gained control of Novgorod. During the Mongol yoke Novgorod joined the European trading consortium, the Hanseatic League, and flourished.
\par \tab In time the Tatars began to weaken because of war and internal discord. The principality of Muscovy (Moscow), nestled deep in the forest at the hub of all the major trade routes, developed at the expense of the Tatars as their power declined. Muscovite princes, who efficiently collected the tribute demanded by the Tatar Khans, enhanced their coffers through reward and fraud. As descendants of the Rurik line, Muscovite princes came to be looked upon by the people as justified leaders of all Russians.
\par \tab From the beginning of his reign, Ivan the Great (1462-1505) refused to pay tribute to the Tatars. In 1480 the Tatars sent an army against him, but the army withdrew without a battle. Ivan added Novgorod to his domains and spread Muscovy's rule to the Arctic. Being free of serious Tatar threats was fortunate for Ivan, because after 1480 he was often faced with rebellion by family members and war with neighboring Lithuania.
\par {\b First Czars}
\par \tab Ivan IV, called "the Terrible" because of his savage cruelty, crowned himself czar--the Russian word for Caesar--and ruled Muscovy from 1533 to 1584. Russian sovereigns now ruled "by the grace of God" as absolute monarchs, responsible to the Almighty alone. Ivan defeated the Khanates of Kazan' in 1552 and Astrakhan' in 1556, making the Volga a wholly Russian river. In the 1580s he spread Muscovy's rule into Siberia, but westward expansion was blocked. Ivan futilely engaged the Swedes, and Kiev still lay deep within the powerful Polish-Lithuanian kingdom.
\par \tab Ivan IV killed one of his sons, and another died at age 9. The remaining son, Fedor, was feeble, and, after reigning as czar for 14 years, he died childless. Thus ended the House of Rurik.
\par \tab Boris Godunov was elected in 1598 to succeed Fedor. He consolidated Russia's territorial gains, but, soon after he came to power, drought, famine, and plague killed a half million people in Muscovy. Peasants fled their villages, leaving their holdings in weeds. In response Godunov decreed that the peasants were forbidden to leave the estates on which they were born. The peasants were thus bound to the soil, and serfdom began in Russia.
\par \tab Godunov died in 1605. His successor was murdered within a few months. Leaderless Russia was rife with dissension. For the next eight years it coped with civil wars, Cossack raids in the south, Polish invaders, and impostors pretending to be sons of Ivan IV and trying to claim the throne. The frustrated Russians in 1610 temporarily accepted the son of the Polish king as czar, but Russian guerrilla forces later ousted the foreigners.
\par {\b Romanov Dynasty (1613-1917)}
\par \tab The Russian nobility sought a new bloodline for the aristocracy. They found it in Mikhail Romanov, who was a young nobleman, or boyar. Thus began the Romanov Dynasty, which ruled until 1917.
\par \tab {\b Peter and Catherine the Great.}
\par \tab The Russian Empire is usually dated from the reign of Peter the Great from 1689 to 1725 and with it the beginning of modern Russian history. Peter defeated the Swedes and gained an outlet to the Baltic Sea. He founded a navy, introduced factories, reformed the administrative machinery, and organized a modern army. He forced education upon his officers and members of his court, many of whom could not read. He created a new Russian capital--St. Petersburg--on the Gulf of Finland.
\par \tab Peter died in 1725. His work survived almost half a century of incompetent rulers. Then Catherine the Great came to the throne in 1762. She again took up the task of reform. Her armies defeated the Crimean Tatars in 1792.
\par \tab {\b Alexander I and Nicholas I.}
\par \tab The reign of Alexander I from 1801 to 1825 began in the spirit of Peter and Catherine, both of whom were Westernizers. Plans were drawn for a Duma, or representative assembly, to propose new laws. Alexander had begun to carry out his program when Russia became involved in the Napoleonic wars. Reform was then abandoned.
\par \tab Alexander's successor, Nicholas I, ruled from 1825 to 1855 and devoted his attention to protecting Russia against what he considered corrupting Western ideas. All democratic reform was suppressed.
\par \tab In 1854 Russia became involved in the disastrous Crimean War, which lasted more than two years. The Russian people were tired of war, and the serfs rose against the landowners and burned and pillaged their estates.
\par \tab {\b Emancipation of the serfs (1861).}
\par \tab Alexander II succeeded Nicholas I in 1855. He was the greatest czarist reformer in Russian history. His reforms began with the emancipation of the serfs in March 1861, giving liberty to some 40 million people.
\par \tab The long years of tyranny and lack of progress, however, had produced discontent, especially among the young with university educations. Revolutionary activity, which had been brewing since an unsuccessful revolt against the czar in December 1825, developed rapidly, and in 1881 Alexander II was assassinated by a bomb hurled at his carriage. He was succeeded by his son Alexander III, a Slavophile and no friend of reformers. Under Alexander III revolutionary organizations were completely suppressed.
\par \tab {\b First Duma.}
\par \tab Nicholas II was the last of the Romanovs and came to power in 1894. In 1904 Russia and Japan went to war in the Far East. The war was unpopular in Russia, and the country suffered a terrible defeat, encouraging greater revolutionary activity.
\par \tab Although small, a new factory laboring class was organized by the revolutionaries. Peasants sympathized and helped. Mutinies broke out in the army and navy. Manufacturers and landlords demanded reforms that would satisfy workers, peasants, and soldiers. After a general strike, climaxing the Revolution of 1905, Nicholas called for the election of a Duma as proposed by his ancestor Alexander I a century before.
\par \tab In August 1914 Russia went to war against Germany and Austria over conflicting claims in the Balkans. The peasants and workers at first accepted the war without protest, but great military failures resulted because of the Russian government's inability to supply and equip its armies. Millions of Russian lives were sacrificed. The attitude of the public toward the war and the government changed.
\par \tab Food shortages in March 1917 stimulated mass rioting in the capital of Petrograd. Soldiers deserted the government and joined the people. The Duma demanded that the czar step down. Nicholas II abdicated his throne on March 15, and he and his family were exiled and later executed.
\par {\b Soviet Period}
\par \tab Russia was in turmoil until the Bolsheviks, under the leadership of Lenin, officially established the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics on Dec. 30, 1922. The Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic dominated the Soviet Union for its entire 74-year history.
\par \tab The Russian Federation was by far the largest of the republics; Moscow, its capital, was also the capital of the Soviet Union. In 1991 the Soviet Union disintegrated. Boris Yeltsin was elected president of Russia. As economic conditions worsened, he was opposed by hard-line former Communists who controlled the parliament. He dissolved the parliament on Sept. 21, 1993, and set new parliamentary elections for December. When the legislators rose up in armed rebellion, Yeltsin used the army to remove them from office on October 4. He then assumed control of the government.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by Victor L. Mote, Professor of Geography and Political Science, University of Houston, and Fellow, Slavic Research Center, University of Hokkaido, Japan.
\par \tab {\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR RUSSIA}
\par \tab Barchatova, B., and others. A Portrait of Tsarist Russia: Unknown Photographs from the Soviet Archives (Pantheon, 1989).
\par \tab Billington, J.H. The Icon and the Axe (Random, 1970).
\par \tab Donnert, Erich. Russia in the Age of Enlightenment (Edition Leipzig, 1986).
\par \tab Hughes, James. Stalin, Siberia and the Crisis of the NEP (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1991).
\par \tab McDermott, Kathleen. Peter the Great (Chelsea House, 1991).
\par \tab Pipes, Richard. Russia Under the Old Regime (Collier Books, 1992).
\par \tab Resnick, Abraham. Russia: A History to 1917 (Childrens, 1983).
\par \tab Riasanovsky, N.V. A History of Russia, 5th ed. (Oxford, 1993).
\par \tab Roxburgh, Angus. The Second Russian Revolution (Pharos Books, 1992).
\par \tab Smith, Hedrick. The New Russians (Random House, 1990).\par \tab A landlocked, mountainous country in east-central Africa, the Republic of Rwanda lies south of the equator. It is one of Africa's smallest countries, covering an area of only 10,169 square miles (26,338 square kilometers). Most of the country lies at an elevation of more than 5,000 feet (1,500 meters) above sea level. Rwanda is bordered by Zaire and Lake Kivu on the west, Uganda on the north, Tanzania on the east, and Burundi on the south. Rwanda's relief consists of a series of hills with steep slopes that often alternate with deep valleys. A chain of volcanoes, the Virunga Mountains, is in the north. Numerous small lakes are scattered in the southeast. The country's rich and varied wildlife includes elephants, lions, chimpanzees, antelopes, zebras, and rare mountain gorillas. The animals are protected in national parks and reserves.
\par \tab Although Rwanda is a small country, it is rich in resources and economic potential. Nevertheless, it has remained for decades a densely populated nation of terrible poverty, victimized by bad government and furious tribal hatreds. Of the three main tribes, the Hutu account for 90 percent of the population. The Tutsi make up almost the entire remaining 10 percent. The Twa, a tribe of hunters and gatherers, make up less than one percent. Despite the similarities between the two larger groups, they have been enemies for many years. Although a minority, the Tutsi managed to gain political domination, as they did in neighboring Burundi. The resentments between the two peoples often erupted in violence. In April 1994 the whole country fell into a very violent and bloody civil war, threatening the continued existence of the nation.
\par \tab French and Rwanda are the official languages. The Rwandan language, officially called Kinyarwanda, is a Bantu language. Rwandans have a rich oral literature in their own language. Swahili is also widely spoken. About three fourths of the population follow Christianity. Roman Catholicism is the main denomination. The rest of the people follow traditional beliefs and Islam.
\par \tab Education is free and compulsory for children between the ages of 7 and 15. The National University of Rwanda is in Butare. The Rwanda National Museum at Butare exhibits traditional, native arts. Rwanda has a well-developed road network, but there are no railways. There are international airports at Kigali-Kanombe and at Kamembe. Kigali, the capital and largest city, had a population of 237,782 in 1993, but thousands died in the civil war.
\par \tab In peaceful times, agriculture, manufacturing, and trade are the major sectors of the economy. About one half of the land is under cultivation and produces plantains, sweet potatoes, cassava, coffee, tea, tobacco, rice, corn (maize), potatoes, and bananas. Large swamp areas have been reclaimed for use as plantations. Livestock raising is common. There are substantial reserves of tin, tungsten, beryl, and gold.
\par \tab A tin-smelting plant has been in operation at Karuruma since 1981. Principal manufactured products are cement, lye soap, sugar, beer, lemonade, footwear, and blankets. The country's chief exports are coffee, tea, cassiterite, and wolframite. Principal imports are machinery and transportation equipment, petroleum and petroleum products, and food.
\par \tab By the 20th century Rwanda was a unified state. The region had been claimed by Germany in 1890 but was occupied by Belgium in 1916. The League of Nations created Ruanda-Urundi as a Belgian mandate in 1923. The mandate became a United Nations trusteeship after World War II. Rwanda was declared a republic in January 1961 and became independent in 1962. Tribal hostility led to a military coup in 1973. A new constitution in 1978 paved the way for normalization of government. Elections in 1981 brought Rwanda its first elected legislature since the 1973 coup. When a new constitution was implemented in 1991, Rwanda became a multiparty republic.
\par \tab When the presidents of Burundi and Rwanda were killed in a mysterious airplane crash in April 1994, Rwanda erupted in a bloody civil war. The two had been meeting in Tanzania, trying to end tribal conflicts in their two countries. By mid-summer more than 500,000 people had been killed, and the country was in ruins.\par \tab The island nation of Saint Lucia is situated between the islands of Martinique and Saint Vincent in the eastern Caribbean Sea. The second largest of the Windward Islands group of the West Indies, the island covers an area of 238 square miles (616 square kilometers). Castries is the capital city and the main port. Roughly oval in shape, the island is volcanic in origin. The volcano Qualibou in the southwest emits steam and gases and is a major tourist site. The climate is tropical with heavy rainfall and a mean temperature of 80░ F (27░ C).
\par \tab Most of the population is descended from black African slaves who were brought to St. Lucia to work on the sugar plantations. English is the official language, and French patois, a Creole dialect, is also spoken. More than 90 percent of the population is Roman Catholic. Primary education is free and compulsory by law, but the legislation is not enforced. There is a technical college, a teacher's college, and a department of the University of the West Indies. A small international airport is at Hewanorra.
\par \tab The economy is based largely on agriculture and tourism. More than half of the cultivated land is in small farms. The single major cash crop, bananas make up almost half of the value of exports. Cocoa, cassava, coconuts, citrus fruits, and yams are also produced. Chief manufactures are electrical components, plastics, fertilizers, and automotive batteries. There is an oil-refining transshipment complex.
\par \tab Saint Lucia is a parliamentary democracy with two legislative houses and is a member of the Commonwealth. It was first visited by Europeans in about 1500. The French claimed the island in 1635. It was ceded to the British in 1814. The island achieved self-government in 1967 and gained full independence in 1979. In 1980 Hurricane Allen destroyed almost the entire banana crop, reduced tourism, and hurt the country's economy. Population (1991 estimate), 154,000.\par \tab The island nation of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines is part of the Windward Islands of the West Indies. The country comprises the island of Saint Vincent and the northern Grenadine Islands. Situated about 200 miles (320 kilometers) north of Venezuela in the eastern Caribbean Sea, the nation occupies a total area of about 150 square miles (389 square kilometers), of which the island of Saint Vincent constitutes 133 square miles (344 square kilometers). The capital and chief port is Kingstown.
\par \tab Saint Vincent is a mountainous island. Volcanic mountains run from north to south and are thickly forested. Mount SoufriΦre, the highest peak at 4,048 feet (1,234 meters), is an active volcano. The tropical climate has an average annual temperature of about 80░ F (27░ C).
\par \tab Most of the people are descendants of black African slaves who were brought by the British to work on sugarcane plantations. The majority of the population is Protestant. English is the official language, but a French patois is also widely spoken. Primary education is free but not compulsory. A small international airport is at Arnos Vale.
\par \tab Agriculture is the major element of the economy, employing almost 60 percent of the work force. Bananas are the chief cash crop and the most valuable export. Saint Vincent is the world's largest producer of arrowroot. Other crops include copra, coconuts, yams, sweet potatoes, cassavas, and carrots. Food processing is the chief manufacturing activity. Fishing, lumbering, and tourism are also significant.
\par \tab Christopher Columbus visited Saint Vincent in 1498. It was ceded to Great Britain in 1763 and was made part of the Windward Island colony in 1871. The islands gained full independence in 1979. The country is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary type of government. It is a member of the Commonwealth and the head of state is the British monarch. Population (1991 estimate), 118,000.\par \tab One of the smallest independent states in Europe (only Vatican City and Monaco are smaller), San Marino is also the world's second smallest republic after Nauru. A landlocked country, San Marino is located on the eastern slope of the Apennine mountain system in central Italy. Roughly rectangular in shape, it has an area of 24 square miles (61 square kilometers). The landscape is dominated by the huge, central limestone mass of Mount Titano at 2,424 feet (739 meters). The Mediterranean climate is mild and temperate. The capital city is also called San Marino (population, 1991 estimate, 2,339).
\par \tab Almost all the people are Roman Catholic. The official language is Italian. Citizens of San Marino receive free medical care, and education is free up to 14 years of age. A network of roads connects San Marino with the surrounding regions of Italy.
\par \tab The country's major resources are its industry, tourism, commerce, agriculture, and handicrafts. There are no significant mineral resources. Postage stamps are San Marino's major source of revenue. Wine made from local grapes, wood machinery, chemicals, and ceramics are the chief exports. Major crops are wheat, corn, barley, and grapes. Dairying and livestock raising also contribute to the economy. Building materials, paints, varnishes, paper, metalwork, textiles, clothing, footwear, furniture, food and confectionery products, liqueurs, and cosmetics are produced.
\par \tab The republic traces its origin to the early 4th century AD. By the 12th century it had developed into a commune, and by the middle of the 15th century it was a republic. After Italy became a national state, a series of treaties confirmed San Marino's independence. The San Marino constitution, dating back to 1600, provides for a parliamentary form of government. The republic has no army. Population (1991 estimate), 23,300.\par \tab The island republic of Sπo TomΘ e Prφncipe is located on the equator in the part of the Gulf of Guinea known as the Bight of Biafra. Consisting of two main islands--Sπo TomΘ and Prφncipe--and several small islets, the republic covers an area of 372 square miles (963 square kilometers), of which Sπo TomΘ occupies 334 square miles (865 square kilometers). The capital and largest town is Sπo TomΘ. Volcanic in origin, the two main islands are separated by about 90 miles (145 kilometers) of sea. The highest point of the islands is the Pico de Sπo TomΘ at 6,640 feet (2,024 meters). Tropical rain forests cover about three fifths of the land.
\par \tab The population is predominantly of black African descent. Portuguese is the official language, though several Creole dialects are also spoken. Most of the population is Roman Catholic. Free health care and education are provided by the government.
\par \tab Agriculture and fishing are the largest sectors of the economy, but most food is imported. About one third of the land is cultivated. Cocoa, the principal cash crop, accounts for nearly 90 percent of exports. Other crops are coconut, copra, bananas, coffee, cassava, corn, and breadfruit. Fishing is limited to tuna and shark. There is little manufacturing except for some soft drink, textile, and beer production. There is air service to nearby African countries.
\par \tab European navigators visited the islands in the 1470s. The islands became a Portuguese overseas province in 1951 and became independent in 1975. The republic has one legislative house. Population (1994 estimate), 128,000.\par \tab The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia occupies four fifths of the Arabian Peninsula. Its precise area is uncertain because several boundaries remain undefined, but the government estimates the kingdom's size to be approximately 864,900 square miles (2,240,000 square kilometers). Saudi Arabia is separated from Egypt, Sudan, and Ethiopia by the Red Sea to the west; from Iran by the Persian Gulf to the east; and from Bahrain by the Gulf of Bahrain, also to the east. It shares land boundaries with seven other Arab countries: Jordan, Iraq, and Kuwait to the north; the Republic of Yemen and Oman to the south; and the United Arab Emirates and Qatar to the east.
\par {\b Land and Climate}
\par \tab Geologically, the Arabian Peninsula is an ancient tilted platform. The highest portions are along the western and southern edges, the lowest in the east. In the past the peninsula was joined to Africa, but it is moving slowly in a counterclockwise direction. The Red Sea occupies the rift valley that formed along the fault separating the two regions.
\par \tab Along the Red Sea there is a narrow coastal plain. This is flanked to the east by a steep wall of mountains, which reaches 6,000 feet (1,800 meters) in the Hejaz region in the northwest and 10,000 feet (3,000 meters) in the Asir region in the southwest. In the vicinity of Mecca there is a gap in the range. The southern coastal plain is known as the Tihamah Lowlands. East of Hejaz and Asir, in the Najd region, lies a vast, rocky plateau interspersed by small, sandy deserts, isolated mountains, and an occasional salt marsh. Najd is sparsely populated except in the Jabal Tuwayq region, where there are many oases. Riyadh, the capital of the country, is located in one of these oases. Other major oases in the region include Buraydah, Unayzah, and Al Kharj.
\par \tab North of Najd is the An Nafud Desert, a continuation of the Syrian Desert. This area is covered with grass and steppe vegetation and supports a nomadic and seminomadic herding population. To the south of Najd, extending in an arc, is the Ad Dahna Desert, which merges with the vast, sandy Rub' al Khali, or Empty Quarter, one of the most forbidding deserts in the world. Most of the Rub' al Khali lacks water and is uninhabited even by nomads.
\par \tab Eastern Saudi Arabia, also called the Al Hasa region, consists of a broad, flat, low coastal plain that is covered with sand and gravel. The country's largest and most fertile oasis is located here, around Al Hufuf. The Persian Gulf, in contrast with the Red Sea, is shallow for long distances offshore and has many reefs and shoals.
\par \tab Almost all of Saudi Arabia has a desert climate, with scant, unreliable rainfall and extremely hot daytime temperatures for many months of the year. The north receives less than 1 inch (2.5 centimeters) of rain annually. To the south even less rain falls. Only the mountainous Asir region in the southwestern part of the peninsula receives appreciable quantities of rainfall from Indian Ocean monsoons. The daily and seasonal range of temperature is large, particularly away from the coast. In summer daytime temperatures are hot everywhere except at the higher elevations. Maximum temperatures in the interior often reach 130░ F (54░ C). In winter temperatures in the interior are mild during the day (in the 70s F, or 20s C) but often fall below freezing at night. The coastal regions are notorious for their oppressive humidity as well as heat. Summer conditions are particularly uncomfortable.
\par \tab Because of its extreme aridity, Saudi Arabia lacks permanent rivers and lakes and must rely heavily on groundwater. Fortunately, artesian wells and springs are plentiful in the eastern Al Hasa region.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab The size of Saudi Arabia's population is not known with any certainty, but most estimates put it at about 15.2 million in the early 1990s. With an estimated 3 percent rate of natural increase annually, the kingdom's population is growing rapidly and may double within 20 years. A Saudi woman will have an average of seven children during her childbearing years, one of the world's highest fertility rates.
\par \tab Saudi Arabia's population is being redistributed geographically. In the early 1970s a quarter of the population lived in urban areas. By the early 1990s more than 75 percent did so. Riyadh, the capital city, was a small village when the kingdom was established in 1932. Today it has roughly 1.3 million inhabitants
\par \tab Tribes still play a crucial role in the kingdom's life. Almost all Saudi Arabians, from urban dwellers to nomads, belong to a tribe. Tribal membership is a principal way in which people identify themselves culturally and socially. The rise of the central state has undermined the autonomy of the tribes, but they remain a focus of political identity. Tribal leaders still play a pivotal diplomatic role.
\par \tab Although the nomadic existence has always been glorified in Saudi Arabia, the majority of the population is, and probably always has been, settled. Nomadism as a way of life is declining, though a substantial number of Saudis still herd camels, goats, and sheep. Often one section of a tribe is engaged in pastoralism while another farms crops.
\par \tab Culturally, Saudi Arabia's indigenous population is relatively homogeneous. Virtually all native-born Saudi Arabians are Arabic-speaking Muslims. Islam has an elevated status because Saudi Arabia is the birthplace of the prophet Muhammad and the guardian of Islam's most sacred shrines in Mecca and Medina. Each year 2 million Muslims from every corner of the globe make a pilgrimage to Mecca, one of their five major religious obligations.
\par \tab Most Saudi Arabians also follow the teachings of Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab, an 18th-century Muslim reformer who advocated a strict, puritanical Islam. As a result Saudi Arabia is among the world's most conservative Islamic states. Not all Saudis, however, belong to the same sect of Islam. A large majority of the population are Sunnite Muslims, but there are an estimated 400,000 Shi'ite Muslims, most of whom live in eastern Saudi Arabia in the vicinity of the Al Hasa and Al Qatif oases. Approximately a third of the Eastern Province's population is Shi'ite. Relations between Sunnites and Shi'ites have sometimes been tense. Historically Shi'ites experienced discrimination and were excluded from top positions. The Saudi government worried about rising discontent among the Shi'ites following the 1979 revolution in Iran, a Shi'ite country.
\par \tab Saudi Arabia has a large foreign population. No precise statistics exist, but the number of foreigners living in the kingdom is thought to exceed 4.6 million. Many foreign Muslims settled in the region after completing their pilgrimages to Mecca, thus Mecca has large Indian and Indonesian communities. Medina has many Syrians and Egyptians, and Jiddah has many Persians, Yemenis, and Africans.
\par \tab Of far greater significance are the foreigners who entered the country to work in the late-20th-century petroleum boom. Foreign workers outnumber native Saudis in the labor force by nearly two to one. They are vital to the petroleum, construction, commerce, finance, and health sectors. Without these expatriate workers, Saudi Arabia's economy could not function. More than 50 percent of these workers come from neighboring Arab countries, particularly Yemen, but a growing number come from Pakistan, Korea, the Philippines, and other Asian countries. Many Americans also work in the kingdom, especially in the petroleum industry. Saudi Arabia hopes to reduce its reliance on foreign workers and to that end has made the education of its population a high priority.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab Saudi Arabia's major industry is the production of crude petroleum and petroleum products. Despite rapid industrialization and an attempt to diversify the economy, the country's exports consist almost entirely of petroleum. The kingdom has almost a quarter of the world's proven petroleum reserves, equivalent to approximately five times the reserves of the United States and by far the largest of any country in the world. At current rates of production, this petroleum will last another 100 years.
\par \tab In the late 1980s Saudi Arabia was the world's third largest petroleum producer--after the Soviet Union and the United States. In 1986 it produced 5.1 million barrels of petroleum daily, down substantially from its peak production rate of almost 10 million barrels daily in 1980. Saudi Arabia is a key member of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), because its decisions about how much petroleum to pump have an enormous impact on prices.
\par \tab All of Saudi Arabia's main oil fields are located in the eastern part of the country, though in the late 1980s and early 1990s at least six new oil and gas fields were discovered in the central part of the country. The giant Ghawar field, the world's largest, has more petroleum than the proven reserves of the United States. Most Saudi petroleum was therefore exported by tanker from terminals on the Persian Gulf coast until the security of this route was imperiled following the outbreak of hostilities in the gulf region. This resulted in the construction in 1981 of a trans-Arabian pipeline to Yenbo on the Red Sea coast. This line bypasses the Strait of Hormuz and shortens the export route to Europe and North America by roughly 2,000 miles (3,200 kilometers). A second, parallel line was under construction in the late 1980s and is expected to reduce further Saudi Arabia's dependence on the route through the Strait of Hormuz.
\par \tab Petroleum was first discovered in commercial quantities in 1938 by the Arabian American Oil Company (Aramco), which in the early 1980s still produced more than 90 percent of all Saudi petroleum. The growth of petroleum output was especially great in the first half of the 1970s, a period in which the price of petroleum quadrupled. The Saudi Arabian government's petroleum revenues increased from 1.2 billion dollars in 1970 to 22.6 billion dollars in 1974. Few countries have experienced so dramatic and sudden an economic windfall.
\par \tab After the mid-1970s, Saudi Arabia emerged as a powerful conservative and pro-Western influence in OPEC, exploiting its huge potential output to keep prices down. In 1979-80 Saudi Arabia produced almost 10 million barrels of petroleum daily to make up for the decline in production in Iran following the revolution. Concurrently the price of petroleum climbed sharply, and revenues reached a record 102 billion dollars in 1981. Saudi production and revenues have dropped sharply since then. Because of a global glut, the price of petroleum plummeted.
\par \tab Saudi Arabia is using part of its petroleum revenues to pay for an ambitious industrialization program, the cornerstone of which is the construction of refineries and processing industries to exploit the kingdom's vast petroleum and natural-gas resources. The largest and oldest petroleum refinery is at Ras Tanura. Additional refineries are located in Jiddah, Riyadh, Yenbo, Jubail, and Rabigh. Large petrochemical plants began operations in Jubail, Jiddah, and Yenbo in 1984.
\par \tab Saudi Arabia has also built a small iron and steel industry and has invested heavily in developing a fertilizer industry. The basis for many of Saudi Arabia's ambitious heavy-industry schemes is a gas-gathering project, which will provide raw materials for the petrochemical sector and energy for industrial development. Several gas-processing plants have been or are being built. Saudi Arabia will eventually be one of the largest exporters of liquefied petroleum gas.
\par \tab A novel feature of Saudi Arabia's industrialization drive has been the building of two new large industrial cities--at a cost of 70 billion dollars--at Jubail on the gulf coast and at Yenbo on the Red Sea. The scale of the project is impressive: Jubail, the larger of the two, will eventually have three petroleum refineries, six petrochemical plants, an aluminum smelter, a steel mill, and a large port as well as housing and services for all the new residents.
\par \tab The Saudi government encourages the private sector in the development of smaller-scale industries and has established a number of industrial parks to that end. Private enterprise has been most active in the construction industry, electrical-equipment manufacturing, the production of rubber and plastics, and food and soft-drink processing.
\par \tab Agriculture employs a quarter of the labor force but contributes less than 3 percent of the gross domestic product. The only parts of Saudi Arabia that are cultivated are oases and irrigated regions, which account for 1 percent of the country. Roughly 39 percent of the land is used for low-density grazing.
\par \tab The cultivated area has expanded, however, even as the size of the agricultural labor force has declined. Production levels have also risen dramatically, partly because of generous government subsidies to farmers. The government is committed to developing agriculture to reduce Saudi Arabia's heavy reliance on imported food as well as to diversify the economy and to improve rural living conditions.
\par \tab The scarcity of water is the principal constraint on agriculture, so the government has an ambitious program to improve the kingdom's water supplies through surveys of underground resources and the construction of dams and irrigation networks. Fallow land is also distributed to nomads and mechanization is encouraged. The goal of making the country nearly self-sufficient in food, however, may be unrealistic.
\par {\b Transportation}
\par \tab Until the mid-1960s the only surfaced roads were in the Jiddah-Mecca-Medina region. The government has made road building a top priority since then, and by the mid-1980s the kingdom had approximately 40,000 miles (64,000 kilometers) of roads.
\par \tab There are five principal ports: Jiddah, Yenbo, and Qizan on the Red Sea and Dammam and Jubail on the gulf. Jiddah is by far the main port of entry for the country's imports. Air transportation has expanded rapidly because of the country's large size. There are 24 airports, with the main international terminals at Jiddah, Dhahran, and Riyadh. Rail transportation is relatively insignificant. The main line connects Dammam on the gulf with Riyadh. A causeway links the island country of Bahrain with Saudi Arabia.
\par {\b History and Politics}
\par \tab The first known Arabian civilizations were coastal settlements. Dilmun, which was a major trading link between Mesopotamia and the Indus River valley, dominated 250 miles (400 kilometers) of the eastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula from 4000 to 2000 BC. The interior had few people. Another major civilization evolved in southern Arabia, or Arabia Felix, where a confederation of states was formed in the 1st millennium BC. These states established a huge, complex commercial network with extensive trade routes and served as middlemen between India and Africa. Arabia Felix was self-sufficient agriculturally and developed a sophisticated irrigation system, including the famous Marib Dam.
\par \tab In the 4th century AD Arabia Felix began to decline. The centuries-old overland caravan trade to Egypt, however, had given rise to trading cities in the Hejaz region. Mecca, the most important of these, was the birthplace of the prophet Muhammad in about AD 570. By the time of his death in 632, most of the Arabian Peninsula was united under Islamic rule. At the beginning of the 16th century, the Arabian Peninsula came under the nominal suzerainty of the Ottoman sultans in Istanbul, but Ottoman control was never very strong.
\par \tab In the mid-18th century Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab, who preached a return to the orthodox practices of Muhammad's day, formed a mutually beneficial alliance with the Saud clan, which rules the country today. Together they set out to purify Islam. The strict, puritanical Wahhabi movement quickly grew in strength and expanded far beyond its base in Najd to Mecca and Medina and to parts of Iraq and Syria as well. This expansion concerned the Ottomans, who dispatched Muhammad 'Ali Pasha of Egypt to defeat the movement in 1811-18 and 1838. But the Wahhabi Sauds continued to rule the interior until 1890, when the rival Turkish-backed Rashid clan seized control of Riyadh.
\par \tab Ibn Saud, a member of the deposed Saud family, regained control of Riyadh in 1902, expelled the Rashids, and proclaimed himself ruler of Najd. By the start of World War I, he controlled central Arabia and the Al Hasa coast. But in the Hejaz Husayn ibn 'Ali still acknowledged Ottoman suzerainty. With British encouragement Husayn proclaimed Arab independence, declared war on the Turks, and claimed the title King of the Hejaz in 1916. After Husayn proclaimed himself the new caliph of Islam in 1924, Ibn Saud invaded the Hejaz and took control of Mecca and Jiddah by 1926. At first Najd and Hejaz formed a dual kingdom, but in 1932 Ibn Saud merged them to form the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
\par \tab Saudi Arabia is a monarchy in which Islamic law serves as the constitution. The king, in order to rule, must obtain the support of the royal family, which is believed to have several thousand members. Royal princes hold all the key national security positions, though a growing number of technocrats from outside the family operate government departments concerned with economic and social development.
\par \tab Saudi Arabia's influence has grown enormously since the explosion of petroleum prices after 1973. Revenues from petroleum have provided the means to assist and influence former adversaries.
\par \tab The monarchy has been shaken, however, by several events. In 1979 some 200 fundamentalist Muslims seized control of the al-Haram, or Great Mosque, in Mecca, the most sacred site in Islam. During a two-week siege more than 200 people were killed.
\par \tab The 1979 revolution in Iran, which brought an Islamic theocracy to power, also caused concern. Iran's rulers have openly called for the overthrow of the Saudi and other monarchies in the gulf region.
\par \tab The Iran-Iraq war, which raged from 1980 until 1988, was a major preoccupation in the region. Saudi Arabia's fears of an Iranian victory moved the country to help Iraq financially. In doing so it antagonized Iran and risked becoming more deeply involved in the gulf war. Concerns about security led Saudi Arabia to build up its armed forces and to purchase a huge quantity of arms from the United States. Saudi Arabia also played a leading role in the creation of the Gulf Cooperation Council, whose goal was to foster closer economic and military ties between the Arab monarchies of the Arabian Peninsula in the face of the perceived threats.
\par \tab The Iraqi invasion of Kuwait on Aug. 2, 1990, thrust Saudi Arabia into its gravest crisis since the kingdom was united in 1932. With Iraqi troops massed on the Saudi border, King Fahd, in an unprecedented move, invited Western and Arab forces to deploy in the kingdom in support of the Saudi defense forces. Some 700,000 troops from 37 countries, along with thousands of planes and armored vehicles, poured into the country in the next few months. When the United Nations Security Council deadline for Iraq to withdraw from Kuwait expired on Jan. 15, 1991, the defensive coalition, called Desert Shield, took the offensive as Desert Storm. Operation Desert Storm began on January 16; Kuwait was liberated on February 27. Although Iraq fired Scud missiles against Saudi Arabia, most were destroyed by American Patriot antimissile rockets.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by Alasdair D. Drysdale, Associate Professor of Geography, University of New Hampshire, Durham; author of 'The Middle East and North Africa: A Political Geography'.
\par \tab {\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR SAUDI ARABIA}
\par \tab Holden, David and Johns, Richard. The House of Saud (Holt, 1981).
\par \tab Hood, A.L. We Live in Saudi Arabia (Watts, 1987).
\par \tab Lacey, Robert. The Kingdom: Arabia and the House of Saud (Harcourt, 1982).
\par \tab Lye, Keith. Take a Trip to Saudi Arabia (Watts, 1984).
\par \tab McCarthy, Kevin. Saudi Arabia: A Desert Kingdom (Dillon, 1986).
\par \tab Niblock, Tim, ed. State, Society, and Economy in Saudi Arabia (St. Martin, 1982).\par \tab One of the most economically advanced countries of French-speaking West Africa, Senegal is the westernmost republic of the great bulge of Africa. Its Cape Verde peninsula is the westernmost point of the African continent. Covering an area of 75,955 square miles (196,723 square kilometers), it is bounded by the Atlantic Ocean on the west, Mauritania on the northeast, Mali on the east, and Guinea and Guinea-Bissau on the south. Gambia cuts into Senegal in the southwest from the Atlantic along the Gambia River, forming an enclave about 300 miles (480 kilometers) long and roughly 20 miles (32 kilometers) wide. Dakar is Senegal's capital and largest city.
\par {\b Landscape}
\par \tab Much of Senegal consists of a low plain that rises in the southeast to plateaus and hills. The country is situated in a depression known as the Senegal-Mauritanian Basin. Its three major physical regions are: the Cape Verde region of small plateaus and volcanic rocks; the high massif (mountain mass) on the Guinea frontier that rises to elevations of 1,640 feet (500 meters) to form the foothills of the Fouta Djallon; and an extensive shallow basin between Cape Verde to the west and the edges of the massif to the east. The Casamance region, south of Gambia, is cut off from the rest of the country. It was largely isolated prior to the opening of the Trans-Gambian Highway in 1958. The southern Atlantic coast is fringed with mangrove swamps. A broad belt of sand dunes stretches along the coast between St-Louis and Dakar.
\par \tab Senegal is drained by four major rivers: the Senegal, Saloum, Casamance, and Gambia. These rivers are navigable for a substantial distance inland. The Senegal's large flood basin provides fertile land for cultivation every year after the floodwaters recede.
\par \tab Senegal's climate is a transition between dry desert and moist tropical. There are distinct dry and wet seasons. The rainy season usually lasts from June to October, and annual rainfall ranges from about 14 inches (36 centimeters) in the north to about 60 inches (152 centimeters) in the south. Annual temperatures range from 57░ to 104░ F (14░ to 40░ C) but rarely fall below 60░ F (16░ C).
\par \tab Natural vegetation consists largely of savanna-type grasses with scattered trees. Forests occupy about a third of the total land area and are more dense in the Casamance region. The savanna grasslands with thorny bushes and acacias cover the northern part of the country. About a third of the land is under pasture. Several species of monkeys, as well as antelopes, lions, panthers, and hyenas--though not abundant--are found in the forests. Wildlife is preserved in the Nokolo-Koba, Delta du Saloum, and Djoudj national parks. The rivers contain turtles, crocodiles, and hippopotamuses. Large numbers of fish and crustaceans are found in the rivers and coastal waters.
\par {\b People and Culture}
\par \tab Major ethnic groups are the Wolof, Fulani, Serer, and Tukulor, each speaking a different language. About a third of the total population are Wolof. French is the official language, but the majority of the people speak Wolof and the other tribal languages of West Africa. There are some Europeans, Syrians, and Lebanese, who reside mainly in the cities. About 90 percent of the population follow Islam.
\par \tab More than a third of the population are urban and live in towns such as Dakar, ThiΦs, Kaolack, Ziguinchor, and St-Louis. About three fourths of the urban population live in the Dakar metropolitan area. Situated in the southern Cape Verde peninsula, Dakar is a modern city with residential suburbs. The Cape Verde region has the highest concentration of people, sometimes exceeding 3,000 per square mile (1,160 per square kilometer). Education is compulsory between the ages of 6 and 12. Only a quarter of the population above age 15 can read and write, and fewer than half of the school-age children attend school. Religious schools provide Islamic education for boys. Vocational training offered at special institutes prepares skilled craftsmen and technicians. The University of Dakar, founded in 1957, is the country's principal institution of higher learning.
\par \tab Senegal has a considerable range of medical facilities, but they are largely concentrated in cities. About 70 percent of the country's physicians are located in Dakar. Yellow fever and tuberculosis no longer reach epidemic proportions. Life expectancy is about 46 years.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab Senegal is primarily an agricultural country. Agriculture, livestock raising, and fishing are the major sectors of the economy. Peanuts are the major cash crop, occupying about 40 percent of the area under cultivation. They provide a large percentage of total export earnings. The cultivation of cotton, rice, sugarcane, and vegetables is encouraged to reduce the country's economic dependence on peanuts. Other crops--including millet, sorghum, cassava, beans, sweet potatoes, and rice--are produced for domestic use. Livestock is raised in most of the country but is more prevalent in the north. Cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs are raised, and there is a large fishing industry. Fish and fish products (shrimp and tuna) became major export items in the 1980s.
\par \tab Phosphate production is also significant to Senegal's economy. Petroleum deposits have been located off the Casamance coast. Coastal sands have reserves of titanium ore and aluminum phosphate; there are also deposits of calcium phosphate.
\par \tab Imports generally exceed exports and include crude petroleum, machinery, cereals, chemicals, and transportation equipment. The chief exports are petroleum products, calcium phosphate, peanut oil, and canned, fresh, and frozen fish.
\par \tab More than three fourths of the country's industrial production comes from the region around Dakar. The major items produced are textiles, cement, soft drinks, canned fish, shoes, and cigarettes. There are also ship-repairing, peanut-oil-extracting, and sugar-refining plants. Senegal's free-trade zone has almost doubled the number of its industrial firms since 1981. Tourism has become a major source of foreign revenue. Traditional handicrafts, including leather products, woodworking, basket and cloth weaving, and pottery and jewelry making, are popular.
\par \tab Dakar is a major West African seaport. It is also the terminal for Senegal's railway system. The Dakar-Yoff International Airport, served by a number of airlines, is a major African airport. Other seaports are Kaolack and Ziguinchor.
\par {\b History}
\par \tab Archaeological findings suggest that the area was inhabited in prehistoric times. Tukulor people settled here before the 10th century AD. They converted to Islam in the 11th century, though traditional beliefs were retained in Senegal well into the 19th century.
\par \tab The Portuguese reached Senegal in 1444. Later Portuguese, Dutch, English, and French merchants traded with the people along the coast. The French established a trading post on the coast in 1638 and gradually extended their commercial and military power inland. Control over the coast of Senegal alternated between France and England from 1693 to 1814. Senegal became a French overseas territory in 1946 and an autonomous republic within the French community in 1958.
\par \tab In April 1959 Senegal and French Sudan (now Mali) formed the Mali Federation. But Senegal withdrew in 1960 and declared itself an independent republic with a parliamentary democracy. LΘopold Senghor, an internationally renowned poet and statesman, was elected Senegal's first president in 1960. Senegal and Gambia share joint defense and foreign and monetary policies but retain their individual sovereignty under the Confederation of Senegambia of 1982. The country's chief executive is the president, who is both head of state and head of the government. Population (1987 estimate), 6,793,000.\par \tab One of the two constituent republics of Yugoslavia, Serbia occupies an area of 34,116 square miles (88,360 square kilometers), including the formerly independent provinces of Kosovo and Vojvodina. It is bounded by Hungary on the north; Romania and Bulgaria on the east; Macedonia on the south; Albania and the Yugoslavian republic of Montenegro on the southwest; Bosnia and Herzegovina on the west; and Croatia on the northwest. Serbia's largest city and capital, Belgrade, is also the national capital.
\par \tab Serbia is largely mountainous. The Dinaric Alps are to the west, the North Albanian Alps and the Sar Mountains are in the southwest, and the Balkan Mountains are east. The Danube River forms part of the border with Romania.
\par \tab Agriculture is an important economic activity. The principal crops are corn, wheat, potatoes, and grapes. Copper ore, lead-zinc ore, quartz sand, bauxite, lime, marl, and some silver are mined. Wheat flour, iron and crude steel, and chemicals are produced.
\par \tab In the late 1980s, Serbia began the transition from a centrally planned economy to a market economy. This shift was hampered by United Nations (UN) sanctions imposed on the republic for its involvement in the civil war in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Sanctions were lifted in November 1995, after Serbia participated in negotiations to end the Bosnian conflict.
\par \tab The majority of the population is Serbian, a South Slavic people. In the province of Vojvodina, Serbs maintain a majority, but a large minority of Hungarians, Romanians, Bulgarians, Slovaks, Czechs, and others exists. Most of the population of Kosovo province is Albanian, a non-Slavic people.
\par \tab A constitution approved in 1990 allows for a directly elected president and a national assembly of 250 members. Vojvodina has an elected assembly, while Kosovo's assembly was dissolved by Serbia in 1990.
\par \tab Serb tribes from the Carpathian Mountains region first arrived in the area in the 7th century. Serbs accepted the authority of the Byzantine Empire in the 9th century. The first Serb kingdom was formed in the 11th century when the Serbs revolted against Byzantium. In 1389 the Turks defeated Serbia, and finally, after 1459, the Serbs fell under Turkish rule, which lasted for the next four centuries. When the Russo-Turkish War of 1828-29 was over, Serbia became an autonomous principality.
\par \tab The Treaty of Berlin in 1878 gave full independence to Serbia, which became a kingdom in March 1882. Serbia almost doubled its size in 1912 after the First Balkan War. Severe disputes regarding the provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina continued. The assassination of the Austrian archduke Francis Ferdinand by a Bosnian Serb in Sarajevo on June 28, 1914, led to an attack on Serbia by Austria-Hungary. Thus began World War I, in which Serbia lost nearly one quarter of its population.
\par \tab After the war, Serbia joined with other South Slav provinces to form the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes, renamed Yugoslavia in 1929. The state was under the dictatorship of King Alexander, a Serb, until his assassination in 1934 by Croatian separatists. A regency headed by Prince Paul, Alexander's cousin, attempted to quell the growing discontent of the Croats by agreeing in 1939 to give them autonomy over their affairs, except defense and foreign affairs.
\par \tab Before the agreement could be truly tested, World War II broke out in Europe, and German, Italian, Hungarian, and Bulgarian forces invaded and occupied Serbia. The Communist Partisans under Josep Broz Tito and Serbian resistance fighters known as Chetniks fought against the occupying forces during the war.
\par \tab Serbia and the other constituent republics of Yugoslavia were liberated in 1944. Yugoslavia became a socialist federation in January 1946, and it was ruled with a strong hand by Tito until his death in 1980. In June 1991 Croatia and Slovenia declared their independence from Yugoslavia. Serbia, concerned about the more than half a million Serbs living in the other Yugoslav republics, invaded Slovenia and Croatia in an attempt keep them from seceding. After ten months of fighting, a new, smaller Yugoslavia consisting of Serbia and Montenegro only was formed in April 1992.
\par \tab Serbia provided military aid to nationalist Serbs involved in the bitter civil war in the neighboring republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which broke out in April 1992. Serbia was isolated internationally and suffered the brunt of United Nations (UN) sanctions for its participation in the conflict. The Serbian economy was devastated, and the republic's president, Slobodan Milosevic, sought an end to the war. He closed the border with Bosnia in mid-1994 and participated in peace negotiations. Serbia, Bosnia, and Croatia signed a peace agreement in November 1995. Population (1993 estimate), 5,809,000.
{\b The Former Federated Republic of Yugoslavia}
\par \tab One of the youngest nations of Europe, Yugoslavia was created after World War I as a homeland for several different rival ethnic groups. The country was put together largely from remnants of the collapsed Ottoman Empire and Austria-Hungary. Demands for self-determination by Slovenes, Croats, Serbs, and others went unrecognized, and thus Yugoslavia became an uneasy association of peoples conditioned by centuries of ethnic and religious hatreds. World War II aggravated these rivalries, but a Communist dictatorship took power after the war and kept them restrained for 45 years. When the Communist system failed, the old rivalries reasserted themselves; in 1991-92 the provinces of Slovenia, Croatia, Macedonia, and Bosnia and Herzegovina seceded from the union, leaving the republics of Serbia and Montenegro as the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. Serbia includes the formerly independent provinces of Vojvodina in the north and Kosovo in the south.
\par \tab Yugoslavia is bounded on the north by Hungary, on the northeast by Romania, on the east by Bulgaria, on the south by Macedonia and Albania, on the southwest by the Adriatic Sea, and on the west by Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. At its widest point, the country measures more than 290 miles (465 kilometers) from northwest to southeast and 250 miles (400 kilometers) from northeast to southwest. Yugoslavia's total area is 39,449 square miles (102,172 square kilometers).
\par \tab Yugoslavia has a mountainous terrain. In eastern Serbia, the Balkan Mountains form the republic's border with Bulgaria and Romania, reaching an elevation of 6,000 feet (1,800 meters). The Sar and Kopaonik Mountains, located in southwestern Yugoslavia, feature the country's highest peak, Daravica, at 8,712 feet (2,655 meters). The Dinaric Alps occupy much of Montenegro and contain peaks reaching more than 8,000 feet (2,400 meters), including Montenegro's highest mountain, Durmitor, at 8,274 feet (2,522 meters). The major area of flatland lies in the north and is part of the Mid-Danube, or Pannonian, Plain. Stretching from Croatia and Hungary across northern Serbia, the plain is Yugoslavia's most fertile land.
\par \tab The major river in Yugoslavia is the Danube, which flows southeastward from the Hungarian border, through Belgrade, to the border with Romania. Its primary tributaries are the Sava, Drava, Tisa, and Morava. Other rivers include the Piva, Tara, Lim, and Vardar. Lake Scutari, on the border between Montenegro and Albania, is the largest lake on the Balkan Peninsula.
\par \tab The mountainous nature of Yugoslavia causes considerable climatic differences from one place to another. The Mid-Danube Plain has a continental climate with cold winters, hot summers, and moderate precipitation. The mountain regions have, on the whole, colder and shorter summers and more severe winters compared with other regions.
\par {\b Natural Resources and Plant and Animal Life}
\par \tab Yugoslavia has numerous deposits of lignite, or brown coal, but there is little good-grade black coal. There are some small petroleum and natural gas fields, located primarily in the Vojvodina region. The country has no nuclear power stations. Waterpower is a major source of energy, providing about one third of Yugoslavia's electricity. Yugoslavia is a major European producer of lead and copper. Other minerals include iron ore, zinc, bauxite, mercury, and antimony. About 37 percent of the country is forested. The predominant species are oak, beech, and other deciduous trees, with such evergreens as pine and fir growing in the mountains. Yugoslavia has a wide range of animals, including deer, foxes, wolves, wild pigs, bears, and martens. Birds include grouse, partridge, swans, buzzards, woodpeckers, and pelicans. The Adriatic Sea contains anchovies, sardines, mackerel, tuna, and other fishes.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab The inhabitants of Yugoslavia are of varied ethnic origins. According to the 1991 census the largest group is the Serbs, who number 6.5 million, or 62 percent of the population. They speak Serbo-Croatian, a Slavic language, and belong to the Eastern Orthodox church.
\par \tab A non-Slavic people, the Albanians, live in the southern part of the country. They number 1.7 million (17 percent of the population) and are the fastest growing ethnic group. Montenegrins total about 600,000 and are concentrated within the borders of their republic in southern Yugoslavia. They are Eastern Orthodox and speak Serbo-Croatian. Other ethnic groups present in Yugoslavia include Bosnian Muslims (300,000) and the Hungarians (300,000), Romanians, Bulgarians, Slovaks, Czechs, and others who live mostly in the northern province of Vojvodina.
\par \tab The largest city is Belgrade, the federal capital, with about 1.1 million inhabitants. Novi Sad, the capital of Vojvodina, is the second largest, with more than 170,000. Other important cities include Nis, with 160,000 people; Pristina, the capital of Kosovo, with 108,000; and Podgorica (formerly Titograd), the capital of Montenegro, with about 96,000 inhabitants.
\par \tab Yugoslav culture has been influenced by the Slavs, Turks, Italians, and Austrians. The influence of the long Turkish occupation can be seen in the food, folk costumes, and architecture of the nation.
\par \tab The earliest Yugoslav literature was religious in nature. The first popular literature appeared in medieval Serbia, mainly in the form of epic poems describing the struggle of the Serbs against the Turks. These poems were chanted by minstrels who traveled from village to village.
\par \tab In the 19th century Serbian writers laid the foundations of a modern literature. Vuk Karadic reformed the language and collected folk poetry, while Petar Petrovi Njegos produced epic poetry on the theme of liberty. Among modern writers are the Serbs Branimir Cosic, Branko Copic, and Ivo Andric, the winner of the 1961 Nobel prize for Literature, whose novel 'The Bridge on the Drina' has been translated into many languages.
\par \tab Yugoslav folklore is very colorful. Each ethnic group has its own costumes, songs, and dances. The most popular folk dance is the kolo, a circle dance performed to lively music.
\par \tab Soccer is the most popular sport, and Yugoslavia has produced some star players. Yugoslav basketball teams have also had success in international competitions, including a gold medal victory in the 1980 Summer Olympics. Outdoor sports such as hunting and fishing are also popular.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab Farming is a major occupation, employing about 34 percent of the labor force and utilizing more than half of the nation's land. Most farms are owned privately and are small. The major crops are corn (maize), wheat, barley, oats, potatoes, sugar beets, sunflowers, tobacco, and alfalfa. About one third of the agricultural area consists of pastures for grazing pigs, sheep, and cattle. Much of this is in the mountains. The growing of fruit includes plums, apples, pears, peaches, raspberries, strawberries, and apricots. Grapes are widely grown and wine produced, some for export.
\par \tab Fishing is carried out along the Adriatic coast and on the Danube River. Forestry is concentrated mainly in the mountain forests of northern Yugoslavia. It supports the pulp and paper and furniture industries.
\par \tab Much of Yugoslavia's industry is located in the north, primarily in the area surrounding Belgrade. Major exports include iron, steel, electronics, machinery, textiles, automobiles, and trucks. The processing and refining of metallic minerals also gives considerable employment.
\par \tab In the late 1980s, Yugoslavia began the shift from a centrally planned economy to a market economy. By 1993, only 4 percent of the nation's businesses were owned by the state, though nearly 70 percent of the labor force was employed in the state sector. The combined effects of the civil war in Bosnia and Herzegovina and United Nations (UN) economic sanctions against Yugoslavia served to devastate the Yugoslavian economy in the early 1990s. The country was plagued by a fall in output in almost every sector of the economy, and hyperinflation raged from early 1993 until January 1994, when the government introduced a new currency, called the new dinar, that is pegged to the German deutsche mark.
\par {\b Transportation, Communication, and Education}
\par \tab The problems of rail construction over the mountainous terrain of Yugoslavia have favored the development of a highway network. In the early 1990s, there were nearly 30,000 miles (48,300 kilometers) of roads in the country, compared to almost 2,500 miles (4,025 kilometers) of rail. More than 1.4 million passenger cars and 120,000 trucks were registered for use in 1993.
\par \tab With the secession of Croatia and Slovenia in 1991, Yugoslavia lost all of its major ports except the Montenegrin town of Bar. Yugoslav Airlines (JAT) is state owned and flies to many foreign destinations. The country has five airports, including international terminals at Belgrade and Podgorica.
\par \tab Postal and telephone services are run by the state. In 1993, there were 11 daily newspapers, including the notable Politika and Borba, published in Belgrade, and Pobjeda, printed in Podgorica. More than 2,500 books are published annually in Yugoslavia.
\par \tab In addition to the state-run Serbian Radio and Television and Montenegrin Radio and Television networks, there were three independent radio and television networks operating in the mid-1990s. An estimated 1.7 million televisions and 1.8 million radio receivers were in use in 1993.
\par \tab Education is compulsory between the ages of 7 and 15, after which students may choose to attend either a vocational or general secondary school. Students attending vocational school have the option of continuing their education at a two-year postsecondary school, while those attending general secondary school may continue at one of the country's six four-year universities. All education is free in Yugoslavia, including that at the university level.
\par {\b Government}
\par \tab Under a constitution drafted in April 1992, the government of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia is a federal multiparty republic with a bicameral legislature. The parliament, called the Federal Assembly, is divided into the Chamber of Citizens, which has 138 members elected by universal suffrage, and the 40-member Chamber of Republics, composed of representatives elected in equal numbers from the assemblies of both Serbia and Montenegro. The head of state is the president, who is elected by the federal parliament. The president is responsible for appointing a prime minister to head the government, a choice subject to approval by the legislature.
\par \tab The federal government handles matters of national defense, foreign policy, monetary policy, social welfare, and human rights. A large amount of administrative power is delegated to the separate republican governments of Serbia and Montenegro, which are organized on the federal model.
\par {\b History}
\par \tab After World War I the breakup of Austria-Hungary made possible the creation of a new state for the South Slavs, who include the Serbs, Croats, Slovenes, Bosnian Muslims, Montenegrins, and Macedonians. In 1918, an uneasy coalition of mutually hostile ethnic groups, each with a distinct 1,400-year history, became the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes; the new nation was renamed the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in 1929.
\par \tab Yugoslavia's first ruler was King Alexander, a Serb, who declared a personal dictatorship in 1929. He was assassinated by Croatian terrorists while on a state visit to France in 1934, and the throne passed to his young son Peter II. The resolution of the country's ethnic troubles appeared closer when an agreement was reached in 1939 to give Croatia autonomy, but in 1941 Yugoslavia was invaded by Germany, Italy, Hungary, and Bulgaria. Serbs resisted the occupation forces, and the Communist Partisans under the leadership of Josip Broz, known as Tito, became the dominant group. The Croats and Slovenes, however, sided openly with Germany and Italy.
\par \tab In the aftermath of World War II, Yugoslavia was devastated, with much of the country in ruins and more than 10 percent of its prewar population dead. Peter II was deposed in 1944, and Tito--who now bore the title of marshal--and the Communists came to sole power after an election in November 1945.
\par \tab A new constitution adopted in January 1946 abolished the monarchy and established the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia, a federation of six republics: Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia, and Slovenia. The Serbian provinces of Kosovo, with its Muslim Albanian majority, and Vojvodina, with a large Hungarian population, were given autonomous status within the people's republic in an effort to protect the interests of those two populations.
\par \tab In June 1948 Yugoslavia was expelled from the Soviet bloc for refusing to submit to Soviet orders. Despite Soviet efforts to depose him by isolating Yugoslavia, Tito became the country's first president in 1953. He managed successfully to steer a nonaligned path between the two superpowers, the Soviet Union and the United States, criticizing Western colonialism while also denouncing Soviet aggressions, such as the 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia. When Tito died in 1980, the fragile federation he had held together began to unravel.
\par \tab The League of Communists relinquished their constitutionally guaranteed monopoly on power, and in 1990 the first multiparty elections were held since Tito took power. In May 1991 Serbia and its allies blocked the election of a Croat to the federal presidency, leaving the country without a president. A new Serbian leader emerged--Slobodan Milosevic, who renewed the age-old promise of a Greater Serbia. This goal entailed taking parts of other republics where Serbian minorities lived and uniting them with Serbia.
\par \tab On June 25, 1991, Croatia and Slovenia declared their independence from Yugoslavia. Serbian leaders denounced this action, fearing for the safety of the more than half a million Serbs living in the other Yugoslav republics. Federal troops made up mostly of Serbs poured into Slovenia, resisted by Slovenian militia. The Serbs invaded Croatia.
\par \tab At the end of 1991 Germany, followed by the European Community (EC; now the European Union) and the United States, recognized the independence of Croatia and Slovenia. In January 1992, a cease-fire was negotiated that left Serbia with about one third of Croatia's territory. (A shaky peace between Serbia and Croatia lingered for more than three years until Croatia regained the captured territory in a military offensive during May-August 1995.)
\par \tab The violence spread next to Bosnia and Herzegovina. In an early 1992 referendum boycotted by the large Serb minority, the republic's Croats and Muslims voted for independence. International recognition came on April 6, 1992, and soon after, a bitter civil war erupted throughout the republic as the artillery of Serb militias shelled cities and towns.
\par \tab The situation in Bosnia was complicated by religious differences. Many of its residents were Muslims. Serbs tended mostly to be Serbian Orthodox, while Croats were mostly Roman Catholic. These rivalries added to the ethnic hatreds. Croat and Serb Christians also turned their weapons on the Muslim minority.
\par \tab A campaign of terrorism and genocide, which they termed ethnic cleansing, was started by the Serbs against the Muslims. Many Muslims were killed outright. Muslim women were raped, and men and boys were put into concentration camps. At least two million people became refugees, and about 140,000 were missing and presumed dead.
\par \tab In May 1992 the UN imposed sanctions on the newly formed Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. The UN accused the country of fueling the conflict in Bosnia and Herzegovina by supplying weapons and material support. The sanctions devastated the Serbian economy, causing hyperinflation and massive unemployment. Serbian President Milosevic closed his country's borders with Bosnia and broke off contacts between Serbia and the Bosnian Serbs in an effort to have the sanctions lifted.
\par \tab By late 1995, Muslim and Croat forces had made substantial gains against Serb forces and were in control of more than half the country. Many of Bosnia's cities were in ruins, among them Sarajevo, the capital. A breakthrough peace agreement was signed by the presidents of Serbia, Croatia, and Bosnia on November 21. The deal called for Bosnia and Herzegovina to be split 51 percent to a Croat-Muslim federation and 49 percent to a Bosnian Serb republic, both of which will share power in a central government. As a reward for Yugoslavia's role in bringing the peace treaty to fruition, the UN lifted its economic and military sanctions, signaling that the nation's long international isolation had finally come to an end.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by Ian M. Matley, Professor of Geography, Michigan State University.
\par \tab {\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR YUGOSLAVIA}
\par \tab Cohn, Lenard. Broken Bonds: The Disintegration of Yugoslavia, 2nd ed. (Westview, 1995).
\par \tab Crnobinja, Mihailo. The Yugoslav Drama (Univ. of Toronto Press, 1994).
\par \tab Dragnich, Alex. Serbs and Croats: The Struggle in Yugoslavia (Harcourt Brace, 1992).
\par \tab Pavlowitch, Stevan. Tito--Yugoslavia's Great Dictator: A Reassessment (Ohio State Univ. Press, 1992).
\par \tab Silber, Laura, and Little, Allan. Yugoslavia: Death of a Nation (TV Books/Penguin, 1996).
\par \tab Singleton, Fred. A Short History of the Yugoslav Peoples (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1985).\par \tab The Republic of Seychelles, comprising a scattered archipelago of about 110 islands, is situated north of Madagascar in the western Indian Ocean. The islands cover an area of 175 square miles (453 square kilometers). The capital and only port is Victoria, on MahΘ Island. Located just south of the equator, Seychelles is composed of two main island groups: the MahΘ group--some 40 mountainous, forested, granitic islands--and a group of some 70 outer, flat, coralline islets that are waterless and virtually uninhabited.
\par \tab The highest point in the country, Morne Seychellois at 2,992 feet (912 meters), is in the central mountain ridge on MahΘ Island. The climate is tropical with moderate oceanic effects. Temperatures are high throughout the year. The amount of precipitation varies from island to island, ranging from 90 inches (230 centimeters) at sea level to 140 inches (360 centimeters) on the mountain slopes. Sharks abound in the surrounding ocean and giant tortoises and green sea turtles live along the coasts.
\par \tab The people of Seychelles, called Seychellois, are of mixed African, Indian, Chinese, and European descent. More than 90 percent of the population lives on MahΘ. The majority of the population is Roman Catholic. English, French, and Creole are official languages. About 90 percent of school-age children attend school. Nine years of non-compulsory primary education are free. Health-care facilities are generally good and are provided by government hospitals. There are an international airport and a good network of paved roads.
\par \tab The area under cultivation is limited, and the country is heavily dependent on imported food. Canned tuna, fish, cinnamon bark, copra, and beverages are produced for export. The main imports are machinery and transport equipment, petroleum products, and food items. In an attempt to increase food production, the government has set up some large state-owned farms and a farmer training center.
\par \tab The country's fish consumption ranks among the highest in the world. The fishing industry is being developed with French assistance. Some granite is quarried at Grand Anse. Manufacturing is limited to food processing, cigarette making, and brewing; fabricated-steel goods and furniture are also produced.
\par \tab A British expedition reached the archipelago in 1609. French explorers arrived in 1742, and the islands were formally annexed to France in 1756. France surrendered them to the British in 1810. In 1903 Seychelles became a crown colony.
\par \tab Seychelles became self-governing in 1975, and independence within the Commonwealth was granted in 1976. The Republic of Seychelles is a one-party state with a president as the head of state. Population (1993 estimate), 71,300.\par \tab On the southwestern coast of the bulge of West Africa, Sierra Leone lies less than 10░ from the equator. Facing the Atlantic Ocean to the west, it is bounded by Guinea to the north and east and Liberia to the southeast. It extends over an area of 27,699 square miles (71,740 square kilometers) and has a coastline of nearly 210 miles (340 kilometers). The capital and largest city is Freetown.
\par \tab Sierra Leone has four physical regions from southwest to northeast: a flat, low-lying region with mangrove swamps along the Atlantic coast; the heavily wooded Sierra Leone peninsula, the site of Freetown, that rises from the coastal plains to about 3,000 feet (910 meters); the interior plains covered by savanna grasslands and occasional rocky scarps and hills; and a high, mountainous region that includes Bintimani Peak at 6,390 feet (1,948 meters)--the highest in the country and in West Africa. The principal rivers--the Great Scarcies, Little Scarcies, Rokel (called Sierra Leone in its lower course), Jong, and Mano--flow in a general northeast to southwest direction into the Atlantic. The Sierra Leone and Sherbro estuaries are navigable for oceangoing vessels. Other rivers are navigable by small craft for only short distances.
\par \tab The tropical climate has high temperatures and humidity throughout the year. Average annual temperatures range from 75░ to 80░ F (24░ to 27░ C). The rainy season lasts from April to November, and rainfall is heaviest along the coast, especially along the Sierra Leone peninsula (about 200 inches [510 centimeters]). A hot, dry, sand-carrying wind blows from the Sahara during the dry season.
\par \tab Roughly 30 percent of the land is under tropical forest that yields such valuable timber as mahogany and teak. A large percentage of forestland is reserved and protected. Varied animal life includes the monkey, chimpanzee, tiger, porcupine, antelope, crocodile, and many species of birds. Wildlife is protected in the 242,220-acre (98,030-hectare) Outamba-Kilimi National Park, which opened in 1981.
\par {\b People and Culture}
\par \tab The majority of the people live in the eastern and western regions of Sierra Leone. There are about 18 ethnic groups, chief among them the Mende and Temne. The Mende form more than a third of the total. Other groups include the Limba, Fulani, Kissi, and Kono. The Creole, descendants of freed black African slaves, make up about 2 percent and are largely concentrated near Freetown.
\par \tab Although English is the official language, Krio, a language derived from English and several African languages, is widely spoken. Vai is a local indigenous script, but most literature is written in the Roman alphabet or in Arabic. Muslims and Christians are the two main religious groups. About half of the people follow traditional beliefs.
\par \tab Such traditional handicrafts as cloth weaving, leatherwork, basketry, pottery, and rug making are popular. Music and dance forms related to tribal religious ceremonies are well developed. The Sierra Leone Dance Troupe, through its international tours, has made these dances known worldwide.
\par \tab Primary education is free but not compulsory. In the 1980s, in order to increase literacy, the government tried to extend the primary school system to the whole country--especially in rural areas. Parents and guardians are encouraged to send their children to school. The University of Sierra Leone, founded in 1967, consists of two constituent colleges--Fourah Bay College, the oldest in West Africa, and Njala University College. The Institute of Education, also part of the university, provides teacher training. A school of nursing is in Freetown.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab Subsistence farming is the way of life for the majority of Sierra Leone's population. Less than 10 percent of the land is available for cultivation. Rice is the staple food crop. Other major crops are coffee, cocoa, oil palm, cassavas, millet, and peanuts. Piassava palm (from which brushes are made) and ginger are also grown. Livestock raising is a significant source of income. About a third of the land is under permanent pasture. Cattle raising is concentrated in the north.
\par \tab One of the world's largest producers of industrial diamonds and gemstones, Sierra Leone also produces iron ore, bauxite, and rutile. Its deposits of rutile, a crystalline form of titanium dioxide, are among the largest in the world. Mineral exports provide more than half of the country's foreign exchange earnings. Furniture and cigarette making, brewing, petroleum refining, and flour and saw milling are the chief manufacturing industries. Small-scale industries include weaving and the curing and smoking of fish. Tourism grew as a significant source of revenue in the 1980s. The country's chief exports are rutile, bauxite, diamonds, cocoa, and coffee. Major imports are machinery and transport equipment.
\par \tab The country's transportation network includes a direct road link between Freetown and Monrovia, Liberia. The only railway line is 52 miles (84 kilometers) long and moves the iron ore from Marampa to the port of Pepel. There is an international airport at Lungi, near Freetown. The port of Freetown is one of the world's largest natural ports.
\par {\b History and Government}
\par \tab During the 15th century the Mende and Tempe peoples moved to Sierra Leone. The coastal region was visited by the Portuguese in 1460, and the mountains of the peninsula were named Serra Lyoa, meaning "Lion Mountains." The country took its name from the mountains. By 1495 a Portuguese fort was erected at the site of modern Freetown. British philanthropists founded Freetown in 1787 to provide a home for freed and runaway slaves, who resettled from England, Nova Scotia, and Jamaica. In 1808 the Freetown settlement became a British colony, and the surrounding area was proclaimed a British protectorate in 1896.
\par \tab Sierra Leone achieved independence in 1961 within the Commonwealth. In 1967 a military junta took control of the government, but the next year civilian rule was reestablished. The country was declared a republic in 1971. For more than 21 years Sierra Leone was a single-party republic under the All-People's Congress. A new constitution approved in 1991 allowed for the introduction of a multiparty system, but implementation was delayed because of a border war with Liberia. The country is headed by a president. Population (1991 estimate), 4,260,000.\par \tab Located in Southeast Asia, the Republic of Singapore is a city-state linked to the Malaysian mainland by a 2/3 mile (1.1 kilometers) long causeway that carries a road and railway. Known as the Lion City, Singapore is a modern metropolis with one of the world's busiest ports. At the same time, the small tropical island has retained many elements of its colonial past. The multiethnic nature of the population provides a rich and varied cultural, religious, and linguistic heritage.
\par {\b Land and Climate}
\par \tab Singapore is separated from the mainland of Malaysia by the Johore Strait to the north. Across the Strait of Malacca and the Singapore Strait to the west and south of the island lies Indonesia.
\par \tab The total land area is about 239 square miles (618 square kilometers), which includes some 57 nearby islets. The island is 26 miles (42 kilometers) at its broadest point from east to west and 14 miles (23 kilometers) from north to south. Originally consisting of swamps and primary jungle vegetation, Singapore's terrain is largely flat and low-lying with numerous undulating hills. Bukit Timah, the highest point, is only 531 feet (162 meters) above sea level.
\par \tab Situated just 85 miles (137 kilometers) north of the equator, Singapore has a tropical climate characterized by high temperatures and humidity. Both annual and daily temperature variations are slight, and the average maximum temperature is 88░ F (31░ C). The island, which has no pronounced wet or dry season, receives an average of 100 inches (254 centimeters) of precipitation annually. During periods of heavy rain, flooding is common in low-lying areas.
\par \tab The island lies in the path of two monsoonal wind patterns that alternate in the major seasons. The northeast monsoon dominates the weather pattern from November to March and the southeast monsoon from June through September.
\par \tab The republic is basically one large metropolitan area with outlying population nodes. The main urban center is located on the south coast, where much of the urban sprawl is on land reclaimed from the sea and low-lying areas. By 1985 land reclamation had increased the original size of the island by 5 percent.
\par {\b People and Culture}
\par \tab The population of Singapore was estimated in 1989 to be 2.7 million. At the present rate of annual growth, 1.1 percent, it should reach 3 million by the year 2000. With a population density of about 11,300 per square mile (4,370 per square kilometer), the island is one of the most crowded nations in the world.
\par \tab Singapore was the first Asian country to control its population growth. Official family-planning programs are administered by a government agency with some 40 clinics. The program has been so successful that there is now concern over the prospects and impact of a shrinking population. The labor force may become inadequate. The infant mortality rate is only seven per 1,000, among the lowest in the world.
\par \tab Singapore has three main ethnic groups--Chinese, Malay, and Indian. The Chinese make up 76 percent of the population and the Malays and Indians account for 15 and 6 percent respectively. The majority of the Chinese belong to the Hokkien, Teochew, and Cantonese groups. The Malays come from both Malaysia and Indonesia, while the Indian component includes Tamils, Malayalis, Punjabis, Pakistanis, and Sri Lankans. Race relations are harmonious.
\par \tab The official languages are Malay, Chinese (Mandarin), Tamil, and English. The government stresses the need for bilingualism and especially encourages the use of Mandarin, though Hokkien, Teochew, Cantonese, Hainanese, Hakka, and Foochow remain major dialects. Malay is the national language, and English is the language of administration.
\par \tab Singapore is a secular state. Most Chinese are Taoists and Buddhists, with a growing number of Christians. Indians are largely Hindus, while the Malays, Pakistanis, and Bangladeshis are Muslims. Religion is not a major force in national life.
\par {\b Food}
\par \tab One of the outstanding offerings of Singapore is the array of local and international cuisine. Although the basic staple in the diet continues to be rice, the diverse ethnic community provides a mixture of Asian and Western fare that can be found in settings ranging from hawker stalls to international-class hotels.
\par \tab The Chinese have produced one of the world's greatest and most varied cuisines, and much of it can be sampled in Singapore. The Indian community has also made a significant contribution to the culinary tradition. Originally immigrating to Singapore from southern India, the Indians brought with them a style of cooking characterized by the use of spices. The Malay and Indonesian elements add additional dimensions to the cuisine. Local food is a mixture of several influences, among which are Malayan and Nonya. Coconut and spices are used in many of the foods but in different combinations.
\par \tab Nonya cuisine was developed by descendants of the Chinese called Peranakans, whose families--many of Malay descent--have lived in the area for generations. The Peranakans incorporated Malay food, clothing, and culture into their life-styles while retaining many Chinese traditions. As a result the food is an interesting blend of Malayan/Indonesian and Chinese. During the 1980s the government of Singapore actively encouraged the preservation of the Peranakan culture. This resulted in a permanent exhibit at the National Museum and the restoration of numerous Peranakan houses.
\par {\b Education and Housing}
\par \tab The national literacy rate is very high--nearly 87 percent: 92.5 percent for males and 79.3 percent for females. Primary education is free, and the schooling period extends over 12 years. Private schools account for more than one third of primary enrollment. The language of instruction at the primary level is English or any of the three vernaculars: Chinese, Tamil, and Malay. English is the language of instruction in secondary and post-secondary education.
\par \tab Higher education is provided by the National University of Singapore (NUS), which was established in 1980 through the merger of the University of Singapore and Nanyang University. Nanyang Technological Institute was established in 1981 to conduct practical engineering courses at the university level. There are also several polytechnic schools, of which Singapore Polytechnic and Ngee Ann Polytechnic are prominent. The Institute of Southeast Asian Studies was established in 1968 and is now located on the edge of the NUS campus.
\par \tab In the mid-1980s the country had seven newspapers--three Chinese, two English, one Malay, and one Tamil. The oldest and most widely circulated daily is The Straits Times. Singapore also has an active book-publishing industry.
\par \tab The Housing and Development Board (HDB) is the sole public-housing authority in Singapore. A specific objective is to create integrated, self-contained communities of mixed income levels in new towns and housing estates away from the city center. Another is to locate housing and work places within short distances of one another. About 2.1 million people, or 81 percent of the population, are now housed in HDB apartments. Bukit Batok, Yishun, Jurong, Tampines, and Woodlands are among the larger new towns.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab Singapore is classified as an upper-middle-income country by the World Bank. The gross national product per capita in 1985 was 7,420 dollars--apart from Brunei, the highest in Southeast Asia. The country is one of the newly industrializing Asian countries along with Hong Kong, Taiwan, and South Korea.
\par \tab Among the objectives are diversification and the upgrading of industry while developing the island into a center of regional services and international finance. Skill-intensive and high-tech industries are encouraged, as are research and development activities in a so-called second industrial revolution. Economic prosperity began in the 1960s, when the government decided to de-emphasize transshipment trade and emphasize industrialization.
\par \tab Manufacturing generates some 25 percent of the gross domestic product (GDP). From 1965 to 1980 this sector grew at an annual rate of 13.3 percent. Major activities are petroleum refining, machinery and appliances (which includes the large electronics industry), metal engineering, and precision equipment. Most of the heavy industries are located in Jurong, an industrial estate established in 1968 in the western part of the island. Such incentives as tax exemptions and labor-training programs are used to lure industry.
\par \tab Agriculture employs less than 1 percent of the labor force, and its contribution to the GDP is merely 1 percent. Given the limited land area for agriculture, cultivation is especially intensive. The nation is not self-sufficient in food. Both rice and vegetables, as well as meat, must be imported. Two major agricultural exports are orchids and aquarium fish species. Poultry farming is the largest agricultural activity.
\par \tab Energy accounts for 40 percent of all imports. The nation does not produce any form of mineral energy. The petroleum-refining capacity is estimated at 1.1 million barrels per day. There is no significant mining activity.
\par \tab Machinery and transportation equipment, crude petroleum, food, and chemicals account for the major imports. Major exports are petroleum products, machinery, and manufactured goods. Major import sources are Japan, the United States, Malaysia, and China, while exports go primarily to the United States, Malaysia, Japan, and Hong Kong. Transshipment trade accounts for 40 percent of the total.
\par \tab Located at a major focal point of international shipping and air routes, Singapore has long been a major center of transport and communications. With one of the world's largest ports, Singapore handled 112 million tons of cargo in 1984. The Port of Singapore Authority operates five gateways with more than 7 1/2 miles (12 kilometers) of berthing facilities. The container-handling facilities are among the most extensive and modern in the world.
\par \tab Singapore excels in air transport. The national carrier, Singapore Airlines, has an international reputation for excellence and operates a modern fleet of more than 30 aircraft on routes serving more than 30 countries. Singapore Changi Airport, the international air facility, is one of the most modern in Southeast Asia. A total of 9.45 million passengers were processed in 1984.
\par \tab High-quality public transport consists of buses, taxis, and a mass-rapid-transit (MRT) system that began operation in 1987. The MRT route links major population centers in housing estates with industrial estates and the central business district.
\par \tab Tourism has been actively encouraged and forms a significant part of revenues. Major attractions include botanical and zoological gardens, Jurong Bird Park, and recreational facilities on Sentosa Island.
\par {\b History and Government}
\par \tab The original seaport of Singapore was known as Temasek. It was founded in 1297 as one of the three kingdoms of Srivijaya, a trading empire based in Palembang, South Sumatra, Indonesia. Modern Singapore was founded in 1819 by Sir Stamford Raffles, who was looking for a new British commercial post in East Asia. He established a base on behalf of the British East India Company, and Singapore soon joined with the Malayan states of Penang and Malacca to form the Straits Settlements. In 1867 these settlements became a crown colony directly under the British Colonial Office. Singapore's prosperity and progress increased as trade between Europe and East Asia expanded after the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 and the advent of steamships.
\par \tab The Japanese occupied Singapore during World War II. Singapore became a separate crown colony in 1946, and the people soon began to voice an interest in greater involvement in government. Elections for seats in the Legislative Council were held in 1948--a first step toward self-government. A new constitution was introduced in June 1959.
\par \tab In 1961 Tunku Abdul Rahman, prime minister of Malaya, suggested a Federation of Malaysia to include the State of Singapore, the Federation of Malaya, and the colonies of North Borneo (renamed Sabah) and Sarawak. Despite strong opposition from Indonesia, Malaysia was proclaimed on Sept. 16, 1963. Political and economic differences between the Malaysian and Singapore governments led to the separation of Singapore from the federation in August 1965. Singapore was admitted to the United Nations as a sovereign state, and it became a republic on Dec. 22, 1965.
\par \tab In form the government established by the constitution was a unicameral parliament. The president, a ceremonial office, was elected by Parliament. The prime minister is the leader of the majority party. Elections are held within three months of the dissolution of Parliament, which sits for a maximum of five years. Suffrage is universal over 21 years of age.
\par \tab Prime minister Lee Kuan Yew fashioned a bureaucratic state based on an efficient and stable government, economic prosperity, and a new national image. Strong control is exerted over the mass media, labor unions, schools and colleges, defense, and police. Within this administrative state civil servants are a significant segment of society. Recruitment into the civil service is through competitive examination.
\par \tab Politics are dominated by the People's Action party, founded by Lee in the early 1950s. When he stepped down in November 1990 after 31 years in office, his designated successor was Goh Chok Tong. The presidency, meanwhile, was constitutionally changed to a popularly elected office. Singapore is a member of the Association of Southeast Asian nations.
\par \tab Singapore's foreign policy is closely geared to economic policies and is aimed at ensuring a steady flow of technology and investments from abroad. Diplomatic relations thus reflect trade relations. Only in the case of China did ideology intervene. Although trade relations between the two countries were strong, diplomatic relations were not established until 1990.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by Thomas R. Leinbach, Professor of Geography and International Affairs, University of Kentucky, Lexington; author of 'Mobility and Employment in Urban Southeast Asia' and 'Development and Environment in Peninsular Malaysia'.\par \tab The newly independent country of Slovakia came into existence on Jan. 1, 1993, when the nation of Czechoslovakia voluntarily separated into two countries. From 1918 until the end of 1992 Slovakia had been one of the three provinces of Czechoslovakia, along with Bohemia and Moravia. The other two provinces became the Czech Republic.
\par \tab Of the two countries, Slovakia is the smaller by about half in both area and population. Its land area is 18,919 square miles (49,000 square kilometers). Slovakia is bordered on the east by Ukraine, on the north by Poland, on the west by the Czech Republic, and on the south by Hungary and a small section of Austria. Its greatest length from east to west is about 260 miles (420 kilometers). Its greatest length from north to south is about 125 miles (200 kilometers). The national capital is Bratislava, located in the southwest corner on the Austrian border and on the Danube River. Other cities include Banskß Bystrica, Presov, Kosice, Nitra, and Zilina. These are not large cities. Bratislava, for instance, has only about 442,000 people, while Kosice has about 235,000.
\par \tab The most dominant physical feature of Slovakia is the Carpathian Mountain chain. The mountains, which cover 23 percent of the country, make up an east-west system of ranges with valleys and basins between them. The highest mountains are in the north, near Poland. The highest peak is Gerlachovka, at 8,707 feet (2,654 meters). About 67 percent of Slovakia consists of uplands, while the few lowland areas are in the south near the Hungarian border.
\par \tab Most of the rivers flow in a north-south direction, except for the Danube and the Morava. The major streams are the Vßh, Nitra, Hron, and Hornßd. There are a few small lakes and reservoirs.
\par {\b People and Economy}
\par \tab The population of Slovakia is about, 5,297,000. Of this number, Slovaks made up 85 percent. Hungarians constitute the next largest ethnic group, with about 600,000 persons, or nearly 11 percent. There are much smaller numbers of Czechs, Moravians, and Gypsies. The dominant language is Slovak. The great majority of the people--more than 60 percent--belong to the Roman Catholic church. About 10 percent of the people are atheists. Less than 9 percent of the population is Protestant.
\par \tab Slovakia is more rural and far less industrialized than the Czech Republic. With the end of Communist domination of Eastern Europe, the Slovakian economy was in transition. Whether it would tend toward a free market was uncertain at the time of the split in 1993. Many old-line Communists remained in power, and they proceeded much more slowly with reforms than was the case in the Czech Republic. Slovakia, however, is not without resources. There are large deposits of iron ore, copper, magnesite, lead, and zinc. Several of the rivers have hydroelectric dams to provide energy for heavy industry. The country, however, imported about 78 percent of its primary energy sources--coal and oil. After independence the gross domestic product was little more than half that of the Czech Republic; unemployment ran to more than 11 percent.
\par {\b Government and History}
\par \tab Slovakia is a parliamentary democracy. The president is the head of state. The head of government is the prime minister. The country's first prime minister was Vladimir Meciar, a former Communist who had promoted nationalist sentiment to achieve separation from Czechoslovakia.
\par \tab The Slavic ancestors of today's Slovaks settled in the region by the 7th century AD. Unlike Bohemia and Moravia, Slovakia was never an independent kingdom. After rule by the Avars, it was absorbed into Great Moravia in the 9th century. In the 11th century it fell to Hungary. In 1526 Slovakia was taken over by the Hapsburg monarchy, which ruled until 1918. The conclusion of World War I brought the Hapsburg-ruled empire of Austria-Hungary to an end. An independent Czechoslovakia was put together during the peace settlement, and Slovakia became its easternmost province.\par \tab From 1946 until 1991 Slovenia was one of the republics of Yugoslavia. After Yugoslavia turned away from Communism in 1990, Slovenia held free elections, and in December it voted for independence. On June 25, 1991 Slovenia and neighboring Croatia both declared their independence. Two days later the Serbian-dominated Yugoslav army attacked the republic and started a civil war. The European Community recognized Slovenian independence in December 1991, although the war continued.
\par \tab The northernmost of the former Yugoslav republics, Slovenia is a mountainous country with fertile valleys and several rivers. It is bordered by Italy and the Adriatic Sea on the west, Austria on the north, Hungary on the northeast, and Croatia on the southeast. Its land area is 7,819 square miles (20,251 square kilometers). The Slovenes, a South Slav people, have lived in their territory since the 6th century. For centuries they were under Germanic rule, governed by the Hapsburg monarchs of the Austrian Empire. In 1918 Slovenia became part of a newly constituted South Slav kingdom of Yugoslavia. Following World War II the country became a Communist state. Population (1991 census), 1,974,839.
{\b The Former Federated Republic of Yugoslavia}
\par \tab One of the youngest nations of Europe, Yugoslavia was created after World War I as a homeland for several different rival ethnic groups. The country was put together largely from remnants of the collapsed Ottoman Empire and Austria-Hungary. Demands for self-determination by Slovenes, Croats, Serbs, and others went unrecognized, and thus Yugoslavia became an uneasy association of peoples conditioned by centuries of ethnic and religious hatreds. World War II aggravated these rivalries, but a Communist dictatorship took power after the war and kept them restrained for 45 years. When the Communist system failed, the old rivalries reasserted themselves; in 1991-92 the provinces of Slovenia, Croatia, Macedonia, and Bosnia and Herzegovina seceded from the union, leaving the republics of Serbia and Montenegro as the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. Serbia includes the formerly independent provinces of Vojvodina in the north and Kosovo in the south.
\par \tab Yugoslavia is bounded on the north by Hungary, on the northeast by Romania, on the east by Bulgaria, on the south by Macedonia and Albania, on the southwest by the Adriatic Sea, and on the west by Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. At its widest point, the country measures more than 290 miles (465 kilometers) from northwest to southeast and 250 miles (400 kilometers) from northeast to southwest. Yugoslavia's total area is 39,449 square miles (102,172 square kilometers).
\par \tab Yugoslavia has a mountainous terrain. In eastern Serbia, the Balkan Mountains form the republic's border with Bulgaria and Romania, reaching an elevation of 6,000 feet (1,800 meters). The Sar and Kopaonik Mountains, located in southwestern Yugoslavia, feature the country's highest peak, Daravica, at 8,712 feet (2,655 meters). The Dinaric Alps occupy much of Montenegro and contain peaks reaching more than 8,000 feet (2,400 meters), including Montenegro's highest mountain, Durmitor, at 8,274 feet (2,522 meters). The major area of flatland lies in the north and is part of the Mid-Danube, or Pannonian, Plain. Stretching from Croatia and Hungary across northern Serbia, the plain is Yugoslavia's most fertile land.
\par \tab The major river in Yugoslavia is the Danube, which flows southeastward from the Hungarian border, through Belgrade, to the border with Romania. Its primary tributaries are the Sava, Drava, Tisa, and Morava. Other rivers include the Piva, Tara, Lim, and Vardar. Lake Scutari, on the border between Montenegro and Albania, is the largest lake on the Balkan Peninsula.
\par \tab The mountainous nature of Yugoslavia causes considerable climatic differences from one place to another. The Mid-Danube Plain has a continental climate with cold winters, hot summers, and moderate precipitation. The mountain regions have, on the whole, colder and shorter summers and more severe winters compared with other regions.
\par {\b Natural Resources and Plant and Animal Life}
\par \tab Yugoslavia has numerous deposits of lignite, or brown coal, but there is little good-grade black coal. There are some small petroleum and natural gas fields, located primarily in the Vojvodina region. The country has no nuclear power stations. Waterpower is a major source of energy, providing about one third of Yugoslavia's electricity. Yugoslavia is a major European producer of lead and copper. Other minerals include iron ore, zinc, bauxite, mercury, and antimony. About 37 percent of the country is forested. The predominant species are oak, beech, and other deciduous trees, with such evergreens as pine and fir growing in the mountains. Yugoslavia has a wide range of animals, including deer, foxes, wolves, wild pigs, bears, and martens. Birds include grouse, partridge, swans, buzzards, woodpeckers, and pelicans. The Adriatic Sea contains anchovies, sardines, mackerel, tuna, and other fishes.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab The inhabitants of Yugoslavia are of varied ethnic origins. According to the 1991 census the largest group is the Serbs, who number 6.5 million, or 62 percent of the population. They speak Serbo-Croatian, a Slavic language, and belong to the Eastern Orthodox church.
\par \tab A non-Slavic people, the Albanians, live in the southern part of the country. They number 1.7 million (17 percent of the population) and are the fastest growing ethnic group. Montenegrins total about 600,000 and are concentrated within the borders of their republic in southern Yugoslavia. They are Eastern Orthodox and speak Serbo-Croatian. Other ethnic groups present in Yugoslavia include Bosnian Muslims (300,000) and the Hungarians (300,000), Romanians, Bulgarians, Slovaks, Czechs, and others who live mostly in the northern province of Vojvodina.
\par \tab The largest city is Belgrade, the federal capital, with about 1.1 million inhabitants. Novi Sad, the capital of Vojvodina, is the second largest, with more than 170,000. Other important cities include Nis, with 160,000 people; Pristina, the capital of Kosovo, with 108,000; and Podgorica (formerly Titograd), the capital of Montenegro, with about 96,000 inhabitants.
\par \tab Yugoslav culture has been influenced by the Slavs, Turks, Italians, and Austrians. The influence of the long Turkish occupation can be seen in the food, folk costumes, and architecture of the nation.
\par \tab The earliest Yugoslav literature was religious in nature. The first popular literature appeared in medieval Serbia, mainly in the form of epic poems describing the struggle of the Serbs against the Turks. These poems were chanted by minstrels who traveled from village to village.
\par \tab In the 19th century Serbian writers laid the foundations of a modern literature. Vuk Karadic reformed the language and collected folk poetry, while Petar Petrovi Njegos produced epic poetry on the theme of liberty. Among modern writers are the Serbs Branimir Cosic, Branko Copic, and Ivo Andric, the winner of the 1961 Nobel prize for Literature, whose novel 'The Bridge on the Drina' has been translated into many languages.
\par \tab Yugoslav folklore is very colorful. Each ethnic group has its own costumes, songs, and dances. The most popular folk dance is the kolo, a circle dance performed to lively music.
\par \tab Soccer is the most popular sport, and Yugoslavia has produced some star players. Yugoslav basketball teams have also had success in international competitions, including a gold medal victory in the 1980 Summer Olympics. Outdoor sports such as hunting and fishing are also popular.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab Farming is a major occupation, employing about 34 percent of the labor force and utilizing more than half of the nation's land. Most farms are owned privately and are small. The major crops are corn (maize), wheat, barley, oats, potatoes, sugar beets, sunflowers, tobacco, and alfalfa. About one third of the agricultural area consists of pastures for grazing pigs, sheep, and cattle. Much of this is in the mountains. The growing of fruit includes plums, apples, pears, peaches, raspberries, strawberries, and apricots. Grapes are widely grown and wine produced, some for export.
\par \tab Fishing is carried out along the Adriatic coast and on the Danube River. Forestry is concentrated mainly in the mountain forests of northern Yugoslavia. It supports the pulp and paper and furniture industries.
\par \tab Much of Yugoslavia's industry is located in the north, primarily in the area surrounding Belgrade. Major exports include iron, steel, electronics, machinery, textiles, automobiles, and trucks. The processing and refining of metallic minerals also gives considerable employment.
\par \tab In the late 1980s, Yugoslavia began the shift from a centrally planned economy to a market economy. By 1993, only 4 percent of the nation's businesses were owned by the state, though nearly 70 percent of the labor force was employed in the state sector. The combined effects of the civil war in Bosnia and Herzegovina and United Nations (UN) economic sanctions against Yugoslavia served to devastate the Yugoslavian economy in the early 1990s. The country was plagued by a fall in output in almost every sector of the economy, and hyperinflation raged from early 1993 until January 1994, when the government introduced a new currency, called the new dinar, that is pegged to the German deutsche mark.
\par {\b Transportation, Communication, and Education}
\par \tab The problems of rail construction over the mountainous terrain of Yugoslavia have favored the development of a highway network. In the early 1990s, there were nearly 30,000 miles (48,300 kilometers) of roads in the country, compared to almost 2,500 miles (4,025 kilometers) of rail. More than 1.4 million passenger cars and 120,000 trucks were registered for use in 1993.
\par \tab With the secession of Croatia and Slovenia in 1991, Yugoslavia lost all of its major ports except the Montenegrin town of Bar. Yugoslav Airlines (JAT) is state owned and flies to many foreign destinations. The country has five airports, including international terminals at Belgrade and Podgorica.
\par \tab Postal and telephone services are run by the state. In 1993, there were 11 daily newspapers, including the notable Politika and Borba, published in Belgrade, and Pobjeda, printed in Podgorica. More than 2,500 books are published annually in Yugoslavia.
\par \tab In addition to the state-run Serbian Radio and Television and Montenegrin Radio and Television networks, there were three independent radio and television networks operating in the mid-1990s. An estimated 1.7 million televisions and 1.8 million radio receivers were in use in 1993.
\par \tab Education is compulsory between the ages of 7 and 15, after which students may choose to attend either a vocational or general secondary school. Students attending vocational school have the option of continuing their education at a two-year postsecondary school, while those attending general secondary school may continue at one of the country's six four-year universities. All education is free in Yugoslavia, including that at the university level.
\par {\b Government}
\par \tab Under a constitution drafted in April 1992, the government of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia is a federal multiparty republic with a bicameral legislature. The parliament, called the Federal Assembly, is divided into the Chamber of Citizens, which has 138 members elected by universal suffrage, and the 40-member Chamber of Republics, composed of representatives elected in equal numbers from the assemblies of both Serbia and Montenegro. The head of state is the president, who is elected by the federal parliament. The president is responsible for appointing a prime minister to head the government, a choice subject to approval by the legislature.
\par \tab The federal government handles matters of national defense, foreign policy, monetary policy, social welfare, and human rights. A large amount of administrative power is delegated to the separate republican governments of Serbia and Montenegro, which are organized on the federal model.
\par {\b History}
\par \tab After World War I the breakup of Austria-Hungary made possible the creation of a new state for the South Slavs, who include the Serbs, Croats, Slovenes, Bosnian Muslims, Montenegrins, and Macedonians. In 1918, an uneasy coalition of mutually hostile ethnic groups, each with a distinct 1,400-year history, became the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes; the new nation was renamed the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in 1929.
\par \tab Yugoslavia's first ruler was King Alexander, a Serb, who declared a personal dictatorship in 1929. He was assassinated by Croatian terrorists while on a state visit to France in 1934, and the throne passed to his young son Peter II. The resolution of the country's ethnic troubles appeared closer when an agreement was reached in 1939 to give Croatia autonomy, but in 1941 Yugoslavia was invaded by Germany, Italy, Hungary, and Bulgaria. Serbs resisted the occupation forces, and the Communist Partisans under the leadership of Josip Broz, known as Tito, became the dominant group. The Croats and Slovenes, however, sided openly with Germany and Italy.
\par \tab In the aftermath of World War II, Yugoslavia was devastated, with much of the country in ruins and more than 10 percent of its prewar population dead. Peter II was deposed in 1944, and Tito--who now bore the title of marshal--and the Communists came to sole power after an election in November 1945.
\par \tab A new constitution adopted in January 1946 abolished the monarchy and established the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia, a federation of six republics: Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia, and Slovenia. The Serbian provinces of Kosovo, with its Muslim Albanian majority, and Vojvodina, with a large Hungarian population, were given autonomous status within the people's republic in an effort to protect the interests of those two populations.
\par \tab In June 1948 Yugoslavia was expelled from the Soviet bloc for refusing to submit to Soviet orders. Despite Soviet efforts to depose him by isolating Yugoslavia, Tito became the country's first president in 1953. He managed successfully to steer a nonaligned path between the two superpowers, the Soviet Union and the United States, criticizing Western colonialism while also denouncing Soviet aggressions, such as the 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia. When Tito died in 1980, the fragile federation he had held together began to unravel.
\par \tab The League of Communists relinquished their constitutionally guaranteed monopoly on power, and in 1990 the first multiparty elections were held since Tito took power. In May 1991 Serbia and its allies blocked the election of a Croat to the federal presidency, leaving the country without a president. A new Serbian leader emerged--Slobodan Milosevic, who renewed the age-old promise of a Greater Serbia. This goal entailed taking parts of other republics where Serbian minorities lived and uniting them with Serbia.
\par \tab On June 25, 1991, Croatia and Slovenia declared their independence from Yugoslavia. Serbian leaders denounced this action, fearing for the safety of the more than half a million Serbs living in the other Yugoslav republics. Federal troops made up mostly of Serbs poured into Slovenia, resisted by Slovenian militia. The Serbs invaded Croatia.
\par \tab At the end of 1991 Germany, followed by the European Community (EC; now the European Union) and the United States, recognized the independence of Croatia and Slovenia. In January 1992, a cease-fire was negotiated that left Serbia with about one third of Croatia's territory. (A shaky peace between Serbia and Croatia lingered for more than three years until Croatia regained the captured territory in a military offensive during May-August 1995.)
\par \tab The violence spread next to Bosnia and Herzegovina. In an early 1992 referendum boycotted by the large Serb minority, the republic's Croats and Muslims voted for independence. International recognition came on April 6, 1992, and soon after, a bitter civil war erupted throughout the republic as the artillery of Serb militias shelled cities and towns.
\par \tab The situation in Bosnia was complicated by religious differences. Many of its residents were Muslims. Serbs tended mostly to be Serbian Orthodox, while Croats were mostly Roman Catholic. These rivalries added to the ethnic hatreds. Croat and Serb Christians also turned their weapons on the Muslim minority.
\par \tab A campaign of terrorism and genocide, which they termed ethnic cleansing, was started by the Serbs against the Muslims. Many Muslims were killed outright. Muslim women were raped, and men and boys were put into concentration camps. At least two million people became refugees, and about 140,000 were missing and presumed dead.
\par \tab In May 1992 the UN imposed sanctions on the newly formed Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. The UN accused the country of fueling the conflict in Bosnia and Herzegovina by supplying weapons and material support. The sanctions devastated the Serbian economy, causing hyperinflation and massive unemployment. Serbian President Milosevic closed his country's borders with Bosnia and broke off contacts between Serbia and the Bosnian Serbs in an effort to have the sanctions lifted.
\par \tab By late 1995, Muslim and Croat forces had made substantial gains against Serb forces and were in control of more than half the country. Many of Bosnia's cities were in ruins, among them Sarajevo, the capital. A breakthrough peace agreement was signed by the presidents of Serbia, Croatia, and Bosnia on November 21. The deal called for Bosnia and Herzegovina to be split 51 percent to a Croat-Muslim federation and 49 percent to a Bosnian Serb republic, both of which will share power in a central government. As a reward for Yugoslavia's role in bringing the peace treaty to fruition, the UN lifted its economic and military sanctions, signaling that the nation's long international isolation had finally come to an end.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by Ian M. Matley, Professor of Geography, Michigan State University.
\par \tab {\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR YUGOSLAVIA}
\par \tab Cohn, Lenard. Broken Bonds: The Disintegration of Yugoslavia, 2nd ed. (Westview, 1995).
\par \tab Crnobinja, Mihailo. The Yugoslav Drama (Univ. of Toronto Press, 1994).
\par \tab Dragnich, Alex. Serbs and Croats: The Struggle in Yugoslavia (Harcourt Brace, 1992).
\par \tab Pavlowitch, Stevan. Tito--Yugoslavia's Great Dictator: A Reassessment (Ohio State Univ. Press, 1992).
\par \tab Silber, Laura, and Little, Allan. Yugoslavia: Death of a Nation (TV Books/Penguin, 1996).
\par \tab Singleton, Fred. A Short History of the Yugoslav Peoples (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1985).\par \tab Consisting of eight large islands and island groups, the Solomon Islands are situated about 1,000 miles (1,600 kilometers) northeast of Australia in the southwest Pacific Ocean. The islands are arranged in two parallel chains located between Papua New Guinea on the northwest and Vanuatu on the southeast. They cover a total area of 10,640 square miles (27,555 square kilometers). The islands are volcanic and mountainous and more than 90 percent of the land is forested. The hot and humid climate has a mean annual temperature of 80░ F (27░ C). Average annual rainfall ranges from 120 to 140 inches (300 to 350 centimeters).
\par \tab The capital is Honiara on Guadalcanal Island and had a population of 30,499 in 1986. The people are mostly Melanesians. There are small minorities of Europeans and Chinese. English is the official language, but some 90 local languages are spoken. More than 95 percent of the islanders are Christian.
\par \tab Education is provided by government and church-operated schools but is not compulsory. There are a teacher-training school, a vocational-training institute, and a branch of the University of the South Pacific. Interisland shipping and air services connect the major islands. There are four international airports but no railways.
\par \tab The economy is based on agriculture, lumbering, and fishing. Nearly 90 percent of the population is engaged in subsistence agriculture on small holdings. There are some large commercial plantations of copra, coconuts, and cacao. Other crops include rice, spices, yams, sweet potatoes, bananas, tobacco, and peanuts. Lumbering is the chief industry and about half of the total production of roundwood is exported. The fishing industry consists largely of fish canning and freezing. Manufacturing includes boatbuilding and the production of fiberglass goods, batteries, and clothing. There are substantial deposits of phosphates, and small deposits of gold, silver, nickel, chromite, copper, manganese, and bauxite. Such traditional handicrafts as woodwork, shell inlays, and woven mats and baskets are generally made for the tourist market and for export.
\par \tab The Solomon Islands were settled by about 2000 BC. The country's name is derived from a legend that these islands were the source of gold for the wealthy Biblical King Solomon. The British Solomon Island Protectorate was established for the southern islands in 1893. The protectorate was granted internal self-government in 1975 and full independence in 1978. The country is a constitutional monarchy with a unicameral parliament. The islands were hit by a severe typhoon in May 1986 that left thousands homeless. Population (1987 estimate), 291,800.\par \tab The Somali Democratic Republic is located in the Horn of Africa, the easternmost part of the African continent. It is one of the world's desperately poor countries and, after the late 1980s, was beset by war and anarchy. As warring factions contended for power, most of the economy collapsed. So serious were conditions by late 1992 that the United Nations launched a security and relief operation--which included some 28,000 United States troops and additional troops from ten other nations--to preserve order and to guarantee that emergency relief teams could deliver shipments of food to the many thousands who were starving.
\par \tab Extending from below the equator in the south to the Gulf of Aden in the north, Somalia is bordered by the Indian Ocean on the east, Djibouti on the northwest, Ethiopia on the west, and Kenya on the southwest. Somalia covers an area of 246,300 square miles (638,000 square kilometers). The capital of Somalia is Mogadishu, which is also the largest city and commercial center. The city's population was estimated at 500,000 in 1990.
\par \tab The landscape consists largely of plains and plateaus. The Guban, a semiarid plain, runs parallel to the Gulf of Aden in the northern part of the country. It is scrub-covered and generally drab in appearance. It rises to the southeast to the Ogo Highlands, which contain the highest elevations in the country. Shimbir Berris, at 7,900 feet (2,408 meters), is the highest peak. To the south the highlands give way to the Haud region, which is cooler and drier. The extreme south consists mainly of plains. Along the Indian Ocean coast is a stretch of permanent sand dunes. The Juba and Wabi Shebelle are the two major rivers. The area between them is agriculturally the richest part of the country.
\par \tab The climate varies from arid subtropical to tropical. In summer, the northeastern coast has average temperatures of 95░ F to 100░ F (35░ C to 38░ C), while in the south the mean annual temperature is about 82░ F (28░ C). Rainfall is usually greater in the south and west. Droughts are frequent. Forests exist only in the highlands. Natural vegetation is limited to scattered small trees, low bushes, and patches of dry savannah grasses. About half of the land is available as pasture for livestock raising. Wildlife includes lions, leopards, elephants, hyenas, foxes, giraffes, and zebras.
\par \tab The Somali form the chief ethnic group. Approximately one half of the Somali population lead a nomadic life raising livestock. They travel to Kenya and Ethiopia to graze their herds. The settled cultivators and herdsmen are largely in the southern part of the country. Permanent settlements are small and widely scattered. Somali and Arabic are the official languages, but English and Italian are also spoken. Islam is the official religion, and almost all the people are Sunnite Muslims.
\par \tab Somalia's economy is largely based on livestock and agriculture, though only about 13 percent of the land is available for crops. Bananas, the chief commercial and export crop, are grown along the Juba and Wabi Shebelle rivers. Other crops include sugarcane, sorghum, corn (maize), sesame seeds, and fruits. Somalia is a producer of frankincense and myrrh. Fisheries were developed beginning in the mid-1970s, and the fishing industry has expanded. The country has gypsum, iron ore, and uranium deposits.
\par \tab The small manufacturing sector is dominated by small-scale meat- and fish-processing plants, textile and shoe factories, and leather tanneries. There is also a petroleum refinery. Large-scale industries are state-owned. Imports include paper, textiles, cement, steel, machinery, and food. Exports include livestock products, skins and hides, and bananas.
\par \tab Health services are meager, especially in rural areas. The infant mortality rate is high and life expectancy is only about 45 years. Tuberculosis, malaria, and leprosy are common diseases. Education is free at all levels but is not compulsory. Illiteracy has been a problem and, until 1972, there was no generally accepted alphabet. In that year the government officially adopted the Latin alphabet, and since then the literacy rate has increased considerably.
\par \tab Somalia was known in ancient times as the Land of Punt. Between the 7th and 10th centuries AD Arabs and Persians established trading posts along the Gulf of Aden. European exploration began in the 19th century, and in 1884 the British set up a protectorate in the north. Italians began taking control of the south in 1889. During World War II Italy invaded British Somaliland in 1940. After the war, in 1950, Italian Somaliland became a United Nations trust territory administered by Italy. On July 1, 1960, the British and Italian territories were united to form the independent country of Somalia. The Somali Democratic Republic is a republic that was dominated by its military until 1991. The Ogaden region, in the west-central part of the country, was given to Ethiopia by the British in 1948. It was the source of constant conflict between Somalia and Ethiopia until a peace agreement between the two countries was signed in April 1988. In January 1991 the 21 years of military dictatorship ended with the flight of Gen. Muhammad Siyad Barrah from the country, and civil war erupted. A state of anarchy ensued with no working government or public services. International relief agencies were prevented by gun-carrying thugs from delivering food supplies. Only the presence of United Nations-sponsored troops relieved mass starvation and continued violence in 1992-93. Population (1992 estimate), 7,872,000.\par \tab The Republic of South Africa combines an advanced First World economy with a Third World culture within its boundaries. Its population is made up of a complex of racial and ethnic groups that was dominated politically by a white minority until 1994. Until May of that year, South Africa had an institutionalized racial segregation policy. This policy became associated with the Afrikaans word apartheid, meaning social segregation.
\par \tab After 1948, when the conservative white Nationalist party won the general election, strict laws were passed to enforce total segregation and to prevent social contact between people of different colors and races. Protests by nonwhites, combined with international efforts, gradually moved the government toward modifying apartheid policies. The international efforts included arms embargoes, trade sanctions, sports boycotts, withdrawal of overseas corporations, and political campaigns in the United Nations. Beginning in 1985 the government abolished many of the laws restricting nonwhites.
\par \tab A majority of black South Africans resided in ten reservations called homelands, though many migrated permanently to the cities to work in industry. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, four of these homelands were given their independence and became separate republics (national states). Their separation from South Africa, however, was not recognized by the United Nations or by the world in general outside South Africa. The four independent homelands were reabsorbed by South Africa following the May 1994 elections. The rest of the country was divided into nine provinces--Northern Transvaal; Eastern Transvaal; Pretoria, Witwatersrand, Vereeniging (PWV); North West; Orange Free State; KwaZulu/Natal; Eastern Cape; Northern Cape; and Western Cape. At the time of the 1994 elections, Pretoria was made the sole capital of South Africa.
\par {\b Landscape}
\par \tab South Africa is the southernmost part of the African continent, one of the oldest and most stable of the Earth's landmasses. This explains why there are no high, folded mountain ranges such as the Rockies, the Andes, and the Himalayas. The only fold mountains are in the southern tip, where north-south ranges meet an east-west range in the Paarl area. The rest of the country has been slightly dimpled so that interior lakes such as Etosha Pan, Lake Ngami, and the Okovango Delta have no outlet to the sea.
\par \tab Apart from a narrow coastal strip, which gives way quickly to the Drakensberg escarpment--11,000 feet (3,350 meters) above sea level--most of the country is a saucerlike plateau at an elevation of 3,000 to 6,500 feet (900 to 2,000 meters) above sea level. In the northeastern interior lies the semiarid Karroo, which gives way to the Kalahari and Namib deserts.
\par \tab South Africa lies north of 35░ S. latitude and is surrounded on three sides by the Indian and Atlantic oceans. There is no other landmass within 2,000 miles (3,200 kilometers) of Cape Town, so freezing air from the Antarctic is usually warmed slightly by surrounding seas before reaching the country. The weather is controlled by two large high-pressure areas over both oceans, while in the winter a belt of depressions moves northward to bring rains to the south. The Highveld is covered in winter by a continental high-pressure area, providing warm, cloudless days and cold nights with hard frosts. During the summer moist tropical air masses migrate southward, bringing frequent thunderstorms.
\par \tab Along the Atlantic coast the cold Benguela Current causes fogs and lower air temperatures. Many shipwrecks have resulted from these fogs. The warm Agulhas Current sweeps southward along the east coast, bringing higher temperatures from KwaZulu/Natal to Eastern Cape and Western Cape.
\par \tab There are few perennial rivers in South Africa, and none is navigable. Unreliable rainfall in variable amounts makes drought a common problem. Water supplies for both town and country must be carefully planned. Borehole wells are the usual source in the countryside, but urban areas and industry must rely on dams. Much capital has been used to build some 360 dams on all major rivers--for example, the Orange, Vaal, Limpopo, and Tugela rivers. Several dams supply hydroelectric power to the national electricity grid. Two of the largest dams are on the upper Orange River--the Hendriik Verwoerd and the P.K. Le Roux, both also used to irrigate large areas of the southern Cape for agriculture. The Lesotho Highlands Water Project was developed to supply water to the Transvaal industrial area by the mid-1990s. Despite the presence of so many dams, town and city populations must endure periodic water rationing.
\par {\b Vegetation and Animal Life}
\par \tab Natural vegetation has been heavily modified through overgrazing, seasonal burning, and introduced species. East of the Drakensberg escarpment, subtropical forests nurtured by spring and summer rains have been displaced by grasslands, exotic trees, such as wattle, poplar, and eucalyptus, and farmlands. Only one continuous area of southern Western Cape--that of the Knysna and George districts, which has a perennial rainfall--has a true hardwood temperate forest in which such species as stinkwood, sneezewood, yellowwood, and ironwood survive.
\par \tab Above the escarpment and farther westward, natural tree life gives way to grassy uplands known as the Highveld. As rainfall decreases there is thorn-tree country, then thin grasses, and ultimately the sparsely covered Kalahari Desert and the bare Namib Desert. In Western Cape Province the climate becomes "summer-dry"--the so-called Mediterranean type--and vegetation is shrubby with waxy leaves, and there are introduced pine and oak trees. Northeastward of this region low scrub, cactus, and aloes dominate areas known as the Little and the Great Karroo.
\par \tab South Africa is rich in the wild animal life of the Old World. The large cats--such as the lion, the leopard, and the cheetah--roam freely in many parts of the country and feed on many species of antelope and monkey. A wide variety of reptiles--including crocodiles, iguanas, and snakes (some of which are very poisonous)--are found in the countryside. Game quantities were heavily reduced during the 19th century, when hunters killed vast numbers of elephant, rhinoceros, and other game in pursuit of trophies. In order to protect the surviving animals, four game reserves were established in Natal in 1897 and the Kruger National Park in 1898. Today there are ten major reserves, and strenuous efforts are made to preserve endangered species such as the white rhinoceros and many other animals. These reserves have become tourist attractions.
\par {\b Natural Resources}
\par \tab Only 15 percent of the country is arable. Except for wheat and coffee, however, South Africa is not only self-sufficient in its food requirements but normally exports many crops such as cane sugar, corn, fresh fruits, canned fruits and vegetables, and wine. Over the Highveld and Karroo, sheep and Angora goats provide wool and mohair, which are major export items. Dairy and beef cattle are widely raised.
\par \tab Because it is sparsely wooded, South Africa has since 1946 planted 2.4 million acres (971,000 hectares) with such species as eucalyptus, pine for pulp paper and building materials, black wattle for leather-tanning chemicals, and poplar for softwood and safety matches. The country is now self-sufficient in its paper and timber requirements with a surplus for export.
\par \tab Because of warm waters along the east coast and very cold waters along the west coast, South Africa harvests a wide variety of fish and crustaceans. Canned pilchards and frozen rock lobsters are the major exports. Fish meal is another export.
\par \tab South Africa possesses and mines a major portion of the world's 12 main mineral resources. It has 77 percent of the world's chrome reserves, 94 percent of its platinum group metals, 62 percent of its gold, 72 percent of its vanadium, 92 percent of its manganese, and 11 percent of its fluorite. Other reserves are asbestos, nickel, phosphate rock, copper, zinc, antimony, and lead.
\par \tab Uraninite is extracted as a by-product of the gold-mining process and is converted to uranium oxide for local use and export. Both gem-quality and industrial diamonds are mined in large quantities and sold on world markets. Significant deposits of iron ore are mined for local use and export. Vast reserves of bituminous coal are exploited for thermo-electric power and for worldwide export. A single nuclear power plant at Koeburg supplies the west, an area far from the coalfields, with electric power. In view of the lack of petroleum, South Africa has built the world's only oil-from-coal plants. The three plants supply 70 percent of the country's gasoline needs and the bulk of the petrochemicals used in industry. A major find of natural gas offshore near Mossel Bay has been converted to gasoline production.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab South Africa's people are usually categorized as belonging to one of four groups: blacks (Africans), whites, Coloreds, and Asians, sometimes called Indians. The largest group is the blacks. They originated in the area of the Cameroons and emigrated southward, spreading gradually over Central and Southern Africa. They are distinguished by their Bantu languages--represented in South Africa today by Nguni (Zulu, Swazi, Ndebele, and Xhosa), Sotho (Southern Sotho, Pedi, and Tswana), Venda, and Shangaan Tsonga. Blacks are traditionally cultivators and cattle herders.
\par \tab In the 19th century the British colonial government placed the various tribes in reservations after they had been defeated in war. Here the women cultivated corn and sorghum while the men herded livestock. Today large numbers of men travel to various diamond, coal, gold, and platinum mines as migrant laborers, living in mine compounds and returning home periodically. Others work in the rapidly growing industrial cities--often accompanied by their families, who lived at first in shantytowns on the outskirts. The government replaced many of these shanties with rented low-income housing in segregated areas, but vast immigration from reservations has overwhelmed any planned development. These houses can now be bought outright by the occupants. Soweto, on the edge of Johannesburg, is an example of a black city, with an estimated 2 million or more inhabitants. It has many primary and secondary schools and technical colleges. People commute to work in the cities by train, bus, taxi, and private automobile.
\par \tab The white population comprises two main segments: the descendants of either Dutch or British immigrants. The Afrikaners--who speak Afrikaans, a language derived from Netherlandic, or Dutch, and Flemish--are descendants of the Boers, the earliest white settlers. They migrated northward from the Cape Colony into the interior as farmers and cattlemen competing with Bantu tribes for the rural pastoral lands. British immigrants, who spoke English, began to occupy the cities from 1820 and were reinforced by others attracted by the diamond, gold, and coal mines and eventually by industry and commerce. Rural Afrikaners began to migrate to mining and industrial areas from 1920 and today are displacing English-speaking businessmen. Intermarriage is slowly mixing the two groups. Afrikaans and English have equal status as official languages.
\par \tab When the Dutch East India Company officials arrived in Table Bay in 1652, they encountered San hunters and Khoi-Khoi farmers and herdsmen. Some of these were enslaved and used as herdsmen, but most fled northward into the Kalahari Desert to seek refuge from the settlers. Several attempts to import West African slaves failed. Instead the company introduced Malay, Javanese, East Indian, and Malagasy (Madagascar) slaves from their Eastern possessions. The white settlers, the Khoisan, and the Asian slaves intermarried during the next century to produce a distinct Cape Colored community. When liberated they remained in the southwestern Cape area as agricultural workers and tradesmen, speaking Afrikaans and practicing Christianity. A sizable segment who were Muslims, known as Malays, survive as a separate group. Most Cape Coloreds continue to live in the southwestern Cape. Intermarriage between whites and blacks has resulted in another Colored group, whose numbers increased steadily despite laws enacted to prevent mixed marriages. These laws were abolished in June 1985.
\par \tab The Asian community is composed mainly of East Indians. They were brought to coastal Natal from 1860 to 1895 as indentured laborers to work the sugar plantations because black African men refused to work as cultivators. Although Indians were entitled to a free return passage to India, most chose to stay in South Africa as market gardeners or industrial workers in Natal and eventually as businessmen. They abandoned their mother tongues--Hindi, Gujarati, Tamil, Urdu, and Telugu--for English and Afrikaans. Other Asians include East African Arabs, who came as traders and shopkeepers to the Transvaal gold-mining area at the beginning of the 20th century. A few hundred Chinese are descendants of indentured laborers brought from Canton to work in the mines.
\par \tab {\b Demography.}
\par \tab South Africa conducts a population census every ten years for all groups. Registration of births, marriages, and deaths is compulsory for everyone, making projections of future growth possible.
\par \tab In the mid-1980s African blacks were the fastest-growing segment of the population, totaling 28,397,171 in 1991 with an annual increase of 2.8 percent and a birthrate of 40 per thousand. The black population was expected to reach 66 million by the year 2010. In contrast, whites numbered 5.2 million by the year 2000. After increasing their numbers very rapidly, in the late 20th century the 2.8 million Coloreds are, with a decline to a birthrate of 31 per thousand, increasing more slowly, and were expected to reach about 3.6 million by the year 2000. The 821,000 members of the East Indian community, with a birthrate of 26 per thousand, seemed likely to grow to about 1.1 million by the year 2000. Although blacks still had in 1991 the comparatively low life expectancy of 59.8 years and the high infant mortality rate of 80 per thousand, their sheer numbers overmatched the other three ethnic groups.
\par \tab {\b Urbanization.}
\par \tab From existing as a predominantly rural agricultural and mining country in the 19th century, South Africa has become industrialized and urbanized, attracting rural inhabitants--both black and white--to cities, ports, and manufacturing centers. By regarding all nonwhites as temporary city dwellers, the national government tried from 1950 to 1985 to stem the tide of rural depopulation from the homelands by requiring blacks to have permits to seek work and to be employed in any city. Since 1985 such laws have been abolished, thus acknowledging that blacks were to become a permanent feature of the urban scene.
\par {\b Education}
\par \tab The South African educational system was sharply segregated by race and ethnic group until 1991, though private schools and certain universities followed integration policies. In January 1991 a policy of limited integration was introduced, with the goal of eventually abolishing segregation altogether in primary and secondary schools. After 1984 the country had five separate ministries of education to cope with the different requirements of each group. Education from ages 7 to 16 was compulsory for all white, Indian, and Colored children--but not for blacks, except in 300 primary schools where parent committees requested it.
\par \tab There are 11 white universities (all of which are integrated), one Indian, one Colored, and four state-run black universities (including a medical school). There are also four universities--each with branch colleges in certain black townships--in the homelands. Students from all groups are free to enter any of these universities, particularly for graduate work. The University of South Africa (UNISA) in Pretoria is responsible for "distance education," or education by correspondence. Some 115,000 students--including more than 3,000 from foreign countries--are privately tutored by 1,200 highly qualified staff members in all disciplines, except medicine and engineering, to the doctoral level. Day-student colleges have been established in six black urban areas as an extension of the UNISA system. High priority has been given to mechanical education for youths at all levels through institutions called technikons located in most cities. Most industrial companies offer their workers technical training during working hours.
\par {\b Health and Social Welfare}
\par \tab Low-income groups of all races receive medical, dental, and health services--including hospital care--free or at nominal charges. Unfortunately, shortages of qualified staff and rural isolation have hindered full coverage of some communities. For the remainder there are abundant private services throughout the country. Medical training is at a very high level. Organ transplants are commonplace; the world's first heart transplant was performed here. In the mid-1980s there were 623 hospitals with some 122,000 beds for all population groups. Baragwanath Hospital near Johannesburg, with 3,004 beds and 26 operating theaters, is the largest hospital in the Southern Hemisphere. It runs 12 independent clinics in the black township of Soweto.
\par \tab Malaria is found in the northeastern part of the country, and there are sporadic epidemics in rural areas. Yellow fever no longer poses a threat. Tuberculosis, typhoid, and cholera persist in areas of rural poverty. Bilharzia (schistosomiasis), a waterborne disease, is found in all eastward-flowing rivers. It is difficult to eradicate because piped water supplies are lacking in the countryside. Environmental health problems, including malnutrition and pollution, receive close attention from the medical and social-welfare authorities--especially when crops fail.
\par {\b Industry}
\par \tab The discovery of diamonds in 1867 and then of gold in 1886 sparked a large-scale mining industry that was well established by the 20th century. Two world wars, together with central government stimulus, brought about a rapid development of local mineral resources.
\par \tab Secondary manufacturing began in 1923 with the assembly of American automobiles at Port Elizabeth. This was followed by a national coal-based electricity network and later by an iron and steel industry in Pretoria. At first industry was mainly concentrated on the Witwatersrand, where gold mines were located, but later it spread to the port cities of Durban and Cape Town. Today South Africa manufactures most of its own requirements and exports such finished goods as chemicals, shoes, textiles, clothing, steel, and mining and electrical machinery.
\par \tab The Industrial Development Corporation (IDC), established in 1940, was responsible for encouraging and financing suitable import-substitute industries throughout South Africa. In 1960, through several subsidiary corporations, the IDC also created industrial zones along the borders of the various black homelands as well as new towns on black lands just inside each homeland.
\par \tab In 1970 each homeland created its own development corporation, which used various economic incentives and tax concessions to attract South African and overseas capitalists. Transkei, Ciskei, Kwazulu, Lebowa, and Bophuthatswana succeeded in attracting a large number of factories.
\par \tab An industrial-development plan of 1981 divided the country into eight regions, ignoring homeland boundaries in favor of overall economic development. All of the IDCs, the Small Business Development Corporation, and the Development Bank of Southern Africa combined their efforts to raise standards of living through decentralized industrial investment by all ethnic groups.
\par {\b Transportation and Communications}
\par \tab Most of the country's transport network of railroads, harbors, air services, and highways was controlled by South African Transport Services as a public utility, but in 1990 it was converted into a public company named Transnet Limited. Railroad construction began in 1859 to connect the coast with the interior and gradually spread across the entire country. All the rolling stock, locomotives, and rails are manufactured locally. All inhabited areas are served by a modern system, 45 percent of which is electrified.
\par \tab South African Railways, now called Spoornet, also operates long-distance bus services called Autonet in areas where the railroad does not exist. Some 32,000 miles (51,500 kilometers) of surfaced highways carry some 3 million vehicles.
\par \tab Durban, Cape Town, Port Elizabeth, and East London are modern deepwater ports, while Richards Bay, completed in 1976, exports bulk minerals. A locally built national shipping fleet carries bulk and containerized cargoes to many parts of the world. South African Airways offers frequent domestic flights between all major cities as well as international services to Europe and the Far East. Some 20 feeder airlines and 150 charter companies provide flights to all parts of the country.
\par \tab Telecommunications are maintained by Telkom, a company whose sole shareholder is the state. Telephone services are widely distributed, with overseas connections by undersea cable and satellite. Other means of data transmission--such as telex, telegrams, and Teletex--are available. There are some 20 daily newspapers (14 English and six Afrikaans), several Sunday papers, and many weekly magazines. Black readers have the choice of some 25 dailies and weeklies.
\par \tab Radio programs were first transmitted from Johannesburg in 1923 and gradually expanded to become the South African Broadcasting Corporation in 1936. The corporation is under government control and managed by a multiracial executive board. Today some 600 FM transmitters broadcast programs nationwide to 13 million adult listeners in all languages. An overseas shortwave service transmits in seven languages to Africa. For economic reasons television came late to South Africa--not until the 1970s--but today there are four services in seven languages--English, Afrikaans, Zulu, Xhosa, South Sotho, North Sotho, and Tswana--as well as a subscription service called M-Net.
\par {\b Police and Justice}
\par \tab The racially integrated South African Police Force is a national body that controls 19 regional divisions. Because of its historical background, training is carried out on military lines. Duties include internal security and border patrols as well as the prevention of drug trafficking, hijacking, and air piracy. South Africa's legal system is derived from Roman-Dutch law and 19th-century British common law. African Law is used in private litigation between blacks but is gradually being phased out.
\par \tab The minister of justice appoints the Supreme Court, which sits in Bloemfontein. There are six provincial supreme courts, which in turn have appeal authority over some 266 magisterial districts with 309 magistrates' offices. The minister appoints magistrates but selects all judges from the bar on a nonpolitical basis.
\par {\b History}
\par \tab As the southernmost country of the African continent, South Africa has been the goal of successive groups of invaders--from the earliest hominids, through the Stone and Iron ages, to the Khoisan peoples, and finally to the Bantu. All these migrations took place over land. When Portuguese navigators reached Table Bay (now known as Cape Town) in the 15th century, their first contacts were with the Khoisan hunters and pastoralists. As they sailed along the southeast coast, shipwrecked crews encountered well-developed Bantu settlements of cultivators and cattle herders who confined themselves to well-watered lands and abundant grasslands.
\par \tab Dutch occupation of Table Bay in 1652, as a halfway port for the Dutch East Indian fleets, resulted in a gradual penetration of the interior by wheat and vine growers. They drove the Khoisan peoples into the northern deserts. Many farmers continued their march eastward as cattle herders--known then as trekboeren (wandering farmers). They made their first contacts with Bantu cattle herders while competing for pastures. Many clashes occurred until the British colonial government in 1820 placed a buffer zone of English settlers between the Great Fish and Great Kei rivers.
\par \tab The British seized the Cape in 1795 and bought it outright from William of Orange in 1815 to become a British colony and a naval base. Oppressive colonial rule and resentment of the low compensation paid for emancipated slaves in 1834 caused the trekboeren to begin the Great Trek into the northern interior (1836-41). They made their way to the Orange Free State, the Transvaal, Natal, and Mozambique--frequently exchanging hostilities with local Bantu tribes. Most of the Boers settled in the Orange Free State, the Transvaal, and northern Natal. British forces were defeated in the first Boer War (1880-81), when they attempted to bring the Boer republics under colonial rule. The British were determined to obtain control of the Transvaal's gold mines and went to war again in 1899. The Boer armies surrendered in 1902 only after a savage guerrilla struggle. The Boer republics became British colonies.
\par \tab Seven years of negotiations brought the four colonies--Cape, Natal, Transvaal, and Orange Free State--into a union in 1910 with a parliamentary form of government. There were two capitals--Cape Town was the parliamentary capital and Pretoria the administrative--with Bloemfontein as the site of the Supreme Court. South African troops occupied German South West Africa in 1914 and fought in German East Africa and in France during World War I. At the end of the war South West Africa became a mandated territory under the League of Nations and was placed under South Africa's administration. During World War II South Africa fought with the Allies despite very strong anti-British attitudes among many Boers.
\par \tab Jan Smuts, the wartime leader of his country and of the United party, lost the 1948 general election to the Nationalist party. The Nationalist (renamed the National) party platform was aimed at the separation of the various ethnic groups, the prevention of mixed marriages, the removal of certain blacks and Cape Coloreds from the common voters' roll, and the segregation of all cities and towns into four distinct ethnic residential areas, or Group Areas.
\par \tab Several of these homelands were offered complete independence after the country withdrew from the British Commonwealth in 1961 to become a republic. Because the homelands were an integral part of South Africa, the nations of the world refused to recognize them as independent republics. Transkei, which was granted "independence" in 1976, Bophuthatswana (1977), Venda (1979), and Ciskei (1981) each had a parliamentary government. The remaining six were territorial authorities, having much autonomy but remaining part of the republic. Kwazulu, which had the largest single ethnic group (Zulus), refused to accept independence.
\par \tab Under President P.W. Botha beginning in 1978, the central government took some steps toward reform. A growing black population as well as other groups demanded increased civil rights, universal suffrage, improved educational facilities, and the elimination of job reservation, identification passes, and urban segregation. A new constitution, which took effect in 1984, set up an executive system with separate legislatures for whites, Coloreds, and Indians, but none for blacks. In 1988 South Africa agreed to independence for Namibia effective in 1990.
\par \tab Botha resigned as chairman of the National party in 1989 and was replaced by F.W. de Klerk. Elected president in September 1989, De Klerk set about dismantling the structures of apartheid. In 1990 De Klerk lifted a 30-year ban on the African National Congress (ANC), the South African Communist Party, and the Pan Africanist Congress. Nelson Mandela, a leader of the ANC, and several other political dissidents were freed after serving 27 years of a life sentence for treason. De Klerk appealed to Mandela to help the country move toward a political settlement between the white minority and the majority nonwhite peoples. In June 1990 the state of emergency was lifted. At the same time Parliament began repealing more than 100 pieces of discriminatory legislation, including the Separate Amenities Act, the Land Acts of 1913 and 1936, the Group Areas Act of 1960, and the Population Registration Act of 1950. These and other laws had created the official structure of apartheid. When white voters approved the March 1992 referendum to end apartheid, the scene was set for party conferences to prepare for an interim constitution and the first multiracial general election in South Africa's history.
\par \tab Talks had already begun in May 1990 between the government and the ANC. The result was a Convention for a Democratic South Africa (CODESA) on Dec. 21, 1991, attended by representatives of 19 parties. Five working groups emerged from the conference to plan CODESA 2, at which a committee was created to write the interim constitution. This document was to include a bill of rights, recognition of minority language, cultural and civil rights, the creation of nine new provinces to replace old political boundaries, acceptance of 11 official languages, and provision for the reabsorption of the homelands into South Africa.
\par \tab On Sept. 26, 1992, the ANC and the National party agreed to a Record of Understanding by which they would share power for five years after the general election of 1994. In February 1993 this agreement was slightly revised to provide for a government of National Unity with a multiparty cabinet. A Transitional Executive Council (TEC) met for the first time on Dec. 7, 1993 to lay down the ground rules for fair and free elections. Demands by the Afrikaner Volksfront and other white organizations for an independent Afrikaner State were rejected outright.
\par \tab The months leading up to the election were filled with many isolated acts of violence in the African townships. The clashes were mostly between members of the ANC and partisans of the Inkatha Freedom party, a Zulu organization. At the last minute, the Zulus agreed to go along with elections. These were held in an atmosphere of relative calm from April 26 to 29. At midnight April 26 the new South African national flag was unfurled in ceremonies in eight cities.
\par \tab As expected, the ANC won the election handily, gaining about 62 percent of the vote. The National party came in second and the Inkatha Freedom party third. None of the other parties was able to win the 5 percent necessary for representation in the Parliament under the interim constitution. The new goverenment of National Unity met on May 10, 1994. Nelson Mandela was the new president. There were two deputy presidents and a cabinet of 27 members. One of the tasks for the new government was writing a permanent constitution. Some means also had to be found to deal with the high expectations among blacks for an improvement in their lives.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by David Lawrence Niddrie, Professor Emeritus of Geography, University of Florida, Gainesville.
\par \tab {\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR SOUTH AFRICA}
\par \tab Harris, Sarah. Timeline: South Africa (David & Charles, 1988).
\par \tab Moleah, A.T. South Africa: Colonialism, Apartheid, and African Dispossession (Disa Press, 1993).
\par \tab Ottoway, David. Chained Together: Mandela, De Klerk, and the Struggle to Remake South Africa (Times Books, 1993).
\par \tab Pascoe, Elaine. South Africa: Troubled Land (Watts, 1987).
\par \tab Paton, Jonathan. The Land and People of South Africa (Harper, 1990).\par \tab A triangular-shaped continent, South America is bordered on the east by the Atlantic Ocean, on the west by the Pacific Ocean, and on the north by the Caribbean Sea. It is connected to North America by the Isthmus of Panama. The fourth largest of the continents, South America has an area of about 6,878,000 square miles (about 17,814,000 square kilometers), or about one eighth of the land surface of the Earth. In the mid-1980s the population was approximately 280 million.
{\b NATURAL ENVIRONMENT}
\par \tab The outline of South America is largely determined by the location of three highland areas: the Andes Mountains, the Guiana Highlands, and the Brazilian Highlands. Spaced between these regions are broad lowlands formed by the continent's major drainage systems: the Amazon Basin, the Orinoco Basin, and the Paranß Basin.
\par \tab About 80 percent of South America is within the tropics, but Tierra del Fuego, at the tip of the continent, extends farther southward than any part of any other continent except Antarctica. Because the southernmost portions of the continent are narrow, they do not have the climatic extremes found in such regions as northern North America and northern Asia. Ocean currents serve to moderate the climates of southern Chile and Argentina, making them warmer in winter and cooler in summer than other parts of the world at similar latitudes. Elsewhere, however, the great differences in altitude result in a great number of climatic sub-types. Throughout most of South America elevation above sea level is the major determinant in local climatic conditions.
\par {\b The Land}
\par \tab South America was once part of the ancient landmass known as Gondwanaland. About 150 million years ago it broke away from what is now Africa and began to drift westward to its present position. This movement was accompanied by the rise of the Andes Mountains at the western edge of the continent. Geologically the oldest rocks are found in the Brazilian Highlands, where Precambrian formations are exposed. Most of the lowland regions are filled with sedimentary materials of more recent origin.
\par \tab {\b The Andes.}
\par \tab Stretching more than 5,000 miles (8,000 kilometers) from Venezuela to Chile, the Andes form the western edge of South America. They are the longest and one of the highest mountain ranges in the world. The highest peak is Mount Aconcagua on the Chile-Argentina border. It is 22,831 feet (6,959 meters) high. Many other peaks throughout the range reach to more than 20,000 feet (6,000 meters).
\par \tab The Andes Mountains were mainly formed during the Tertiary period (from about 65 million to 2 million years ago), though geologic activity continued into the Pleistocene epoch (2 million to about 10,000 years ago) and even to recent times. This range is part of the Ring of Fire, a chain of volcanoes that surrounds the Pacific Basin; earthquakes and volcanic eruptions are common. Natural disasters caused by these geologic events are a constant threat to human life. Despite this threat, the rich mineral deposits, the fertile soils that surround some of the active volcanoes, and the favorable climates of some of the mountain zones attract many people. The Andes are not a single line of high peaks but rather are subdivided into many smaller units--some called cordilleras (mountain ranges in Spanish), others nudos (knots or clusters of peaks), and others altiplanos (high plateaus).
\par \tab Just north of the Colombia-Ecuador border is the Nudo de Pasto, a complex knot of volcanic peaks, out of which run the three main ranges of the Colombian Andes. These ranges are like fingers extending northward from the Pasto region and are the most prominent physical features in the western half of Colombia. The Cordillera Occidental (the western range) parallels the Pacific Ocean and is moderately high--with most peaks below 12,000 feet (3,700 meters). The Cordillera Central, which extends northward to about 9░ N. latitude, is a high, rough range. Many of the mountains here are volcanic--the peaks of Tolima and Ruiz--both above 17,000 feet (5,180 meters)--are the most impressive in this part of the Andes. The Cordillera Central is a great barrier to modern transportation in Colombia. The Cordillera Oriental (the eastern range) is wider and longer than the other two ranges. It extends to about 12░ N. at the Guajira Peninsula, which juts into the Caribbean Sea at the Colombia-Venezuela border. Within the Cordillera Oriental are a number of wide, flat plateaus, which are the home of about one third of Colombia's population. The national capital, Bogotß, is located here.
\par \tab A branch of the Cordillera Oriental runs eastward into Venezuela, where it is known as the Cordillera de MΘrida. There are several snowcapped peaks--the highest, Pico Bolφvar, at 16,427 feet (5,007 meters)--and the range is generally rough. Outliers of the Cordillera de MΘrida extend eastward in Venezuela, but they are lower and have gentler slopes than the mountains in the western part of the country.
\par \tab In Ecuador the Andes are composed of two parallel ranges and a series of basins. Both ranges are volcanic. The western range, the Cordillera Occidental, is generally lower than the eastern range, the Cordillera Oriental, though the highest peak in Ecuador--Chimborazo, at 20,577 feet (6,272 meters)--is located in the Cordillera Occidental. Repeated volcanic eruptions have filled the rift valley that separates the two cordilleras. Transverse ridges also tend to divide the valley into a series of discrete basins. The floors of these basins are more than 9,000 feet (2,700 meters) high in the north, whereas the basins in southern Ecuador are at elevations of less than 6,000 feet (1,800 meters). In the past most of the population of Ecuador lived in the highland basins, but today fewer than half of the people live there.
\par \tab A large number of separate ranges, surrounding several areas of high plateau country, make up the Andes in Peru. In contrast to the northern Andes of Ecuador and Colombia, most of the mountains in Peru are not volcanic in origin. Volcanoes are found only in the southwestern part of Peru. There are many areas of extremely rough terrain in Peru, however, and some of the mountains are very high and snow-covered throughout the year. The Peruvian Andes are much wider than the ranges to the north.
\par \tab Several of the cordilleras in Peru are made up of sharp peaks that are famous among the world's mountain climbers. Such chains as the Cordillera Blanca north of Lima and the Cordillera de Vilcabamba near Cuzco are made up of magnificent peaks. The highest mountain in Peru--Huascarßn, at 22,204 feet (6,768 meters)--is part of the Cordillera Blanca.
\par \tab In southern Peru, western Bolivia, and northernmost Chile and Argentina, a high plateau is the major feature of the Andes. This high plain is called the altiplano. It ranges in elevation from about 15,000 feet (4,570 meters) in the north to about 12,500 feet (3,800 meters) in the south. East and west of it are high mountain ranges. The Andes are at their widest here--stretching almost 400 miles (640 meters) from east to west. The most interesting feature of the altiplano is Lake Titicaca, which lies along the border of Peru and Bolivia. Titicaca is the highest navigable lake in the world and the largest lake in South America. It drains southward via the Rφo Desaguadero to Lake Poop≤ and then to a series of salt flats in southwestern Bolivia.
\par \tab From the altiplano the Andes extend southward through Argentina and Chile to the tip of the continent. In general the chain becomes lower as it runs southward, though the highest peak in all of the Andes--Aconcagua--is in Argentina, near the Chile-Argentina border, at latitude 33░ S. In northern and south-central Chile many of the peaks are volcanoes, and some have erupted relatively recently. Passes through these mountains are usually high and difficult; the southern Andes are a barrier to trade and transportation. Climatic conditions also make the Andes in Chile and Argentina relatively inhospitable.
\par \tab {\b The Brazilian Highlands.}
\par \tab The largest area of hills and mountains in eastern South America is in Brazil. The Brazilian Highlands extend from near the mouth of the Amazon River to central Uruguay and include parts of eastern Paraguay and eastern Bolivia. Along most of the Atlantic coast there is an abrupt escarpment, but in the interior this highland is composed of a series of plateaus and hills. The highest mountain in the Brazilian Highlands, Pico da Bandeira, reaches to only 9,482 feet (2,890 meters). This entire region is an old eroded mountain massif, and its crystalline rocks are among the oldest in South America, dating back to the Precambrian period. Some portions of this region, particularly around the headwaters of the Paranß River, are covered by sheets of lava from ancient volcanic eruptions. In other areas the soils are rich alluvial ones. In the north near the Amazon River, much of the land is badly eroded and overused, with poor soils covered with scrub vegetation. Throughout the region are found abundant mineral deposits that contribute to the wealth of modern Brazil.
\par \tab {\b The Guiana Highlands.}
\par \tab North of the Amazon River are found the Guiana Highlands--an ancient range of mountains geologically related to the Brazilian Highlands. The main difference between these two regions is that the Guiana Highlands are higher and more heavily covered with lush tropical vegetation than are the Brazilian Highlands. In general these mountains are highest in the south--Mount Roraima is the highest at 9,094 feet (2,772 meters)--and slope gently to the north. They extend from the Brazilian coast westward through the Guianas to Venezuela and Colombia.
\par \tab {\b Patagonia.}
\par \tab East of the Andes in southern Argentina lies the region known as Patagonia. This is a tableland, consisting of broad plateaus separated by deep river valleys cut by streams that flow eastward out of the Andes. This is a flat region, though there are some isolated low mountains and some volcanic cinder cones. Sheets of lava also cover much of Patagonia. It is a dry and treeless place. Settlements are few and far between, and sheep raising is the main economic activity of the region.
\par \tab {\b Orinoco Basin.}
\par \tab Between the Guiana Highlands and the Andes Mountains flows the Orinoco River. The drainage basin of this river covers an area of some 220,000 square miles (570,000 square kilometers). This is a low plain called the Orinoco Basin or the Llanos. Most of it is less than 800 feet (244 meters) in elevation with a gentle slope to the east. The low gradient of most of the rivers results in a typical pattern of slow, serpentine water courses that often flood their banks during the rainy season. Most of the Llanos is covered with grasses. Scattered palms and other trees are clustered along the rivers.
\par \tab {\b Amazon Basin.}
\par \tab The Amazon is one of the great rivers of the world. It drains an area larger than that of any other river--about 2.7 million square miles (7 million square kilometers)--and at the mouth its flow is about ten times that of the Mississippi River. It is estimated that about one fifth of the fresh water in the world flows through the Amazon system.
\par \tab The Amazon Basin is shaped somewhat like a spoon. The handle of the spoon is a broad passage between the Guiana Highlands and the Brazilian Highlands. The body of the spoon is a wide, flat basin surrounded by the Guiana Highlands on the north, the Andes on the west, and the Brazilian Highlands on the south and east. It includes parts of Brazil, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia. The headwaters of the river system are in Peru within 100 miles (160 kilometers) of the Pacific. Flowing first through the Andes and then meandering across the Amazon plains, the river stretches some 4,000 miles (6,400 kilometers) to discharge into the Atlantic.
\par \tab During several geologic periods the Amazon Basin was covered by ancient seas. In more recent times the basin has been filled by sediments brought down from the adjacent highland regions by its many tributaries. In the central parts of the Amazon Basin, annual floods raise the water level more than 50 feet (15 meters) and inundate thousands of square miles of land. These floods deposit alluvial silts that renew the soils of the flooded areas. In zones that are not subject to floods, there is little local relief, though a few low hills are found in some parts of the basin. Most of the Amazon area is covered by dense forests that have slowed development of the region.
\par \tab {\b Paranß Basin.}
\par \tab Several rivers join to drain the basin located southwest of the Brazilian Highlands and east of the Andes. The largest of these is the Paranß River, but the Paraguay and Uruguay rivers are also sizable. The common mouth of these rivers is called the Rφo de la Plata, which is actually a drowned estuary, though it is sometimes called a gulf. The drainage area of the Rφo de la Plata is about 1.6 million square miles (4.1 million square kilometers). Portions of Brazil, Uruguay, Paraguay, Bolivia, and Argentina are part of this basin. In Argentina a large area of plains called the Pampas is included in this basin, though few rivers actually cross the Pampas region.
\par \tab The largest river that flows to the Rφo de la Plata estuary is the Paranß, which has its headwaters in central Brazil and which runs southwestward for almost 2,500 miles (4,025 kilometers) before it reaches its mouth. Many of its tributaries have spectacular waterfalls as they cascade off the Brazilian Highlands. The great cataracts of the Iguaτu River are the most famous of these. The Paranß has been harnessed for hydroelectric purposes. The dam and power station at Itaipu, built jointly by Brazil and Paraguay, is one of the largest such projects in the world.
\par \tab The Paraguay River also rises in central Brazil but drains an area generally west of the Paranß. The Paraguay's tributaries flow southwestward out of the Andes. The flow of the Paraguay is only about a third that of the Paranß, but it is much more seasonal. The two rivers rarely reach their peak flows at the same time. As a result the flow of water in the lower Paranß below the junction with the Paraguay is fairly regular.
\par \tab The other great river that flows into the Rφo de la Plata estuary is the Uruguay. It has its headwaters in southern Brazil near the Atlantic. It flows westward and then southward to empty into the Rφo de la Plata near the Paranß River delta.
\par {\b Climate}
\par \tab South America can be divided into four distinct climatic zones--tropical, temperate, dry, and cold--based on the general characteristics that typify the continent. Variations of relief--particularly elevation--and such factors as rain shadows, bodies of water, and wind patterns, however, create a multitude of microclimates.
\par \tab {\b Tropical climates.}
\par \tab Most of the Orinoco Basin and virtually all of the Amazon Basin, as well as the lower parts of the Guiana Highlands and the eastern foothills of much of the Andes, have a climate characterized by continuous high temperatures and heavy rainfall. There is little seasonal variation in temperatures because this zone lies along the equator. There is some variation between daytime and nighttime temperatures, though the nightly low temperature seldom drops below 65░ F (18░ C). Average temperatures are usually in the low 80s F (upper 20s C) with only a few degrees difference between the warmest and coldest months. Throughout this region rainfall totals are high--with some places averaging more than 100 inches (254 centimeters) of rain per year. Humidity is high all year.
\par \tab Savanna climates with a pronounced dry season lie at the edges of some of the tropical zones. Much of the northern half of the Brazilian Highlands falls into this category, as do parts of Venezuela and Ecuador. In general these areas have greater extremes of temperature and lower overall rainfall totals.
\par \tab {\b Temperate climates.}
\par \tab South of the Tropic of Capricorn (about 23░ 27' S.), the climates are cooler than elsewhere in South America, with a pronounced winter season. The southern part of Brazil, most of Paraguay, all of Uruguay, and northeastern Argentina share a humid subtropical climate, with rainfall common throughout the year and generally warm summers and cool winters. Extremes of temperature are greatest away from the moderating effects of the ocean--that is, in the Gran Chaco region of Paraguay and the western part of the Paranß plateau in Brazil.
\par \tab Central Chile has a climate similar to that of the Mediterranean area, with hot summers and cool, wet winters. Southern Chile has a marine west coast climate--cool temperatures year-round with rainfall throughout the year. Although proximity to the ocean tends to moderate temperature extremes, some areas in southern Chile have very cold temperatures and extremely high rainfall.
\par \tab {\b Dry climates.}
\par \tab Four areas in South America have climates characterized by a lack of rainfall. The two main desert areas are along the west coast of the continent and in Argentina. Much smaller dry areas are found in northeastern Brazil and along the coast of Venezuela.
\par \tab The entire coastal area of Peru and the northern part of Chile is one of the driest regions on the surface of the Earth. Cold waters off the coast and the proximity of the high Andes, as well as wind patterns out of the South Pacific high pressure system, contribute to the virtual lack of rainfall in this region. This is a cool, humid desert, however, resulting in pleasant living conditions for those not bothered by the lack of rainfall.
\par \tab Argentina is crossed from northwest to southeast by an arid belt. The northern part of this region, around San Miguel de Tucumßn and Mendoza, has the greatest range of temperatures in the entire continent, with hot summers and cool winters. Farther south in Patagonia the influence of the ocean results in lower overall temperatures without the extremes that are common inland. These dry areas in Argentina are all the result of being in the rain shadow of the Andes.
\par \tab {\b Cold climates.}
\par \tab Average annual temperatures of less than 50░ F (10░ C) are found in the southernmost parts of Argentina and Chile and at high elevations throughout the Andes. A damp, cold climate characterizes the Tierra del Fuego region. Constant high winds make the southern tip of the continent an unattractive place for human settlement.
\par \tab Vertical climate zones have resulted in the use of several common terms throughout much of Latin America. At lower elevations--sea level to about 3,000 feet (900 meters)--is found the tierra caliente, or zone of warm lands, with typical tropical climatic conditions. Between 3,000 and 7,000 feet (900 and 2,100 meters) is found the tierra templada, or temperate zone, with conditions similar to the temperate climates typical of subtropical areas. The tierra frφa, located between 7,000 and 10,000 feet (2,100 and 3,000 meters), approximates the conditions found in the cold areas at the southern tip of the continent. Above the tierra frφa is found the puna, or pßramos country with cold conditions throughout the year. The elevations noted above are for lands near the equator. Boundaries between these zones decline the closer they are to the pole--in southern Chile, for example, the snow line is at less than 4,000 feet (1,200 meters) compared to almost 17,000 feet (5,180 meters) on peaks near the equator.
\par {\b Vegetation and Soils}
\par \tab The distribution patterns of vegetation and soils in South America are closely related to the distribution patterns of landforms and climate. That is, tropical-forest types of vegetation and soils are found mainly in the Amazon Basin, desert types mainly along the coast of Peru and northern Chile, savanna types mainly on the Llanos and in parts of the Brazilian Highlands, and highland types mainly in the Andes. Rich, fertile soils with deep humus layers are associated with the grasslands of the Pampas of Argentina and of much of Uruguay and southern Brazil.
\par \tab The Amazon Basin contains the most extensive area of tropical rain forest in the world. Also covered by this vegetation are the Guiana Highlands, the northwestern margin of the Brazilian Highlands, the eastern side of the Andes--to an elevation of about 6,000 feet (1,800 meters) and to a latitude of about 25░ S.--as well as portions of the Pacific coastal regions of Ecuador and Colombia. This type of vegetation is found only where there are high temperatures and large amounts of rainfall. The rain forest is usually multistoried, with several levels of vegetation in most areas. The tallest trees may be more than 150 feet (46 meters) tall. On the forest floor, however, there is little growth because only a small amount of sunlight filters through the leaves of the trees above.
\par \tab More than 2,000 species of trees are found in the Amazon Basin, and frequently several hundred different species grow in close association. There are numerous woody shrubs and epiphytic plants, or plants such as bromeliads, orchids, and ferns that derive their nutrients from the air and rain. Soils in most tropical forests are poorly developed and low in fertility except in areas subject to annual flooding.
\par \tab Some parts of southern Brazil and Paraguay, as well as southern Chile and Argentina, are covered with mid-latitude forests. These are often evergreen forests, and typical trees include the Paranß pine near the Tropic of Capricorn and beech trees and various conifers at higher latitudes. Most of these forests are found associated with well-developed soil types.
\par \tab The dry parts of South America have a variety of plant types. In Argentina the semiarid areas are covered by grasses and a vegetation complex known as monte--a mixture of shrubs, such as the creosote bush, and grasses and low trees.
\par \tab The deserts of Chile and Peru, on the other hand, are virtually without vegetation. In some areas along the Pacific coast, communities of plants known as lomas are found. These herbs and grasses receive their moisture from fog rather than from rainfall. In other zones scatterings of cacti are found. Some parts of northern Chile and coastal Peru are so dry that no vegetation grows there.
\par \tab Much of the Brazilian Highlands and the Llanos in Venezuela are covered with savanna vegetation. This is a transitional type between forest and grassland. Trees are found scattered across the landscape. In many areas the most common trees are palms, which may indicate that annual burning of the region had some role in the development of this type of vegetation (palms are able to survive repeated burnings, so long as the core of the trunk is not damaged).
\par \tab In the tropical parts of the Andes, several different types of grasslands are found above the tree line. In Colombia and Ecuador relatively high rainfall produces a type of meadow called pßramos, consisting of long grasses, herbaceous plants, woody shrubs, and a great variety of wildflowers. Farther south the drier conditions in Peru and Bolivia result in a type of vegetation called puna, which includes several types of rough bunch grasses as well as low shrubs and cacti. Under drier and higher conditions the distance between individual puna plants increases to the point where few plants are found near the snow line.
\par {\b Animal Life}
\par \tab In comparison with other continents, South America does not have as rich and diverse a range of wildlife as might be expected. The geologic isolation of the continent for millions of years, coupled with its relatively recent connection to North America via the Isthmus of Panama, has meant that many species that are found elsewhere in the world are absent from South America. The notable exception is birds, which migrate to and from the continent on an annual basis.
\par \tab Among the mammals found here are two that were domesticated in pre-Hispanic times: the llama and the alpaca--both close relatives of the wild guanaco and vicu±a, which in turn are relatives of the camel. Other mammals include several cats (especially the jaguar, ocelot, and puma), deer, spectacled bears, wolves, foxes, and raccoons. In the tropical forest regions are found such mammals as howler monkeys, ring-tailed monkeys, marmosets, opossums, porcupines, armadillos, anteaters, sloths, capybaras, and a wide variety of rats, mice, and bats. South of about 12░ S. latitude on the Pacific coast and about 30░ S. on the Atlantic coast, numerous marine mammals once were found, including seals and sea lions. In the Amazon are found such mammals as dolphins and manatees.
\par \tab Probably more species of birds are found in South America than are found on any other continent. Various estimates suggest that there are at least 2,700 different species. The smallest are hummingbirds, and the largest are flightless rheas (related to ostriches), native to the Pampas region and Patagonia. The largest bird capable of flight is the condor, a scavenger of the vulture family that lives mainly in the Andes. Other species include the harpy eagle, a tropical forest species that preys on monkeys and other tree-dwelling mammals; the flamingo, which inhabits coastal marshes as well as high Andean lakes; and a variety of hawks, macaws, parrots, and related species. Another unusual bird is the Humboldt penguin, which is found in several spots along the coasts of Chile, Peru, and Argentina as well as in the Galßpagos Islands.
\par \tab There are tremendous numbers of species of fishes, reptiles, and insects. All of these creatures are most numerous in the Amazon Basin, though they are found in all parts of the continent. Among the most notable are the anaconda, a type of boa constrictor that grows to a length of more than 20 feet (6 meters); the piranha, a flesh-eating fish common in the Amazon River; and the famous Galßpagos tortoise, which sometimes weighs more than 500 pounds (227 kilograms) and lives more than 100 years.
{\b PEOPLES AND CULTURES}
\par \tab The modern population of South America is a blend of several distinct heritages: Indian, Iberian (Spanish and Portuguese), and African, along with a relatively recent addition of European and Asian immigrants. Some regions remain almost entirely Indian, some largely populated by peoples of African descent, and some predominantly settled by white Europeans.
\par \tab The entire continent has had a very high rate of population growth caused by high birthrates and low death rates. The countries of the far south--Argentina and Chile--have reduced these rates so that their populations are not increasing as rapidly as those of Brazil and the Andean nations. Uruguay has reduced its rate of population growth to less than 1 percent per year. This is a rate typical of highly industrialized nations in other parts of the world. It should be noted that national statistics for population often disguise the fact that small areas within countries have rates different from the national average. Thus many rural areas, particularly in the Andes, have demographic characteristics very much like the least-developed parts of the world--with high birthrates and death rates.
\par \tab In 1987 the population of South America was about 280 million people. Approximately half live in Brazil. About 70 percent reside in cities. More than 90 percent live within 150 miles (240 kilometers) of the coast.
\par {\b Indians}
\par \tab There was a very large native population in South America before the arrival of the Europeans at the beginning of the 16th century. The central Andes, in particular, were densely settled, but virtually all regions of the continent were occupied. Such groups as the Incas had developed elaborate civilizations, whereas the people of such areas as Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego subsisted by hunting and collecting only. Intermediate areas were occupied by groups of Indians who survived by hunting and fishing and who had a type of agriculture known as slash-and-burn.
\par \tab After the arrival of the Europeans the native population declined rapidly. European diseases, especially smallpox and measles, decimated the population. Warfare and overwork also killed many Indians. From a figure of perhaps 14 million before the Europeans' arrival, the native population in South America declined to less than 5 million within a century.
\par \tab Today Indians make up a significant part of the population in several South American countries. In Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia perhaps half of the population are closely associated with indigenous life-styles. These numbers include many people whose ancestry is 100 percent Indian and who live in traditional ways, especially in rural areas of the Andes. Many Indians in these countries, however, are fully acculturated to modern society and the economy of their regions--living as middle-class professionals in urban areas. For them being an Indian is a matter of memory only--of a language spoken by their parents or of a home village that is visited only during vacations.
\par \tab In other parts of South America native cultures are relatively unchanged. In the Amazon Basin, for example, a few groups survive with little contact with the outside world. Some countries, such as Chile and Brazil, have set aside reservations where the Indians can maintain their separate life-styles.
\par {\b Europeans}
\par \tab During the colonial period, which lasted from the beginning of the 16th to the early 19th century, small numbers of Iberians (Spanish and Portuguese) immigrated to South America. In some areas, such as the Andes region, they re-created Spanish society. In more isolated parts of the colonial empire, such as Paraguay, however, few Spaniards settled, and few women were among these immigrants. As a result, offspring of the marriages between the conquistadores and Indians soon became a major part of the "European" population. In such major colonial administrative centers as Lima and Bogotß, and Quito, Ecuador, people of mixed European and Indian descent played a minor role in colonial society yet made up a significant part of the population in most frontier regions. In Brazil even fewer Portuguese arrived during the colonial period, and thus racial intermixing took place at a greater rate. In virtually all of South America a small part of the population traces its heritage to the whites who arrived during the first part of the colonial period, but few families had no intermarriage over the centuries.
\par \tab Beginning in the 1850s and '60s there was a wave of European immigration. Brazil and Argentina received significant numbers of Europeans during the late 1800s and early 1900s. Many Germans went to Chile, Argentina, and Brazil; large numbers of Italians headed to Argentina, Uruguay, and Brazil. Many Spaniards immigrated to Argentina, and many Portuguese went to Brazil. Just before and after World War II, increasing numbers of people from Central Europe, including many Jews and other refugees, immigrated to Argentina and Venezuela.
\par {\b Africans}
\par \tab Some black slaves accompanied the first European conquistadores to South America. Large-scale importation of slaves from Africa did not start until several decades after the European settlement of the continent. Spanish South America received few black slaves because the sizable Indian populations met most labor needs. In Brazil, on the other hand, the labor needs of the early sugar industry quickly exhausted the supply of local Indians. Brazil soon became the leading importer of African slaves in South America. No reliable statistics exist on the number of blacks taken to Brazil as slaves. A bare minimum estimate is 4 million; a better guess might be two or three times that number.
\par \tab Because of very harsh treatment, endemic diseases, and poor sanitation, survival rates for the slaves were very low. The sugar-producing areas of Brazil were located much closer to Africa than were the plantations of North America and the Caribbean. Thus for the Portuguese colonial planters it was cheaper to bring new slaves to Brazil than it was to maintain the existing population.
\par \tab Today blacks and persons of mixed black and European descent are numerous throughout Brazil. In the northeastern part of the country, a majority of the population has some black ancestry. This is also the case in some parts of the Guianas. In other regions--notably the coastal sections of Colombia, Ecuador, Venezuela, and Peru--blacks and persons of mixed descent have arrived more recently. Many are descended from blacks who worked on the construction of the Panama Canal or who came directly from the islands of the Caribbean.
\par {\b Later Immigrants}
\par \tab During the 20th century a few new groups arrived in South America in significant numbers--especially Asians. Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, and Brazil received large numbers of Japanese. More Japanese live in Brazil than in any other place outside Japan, and the Japanese make up a significant minority group in the Sπo Paulo region. Chinese have also come to the continent but in lesser numbers than the Japanese. Peru is the only South American country with a sizable Chinese population.
\par {\b Religion}
\par \tab Roman Catholicism was brought to South America by the conquistadores during the first part of the 16th century. During the colonial period most of the native peoples of the continent--with the exception of those in the Amazon Basin, on the Pampas, and in Patagonia--were converted to this faith. The overwhelming majority of the people on the continent today are Roman Catholics, though many do not attend mass regularly and do not adhere to the strict teachings of the church. The Roman Catholic faith as practiced in South America tends to be more liberal than that practiced in other parts of the world.
\par \tab Traditional Protestant churches made relatively little headway in converting South Americans to their religions. On the other hand, dynamic groups such as the Mormons (Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints), Seventh-day Adventists, and evangelical denominations won many converts. Some Indian groups in the tropical forests retain their tribal religions.
\par {\b Languages}
\par \tab After nearly five centuries of Iberian domination of the continent, Spanish and Portuguese are the two most common languages spoken in South America. About half of the population speak Portuguese (mainly those living in Brazil), and most of the rest speak Spanish. The people of Guyana speak English, and the people of Suriname speak Dutch. English and French are common second languages for educated people.
\par \tab Native languages survive in many areas. In Brazil and Venezuela, for example, perhaps 10 percent of the people are familiar with one of the native tongues of the tropical forest tribes, though the number actually using these languages on a daily basis is certainly much less. In Paraguay, Guaranφ--a language originally spoken by several different hunting and collecting tribes--is equal with Spanish and is used by Indians and non-Indians alike. In much of southern Peru, Quechua--the language of the Incas--is widely diffused. Many rural Indians have never learned Spanish. On the altiplano near Lake Titicaca, Aymara is the common Indian tongue both in the countryside and in urban areas.
\par {\b Arts and Literature}
\par \tab The ancient peoples of South America are well known for their beautiful ceramics, elaborate featherwork, exquisite goldsmithing, and some of the finest textiles made anywhere in the world. During the colonial period much emphasis was placed on religious art, particularly painting and stone sculpture. This painting imitated that of European masters, though several indigenous "schools" were established. Elaborately decorated churches and cathedrals bear witness to the greatness of the colonial stone carvers.
\par \tab Although South America does not have a strong literary tradition, several 20th-century writers made notable contributions. Among the most famous are such Nobel prizewinners as Pablo Neruda, Gabriel Garcφa Mßrquez, and Gabriela Mistral and other authors such as Mario Vargas Llosa, Jorge Luis Borges, and Ariano Suassuna.
\par {\b Education and Health}
\par \tab Every nation in South America has placed great emphasis on the education of its people. Schooling is free and compulsory in most countries, but lack of funds means that rules are often ignored. In rural areas educational facilities and trained teachers are woefully lacking. In most cities double and even triple shifts of students attend many schools. Private schools (often religious) provide substantially better educational opportunities but at a cost well beyond the means of most parents. Thus illiteracy and under-education remain major problems throughout the continent.
\par \tab Most South American countries have good university systems, though funding for state schools is usually lacking. Roman Catholic universities are found in many countries, with roots back to the early colonial period in some cases. Competition to enter universities is usually very intense. Brazil has the greatest number of college students.
\par \tab Health standards throughout the continent are not good. Many diseases that have been virtually eliminated in North America are still leading causes of death in South America--particularly measles, tuberculosis, whooping cough, and typhoid fever. In rural areas in the Andes and the Amazon Basin, health conditions are especially poor. More than 12 percent of all babies in Bolivia die during their first year; infant death rates are also high in Peru. Chile has the best health-care and social-security system on the continent. Argentina, Uruguay, and Suriname also do reasonably well in maintaining the health and welfare of their citizens.
{\b ECONOMY}
\par \tab The economies of most South American countries are not well developed. Such primary activities as agriculture, fishing, lumbering, and mining account for the overwhelming majority of jobs in most countries. Large cities have some industries, but only Brazil exports significant amounts of manufactured goods. Many countries have massive foreign debts, repayment of which will be a major burden on future generations.
\par {\b Agriculture}
\par \tab Throughout the continent agriculture is the most common means of earning a living. But most farming is subsistence, which means that the farmers raise only enough to feed themselves with little left over to market. Only about one eighth of the continent is arable. That amount, however, includes vast areas of grazing lands at the southern end of the continent and in the high Andes that will never be suitable for agricultural development. Some optimists suggest that the tropical forests of the Amazon Basin can be converted into productive farms, but most scientists doubt that the thin soils of this region can support extensive cultivation. Agrarian reform, which usually means expropriation and subdivision of large haciendas (estates or farms), has restructured the agricultural systems of some South American countries, but in no case have fundamental changes in agriculture taken place.
\par \tab The subsistence farmers grow a wide variety of crops. In the Andes potatoes (domesticated in this region) and corn, as well as a number of native grains, are major crops. Wheat, which was introduced by the Spanish, is also a staple. In the tropical forest regions, maniocs and yuccas are raised, along with corn, rice, sweet potatoes, and bananas.
\par \tab South American plantations and commercial farms grow a wide variety of crops mainly for export. Brazil, for example, has long been the world's leading producer of coffee, though frosts have reduced plantings in some areas. Colombia also raises much coffee, particularly high-quality beans. Brazil is a major producer of sugar for export and conversion into alcohol for fuel. Peru also raises sugar, and cotton is a major crop there. Ecuador is the world's leading producer of bananas and has developed a new industry for the raising of shrimps in farms along the Pacific coast. Peru and Bolivia have many small plantations that grow coca leaves used for the illegal production of cocaine. These are usually hidden in remote areas on the east side of the Andes.
\par \tab Ranching and livestock raising are significant industries in Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay, Chile, and Venezuela as well as the altiplano regions of Peru and Bolivia. Cattle, exported in the form of meat and hides, have long been a major product of Argentina. Sheep are also numerous in Argentina and Uruguay. In the Andes sheep and cattle are raised at lower elevations, but in the highest pastures the most common animals are llamas and alpacas. Pigs and goats are raised throughout the continent.
\par {\b Minerals}
\par \tab Although mining employs only a very small part of the South American population, it contributes heavily to the national economies of several countries. Bolivia, Chile, Peru, Suriname, Guyana, Venezuela, and Brazil all derive significant revenue from the extraction of minerals.
\par \tab Iron ore is found throughout South America, with especially rich deposits in Brazil and Venezuela. South American reserves represent about one fifth of the world's total. In addition to iron the Brazilian Highlands contain deposits of manganese, lead, gold, and diamonds. The northern slopes of the Guiana Highlands have vast quantities of bauxite, the ore from which aluminum is made.
\par \tab The Andes contain many rich mines. Copper, for example, is found in several parts of Peru and Chile. Chuquicamata in northern Chile is the largest single lode of copper-bearing ore. Peru and Chile control about one quarter of the world's reserves of copper. Other minerals found in the Andean region include tin (Bolivia is the main producer), lead and zinc (both from Peru), molybdenum, manganese, gold, and silver.
\par {\b Energy Sources}
\par \tab South America is notably deficient in reserves of coal. Only Colombia has adequate supplies. Petroleum, on the other hand, is found in large fields on the east side of the Andes. Venezuela has long been the biggest producer on the continent, with most production coming from the Lake Maracaibo region. Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia also have significant petroleum reserves, though many of the fields are small and are located in isolated areas of the upper Amazon Basin, hindering development. Natural gas is found in several spots, as is uranium.
\par \tab Many of South America's rivers have great potential for hydroelectric development. In the Andes several streams have been dammed, and much of the electrical energy needs of Chile, Peru, and Colombia come from this source. The Paranß River has been dammed in several places. When completed the Itaipu complex (shared by Brazil and Paraguay) will be one of the largest hydroelectric installations in the world.
\par {\b Forestry and Fishing}
\par \tab Although the Amazon Basin contains the world's greatest forest reserves, little of the timber there is currently harvested. There are several reasons for this lack in harvesting: there is no great market for wood products in the Amazon region; the cost of transporting the wood to potential markets is very high; and the tropical forests usually are composed of hundreds of species of trees, all intermixed, and it is seldom possible to practice modern clear-cutting types of logging operations in the Amazon.
\par \tab Selective harvesting of the trees results in greatly increased costs, thus making lumbering unprofitable. In a few parts of the Amazon Basin, lumber mills operate with either pulp or plywood as their main product. In other cases such hardwood species as mahogany are logged for veneers. In southern Brazil and southern Chile pine forests are also exploited on a commercial basis.
\par \tab The cold waters off the southern part of the continent contain tremendous numbers of fish. Although not all species are fit for human consumption, this is one of the world's great fishing grounds. The coastal waters of Peru also are very rich. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, Peru was the world's leading fishing nation in terms of tonnage caught, but overfishing and an ecological disaster caused by changing currents led to problems. Still Peru ranks among the leading fishing nations in the world. The major species harvested is the anchovy, which is ground for chicken feed and fertilizer.
\par {\b Industry}
\par \tab South America is very backward in terms of industrial development. Such large areas as the Andean region and the Amazon Basin are virtually unindustrialized. Most industry that does exist consists of either the processing of raw materials prior to shipment overseas or the production of low-technology consumer goods for use within a given region. Such traditional industries as smelters, food-processing plants, and textile mills make up the bulk of industry in many South American countries.
\par \tab A few nations have progressed toward developing modern industrial infrastructures. Venezuela, Argentina, and especially Brazil have built large metals industries. Several countries have automobile assembly plants, but only in Brazil does this technology include both local design and production for the export market. Chile and Brazil are also noted for their contributions to the international arms market. Brazilian airplanes, armored cars, and rockets are a major industry, and Brazilian armaments are known worldwide for their excellent design and low cost.
\par \tab In many South American cities a significant amount of light manufacturing takes place within what is called the "informal" sector of the economy. That is, much production is done in small workshops beyond government regulation (thus the workers receive few benefits, and the government receives no taxes).
\par {\b Trade}
\par \tab Most exports from South America consist of minerals, fuels, and agricultural products. Major imports include machinery, motor vehicles, chemicals, and various consumer goods. The United States, Western Europe, and Japan are the leading trading partners.
\par \tab Efforts to liberalize trade through regional associations have been a mixed success. The Andean Pact, formed by the Cartagena Agreement of 1969, consisted of Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Chile. In 1991 the pact members decided to form a free-trade zone as of January 1992. Also in 1991, the treaty of Asunci≤n was signed by Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay, and Paraguay to create a regional common market.
\par {\b Transportation}
\par \tab Because most of the people, resources, and industries in South America are located along the edges of the continent, it has proved difficult to develop transportation systems that unite the region as a whole. In many places the difficulties are caused by terrain. Only the airplane has proved effective in linking the continent, but this is only in terms of passenger travel. Freight still moves mainly by traditional means. Brazil and Argentina, however, have developed integrated land transport systems that approach modern standards.
{\b INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS}
\par \tab All of the countries of South America are members of the United Nations and the Organization of American States. French Guiana (an overseas department of France) remains as a legacy of the colonial era. The continent's influence on the world scene is limited by its small population and lack of economic development. Political instability has also served to reduce the role of South America in world politics.
{\b HISTORY}
\par \tab The first European to reach South America was Christopher Columbus, who landed near the mouth of the Orinoco River in 1498. During the next two decades the Caribbean and Atlantic coasts of the continent were fully explored. In 1520 Ferdinand Magellan touched the southern tip of South America while circumnavigating the Earth. During several voyages from Panama in the 1520s, Francisco Pizarro sailed southward along the coast of Colombia and Ecuador. Pizarro landed in Peru (at Tumbes on the Gulf of Guayaquil) in 1527. The capture of the Inca king Atahuallpa in Cajamarca on Nov. 16, 1532, marked the real beginning of the Spanish occupation and conquest of South America. On the opposite side of the continent, the first Portuguese settlement in Brazil was also in 1532.
\par \tab The New World was divided between Spain and Portugal in the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494). According to the treaty a line was drawn at 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands (approximately 50░ W. longitude). Portugal received all territory east of the line and Spain claimed all territory west of the line. The Tordesillas boundary was ultimately violated when Portuguese explorers laid claim to most of the Amazon Basin.
\par {\b Spanish Colonies}
\par \tab Several decades were needed by the Spanish to consolidate their newly conquered lands and to explore the region fully. By 1580 the major Spanish institutions were fully operational in the New World. Royal administration centered on the city of Lima. The viceroyalty of Peru was the principal Spanish governing unit until the establishment of the viceroyalties of New Granada and Rφo de la Plata late in the colonial period. In Spain the Council of the Indies and the House of Trade controlled all contact with the New World, especially economic and political affairs. Wealth was extracted from the Spanish colonies mainly in the form of valuable metals. Gold and silver were robbed from the native peoples, and mines were opened later in Peru, Bolivia, and Colombia.
\par \tab Agriculture was of minor significance throughout the Spanish territories in South America, though the owning of land became a symbol of status for Spanish families. At the time of the initial exploration of the Andes, the encomienda system was established. Under the system the Spanish were granted tracts of land, and the Indian residents of the land were "entrusted" to the Spanish. The Indians were required to pay tribute to the new owners (encomenderos). In return the Spanish noblemen were supposed to Christianize the Indians and look after their welfare. In reality, however, the Indians were usually treated as serfs. European diseases spread quickly throughout the continent, and millions of Indians died during the first century of Spanish rule.
\par {\b The Portuguese in Brazil}
\par \tab In contrast to the parts of South America ruled by Spain, the Portuguese established their colony in Brazil based on semi-independent landowners called captaincies. Plantation agriculture quickly became the economic mainstay of Brazil. There proved to be insufficient labor available from the native Indians of Brazil to do the work on the captaincies, so early in the colonial period blacks from Africa were brought as slaves to the plantations of northeastern Brazil. The population of this region today still reflects the sizable number of blacks taken to the area.
\par \tab As the Brazilian Highlands region was occupied during the 1700s, new resources were discovered that brought riches to Brazil. Particularly noteworthy was the discovery of diamonds, gold, and other minerals in the region. Settlement of southern Brazil allowed for new types of agricultural products, such as coffee. In many areas the colonial occupation was based on the raising of cattle and sheep.
\par {\b Wars for Independence}
\par \tab By the late 1700s currents of revolution had spread to South America from the United States and France. Problems associated with colonial economic systems and the lack of political freedom led to cries for independence. The Napoleonic wars in Europe, which caused the Portuguese royal family to flee to Brazil and which placed a Frenchman on the throne of Spain, were the catalyst needed to begin the wars for independence throughout South America.
\par \tab Beginning in about 1810 several of the colonies began to revolt against Spanish rule, but colonists in Venezuela were the first officially to declare their independence from Spain--in July 1811. During the next decade and a half, all of Spanish South America became independent--sometimes by simple declaration, sometimes by hard-fought battles against royalist forces. Such great leaders as Sim≤n Bolφvar, JosΘ de San Martφn, Bernardo O'Higgins, and Antonio JosΘ de Sucre led the efforts to free Spanish South America.
\par \tab The independence of Brazil came in a very different fashion. Although there had been some revolts during the late 18th century, by and large the Brazilians remained loyal to the Portuguese royal family. Napoleon's invasion of Portugal in 1807, however, caused the queen and her son John, the prince regent, to flee to Bahia in northeastern Brazil. After the death of the queen in 1816, John IV was crowned king of both Portugal and Brazil. In 1821 John returned to Europe to rule his kingdom, leaving his son, Pedro, in charge in Brazil. Pedro declared Brazilian independence on Sept. 7, 1822, and made himself emperor. He ruled for only nine years before abdicating, but his son, Pedro II, remained emperor until 1889.
\par {\b Postindependence Period}
\par \tab Although free of colonial rule, the newly independent South American nations faced great problems. None had developed a stable political system during the colonial period, and none had an economy that could support a modern nation-state. Virtually all of South America was undeveloped in the early years of the 19th century--with agriculture, livestock raising, and mining the principal sources of income. Not surprisingly, therefore, there was a long era of political turmoil. Short periods of democracy were followed by the rule of despots. Each country slowly tried to develop, but progress was slow.
\par \tab Wars between nations were fought--notably the Paraguayan War (Brazil, Argentina, and Uruguay against Paraguay, 1864-70) and the War of the Pacific (Peru and Bolivia against Chile, 1879-84). Spain tried to win back its colonies, and Great Britain, France, and The Netherlands retained colonial possessions in the Guianas.
\par \tab Beginning in the 1870s and 1880s, however, overseas investment--especially from Great Britain--and the arrival of millions of emigrants from England, Germany, Italy, and Eastern Europe began to change the face of South America. Many countries began to industrialize, transportation systems were modernized, and the continent for the first time became a significant trading partner for the rest of the world. Unfortunately, its major role was as a source of raw materials and as a market for finished goods. Thus it remained in a subservient position in most exchanges.
\par \tab Several trends have marked the development of South America during the 20th century. Almost all parts of the continent experienced rapid population growth and heavy migration from rural to urban areas. As a result of economic dependence on the export of raw materials, many countries borrowed heavily from foreign banks and governments and thus fell deeply into debt. Austerity measures introduced to stabilize the economies in many countries prompted protests. Talks began concerning the establishment of a common market to increase regional trade.
\par \tab The international demand for marijuana and cocaine has been an economic boon for South America, particularly for Bolivia, Colombia, and Peru. The illegal drug trade brings hundreds of millions of dollars into the economies, and many small farmers have abandoned growing coffee for growing coca for the cocaine trade. The growth of powerful criminal drug rings has brought corruption, lawlessness, and violence to the region.
\par \tab The failure of governments to meet the legitimate needs of their people led to political unrest through the 1980s. But as socialism and Communism collapsed in Europe, authoritarian regimes also gave way in most of South America. Chile, Argentina, Paraguay, and Uruguay made strides toward free-market economies. In Brazil, however, the civilian government failed to deal adequately with political corruption and rampant poverty among the population.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by James S. Kus, Professor and Chairman of Geography, California State University, Fresno.
\par \tab {\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR SOUTH AMERICA}
\par \tab Atkins, G.P., ed. South America into the 1990s: Evolving International Relationships in a New Era (Westview, 1990).
\par \tab Bethell, Leslie, ed. The Cambridge History of Latin America, 7 vols. (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1984).
\par \tab Carter, W.E. South America, rev. ed. (Watts, 1983).
\par \tab Cowell, Adrian. The Decade of Destruction: The Crusade to Save the Amazon Rain Forest (Holt, 1990).
\par \tab Georges, D.V. South America (Childrens, 1986).
\par \tab Greene, Carol. Simon Bolivar: South American Liberator (Childrens, 1989).
\par \tab Hoffenberg, H.L. Nineteenth-Century South America in Photographs (Dover, 1982).
\par \tab Insight Guides. South America (Prentice, 1990).
\par \tab Jennings, J.D., ed. Ancient South Americans (Freeman, 1983).
\par \tab McIntyre, Loren. Exploring South America (Crown, 1990).
\par \tab Miller, Tom. The Panama Hat Trail: A Journey from South America (Vintage, 1988).
\par \tab Morris, Arthur. South America, 3rd ed. (Barnes, 1987).
\par \tab Shichor, Michael. Michael's Guide to South America, 2 vols. (Hippocrene, 1985).
\par \tab Topolski, Daniel, and Topolski, Feliks. Travels with My Father: A South American Journey (Elm Tree Books, 1983).
\par \tab Waterton, Charles. Wanderings in South America (Hippocrene, 1984).
\par \tab Wood, Marion. Ancient America (Facts on File, 1990).\par \tab The country of Spain has had a greater influence on the rest of the world than that of most countries. In the United States, for example, Hispanic Americans--those whose culture, language, and ethnic identity are rooted in Spain--will soon outnumber African Americans and form the largest ethnic minority. Most Hispanic Americans trace their roots back to countries that were once Spain's New World colonies, such as the many countries of Central and South America, rather than directly to Spain itself. The lion's share of the Western Hemisphere is known as Latin America. Most of its people speak Spanish or Portuguese as a mother tongue and follow the precepts of the Roman Catholic church. This is not surprising when it is recalled that Spain and Portugal led the Europeans into the Age of Discovery and founded the first globe-circling empires.
\par \tab In the 1490s Christopher Columbus colonized the Caribbean islands and set the stage for Hernando Cortez' conquest of Mexico in 1519-21. Francisco Pizarro's invasion of Peru followed in 1531-33. The opening in the 16th century of the route from Mexico across the Pacific to the Philippines placed the Spanish on the edge of Asia and in close competition with the Portuguese, who had come by way of their sea route around southern Africa's Cape of Good Hope, India, and through the Strait of Malacca. AndrΘs de Urdaneta took advantage of the Pacific's westerly wind belt at about 42░ N. latitude. This allowed Spain's galleons to return to Mexico directly from the Philippines rather than face typhoons and the perils of attempting to circumnavigate most of the globe. Earlier navigators had returned to Spain by way of the Indian and South Atlantic oceans. A lucrative trade, based on Mexican silver and Chinese silks and other luxuries, began to flourish, and Manila was founded in 1571. The Philippines remained a Spanish colony until 1898, when it passed to the United States as a result of the Spanish-American War.
\par \tab During the early 1540s the area now known as the United States was explored by Hernando de Soto and Francisco Coronado. In 1565 St. Augustine, Fla., was founded to protect Spain's vital sea-lane, which ran via the northward flowing Florida Current and the Gulf Stream that parallel the coastline from southern Florida to North Carolina. In the latitude of North Carolina and Virginia, the treasure-laden galleons caught prevailing westerly winds, which carried them home to Cßdiz on Spain's southern Atlantic coast. In 1598, almost a decade before the first English settlement at Jamestown, Va., Spanish pioneers established towns on the Rio Grande headwaters in the present state of New Mexico. Most of the original settlers in the area around Santa Fe were recruited in central Spain, especially in Andalusia and Castile.
\par \tab While Spain's explorers and conquistadors raised their king's banner around the world, its priests labored among the native peoples to spread Christianity. The cross of Roman Catholicism was raised at countless missions throughout the far-flung Spanish empire, and Spanish attitudes, values, and ideals were spread along with religion in a potent mix that still remains strong five centuries later.
\par \tab The Spanish kings also became embroiled in European affairs in the effort to extend their country's political control and religious beliefs. Perhaps because Spain's power was spread so wide, its hold on the empire began to slip, and Spanish influence over the military and political affairs of Europe went into a decline that lasted into the mid-20th century.
{\b LAND}
\par \tab Spain is shaped like a gigantic bull's hide stretching in the sun between Europe and Africa. Spain's large area of 194,898 square miles (504,784 square kilometers) covers about five sixths of the Iberian Peninsula. In Western Europe, only France is larger. At its widest Spain stretches some 635 miles (1,022 kilometers) from east to west. From north to south the country is about 550 miles (885 kilometers) long.
\par \tab Spain's longest coastline stretches for 1,700 miles (2,740 kilometers) along the Mediterranean Sea from the eastern end of the Pyrenees mountain chain to the Strait of Gibraltar. On the Atlantic Portugal shares the peninsula's coast with Spain. Between the Strait of Gibraltar and the border with southern Portugal at the Guadiana River, Spain faces an embayment of the Atlantic Ocean known as the Gulf of Cßdiz. The ports of Huelva, Rota, and Cßdiz are on this coast, and up the navigable Guadalquivir River is the ancient transportation center Seville. From the province of Galicia, located to the north of Portugal, Spain's coastline extends almost due eastward along the often stormy Bay of Biscay to terminate at the western end of the Pyrenees, which form the frontier with France.
\par \tab Of all Europe's mountain ranges, the jagged and often snowcapped Pyrenees, 270 miles (435 kilometers) long, have functioned most effectively as a barrier to human movement. Unlike the Alps, the Pyrenees have no low foothills or hospitable valleys to ease access into and through their heights. Rather, the Pyrenees rise abruptly from the flanking plains of France and Spain with only steep gorges and steep-walled natural amphitheaters that lead to almost impassable lofty summits. The French peasant's adage, "Africa begins with the Pyrenees," is not without a large measure of truth in emphasizing the historic significance of the Pyrenees as a barrier in the development of Spain. In the words of the American historian Will Durant, Spain's mountains, particularly the Pyrenees, "were her protection and tragedy: they gave her comparative security from external attack, but hindered her economic advance, her political unity, and her participation in European thought." The continued political independence of the tiny principality of Andorra is largely a result of its remote location amid the Pyrenees between France and Spain.
\par \tab Poets and writers from the time of the Romans to the present have likened Spain to a fortress or citadel. In part these metaphors highlight the remoteness from European influences that have marked Spanish history. They are most accurate when employed to describe Spain's vast central region, the Meseta, as in the following quotation from an official publication:
\par By the very makeup of its land area
\par Spain is a castle, a fortress. Its
\par average altitude is only surpassed,
\par in Europe, by Switzerland. The land
\par is furrowed by high mountains which
\par leave between themselves and the sea
\par only narrow strips of lowlands.
\par \tab To gain an understanding of such a large and diverse country, it is necessary to examine Spain in terms of its major geographic regions. The first and largest of Spain's regions forms the heart of the Iberian Peninsula. Known as el Centro, or the Center, this region is dominated by the high, rugged plateau known as the Meseta. A thinly populated region, it occupies about half of Spain's total area and is home to only slightly more than a quarter of its population. Spain's remaining three regions occupy coastal belts that lie between the Centro-Meseta heartland and the seas washing the peninsula's three sides.
\par \tab The region known as el Norte, or the North, stretches across northern Spain from the Atlantic's breakers on the west to the saw-toothed Pyrenees on the east. The Galician and Basque peoples of el Norte occupy slightly more than a tenth of the total area and number a fifth of Spain's total population.
\par \tab Spain's long Mediterranean coast forms the Catalan-dominated region known as el Este, or the East. While it accounts for just under 15 percent of Spain's total area, el Este is home to nearly 30 percent of the population. Barcelona, Spain's second largest urban-industrial center, is located here.
\par \tab The fourth and final regional division is el Sur, or the South. It is a land with coastal "windows" opening on both the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. Almost the whole of el Sur's territory is in the autonomous region of Andalusia. In area el Sur accounts for about 17 percent of Spain. The tiny Spanish possessions of Melilla and Ceuta, located opposite Andalusia on Morocco's Mediterranean coast, add only an insignificant 12 square miles (31 square kilometers) to the area of el Sur. Because el Sur lacks a great metropolitan urban complex, its population is slightly less than 18 percent of Spain's total.
\par {\b Centro-Meseta}
\par \tab The heart of Spain is the vast, high, central plateau region known as the Meseta. Framed by the Cantabrian Mountains on the north and the Sierra Morena ranges on the south, the Meseta occupies about half of Spain's land area. It is punctuated by several smaller mountain ranges that accentuate the Meseta's overall elevation and stark, windswept spaciousness. One of these ranges, the Sierra de Guadarrama, bisects the Meseta just to the north of Spain's centrally located capital, Madrid.
\par \tab Historically the northern portion of the Meseta--north of the Sierra de Guadarrama and drained by the Douro River system--was known as Castilla la Vieja, or Old Castile. Today this is the modern Spanish province Castilla-Le≤n. The southern and slightly lower Meseta, once called Castilla la Nueva, or New Castile, is now known as Castilla-la Mancha. Arag≤n, another of the ancient regions that form modern Spain, embraces the northeastern flank of the Meseta and is drained by the Ebro River system.
\par \tab The Meseta is one of the bleakest, least hospitable regions in Europe. To a large extent this is the result of the climate. Thanks to its large size, elevation, and surrounding mountain barriers, it tends to be continental in character. In winter, high atmospheric pressure develops over the cold elevated land. The resulting outflowing winds are dry and cold. In summer, wind directions change, but the inblowing winds bring little if any moisture, so drought conditions continue through the yearly cycle. An old Spanish proverb captures the essence of the Meseta's climate by describing Madrid as having "six months of winter and six months of hell" to round out the year.
\par \tab The range of temperatures is also far more extreme on the Meseta than in the coastal regions. Summer days are hot, but when the sun sets, temperatures fall rapidly. In July the mean daily temperature ranges 30░ F (-1░ C) between high and low. The range from summer heat to winter cold is also great. Long spells of below-freezing temperatures are punctuated by lows that can dip to 15░ F (-9░ C). Ice-skating in Madrid's parks is not common but occurs occasionally. Highway traffic in both the plains and mountains of Old Castile is often seriously impeded by snowstorms.
\par \tab The fierce summer heat and drought of the Meseta are broken only by occasional thunderstorms, so most crops require irrigation. Without irrigation the landscape is semidesert and good only for grazing. Browns and grays are the prevailing colors, and dust coats the countryside. A haze known as the calina often cuts visibility and adds to summer discomfort on the Meseta. It should come as no surprise that the Meseta is one of Europe's most sparsely populated regions. Only around the metropolis of Madrid is population density high. Over most of the Meseta the density is less than a third that of Spain as a whole.
\par {\b El Norte}
\par \tab Although mountainous terrain causes problems for the people of Spain's Norte, the region as a whole is strikingly different from the Meseta. The climate is maritime, due to the proximity of the sea and prevailing air currents. Winters are mild and moist, while the warmer summers are equable and lack extremes. El Norte is a lush, green, forested land with considerable rainfall even in the summer months. Because of the prevailing westerly winds, winter months experience most of the more than 40 inches (102 centimeters) of annual life-sustaining precipitation.
\par \tab In Galicia, in the northwest, the landscape is built on an ancient granite upland much broken by east-west faults. Many of the valleys formed by these faults have been flooded by the sea to form deep, steep-sided inlets that resemble fjords. Not caused by the erosion of continental glaciers, these scenic inlets are correctly called rφas rather than fjords. This rφa coast has provided the Galicians excellent opportunities to supplement their diets and incomes through fishing. A large part of Spain's annual fish catch is landed at the Galician ports La Coru±a and Vigo. Vigo served as a base for the Spanish Armada in the 16th century, when Spanish seapower held sway over the world.
\par \tab Most Galicians were strongly pro-Francisco Franco during the dictator's regime. In part this is explained by the fact that he was born at the naval base town, El Ferrol, north of La Coru±a. To honor the local hero, El Ferrol's name became El Ferrol del Caudillo (caudillo means "leader," or "chief," in Spanish).
\par \tab To the east of Galicia the coastal provinces extend to the homeland of one of Europe's most distinctive linguistic groups--the Basques. The Cantabrian Mountains form the spine of this verdant region, which spreads wide as it approaches the Pyrenees. Paφs Vasco, the province at the head of the Bay of Biscay, includes one of Spain's historic iron mining and industrial districts developed around Bilbao and San Sebastißn.
\par {\b El Este}
\par \tab The long, eastward-facing Mediterranean coast of Spain is world renowned as a resort area of attractive sunny beaches and gleaming modern tourist hotels. North of Barcelona the red crystalline rocks of the coastal mountains form the backdrop for the picturesque Costa Brava, a favorite beach resort area for sun-starved tourists from the countries of Northwestern Europe. Barcelona, Spain's major Mediterranean port and host city for the Olympic Games in 1992, is the heart of another of Spain's distinctive linguistic regions, Catalonia.
\par \tab The climate and natural vegetation found in this part of Spain generally are characteristic of the Mediterranean Basin. The climate is known as dry-summer subtropical, or, in more popular terms, Mediterranean climate. It is a climate characterized by clear, dry, hot summers and moderately moist, mild winters. It is the type of climate found in central and southern California, central Chile, southernmost Africa, and southern Australia. The result of an unaltering wet-dry climatic rhythm is seen in almost every aspect of the landscape in this region of Spain.
\par \tab The long summer drought excludes many of the plants common elsewhere in Europe. The natural vegetation here is made up of plant species that resist excessive moisture loss through evaporation. Some have thickened stems or bark, waxy coatings, or fine hairy coverings on leaves. Leaves are often small, and some are formed like thorns to discourage browsing animals. Succulent (water-storing) plants such as cacti also thrive in Mediterranean regions. Such hardy drought-resistant plants often form dense thickets called chaparral. (The leather leggings that ranch hands in the American Southwest wear for protection are called chaps from the word chaparral.)
\par \tab Human activities are also geared to the annual alternation of wet and dry. Farmers plant and tend crops in the moist winter and harvest them in the dry heat of early summer. Sheep and cattle are moved to higher, cooler pastures in spring as the plains begin to dry up in the Mediterranean heat. In the past more than 77,000 miles (124,000 kilometers) of sheep trails crisscrossed Spain to provide routes for the moving herds. Today trucks and railways have replaced all but a few of the trails once followed by vast herds of sheep, cattle, horses, donkeys, and their drivers.
\par \tab A 100-mile (160-kilometer) arc of the Spanish Mediterranean coast, roughly centered at Valencia, is famous as one of Southern Europe's garden spots. Known as La Huerta, this area supports a lucrative agriculture based on irrigation water provided by the three rivers that enter the sea here--the Mijares, the Turia, and the J·car. In the midst of La Huerta is Spain's third largest city, Valencia. Much of its industrial activity is devoted to food processing, and its chief exports include the famous Valencia orange.
\par \tab South of Cabo de la Nao conditions become increasingly desertlike. Temperatures are high, and precipitation is so meager and erratic that even wheat fields must be irrigated to guarantee a crop. Where irrigation water can be tapped, lush oases of crops--such as sugarcane, cotton, mulberries, citrus fruits, bananas, and dates--flourish. Water is severely limited, however, so most farmers must rely on such deep-rooted tree crops as figs, almonds, and olives and grape vines for their livelihood.
\par \tab Offshore the Balearic Islands are culturally and commercially oriented to Barcelona. Tourism now dominates their economy, but market gardening and the production of wine and cheese continue to employ many island residents.
\par {\b El Sur}
\par \tab El Sur is composed of the ancient region of Andalusia, plus two tiny fragments of empire located across the Mediterranean on the shores of Africa--Ceuta and Melilla. The region has coastal access to both the Mediterranean and the Atlantic. The Mediterranean portion is a rugged, semiarid region that spreads between the Sierra Morena edge of the Meseta and the folded ranges of the Sierra Nevada. The Atlantic-facing part of the Spanish Sur, by way of contrast, is dominated by the country's most extensive area of plains--the Andalusian Lowland.
\par \tab In past geologic periods this entire lowland was covered by the sea, but it is now filled with the silt and other alluvium brought by the waters of the Guadalquivir River system. At the river's mouth an extensive sandbar, known as the Arenas Gordas, caused the development of a huge lagoonlike marsh area known as Las Marismas. Large areas of swampland have been improved for rice growing here.
\par \tab The whole of el Sur experiences the Mediterranean climate, and the region as a whole is one of the driest in Europe. Europe's highest temperature, 122░ F (50░ C), was recorded in Seville. The mountainous areas of el Sur usually intercept enough moisture on their western portions to permit wheat, olives, and grapes to flourish. To the east and inland, however, conditions quickly become desertlike, and irrigation is necessary to produce the region's great crops of oranges and other fruit. Many of the oranges grown in el Sur are of the small, bitter variety known as Seville, which is used for making marmalade.
\par \tab The Sierra Morena is often considered to be a mountain range, but in fact it is the elevated and eroded outer edge of the Meseta. In certain of its areas rich ore deposits have been worked since at least the time of the ancient Carthaginians. The Minas de Rφotinto district is the location of the historically famous Rφotinto copper mines. Huelva became a major port handling the export of copper. Lead, mercury, and pyrites are also produced in the Rφotinto mining district.
\par \tab El Sur is the portion of Spain most like Africa, which lies only 8 miles (13 kilometers) away across the Strait of Gibraltar. The strait is one of the most-used sea-lanes in history, as it provides the only natural connection between the Mediterranean Sea and the oceans of the world. The famous Rock of Gibraltar lies at the tip of a peninsula overlooking the Bay of Gibraltar and the Mediterranean end of the strait. The rock is a limestone mass that rises to nearly 1,400 feet (427 meters) above the water at its base, a formidable military position that has commanded access to the strait for centuries.
{\b PEOPLE}
\par \tab Spain's land-bridge location between Europe and Africa and its long history have resulted in a great mixing of races and cultures. Most experts agree that the population of Spain is now basically homogeneous--both in terms of race and culture. The only distinctive minority group generally recognized as outside the racial-cultural mainstream of Spanish society is made up of Gypsies, many of whom still follow a nomadic life-style along the roads and highways. Fairly large communities of settled Gypsies are found in the cities of Murcia, Granada, Barcelona, and Madrid, where their distinctive music and vocal styles add considerable color to the entertainment scene.
\par \tab Some Basque extremists claim an ethnic or racial uniqueness for their group to add fuel to political arguments for a separation from Spain. More objective observers tend to see only a linguistic difference as significantly setting the Basques apart from the rest of Spain's citizens. This is not to underemphasize the significance of language. Increasing autonomy for Spain's Basques and other linguistically distinctive groups has been the rule since the adoption of the constitution of 1978.
\par {\b Language}
\par \tab Modern standard Spanish, also referred to as Castilian, is spoken throughout Spain and is the official language. But Castilian is often a second language, not a mother tongue. In el Norte two regional languages are widely spoken. One, the language of the Basque people, is called Euskara. It appears to be one of Europe's oldest languages but is quite different from the Indo-European and Uralic languages spoken across the rest of Europe. The Euskara-speaking group spreads beyond the Pyrenees into the adjoining provinces of France. These people were living in this region at the western end of the mountains long before Spain and France gained their political identities. Basques considered this rugged area their homeland even before Rome extended its control into Gaul and beyond the Pyrenees. In spite of the fact that the constitution of 1978 made Euskara an official local language and afforded increased political autonomy to the Basque provinces, violent separatist extremists still carry on a campaign of terrorism against the central government of Spain.
\par \tab In the region of Galicia a language known as Gallego is widely used, and also since 1978 it, too, has been recognized as an official language to be taught in schools. Modern Portuguese evolved from Gallego, which resembles a cross between Portuguese and Spanish. From 80 to 85 percent of Galicia's 3 million inhabitants speak Gallego. Attempts have been made to standardize the spelling and grammar, but they have not been entirely successful. A kind of common Galician language is beginning to emerge as a spoken tongue in the province's larger towns.
\par \tab Catalan is another language that enjoys a special status under Spain's constitution. It is a Romance language with a highly developed literature. Most of the 7 million people who speak Catalan are located in el Este. It is the official language in three communities--Catalonia, Valencia, and the Balearics. Catalan speakers also live in the eastern fringe of Arag≤n, Andorra, southwestern France, and parts of Sardinia. Catalonia's Generalitat (autonomous government) promotes its official language both at home and in other countries.
\par {\b Religion}
\par \tab Most Spaniards are baptized, married, and buried as members of the Roman Catholic church. Under the 1978 constitution the church is no longer Spain's official or established faith, though financial support is still provided by the state. Because of the liberalized and increasingly urbanized way of life since the end of the Franco regime, there has been a decline in attendance at mass. The church's influence in Spanish society has declined sharply, though officially more than 94 percent of the population is reported as being Roman Catholic. The church supported the democratic movement and so helped foster the new attitude of tolerance and personal freedom found in present-day Spain. A major controversy between old-line religious conservatism and the move toward individual liberty came to a climax in 1981, when divorce was legalized. Movements seeking legalization of abortion are gaining strength.
\par \tab Many of Spain's non-Catholic citizens are members of some Protestant church. Small Eastern Orthodox congregations are found along with Muslim and Jewish groups. Among non-Christians Jews form the major community.
\par {\b Population Density}
\par \tab Spain is overwhelmingly urban, with 76 percent of its people living in towns and cities. This concentration of Spain's people heightens the impression of emptiness that so often is commented on by travelers, especially those who cross the Meseta.
\par \tab Most of the Spanish portion of the Iberian Peninsula is very thinly populated. In the Centro-Meseta region only the areas around Madrid and Saragossa have pockets of dense settlement. The administrative district of Madrid is home for nearly 5 million, reporting 1,550 persons per square mile (600 per square kilometer), while the density for Spain as a whole is 199 (77 per square kilometer).
\par \tab Belts of dense settlement stretch along the Mediterranean from Barcelona, Valencia, Murcia, and Cartagena. Population density is relatively high over most of el Sur, where Seville and Mßlaga stand out as the largest centers. Across el Norte another ribbon of dense population stretches from the Galician ports, through the industrial centers of Santander and Bilbao, to San Sebastißn in the Basque country.
\par \tab From 1950 to the mid-1970s Spain was a major exporter of workers. The demand for low-cost labor in the booming economies of Western Europe beyond the Pyrenees was like an irresistible magnet for hundreds of thousands of Spaniards. Most of these migrants were from the Meseta. Only the Madrid region of the Meseta showed a healthy gain in population during the period. Here the growth of government services and other economic activities provided sought-after jobs. The recession that began to affect Western Europe in 1974 soon ended the flood of Spanish emigration. Some Western European governments, eager to shorten their unemployment lines, offered economic inducements to migrants to return home. As a result the flow of people from Spain to the rest of Europe is now minimal.
\par {\b Culture}
\par \tab {\b Dress.}
\par \tab In the past, rural Spanish people wore distinctive regional costumes. Today most Spaniards dress in modern clothes and would be hard to pick out of a group on the basis of their clothing. The beret is still widely worn, especially in the Basque country, and Galician men still favor cloth caps. Jeans, T-shirts, and tennis shoes are now as popular on the Iberian Peninsula as everywhere else in Europe.
\par \tab {\b Cuisine.}
\par \tab The Spanish, like other Mediterranean people, are particularly fond of sidewalk cafΘs, where a cup of coffee, glass of wine, or meal can be enjoyed with friends as the "world" passes by. Seafood is particularly favored on most Spanish menus. Olive oil is used abundantly in cooking, as are garlic, saffron, and peppers. Rice is popular, especially in el Sur and along the Mediterranean coast. Rice and pulses--dried beans, lentils, and chick peas--cooked with fish, chicken, or pork are basics in Spanish cuisine.
\par \tab {\b Bullfighting.}
\par \tab One thing that sets the Spanish apart from most Europeans living beyond the Pyrenees is their national spectacle of bullfighting. Every city and most towns of any size boast a bullring, where the crowds cheer their favorite but jeer the inept matador, or bullfighter, as he faces his large-horned adversary. Many Northern Europeans are critical of bullfighting and condemn it as a cruel blood sport. Most Spaniards, however, do not see it this way. To them bullfighting is an exciting test of bravery, skill, and grace. In terms of audience size, soccer fans now rival bullfight audiences.
\par \tab {\b Gambling.}
\par \tab In the mid-1980s government-run lotteries triggered a craze for gambling that caused a journalist in 1988 to write that "Spaniards have gone gambling-mad." In 1987 a record-breaking 2.75 trillion pesetas (about 24.5 billion dollars) was staked, a figure almost twice that of 1982. Government-run lotteries, casino gambling, football pools, horse racing, bingo, and slot machines are proliferating in the liberal post-Franco atmosphere of today's Spain. In an effort to help the handicapped, Spanish lottery tickets are sold only by registered blind persons. They are a familiar sight on main street corners of every Spanish town. Spanish television advertising features flashy campaigns to boost sales. Because as much as 30 percent of lottery revenues go into the national treasury, the Spanish government backs the gambling craze.
\par \tab {\b Visual arts.}
\par \tab Beauty literally crowds Spain's great museums, cathedrals, and monasteries. Spanish kings collected masterpieces of art from all over Europe, but none surpassed the great works of Spain's own painters--BartolomΘ Murillo, Diego Velasquez, and Francisco de Goya. El Greco, who was born in Greece, is also considered a Spanish painter because he did his greatest work in Toledo. Prominent Spanish-born painters of the 20th century include Pablo Picasso, Joan Mir≤, and Salvador Dali. The Museum of the Prado in Madrid is one of the great art museums of the world.
\par \tab {\b Architecture.}
\par \tab Many historical architectural masterpieces survive in Spain, and the country made a number of contributions to the field. Such Roman works as theaters (MΘrida), bridges (Alcßntara and C≤rdoba), and aqueducts (Segovia and Tarragona) remain from 500 years of Roman occupation. The Moors were responsible for Hispano-Moresque structures: C≤rdoba's Great Mosque (8th to 10th century, since 1236 a Christian cathedral), the Alcßzar at Seville (14th century), and the Alhambra at Granada (14th-15th century). Mozarabic style was a derivative, exemplified by the Church of San Miguel de Escalada near Le≤n (10th century) and the Hermitage of San Baudφlio de Barlanga near Burgos (early 11th century). This led to the Mudejar style--a blending of Moorish and Gothic for Christian and Jewish patrons. Notable examples of this style are in Toledo--a 12th- or 13th-century synagogue, now the church of Santa Marφa la Blanca, and the 14th-century Synagogue del Trßnsito, now Santa Maria del Trßnsito.
\par \tab The Catalan JosΘ Benito Churriguera (1665-1725) gave his name to a style--Churrigueresque--identified with Spanish baroque. It consists of excessive ornament used everywhere in capricious variations. In the early 20th century, the Catalan architect Antonio Gaudφ astonished the world with his neo-Gothic and neo-baroque works and his own version of art nouveau. His works are mostly in and around Barcelona, the best known being the unfinished Church of the Holy Family.
\par \tab {\b Literature.}
\par \tab Spain has also developed notable writers through the centuries. Miguel de Cervantes' 'Don Quixote' has been translated into all major languages. Lope de Vega and Pedro Calder≤n de la Barca wrote brilliant plays. Miguel de Unamuno was a noted philosopher.
\par \tab The 1989 Nobel prize for literature was awarded to Spanish novelist Camilo JosΘ Cela. Other Spanish Nobel prizewinners were dramatists JosΘ Echegaray in 1904 and Jacinto Benavente in 1922 and lyric poets Juan Ram≤n JimΘnez in 1956 and Vicente Aleixandre in 1977.
\par \tab {\b Music.}
\par \tab Musicians and composers have also carried Spain's rich cultural heritage to international audiences. Antonio de Cabez≤n, Tomßs Luis de Victoria, Isaac AlbΘniz, Manuel de Falla, and Joaquφn Turina are some of the best-known composers. Performing musicians such as guitarists AndrΘs Segovia, Carlos Montoya, Narciso Yepes, and Celedonio Romero and his sons Celin, Pepe, and Angel; pianist Alicia de Larrocha; conductor Rafael Frⁿhbeck de Burgos; soprano Victoria de los Angeles; and tenor Plßcido Domingo are famous.
{\b ECONOMY}
\par \tab The term modern miracle is often employed in discussions of Spain's post-Franco economic growth. Spain now boasts an economy that is one of the largest both in the European Union and in the world. Many factors have contributed to this amazing growth, including the return of workers from overseas.
\par \tab Most returning emigrants invest in housing and start small businesses with capital accumulated while working abroad. Even the few who return to their former rural villages usually take up modern market-oriented agricultural pursuits. The returnees and their families have accelerated the spread of consumerism and liberal attitudes throughout traditionally conservative Spain. Household appliances, stylish clothes, television sets, and cars, which were a basic part of their lives while they worked in other countries, no longer represent unattainable luxuries available to only a privileged few.
\par \tab The economy continued to boom throughout the 1980s. In the early 1990s the surge in economic growth was checked to some extent by a credit squeeze and high interest rates.
\par {\b Tourism}
\par \tab Tourism has made a major contribution to Spain's spectacular economic growth. Spain is the destination of about 10 percent of the world's international tourists. In 1987 this amounted to more than 50 million, outnumbering the permanent population. Many foreigners spend winters in Spain's warmer climates. Tourism received a boost in the early 1990s, when the Summer Olympic Games were held in Barcelona and a world's fair attracted many thousands to Seville during the summer of 1992.
\par {\b Industry}
\par \tab When compared to most partners in the European Union, Spain's industry is characterized by what European economists term "sensitive sectors," more popularly known as "smokestack" industries. This is partly the heritage of extreme economic nationalism and high tariffs. Protectionism, coupled with the Franco regime's constraints on labor unions and a docile labor force, made Spain an attractive setting for heavy industrial development.
\par \tab In the 1970s, when Spain's industrial leaders should have been reorganizing, the country was preoccupied with the highly involved political changeover from Franco's totalitarian regime to a modern democracy. As a result, Spain is behind in the modern industrial world of high technology.
\par \tab Although the large Spanish steel and shipbuilding industries are faced with serious challenges from emerging less-developed countries, the automobile industry is booming. In the 1980s Spain broke into the ranks of Europe's largest producers of automobiles. By 1984 Spain ranked well ahead of Great Britain, exporting 61 percent of production--the highest rate in the world. More than 90 percent went to markets in the European Communities (now the European Union). Now the world's sixth largest producer, Spain is set to become Western Europe's small-car production center.
\par \tab Spain's heavy smokestack industries--such as iron and steel, machine tools, and metalworking--have tended to cluster in el Norte at centers like Bilbao, Santander, and Oviedo. The so-called transformation industries--such as electronics, textiles, and plastics--are most highly concentrated in the Barcelona region of el Este. Madrid is the financial heart of the economy and a focus of light industry and high-technology developments. The automobile industry is spread out, but Madrid, Barcelona, Zaragoza, and Valencia are the chief production centers. General Motors, Ford, and IBM are among the largest exporters in Spain.
\par {\b Mining and Minerals}
\par \tab Mining activities over most of Western Europe, like smokestack industries, have declined sharply. In Spain, however, mining continues to play a role in the economy. Spain once produced almost all the copper mined in the countries of the European Union; it still leads in the production of the other nonferrous ores--lead and zinc. Spain is also Europe's leading producer of high-grade iron ore. In terms of total iron ore produced, Spain follows only France, where most of the ore is of far lower quality. Spain's coal mines, located in Asturias and along the Sierra Morena, showed a steady increase in production from 1975 to 1985. In 1985 Spain was Western Europe's third largest coal producer, behind Britain and West Germany. In the production of lignite, a low-quality form of coal, Spain also ranked third.
\par \tab Of the countries in the European Union, Spain ranked fourth in the production of crude oil in 1984. The amount produced was small, however, and equaled only about 5 percent of the crude oil imported. The outlook for future major petroleum finds in Spain is not bright. Other minerals found in the country are mercury, tungsten, uranium oxides, pyrites, and potash.
\par {\b Agriculture}
\par \tab Although its position has declined, agriculture remains a significant part of Spain's national economy and landscape. Spain has more than 29 million acres (11.7 million hectares) under permanent crops, the largest such area in Europe and much larger than that of the United States. About 10 percent of Spain's workers are in agriculture, and in 1993 they produced about 4 percent of the gross domestic product.
\par \tab In the decade following the Spanish Civil War, agricultural development and modernization halted and actually reversed. This was in sharp contrast to most of the rest of Western Europe, where agriculture was being rapidly modernized and turned from a way of life to a business enterprise.
\par \tab When change began to occur in the 1960s, Spanish agriculture moved rapidly. The opening of job opportunities for low-skilled Spanish farm workers in the booming economies of Western Europe helped in the move toward mechanization. In 1950 there was one tractor for every 460 persons employed in agriculture, but by 1970 the figure had dropped dramatically to a ratio of one to 14. Mechanization in turn encouraged a shift to new, higher-demand crops such as cotton.
\par \tab Since the 1970s the landscape of many of Spain's agricultural districts has changed radically. Specialized family farms flourish by producing such early-ripening produce as tomatoes, green beans, and avocados for the supermarkets of Northern Europe. Such techniques as using greenhouses and sand beds, coupled with irrigation, are turning Spain's farming know-how and brilliant sunshine into large profits overseas as well as in a growing domestic market.
{\b GOVERNMENT}
\par \tab The constitution of 1978 established a constitutional monarchy. The king is head of state and appoints the prime minister. The Cortes Generales, or parliament, consists of a 350-member Congress of Deputies, elected by proportional representation, and a Senate with 208 elected members and 49 popularly elected regional representatives.
\par \tab There are 17 autonomous communities, defined in the constitution as "bordering provinces with common historic, cultural, and economic characteristics. . . ." They are free to work toward a large degree of regional self-government. Domestic politics increasingly reflects the tensions inherent in the competition between the centralizing programs and policies of the national government in Madrid and the bids for power in the autonomous communities.
{\b HISTORY}
\par \tab The first records left by inhabitants of Spain are paintings dating to the Old Stone Age. These paintings were discovered in 1879 in a cave near Altamira. Deer, bison, horses, and boars are skillfully depicted in yellow, brown, red, and black.
\par \tab As early as 1100 BC the Phoenicians sailed their tiny ships to Spain, seeking its iron and tin. Carthaginians colonized the land in about 500 BC and held it until Roman galleys and armies drove them out in 201 BC. Then came six centuries of Roman colonization and government. During this time most of the Spanish cities were founded, and the population of Spain may have reached 9 million. Three Roman emperors--Trajan, Hadrian, and Theodosius--were born in Spain. Many of the more notable writers of the Silver Age of Latin literature were of Spanish origin.
\par \tab In the 5th century AD began 300 years of subjection to Teutonic tribes. Spain was invaded by the Suevi, Alans, and Vandals. In AD 415 Rome sent the Visigoths, another Teutonic tribe, to regain Spain for the empire. The Visigoths defeated the invaders, but some Vandals reached Andalusia, giving their name--Vandalusia--to the region. The Visigoths ruled Spain from 415 to 711.
\par \tab Moorish invaders from Africa overthrew the Visigoths at the battle of Guadalete in 711. Thus began seven centuries of Muslim power in Spain. C≤rdoba was transformed into a Moorish center of learning. Moorish Spain produced distinguished scientists, mathematicians, philosophers, and writers, while Christian northern Spain remained divided into small barbaric kingdoms. The splendid irrigation projects of the Moors made a garden land out of the arid coastlands and southern hills of Spain. The Moors rebuilt the old Roman cities on Arabic lines, with graceful palaces and vast mosques. Fine metalwork and silk and leather goods, as beautiful as any from the Orient, were made in Moorish Spain. Toledo blades became as famous as those from Damascus.
\par {\b The Rise of Christian Kingdoms}
\par \tab While a succession of weak caliphs weakened Moorish rule, Christian kingdoms were being formed in the northern mountain regions. Bit by bit they wrested territory from the Moors. The kingdom of Asturias on the Bay of Biscay, which later expanded into the kingdom of Le≤n and Castile, was the birthplace of Spanish liberty. Almost from the beginning of the Moorish invasion, Asturias struck back at the Mohammedans.
\par \tab Later it was joined by Aragon, Navarre, Catalonia, and Portugal. Together they waged the long battle to "free Spain from the infidel." After the victory of Le≤n and Castile in the battle of the plains of Tolosa in 1212, Moorish rule was restricted to the small kingdom of Granada in southern Spain.
\par \tab In 1469 the marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile united most of Spain. The final blow at Moorish power in Spain was the conquest of Granada in 1492. In 1512 the Spanish part of Navarre was conquered. Philip II seized Portugal in 1580, and Spain held it for 60 years. Only Andorra in the Pyrenees was able to maintain independence.
\par {\b The Spanish Empire}
\par \tab The grandson of Ferdinand and Isabella became the most powerful ruler in Europe. He was Charles I of Spain, better known as the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. In the reign of Charles V, Spain became mistress of nearly half the world. Charles ruled Spain, Naples and Sicily, the duchy of Milan, and the Netherlands and was the imperial lord of Germany as well as of the New World.
\par \tab Under his son, Philip II, Spain championed Catholicism against the march of the Protestant Reformation. Tragically, Spain spread the institution of the Inquisition. Many Jews and Moors were expelled. Protestants and heretical Catholic Spaniards were tortured and burned at the stake in autos-da-fΘ ("acts of faith"). The persecution crushed the Spanish people's initiative and freedom of thought. At the same time, Philip tried to stamp out Protestantism abroad by attempting to conquer England. Sir Francis Drake's defeat of his invasion fleet smashed Spain's rule of the seas. Philip's futile efforts at conquest permanently impaired the resources of the kingdom.
\par \tab After the reign of Philip II, Spain steadily declined in power and riches. The final expulsion of the Moors in 1609-14 by his son, Philip III, seriously weakened Spain, because the Moors had been energetic builders and businessmen. The death of Charles II in 1700 ended the Hapsburg line of Spanish kings. Many European countries fought for the vacant throne in the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-13).
\par \tab The war stripped Spain of most of its outlying possessions in Europe and seated a French Bourbon prince on the throne as Philip V. From 1714 to the French Revolution, Spain was little more than a satellite of France. In 1808 Napoleon placed his brother Joseph on the throne of Spain. The outraged Spaniards revolted. Aided by the British, they freed Spain from Bonaparte's rule in the Peninsular War (1808-14). Meanwhile, in 1812, Spain had adopted a liberal constitution. However, when Ferdinand VII was restored to the throne, in 1814, he abolished it. By the end of Ferdinand's reign, in 1833, Spain had lost its vast empire in the New World except Cuba and Puerto Rico. These were lost in the Spanish-American War of 1898, which also cost Spain the Philippines.
\par {\b The Establishment of the Spanish Republic}
\par \tab As the old Spain--the Spain of grandees and absolute royal power--declined, a new and more liberal Spain was struggling forward. Conflicts between liberals and reactionaries brought years of revolutionary movements interspersed with periods of constitutional government. From 1873 to 1875 Spain was a republic, but in 1875, when Alfonso XII ascended the throne, the Bourbon monarchy was restored to power. In 1876 a new constitution was adopted.
\par \tab During World War I Spain was neutral. This stimulated its few industries, as it sold supplies to the Allied nations. Peace brought the loss of foreign markets, and Spain fell into economic depression. The weak Bourbon government of Alfonso XIII could not cope with the depression. It also failed to put down an old, costly rebellion in Spanish Morocco. In 1923 Gen. Primo de Rivera seized power with Alfonso's consent and set up a dictatorial government. He made many improvements, but the worldwide depression of 1929 again plunged Spain into poverty. De Rivera resigned in 1930. Republican parties overwhelmingly won the elections held in 1931, and Alfonso went into exile. A provisional republican government under President Niceto Alcalß Zamora took control. A new liberal constitution, separating church and state, was adopted.
\par \tab At the start of the republic nearly half the Spanish people could not read or write. Poverty was widespread, and industrial wages were low. In Madrid many workers had become socialists. In Barcelona many had turned to political anarchism and to syndicalism, a system that aims at putting workers' organizations in control of all industries.
\par \tab The republic struggled to reconcile the conflicting movements and to push its reforms, but it lacked influence and money. In 1936 the many leftist parties formed a Popular Front and overwhelmed the conservatives and moderate liberals in a national election.
\par {\b Civil War and Dictatorship}
\par \tab Civil war followed. The rebels, who called themselves Nationalists, were led by General Franco and were supported by the conservatives and the army. The defenders of the republic were known as the Loyalists. Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy supported the rebels, while the Soviet Union gave limited aid to the Loyalists. The war was incredibly fierce.
\par \tab The hostilities ended on March 28, 1939, with the surrender of starving Madrid, the last Loyalist stronghold. It has been estimated that the conflict cost Spain about 600,000 lives, 700,000 wounded, and some 40 billion dollars.
\par \tab Out of the Civil War emerged the dictatorship of General Franco. Franco restored the privileges of the church and placed the economy of the country under the control of the syndicates. He banned all political parties except the Falange. Although the Cortes was reestablished in 1942, Franco continued to dominate the government.
\par \tab During World War II Spain was ostensibly neutral. Actually, however, it gave undercover aid to Germany and Italy. On the pretext of keeping the international zone of Tangier neutral, Spain occupied the region. The demands of the Allied powers forced it to withdraw in 1945. These unfriendly acts, combined with Franco's harsh rule, kept Spain out of the United Nations until 1955.
\par \tab Under Franco Spain made some economic progress, but recovery from the ruinous Civil War was slow. Thousands of homes had been destroyed during the conflict. Factories, railroads, and shipping all needed large quantities of new equipment.
\par \tab Franco sought economic assistance from other nations. The United States considered Spain a key to Europe's defense against Communism and came to its aid. Beginning in 1953 the United States gave Spain economic and military assistance in return for military bases.
\par \tab In 1947 a controlled plebiscite, or popular vote, approved Franco's Law of Succession. This established a council that at his death would name a king or regent to rule Spain. Franco trained Prince Juan Carlos de Bourbon, a grandson of Alfonso XIII, to serve as his successor. Beginning in the late 1960s the government curtailed the civil rights of Basque separatists. Similar restrictions were imposed on the entire country after strikes and other unrest occurred.
\par \tab By the 1970s Spain had relinquished most of its African possessions. Spanish Morocco, now part of Morocco, became independent in 1956. The provinces of Fernando Po and Rφo Muni achieved independence as Equatorial Guinea in 1968. Ifni was ceded to Morocco in 1969, and the Spanish left the Sahara in 1976. The enclaves of Melilla and Ceuta on the North African coast are Spanish autonomous communities. The Canary Islands off the northwestern coast are still part of Spain. In 1973 Franco began to relinquish his absolute control over the government of Spain. A prime minister appointed in 1974 promised reforms, but political dissent intensified. Upon Franco's death in 1975, Juan Carlos I, the first king in 44 years, became head of state.
\par \tab Racked by attempted coups and severe economic problems, a fragile fledgling democracy began to take form under the king's watchful care. Except for the Communists and the ultraconservative supporters of Franco--the two political extremes--there was a general determination to make democracy work. A democratically minded cabinet was appointed in 1976 by Premier Adolfo Sußrez Gonzßlez. The Political Reform Law was passed on Nov. 18, 1976, and universal suffrage became law in March 1977. The Communist party was legalized even as Franco's Falange, or National Movement, was disbanded. A new Cortes was elected in 1977, and a new constitution was approved in late 1978. Spain's progress under this enlightened and resolute monarchy was nothing short of a modern political and economic miracle. An attempted military coup by members of Franco's Civil Guard in 1981 failed when Juan Carlos intervened to end the revolt.
\par \tab Two minority populations, the Basques and the Catalans, each pressed separatist claims. Autonomy was granted to their provinces in 1979, and both areas elected regional parliaments. Despite this, the Basque separatist organization, ETA (Euzkadi ta Azkatasuna), continued to carry out terrorist activities throughout northern Spain.
\par \tab One of the most salient events of the post-Franco period came in 1977, when the Spanish government officially submitted a request to join the European Communities (EC). Negotiations were completed in 1985, and on Jan. 1, 1986, Spain became a full member. As a preliminary to Spain's joining, Great Britain agreed for the first time to discuss the issue of sovereignty for the isthmus of Gibraltar.
\par \tab Spain's government underwent a significant change in the elections of 1982. A Socialist, Felipe Gonzßlez Mßrquez, became prime minister. In spite of his party allegiance, he avoided any radical socialization of the nation's economy. He was reelected in 1986, 1989, and 1993.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by Louis DeVorsey, Jr., Professor Emeritus of Geography, University of Georgia, Athens; recipient of Honor Award for Applied Geography (1983) and Citation for Meritorious Contributions to the Field of Geography (1975), Association of American Geographers; author of 'In the Wake of Columbus', with John Parker (1985), 'The Atlantic Pilot' (1974), and 'The Peoples of Western Europe', with David Dicker and William Norris (1972).
\par \tab {\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR SPAIN}
\par \tab Arango, E. Ramon. Spain: Democracy Regained (Westview, 1995).
\par \tab Castro, Americo. The Spaniards: An Introduction to Their History (Univ. of Calif. Press, 1985).
\par \tab Crow, J.A. Spain--The Root and the Flower: An Interpretation of Spain and the Spanish People, 3rd rev. ed. (Univ. of Calif. Press, 1985).
\par \tab Gilmour, David. Cities of Spain (Ivan Dee, 1992).
\par \tab Maxwell, Kenneth, and Spiegel, Steven. The New Spain: From Isolation to Influence (Council on Foreign Relations, 1994).
\par \tab Perez-Diaz, Victor. The Return of Civil Society: The Emergence of Democratic Spain (Harvard Univ. Press, 1993).
\par \tab Selby, Anna. Spain (Steck-Vaughn, 1993).\par \tab Located 18 miles (29 kilometers) off the southeastern tip of the Indian subcontinent, Sri Lanka lies about 400 miles (645 kilometers) north of the equator. Colombo is the capital and largest city. A new capital, Sri Jayawardenapura-Kotte, was designated in 1977. The country has a total land area of 25,332 square miles (65,610 square kilometers).
\par {\b Land and Climate}
\par \tab This pear-shaped island nation, known as Ceylon until 1972, is 272 miles (438 kilometers) long and 140 miles (225 kilometers) wide at its broadest point. Largely flat and rolling, the terrain is distinguished by a cluster of mountain peaks, the highest of which is the 8,281-foot- (2,524-meter-) high Pidurutalagala in the south-central portion of the country. Numerous rivers originate in the mountains and flow in all directions toward the sea.
\par \tab Sri Lanka's climate is tropical, with high humidity and year-round temperatures averaging 80░ to 83░ F (27░ to 28░ C). Two monsoon seasons occur each year. The southwest monsoon from May to October and the northeast monsoon from December to March bring adequate amounts of rainfall. The north averages about 40 inches (100 centimeters) of rain annually, and as much as 200 inches (500 centimeters) falls in the mountainous area of the southwest.
\par \tab Unstable weather conditions throughout Sri Lanka's history have produced severe droughts, particularly in the northern part of the country. In ancient times reservoirs were built to hold rainfall for irrigation. The oldest of these, believed to have been built in about 300 BC and discovered abandoned and overgrown with dense scrub, has been restored for use. During the 1960s extensive work began on numerous irrigation projects. The accelerated Mahaweli Scheme, one of the major undertakings, includes many dams and provides the population with electricity, a regular water supply, and new land for cultivation.
\par \tab Logging, along with slash-and-burn methods of farming, has resulted in rapid deforestation. Wildlife preserves, covering 10 percent of the island's land area, have been created to protect timber growing in the forest and jungle areas. The conservation effort has also improved the protection of indigenous animal life, including elephants, bears, leopards, crocodiles, and peacocks.
\par {\b People and Culture}
\par \tab The population, estimated at more than 16.8 million in 1989, has a diverse ethnic composition. About three quarters of the people are Sinhalese, 18 percent are Tamils, and 7 percent are Muslims of Arab descent. Smaller ethnic groups include Malays, Burghers, and Veddas, tribal people who are the original inhabitants of the island. Sri Lanka's major cities with populations of more than 100,000 are Colombo, Dehiwala-Mount Lavinia, Moratuwa, Jaffna, Kandy, and Sri Jayawardenapura-Kotte.
\par \tab The Sinhalese came from northern India in about 500 BC. They speak Sinhalese and live primarily in the southwest. Ninety percent of them are Buddhists.
\par \tab The Tamils are divided into two distinct groups. The Sri Lankan Tamils, whose roots on the island date back nearly 2,000 years, are concentrated in the northern and eastern coastal regions--particularly around Jaffna, their ancestral home. The Indian Tamils were brought from southern India in the late 19th and early 20th centuries to work as laborers on the large agricultural estates in the south-central hill country. Both groups practice the Hindu religion and speak the Tamil language.
\par \tab Both Sinhalese and Tamil are official languages. The Burghers are largely English speaking. English is used extensively in administration and education, but only 10 percent of the population can speak or understand it.
\par \tab Sri Lanka's literacy rate of about 86 percent compares favorably to that of most South Asian countries. Schooling is free and compulsory from ages 5 to 13. Free secondary and college and university education is also available.
\par \tab Buddhism, which came to Sri Lanka in the 3rd century BC, is the predominant religion and the foundation of Sinhalese culture. Kandy, the ancient capital, is located in the foothills of the hill country and is the center of traditional culture. Here Sri Lanka's most prized possession, the sacred tooth of Buddha, is enshrined in the Temple of the Tooth.
\par \tab The government-supported health system provides free medical care. A successful family planning pro-gram has lowered birthrates significantly. Sri Lankans have a low incidence of major endemic and infectious diseases. The infant mortality rate in 1991 was 25 per 1,000 live births, one of the lowest in Asia.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab The foundation for economic development was laid in the second half of the 19th century, when coffee and tea plantations were established in the hill country surrounding Nuwara Eliya. The national economy is heavily dependent upon agricultural exports. Tea is by far the principal export crop. Others are rubber, coconuts, and spices, especially cinnamon. The principal ports are Colombo and Galle. Breeding grounds of the pearl oyster are located in the Gulf of Mannar off the northwest coast.
\par \tab More than 80 percent of the people work on small subsistence farms, where the main food crop is rice. Rice output grew in the 1980s as a result of the expansion of land available for cultivation and from the impact of the Green Revolution. The nation has been self-sufficient in rice since the mid-1980s.
\par \tab Sri Lanka is rich in industrial rocks and minerals such as graphite, mica, silica sand, quartz, feldspar, and gemstones. The nation is the world's largest producer of graphite, a form of carbon that is used in the making of pencils. Long known as a land of gems, the island has dozens of varieties of precious and semiprecious gemstones. Mined around Ratnapura, the gems include sapphires, rubies, aquamarines, moonstones, topazes, garnets, amethysts, and zircons.
\par {\b History and Government}
\par \tab Ruins of ancient cities recall the once-flourishing civilizations of Sri Lanka. Two centers of early Sinhalese civilization were Anuradhapura in the northern plain and Polonnaruwa near the Mahaweli River to the southeast. Both in succession became capitals of the Sinhalese kingdom.
\par \tab The arrival of the Portuguese in the 16th century marked the beginning of European domination, which lasted more than 400 years. The Portuguese, in control of coastal Sri Lanka for 150 years, established a trading settlement at Colombo. In 1658 they were driven out by the Dutch, and in 1796 the Dutch were supplanted by the British, who controlled the country for the next 152 years. By the mid-19th century the British had brought about a dramatic transformation of the economy with the introduction of coffee and tea. A British colony from 1802, Sri Lanka became independent on Feb. 4, 1948. It became a member of the United Nations in 1955.
\par \tab Sri Lanka has a long-standing democratic tradition. D.S. Senanayake became the first prime minister in 1947. After his death in 1952, his son Dudley briefly held the reins of the government. In 1956 S.W.R.D. Bandaranaike of the Sri Lanka Freedom party was elected prime minister in a landslide victory. His administration promised social change as well as economic independence, but it was plagued by warring factions in the government. Bandaranaike was assassinated in 1959, and his widow was elected as his successor in 1960. Sirimavo Bandaranaike dominated the politics of the island until 1977, when she was unseated by J.R. Jayawardene of the United National party.
\par \tab Under a new constitution adopted in 1972, Sri Lanka became a socialist republic. In 1978 an amendment changed the parliamentary form of government to a French-style presidential system. The popularly elected president is the head of state, chief executive, and commander in chief of the armed forces. Jayawardene, the first president, was reelected in 1982. He stepped down in January 1989 and was replaced by Prime Minister Ranasinghe Premadasa, who had been elected president in December 1988 following three months of violence. The violence escalated, and in 1989 Amnesty International estimated that more than 1,000 people each month were being killed.
\par \tab Peace has been marred by the open hostility between the Tamils and Sinhalese. In the 1950s there was an upsurge of Sinhalese-Buddhist nationalism in an effort to gain supremacy over the Tamils. A major conflict resulted when the Tamils began to demand an independent state. From the early 1980s Tamil militants engaged in acts of terrorism. Sinhalese radicals launched their own campaign of terror in July 1987, claiming the government had granted too many concessions to the Tamils. India sent in a temporary peacekeeping mission of some 50,000 soldiers both to quell the separatist rebellion by the Tamils and to protect them from the radical Sinhalese. Violence persisted, however. On May 1, 1993, Prime Minister Premadasa was assassinated by a suicide bomber.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab Thomas R. Leinbach\par \tab An independent island group in the Leeward Islands of the West Indies, the Federation of Saint Kitts and Nevis is situated in the northeastern Caribbean Sea. With an area of 103 square miles (267 square kilometers), the country is composed of oval-shaped Saint Kitts Island, also known as St. Christopher, and circle-shaped Nevis Island to the southeast. The capital and largest city is Basseterre on Saint Kitts. A volcanic mountain chain dominates the central part of both islands. The Narrows, a channel 2 miles (3.2 kilometers) wide, separates the islands.
\par \tab Most of the people are of black African origin, but there are small populations of Europeans and Asians. The major religion on Saint Kitts and Nevis is Christianity. English is the official language. Schooling is free and compulsory for children from ages 5 to 16. Almost the entire population is literate.
\par \tab The country's economy is based largely on sugar, the major export. Efforts are being made by the government to reduce reliance on a single crop by promoting livestock raising and cotton, fruit, and vegetable growing. Tourism is becoming a major seasonal employer. Manufacturing industries include sugar refining, electronics, beverages, and clothing.
\par \tab Early native inhabitants of the islands included Arawak and Carib peoples. Christopher Columbus visited and named the islands in 1493. The French settled on Saint Kitts in 1627 and the English on Nevis in 1628. After a long power struggle the islands became a British possession in 1783. They became independent on Sept. 19, 1983. Population (1991 estimate), 43,000.\par \tab Covering 966,757 square miles (2,503,890 square kilometers), the Republic of the Sudan is the largest nation of Africa. The country is located in the northeastern part of the continent, bordering Egypt, Libya, Chad, the Central African Republic, Zaire, Uganda, Kenya, and Ethiopia. Sudan's only seacoast stretches along the Red Sea.
\par \tab The Nile Valley and its irrigated agricultural areas are the most settled part of the country. Khartoum, the capital, is located at the junction of the Blue Nile and the White Nile. The country is strongly divided between the northern and central regions, populated mostly by Arabs of the Islamic faith, and the southern region, home to a variety of black Africans.
\par {\b Land and Climate}
\par \tab Sudan is mostly a land of flat plains. In the northwest the basement rock is overlain by the Nubian sandstone formation. Wind erosion caused by the northeast trade winds has created a vast sand plain, the Qoz, which stretches from the White Nile to the Chad border. East of the Qoz vast clay plains stretch to the Ethiopian Highlands. In the south the basin of the Lower Nile forms another lowland region.
\par \tab Plateaus and mountains are located mainly near the borders. The Red Sea Hills, the most extensive highlands in Sudan, rise in the northeast. In the west near the border with Chad an extinct volcano, Jebel Marra, reaches to 10,073 feet (3,070 meters). In central Sudan the Nuba Mountains rise to 4,500 feet (1,370 meters) from the surrounding plains. The country's highest peak, Kinyeti (10,456 feet, or 3,187 meters), is located in the south near the Uganda border. Other upland areas occur in the south adjacent to the Zaire and Ethiopia frontiers.
\par \tab Most of Sudan is characterized by a hot, dry climate. The Libyan and Nubian deserts, subdivisions of the Sahara, cover the northern third of the country. Here it is dry year-round. The southern two thirds of the country is characterized by a steppe and tropical savanna climate. In these lands there are two seasons: wet and dry. The summer rainy season lasts the longest in the extreme southwest, beginning in April and lasting until November. Here precipitation exceeds 57 inches (144 centimeters) annually. To the north and northeast the rainy season gradually shortens, and precipitation diminishes. Khartoum, at the edge of the desert, has significant rains only during July and August. They average between 4 and 8 inches (10 to 20 centimeters). At the desert's edge precipitation is extremely variable, with droughts common.
\par \tab Temperatures in Sudan are some of the hottest in the world. The highest temperatures occur just before the summer rains and the coolest temperatures during the winter months of December and January. At Khartoum the average temperatures are 74░ F (23░ C) in January and 89░ F (32░ C) in July.
\par \tab Through the middle of Sudan flows the Nile River, of which there are two major branches. The waters of the White Nile flow out of Lake Victoria and cross Uganda before entering southern Sudan. Two hundred miles (320 kilometers) into Sudan the water spreads out in the Lower Nile's basin and forms As Sudd, one of the largest swamps in the world. By the time the White Nile emerges from As Sudd, it has lost 50 percent of its water from evaporation. The source of the Blue Nile is Lake Tana in neighboring Ethiopia. As the Blue Nile leaves the Ethiopian Highlands, it flows northeastward across the clay plains of eastern Sudan. The two rivers join at Khartoum to form the main branch of the Nile, which then flows across the Nubian Desert into Egypt. The major tributary of the White Nile is the Bahr el 'Arab in the south.
\par {\b Plant and Animal Life}
\par \tab With the exception of the Red Sea Hills, the northern third of Sudan is covered by a vast desert with little vegetation. As precipitation increases toward the south, vegetation gradually increases from a tropical wooded steppe, with short grasses and a variety of acacia trees, to a tropical savanna in the southwest. Areas of mountain forest occur in isolated areas on some of the higher peaks.
\par \tab Big-game animals are common in the southern region. The lion, leopard, crocodile, elephant, antelope, gazelle, and other animals exist in large numbers. Periodic droughts and desertification have largely eliminated these animals from the central part of the country.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab Sudan is the Arab word for "land of the blacks," but only the southern part of the country is heavily populated by black Africans. Of a total population of nearly 30 million in the mid-1990s, more than half were Arabic-speaking adherents of the Sunnah branch of the Islam living in the north and central areas. Most black Africans living in the south are Christians or animists. Some non-Arab groups in the north have converted to Islam. Among these tribes are the Nubians, who live along the Nile; the Beja of the Red Sea Hills; and the Fur, who are settled farmers living in the Jebel Marra region in the far west.
\par \tab Sudan's population is mostly rural, with only about 22 percent living in urban areas. The livelihood of the rural people is based primarily on agriculture and pastoral activities. Thus their way of life depends on the availability of vegetation and water resources.
\par \tab In the north nomadic Arab tribes such as the Kababish wander the desert with their herds in search of the vegetation that grows after the rare desert thunderstorms. More than a tenth of the nation's population lead such a nomadic existence.
\par \tab In the Nile Valley and in the irrigated El Gezira (Al-Jazirah) region, the people lead a sedentary agricultural existence. The abundant sunshine, year-round growing season, and water from the Nile allow the farmers to reap multiple harvests from the land each year. Major crops include cotton, sorghum, sugarcane, sesame, peanuts, dates, and vegetables.
\par \tab Away from the irrigated areas people depend on the annual rainy season for crop production. The low amounts and the variability of precipitation force people to grow more drought-resistant plants, principally millet and sorghum. In Kordofan many farmers earn a cash income by collecting gum arabic, the sap of the hashab tree.
\par \tab In the southern Nile Basin the Dinka and Nuer practice a seminomadic economy based on cattle raising. They follow the seasonal patterns of precipitation. As the floodwaters of the rainy season reach the central As Sudd, the Nilotic people move away from the area and take advantage of the pasturage that has developed with the rains. As the savanna pasture gradually disappears during the dry season the people follow the retreating waters and graze their animals on the newly exposed lands.
\par \tab The Khartoum metropolitan area is the largest urban center. Other cities are Port Sudan, the major port; Wad Madani, the economic center of the El Gezira region; and Al-Ubayyid, the capital of Kordofan. Juba is the largest city of the southern region.
\par \tab When Sudan became independent from Great Britain in 1956, it inherited a limited educational system. In the 1970s major changes in education were made. Increased emphasis was placed on basic literacy with the hope of reducing the illiteracy rate from an estimated 80 percent to about 50 percent by 1983. The number of primary schools was expanded and the language of instruction changed from English to Arabic. There is still a major shortage of schools and teachers. By 1983 only 49 percent of elementary-age and 19 percent of intermediate- and secondary-age children attended school. The adult illiteracy rate is about 40 percent for men and 11 percent for women.
\par \tab Because of the low literacy rates, the government emphasizes the radio and television system as the principal method of internal communication. Radio ownership is widespread. Television ownership, on the other hand, is limited outside the Khartoum urban area.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab An estimated 80 percent of the labor force are engaged in agriculture, the majority in subsistence production. The major subsistence crops are millet and sorghum, grown in the rainy region of central Sudan. The economic heart of Sudan is the irrigated region between the Blue and the White Niles, known as the Gezira Scheme. It was begun by the British in 1925 with a dam at Sannar on the Blue Nile to supply their textile industry with high-quality cotton. Cotton is still the principal crop. A region of sugarcane production was established near Kenana in the early 1980s. The sugar complex at Kenana is one of the largest in the world. By the mid-1990s 15 percent of Sudan's 210 million acres (85 million hectares) was under irrigation, primarily in El Gezira.
\par \tab Further expansion of Sudan's irrigated agricultural acreage is limited by the availability of water. Nile water rights, allocated under a 1959 treaty with Egypt, divide the annual flow between the two countries. To increase the flow of the White Nile, a joint Sudanese-Egyptian project, the Jonglei Canal, was begun in the 1970s. The canal was designed to divert part of the Nile waters around As Sudd and thereby conserve more than 10 percent of the water lost annually. In 1984, when the canal was about half completed, work was suspended after the Sudanese People's Liberation Army (SPLA), a southern rebel movement, attacked the construction team.
\par \tab Manufacturing activities are not well developed. The principal activities are cotton ginning and spinning, sugar refining, leather tanning, and the production of such basic consumer goods as soap, soft drinks, and vegetable oils.
\par \tab The majority of the private capital invested in the country is in the export-import business. Sudan's principal exports in the mid-1980s in relative value were cotton (50 percent), livestock (10 percent), sesame seed (10 percent), gum arabic (9 percent), and sorghum (5 percent). Among the principal purchasers of these goods were Italy, China, West Germany, Egypt, and Japan. Imports consisted of petroleum and petroleum products (27 percent), machinery (15 percent), medicines and chemicals (12 percent), transportation equipment (10 percent), and other manufactured products (19 percent). Sudan purchases these goods primarily from Great Britain, the United States, and Germany.
\par \tab Petroleum was discovered in southern Sudan in 1981. Reserves are estimated at 2 trillion barrels, of which 500 million barrels are recoverable. To export the oil, the government plans to construct a pipeline from the southern region to Port Sudan. Exploration and development work came to a halt in 1984 when forces of the SPLA attacked a field crew.
\par \tab There is gold in the Red Sea Hills. In the west near the borders of Chad and the Central African Republic are uranium reserves. Commercially valuable chromite deposits exist in the Ingessana Hills near the Ethiopian border. With the exception of gold, these resources have not been extensively developed.
\par \tab Transportation in Sudan is not well developed. Most of the country's all-weather roads and railroads are in the northeast, linking Khartoum and the Gezira with Port Sudan on the Red Sea. Kusti on the White Nile is a transportation hub. From here steamers ply the Nile as far south as Juba. A single rail line links Kusti with Nyala, and there is a branch line extending to Wau. Kusti is linked to Port Sudan by both rail and all-weather roads. An all-weather road links Juba with Kenya. Sudan is linked to Egypt by a railroad from Khartoum to Wadi Halfa on Lake Nasser, the artificial lake created by the Aswan High Dam in Egypt. Steamers then connect passengers and freight to the Egyptian railway system at Aswan. Sudan Air, the national airline, furnishes domestic and international service from the major airport at Khartoum. A pipeline brings petroleum products from Port Sudan to Khartoum.
\par {\b Government and History}
\par \tab Sudan is a parliamentary democracy. A transitional constitution adopted in 1986 provides for a legislative assembly of 301 seats. The president is official head of state, but that position is primarily ceremonial. Real power is held by the prime minister, who is elected by the legislative assembly.
\par \tab Three major parties emerged after the 1986 national elections. The Umma (People's) party, a traditionalist Islamic party descended from the Ansar movement of the Mahdi (the Muslim Messiah), won the most seats (99), followed by the Democratic Unionist party (63) and the National Islamic Front (51). A coalition government was formed uniting the Umma, the Democratic Unionist, and several smaller parties. The prime minister is the leader of the Umma party.
\par \tab The earliest civilization that developed in Sudan was the Cushite. This kingdom reached its height in the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC. Cushite culture was strongly influenced by Egypt, especially in the use of hieroglyphs and pyramidal architecture. Major Cush ruins are found at Merowe near the Nile, 100 miles (160 kilometers) north of Khartoum.
\par \tab After the destruction of Merowe in AD 350 by an Axumite army, there eventually arose a number of Christian kingdoms along the Nile north of Khartoum. Christianity was brought into the region by Coptic missionaries from Egypt. These Christian Nubian kingdoms reached their height in the 9th and 10th centuries. Beginning in the 14th century Arab tribes conquered the Christian kingdoms. Two sultanates eventually consolidated their control over most of northern Sudan by the 16th century. The Arab sultanates fell under the control of the Ottoman Empire from 1821 to 1884. The slave trade was greatly expanded and pushed into what is now the southern Sudan, where the various Nilotic peoples were enslaved by the Arabs. The hatred engendered by the slave trade still persists.
\par \tab Opposition to Turkish rule through the Egyptian khedive developed in the 1880s. Muhammad Ahmad proclaimed himself the Mahdi and organized a resistance movement. His followers laid siege to Khartoum and overwhelmed Anglo-Egyptian forces on Jan. 28, 1885, but Mahdist rule was short lived. The Mahdi died of typhus five months after the fall of Khartoum.
\par \tab Sudan had been under the rule of the Khalifah for about 12 years when the British invaded to protect the Nile from French forces. A decisive battle occurred at Omdurman on Sept. 2, 1898, when the British--using machine guns--killed 11,000 Mahdist fighters and lost only 48 of their own men.
\par \tab From 1899 through 1955 Sudan was ruled jointly by the British and the Egyptians as Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. Sudanese nationalism gradually redeveloped, and on Jan. 1, 1956, Sudan became independent.
\par \tab Upon independence, civil war broke out between the black southerners and the Arab northerners who now ruled the country. The war lasted until 1972 and caused the deaths of more than half a million people--primarily from malnutrition and disease.
\par \tab After a series of civilian and military governments, power was seized in 1969 by Gaafar el-Nimeiry, who ruled the country for 16 years. Initially Nimeiry had popular support, his major accomplishment being the 1972 Addis Ababa accords that ended the civil war.
\par \tab The civil war began again in 1983. A combination of the war, desperate economic conditions brought on by drought, and a crippling foreign debt of 4 billion dollars resulted in Nimeiry's dictatorship being overthrown in 1985. A democratic civilian government emerged after elections in 1986. The dominant political movement was the Umma party, and the prime minister elected in 1986 was Sadiq al-Mahdi, the great-grandson of the Mahdi and a former prime minister (1966-67). A peace pact was rejected by the National Assembly in December 1988. A new coalition government was formed in March 1989 as a step toward ending the civil war. In June Mahdi was overthrown in a military coup led by Gen. Omar Hassan Ahmed al-Bashir, and the civil war raged on. In April 1990 a failed coup attempt resulted in the execution of 28 army officers said to have been responsible.
\par \tab Southerners feared that development of the southern petroleum fields would primarily benefit the Arab north. Second, it was feared that the diversion of the White Nile around As Sudd by the Jonglei Canal would have severe consequences on the traditional economy of the Nuer people whose livelihood was based on the annual flooding of that vast wetland. Finally, the Arabization and Islamization of the country, particularly the imposition since 1983 of Islamic law in the south, was strongly resisted.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by David W. Howes, Assistant Professor of Geography, Clarion University of Pennsylvania.
\par \tab {\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR SUDAN}
\par \tab Barnett, Tony and Karim, A.A., eds. Sudan: State, Capital, and Transformation (Croom, 1988).
\par \tab Department of Geography, Lerner Publications. Sudan in Pictures (Lerner, 1988).
\par \tab O'Neill, Norman and O'Brien, Jay. Economy and Class in Sudan (Gower, 1988).
\par \tab Roddis, Ingrid. Let's Visit Sudan (Chelsea House, 1988).\par \tab With an area of 63,251 square miles (163,820 square kilometers), Suriname is one of the smallest countries in South America. It is located on the continent's north-central coast and is bounded by the Atlantic Ocean on the north, French Guiana on the east, Brazil on the south, and Guyana on the west. The boundaries with French Guiana and Guyana are under dispute. The capital, Paramaribo (population, 1986 estimate, 77,500), is Suriname's largest city and a major seaport.
\par \tab A narrow coastal plain extends to the north. Much of the plain is swampy and requires drainage systems and dikes to protect coastal agricultural land. To the south of the coastal plain is a hilly and forested region, and south of that is an area that consists mostly of a large mountain range that covers four fifths of the country.
\par \tab Major rivers flow from south to north and empty into the Atlantic Ocean. The Courantyne and Maroni rivers form borders with Guyana and French Guiana, respectively. The country's largest lake, W.J. van Blommestein Lake, was created by damming the Suriname River at Afobaka. The Borkopondo-Afobaka dam is a large generator of hydroelectricity.
\par \tab The humid tropical climate has an average annual temperature of 81░ F (27░ C). Annual average rainfall is about 86 inches (218 centimeters). Wildlife, which includes tapirs, deers, jaguars, and pumas, is preserved in several nature reserves. Tropical rain forests cover a large portion of Suriname.
\par \tab The population is made up principally of East Indians, Creoles, Javanese, Chinese, black Africans, and American Indians. Dutch is the official language, and the principal religion is Christianity.
\par \tab Suriname is one of the world's largest producers of bauxite. Most of it is exported to the United States and The Netherlands, but some is processed locally into alumina and aluminum. Other mineral deposits include iron ore, manganese, nickel, gold, platinum, and uranium. Diamonds are collected from the riverbeds by private operators. Offshore deposits of petroleum and petroleum-bearing sands were discovered in 1981.
\par \tab Less than 1 percent of the land is available for cultivation. Rice, sugarcane, bananas, coconuts, oranges, and palm oil are the chief agricultural products. A modern fishing industry is located near Paramaribo. Frozen fish and fish products are exported to North America. Manufacturing includes food and timber processing and aluminum smelting. An industrial zone near Paramaribo produces clothing, foodstuffs, domestic utensils, and furniture. Bauxite accounts for nearly 70 percent of the total value of all exports. Imports include petroleum, machinery, and transportation equipment.
\par \tab Rivers and canals are used extensively for freight and passenger travel. There are about 100 miles (160 kilometers) of railway lines. Parts of a proposed highway connecting Suriname and Brazil were under construction in the late 1980s. An international airport is at Zanderij, near Paramaribo.
\par \tab Up until the late 20th century, Suriname enjoyed a peaceful history. In 1593 the area was explored by Spaniards. The Dutch began settlements in 1602 and called this land Dutch Guiana. In 1682 coffee and sugarcane plantations were planted, and black Africans were brought in as slaves to cultivate them. After slavery was abolished in 1863, servants and laborers were brought from India, Java, and China to work on the plantations. Suriname gained independence from The Netherlands as a parliamentary republic in 1975.
\par \tab In 1980 the civilian government was ousted by a national military council. In 1982 foreign aid was cut off because of human rights abuses, and in 1986 a guerrilla movement began fighting to overthrow the government. As a result, the military council agreed to hold elections in 1987. A three-party civilian opposition coalition was victorious in the elections, and in January 1988 businessman Ramsewak Shankar became president.
\par \tab Foreign aid was restored, but unrest and instability continued. Then, in a military coup on Dec. 24, 1990, Shankar was ousted and replaced by Johan Kraag. Following elections held on May 25, 1991, Ronald Venetiaan of the New Front for Democracy and Development was installed as president. By year's end stability had returned, and a truce was signed between the armed forces and rebel guerrilla factions. Population (1991 estimate), 417,000.\par \tab Located in southeastern Africa, the kingdom of Swaziland is one of the smallest countries on that continent. The landlocked nation is surrounded by South Africa, except for its eastern border with Mozambique. Oval in shape, it covers an area of 6,704 square miles (17,363 square kilometers). The administrative capital and largest city is Mbabane (population, 1986 estimate, 38,290), and the royal and legislative capital is Lobamba.
\par \tab Most of the country is a veld, a land covered with grasses and scattered shrubs and bushes. The Highveld in the west covers about 30 percent of the total area and includes the country's highest point, Emlembe peak, at 6,100 feet (1,860 meters). Further east is the Middle Veld, which covers nearly 30 percent of the area. With some of the best soil, the Middle Veld is the most densely populated region. The Lowveld, or Bushveld, is farther east and also covers about 33 percent of the area. The Lubombo Escarpment in the extreme east is the smallest physical region, covering about 9 percent of the country's total area. The Lomati, Usutu, Mkhondvo, Umbeluzi, and Komati are the major rivers, and each has great hydroelectric potential. Large areas in the Highveld have been planted with pine and eucalyptus trees; these are the largest planted forests in Africa.
\par \tab Cattle raising is common, and cattle are the traditional symbol of wealth and prosperity. Large estates, chiefly controlled by Europeans, produce sugarcane, citrus fruits, and lumber. Corn, millet, and beans are the major subsistence crops, and cotton, sugarcane, tobacco, and peanuts are the chief cash crops. The country's mineral deposits include asbestos, iron ore, and coal. Diamond mining has been a major industry since the mid-1980s. Manufacturing is primarily based at the Matsapa industrial estate in the north. A second industrial estate at Nhlangano in the south was developed in the late 1980s. The chief manufactured products include wood pulp, textiles, cement, shoes, and machinery.
\par \tab More than three fourths of the people are Christians, and the remainder follow traditional beliefs. English and Swazi are the official languages. The dominant ethnic group is the Swazi. The Swazi, a Bantu people, have a complex system of land ownership. Tribal chiefs allocate the available land to families for agricultural purposes. Their tribal ties are strong, and strict allegiance to their ngwenyama--meaning the "lion," or paramount chief--is common. Music and dance play a significant role in Swazi social life. Education is free at all levels but is not compulsory. About half of the population is literate. Medical services are generally better than those in many other African countries.
\par \tab Swaziland's major railway line runs from the iron-ore deposits of Ngwenya to Goba, Mozambique, where it connects with another line and continues to the Indian Ocean port of Maputo. An international airport is in Matsapa. With increased transportation facilities, tourism developed rapidly.
\par \tab Swaziland belongs to a customs union with South Africa, Botswana, and Lesotho. Most of its trade must pass through South Africa or Mozambique. Chief exports are asbestos, iron ore, citrus fruits, butter, timber, and tin. Major imports are machinery and transportation equipment, petroleum, and chemicals.
\par \tab The Swazi, originally from deep southeastern Africa, moved to their present home in the 19th century. Attracted by the fertile soil, Europeans established farms beginning in the 1870s. The kingdom of Swaziland was placed under British protection in 1967, and full independence was achieved as a constitutional monarchy the next year.
\par \tab In 1982 King Sobhuza II, then the world's longest-reigning monarch (1921-82), died at the age of 83. After a power struggle his son, Prince Makhosetive, was crowned King Mswati III on April 25, 1986. Swaziland is a constitutional monarchy with the king as head of state and a prime minister as head of the government. Population (1993 estimate), 814,000.\par \tab The largest of the Scandinavian countries, Sweden has played a major historical role in Northern Europe. It is a neutral country with a well-developed economy and a high standard of living. Its social-welfare system protects citizens against financial problems and has been a model for those of other European countries.
\par {\b Land and Climate}
\par \tab Sweden has a total area of 173,732 square miles (449,964 square kilometers). It measures 932 miles (1,500 kilometers) from north to south and 250 miles (400 kilometers) from west to east. About 15 percent of the country lies north of the Arctic Circle. Sweden is bounded on the west by Norway and on the northeast by Finland. On the east it is bounded by the Gulf of Bothnia and on the southeast and south by the Baltic Sea. In the southwest Sweden is separated from Denmark by the Kattegat and the ╓resund, which connect the Baltic and North seas. Sweden's coastline is 4,724 miles (7,602 kilometers) in length.
\par \tab Most of Sweden is part of the Baltic Shield, a region of ancient rocks. Much of the shield in Sweden consists of mountains. The highest mountains form a long ridge that separates Sweden from Norway. The highest peaks are in the north, where Mount Kebnekaise reaches 6,946 feet (2,117 meters) in height. The mountain region slopes eastward to a narrow plain that fringes the Gulf of Bothnia.
\par \tab The southern third of the country is much flatter. A lowland zone extends across the country and broadens around Stockholm to form Sweden's largest area of plains. South of the lowland zone there is a region of hills that in places reach some 900 feet (275 meters). In the extreme south, an area of lowland known as Skσne is called "the granary of Sweden" because its climate favors agriculture, especially grain production. A coastal plain links Skσne with the Stockholm region. A few miles from this coast lies the long, flat island of ╓land, with the larger island of Gotland to the northeast.
\par \tab There are a number of lakes, which occupy about 8 percent of the area of the country. The largest are Lakes VΣnern, VΣttern, and MΣlaren--all located in the southern lowland belt. In the north long lakes occupy many of the mountain valleys.
\par \tab The longest river in Sweden is the Torne with its tributary the Muonio. Together they flow for 354 miles (570 kilometers) along the border with Finland. Other major rivers are the Dal and the Klar. The Klar enters Lake VΣnern and emerges as the G÷ta River, which flows into the Kattegat. Most other rivers empty into the Gulf of Bothnia.
\par \tab Sweden has few energy resources. There is no coal or petroleum, and large quantities of these fossil fuels must be imported. The major sources of energy are hydroelectric and nuclear power. Sweden ranks second in Europe, after Norway, in terms of waterpower resources, which are mainly found in Sweden's northern regions. A number of dams and power stations on the northern rivers produce electric power, which is transmitted to the south by long-distance cables. About 50 percent of Sweden's electric power comes from water, about 46 percent from nuclear power plants, and the rest from thermal plants. The country's 12 nuclear power plants are scheduled to be replaced by natural gas plants by 2010.
\par \tab Sweden has some of the richest iron-ore deposits in the world. Most deposits are located near Kiruna, GΣllivare, and Svappavaara--all north of the Arctic Circle. Iron ore is exported through the port of Luleσ and the Norwegian port of Narvik. Some iron ore is also found in southern Sweden. Copper, lead, and zinc deposits are located in northern Sweden, while uranium is found in the south.
\par \tab The climate of Sweden is diverse due to the great length of the country from north to south and is affected by the country's location between the maritime influences of the Atlantic Ocean and the continental influences from the east. Stockholm has an average July temperature of 64░ F (18░ C) and a January temperature of 27░ F (-3░ C). Annual average precipitation is 25 inches (64 centimeters). The average January temperature at Haparanda in northern Sweden is 13░ F (-11░ C), while at Malm÷ in the south it is 33░ F (0.5░ C).
\par {\b Plants and Animals}
\par \tab About 57 percent of the country is covered by coniferous trees, mainly spruce and pine. The southern part of the country has some deciduous trees, such as beech, oak, elm, ash, and maple. In the higher mountain areas there are forests of birch, with some aspen and mountain ash. Above the timberline there is a moorland vegetation of mosses and lichens.
\par \tab The most common animals are hares, weasels, shrews, squirrels, foxes, ermines, and elks. In some areas bears are found. Wolves, lynxes, and wolverines occur only in the northern forests. Some deer, otters, badgers, and pine martens are also found. Lemmings live in the northern mountains.
\par \tab The large variety of birds includes snipes, plovers, wagtails, partridges, and ptarmigans, with some grouse and woodcocks. Seabirds--such as gulls, terns, and eider ducks--are common. Rivers and lakes have salmon, trout, perch, and pike. On the west coast cod, herrings, mackerel, and flatfish are found, while the Baltic Sea contains a small herring called str÷mming, as well as gray seals and porpoises. Crayfish are found in inland waters in southern Sweden and are considered a great delicacy. In the summer the northern region of Sweden produces myriads of stinging insects such as mosquitoes and gadflies.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab The population is about 8.7 million, of which 91 percent are Swedes. In the north there is a native population of some 15,000 Lapps. The largest group of foreign origin are Finns, who number about 300,000. There are immigrant workers from other countries, including some Yugoslavs, Turks, and Greeks. Most of the Swedish population are Protestants, and 95 percent of the population are Lutherans belonging to the Church of Sweden. The majority of Swedes belong to the Nordic racial group and are, on the average, tall with long faces, blond hair, and blue eyes. The Swedish language belongs to the Scandinavian group of Germanic languages and shares many features in common with Norwegian and Danish. About 88 percent of the population live in urban settlements. The largest city is the capital, Stockholm, which, including its suburbs, has a population of about 1.4 million inhabitants. Other major cities are G÷teborg, Malm÷, and Uppsala. Most of the Swedish population, both urban and rural, are concentrated in the south of the country.
\par {\b Culture}
\par \tab Swedish literature dates back to the 13th and 14th centuries, when books of law appeared. In 1541 a Bible translation by Olaus Petri marked the beginning of the modern Swedish language. King Gustav III encouraged the writing of literature by founding the Swedish Academy in 1786. One of Sweden's greatest poets, Carl Michael Bellmann, wrote songs set to his own music that are still popular.
\par \tab In the 19th century such poets as Erik Geijer and Esaias TegnΘr were inspired by Sweden's past. Other poets, such as Viktor Rydberg and Carl Snoilsky, followed a realist trend in literature.
\par \tab The greatest of Sweden's literary figures, August Strindberg, wrote novels and plays that had a great influence on the development of European literature. Other authors who wrote at the beginning of the 20th century were Gustaf af Geijerstam, Albert Engstr÷m, and Selma Lagerl÷f, a Nobel prizewinner in 1909. Swedish poets include Gustaf Fr÷ding and Verner von Heidenstam, who won a Nobel prize in 1916.
\par \tab The most notable modern Swedish writers--PΣr Lagerkvist, poet Harry Martinson, and novelist Eyvind Johnson{mdash}were all Nobel laureates. The Nobel prizes were instituted by the Swedish scientist Alfred Nobel, the inventor of dynamite.
\par \tab The most famous Swedish artist was Anders Zorn, who produced remarkable paintings and etchings. The sculptor Carl Milles designed fountains and monuments both in Sweden and the United States. He lived for 20 years in Michigan and became a United States citizen.
\par \tab Sweden's contribution to music lies mainly in the country's singers. Famous Swedish singers include Jenny Lind, Birgit Nilsson, and Jussi Bj÷rling.
\par \tab Sweden has a rich heritage of folk culture, which developed when the population consisted mainly of farmers. Local folk costumes, art, and music have largely vanished from everyday Swedish life but are maintained for special occasions. They can also be found at the numerous open-air folk museums, where old farmhouses and other aspects of former peasant life are on display. The largest Swedish open-air museum is at Skansen in Stockholm.
\par \tab There are some special holidays celebrated by the Swedes. On December 13 young girls wear headdresses of green wreaths decorated with lighted candles and serve coffee and special buns to older family members. This day is known as St. Lucia Day, and there are parades and celebrations in most communities. Midsummer Day (June 24), the longest day of the year, is celebrated with dances and songs. At this time of the year, in most of Sweden, it is light until late at night.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab The Swedish economy plays a more significant role in the world than the size of the country's population would suggest. In particular, the nation's industries manufacture a large number of products that are exported around the world. Sweden's economic development was greatly helped by the fact that the country was not involved in any wars for more than a century and a half.
\par \tab The three basic resources on which industry is based are forests, iron ore, and hydroelectric power. Most industry is specialized. High-quality steel is produced in a number of localities in the central region, including BorlΣnge, Sandviken, Hagfors, and Fagersta. Other iron and steel plants are located at the ports of Oxel÷sund and Luleσ. Much of the country's steel goes to the engineering industries, which produce automobiles, ball bearings, and various kinds of equipment and tools. The Volvo plant at G÷teborg and the Saab plant at TrollhΣttan produce automobiles mainly for export. Buses and trucks are built by Saab-Scania at S÷dertΣlje. Sweden produces military aircraft mainly for its own air force. The major manufacturer is Saab. Volvo makes jet engines.
\par \tab Sweden is home to several other very large corporations. The SKF Company is a large manufacturer of ball bearings, cutting tools, and machine components. ASEA, maker of electrical and electronic equipment, merged with BBC Brown Boveri of Switzerland in 1988 to become one of the world's foremost conglomerates under the name ABB ASEA Brown Boveri. Other firms that market their products worldwide include the AGA Group, Electrolux, IKEA, and Swedish Match. Other products made in Sweden are hydro-turbines, machine tools, office machinery, furniture, telephone equipment, and glass products.
\par \tab The forestry industry accounts for about one fifth of the value of Swedish exports. Sawed timber, wood pulp, paper, and furniture are the main products.
\par \tab Swedish agriculture accounts for about 3.5 percent of the labor force. Most farms are owned by families and are mainly medium to small in size. Major crops are barley, oats, wheat, sugar beets, potatoes, and hay. Pigs and cattle are the main livestock. In the north the Lapps tend large herds of reindeer. Sweden imports grain and other foodstuffs.
\par \tab The length of the country's railroad network is 7,450 miles (12,000 kilometers), of which 74 percent is electrified. The highway network is about 124,000 miles (200,000 kilometers) in length. Sweden has a large number of passenger automobiles (more than 3.6 million) compared with the size of the population. There are four-lane highways between Stockholm and Uppsala and, for much of the route, between Stockholm and G÷teborg.
\par \tab Sea links are important, and the Baltic and North seas are crossed by several passenger ferry routes. Sweden has a sizable merchant fleet. The largest port is G÷teborg, which handles about one fifth of Sweden's sea trade. It has direct access to the North Sea through the Kattegat and Skagerrak. The other major port is Stockholm.
\par \tab Sweden, along with Denmark and Norway, operates the Scandinavian Airlines System (SAS), which has a wide international network. Internal flights are provided by Linjeflyg.
\par \tab Telephone and telegraph services are operated by the state. Television and radio programs are broadcast by a noncommercial semigovernmental corporation.
\par \tab Education is free and compulsory for children between the ages of 7 and 16. Upper secondary schools provide further education. Higher education is offered by 33 institutions, including technical, medical, dental, business, education, and other types of schools. There are universities in Uppsala (founded in 1477), Lund, Stockholm, G÷teborg, Umeσ, and Link÷ping. There are technical universities in Stockholm, G÷teborg, and Luleσ.
\par {\b Government}
\par \tab Under the constitution of 1975 Sweden is a constitutional monarchy. Carl XVI Gustaf came to the throne in 1973. His role is largely ceremonial, and the sole political power rests with the Riksdag (parliament). The Riksdag has 349 members elected for three-year terms. The prime minister is the political chief executive and has a cabinet of ministers who make collective decisions on political and other matters. The largest political party is the Social Democratic party. Other parties are the Moderate, Center, People's, Left, Christian Democratic, New Democracy, and Green parties.
\par \tab The Social Democratic party dominated politics for most of the 20th century. Under it the welfare-state system developed, resulting in a wide variety of social-security benefits that provide the average citizen with protection against financial problems of unemployment, sickness, and old age. These services are very expensive to maintain and are paid for by one of the highest tax rates in the world. There has been public resistance to more taxation, and as a result the government has attempted to cut costs and reduce some services.
\par {\b History}
\par \tab Swedish history begins with the activities of the Vikings in the 9th century. The Vikings established a trading center at Birka near modern Stockholm. They followed river routes from the Baltic Sea to the interior of Russia, where they established strongholds. The Swedish Vikings also reached Constantinople and the Caspian Sea.
\par \tab Christianity spread slowly in Sweden after the baptism of King Olof Sk÷tkonung at the end of the 10th century. Royal power was weak, and the country was divided into a number of provinces that had their own laws. As Sweden gradually became more unified, Uppsala emerged as the first capital. About 1250 the city of Stockholm was founded. Being close to the sea, it grew rapidly as a port and commercial center, and by the 15th century it had become the capital of the country.
\par \tab The founder of Stockholm was probably Birger Jarl, who produced the first Swedish national laws in the mid-13th century. He also gave German merchants privileges for trade with Sweden. By the following century Sweden's trade was almost entirely controlled by the German Hanseatic League, and the richest and most powerful citizens were German traders.
\par \tab The Middle Ages were marked by internal struggles for supremacy between the kings, their relatives, and the nobles. In 1397 King Erik of Pomerania was elected king of Sweden, Denmark, and Norway. An attempt to consolidate the three countries into a single kingdom was made in a proposal for the Kalmar Union, which was never ratified. In 1439 Erik was deposed in Sweden and Denmark and in 1442 in Norway. There followed a period of unrest and revolts. A nobleman, Sten Sture the Elder, became state administrator in 1471 and later became regent. He died in 1503 and was later replaced by Sten Sture the Younger, who died after a battle with the Danes in 1520. That year King Christian II of Denmark landed in Sweden and put many of Sture's supporters to death in the Stockholm Bloodbath. The Swedes expelled the Danes, and in 1523 King Gustav I Vasa came to the throne as the ruler of an independent Sweden. By 1537 he had broken the trade monopoly of the Hanseatic League and laid the foundations for the growth of Sweden as a strong state. At this time the Reformation reached Sweden, and the Lutheran form of Protestantism eventually became the national religion.
\par \tab In the 17th century Sweden emerged as a great power in the Baltic region. Finland was already under Swedish control, and Estonia had been annexed in 1595. King Gustavus Adolphus played the major role in Sweden's rise to power. By seizing more eastern Baltic territories from Russia and Poland, he turned the Baltic into a Swedish sea. He joined the German Protestants in their wars against the Austrian Catholics, but was killed at Lⁿtzen in 1632. Sweden gained territory in Pomerania on the southern coast of the Baltic, and in 1660 the Swedes won from Denmark the islands of ╓sel and Gotland and other Danish territories in southern Sweden.
\par \tab Sweden's decline as a great power began under the reign of Charles XII. After military successes against the Danes, Poles, and Russians, Charles attempted an invasion of Russia and was defeated at Poltava in 1709. After his death Sweden's power gradually decreased. The rising power of Russia and continued opposition from Denmark created serious problems. A war between Sweden and Russia took place between 1788 and 1790, and in 1808 Russia annexed Finland.
\par \tab In 1810 one of Napoleon's generals, Jean Bernadotte, was invited to become crown prince. He became king in 1818 as Charles XIV John. Napoleon approved the union of Sweden and Norway, which took place despite Norwegian opposition, in 1815. This union was dissolved in 1905.
\par \tab Sweden remained neutral in World War I but suffered from the European economic crisis that followed. The Social Democrats, in power from 1932 to 1976, expanded the modern welfare state. Sweden was again neutral in World War II. It permitted German troops to cross Swedish territory in order to reach Norway. Sweden provided shelter, however, for many refugees of German oppression.
\par \tab The postwar period was marked by the further development of the Swedish economy. Sweden became one of the most prosperous countries in Europe, but at the price of one of the highest rates of taxation in the world. The Social Democrat leader Olof Palme was prime minister from 1969 until 1976. After a short period of rule by a center-right coalition government, Palme returned to power in 1982. In 1986 he was assassinated on a Stockholm street. A suspect was found guilty in 1989, but an appeals court overturned the conviction because of insufficient evidence. In 1991 the Moderate party leader was named prime minister, only the second time in sixty years that Sweden had been governed under a nonsocialist leader. The Social Democrats returned to power after winning a general election in September 1994.
\par \tab Despite its policy of neutrality and its image as a peaceful country, Sweden keeps its armed forces well supplied with arms and equipment. In 1981, following a number of incidents in which unidentified submarines were detected within Swedish territorial waters, a Soviet submarine armed with nuclear weapons went aground near the naval base of Karlskrona. The submarine was returned to the Soviets after a strong protest by the Swedish government.
\par \tab Sweden joined the European Union (EU) on Jan. 1, 1995, after a referendum on membership was approved by voters in November 1994. Sweden is also a member of the United Nations.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by Ian M. Matley, Professor of Geography, Michigan State University, East Lansing.
\par \tab {\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR SWEDEN}
\par \tab Keeler, Stephen, and Fairclough, Chris. We Live in Sweden (Watts, 1984).
\par \tab Insight Guides. Sweden (Apa Publications, 1994).
\par \tab Moberg, Wilhelm. A History of the Swedish People, 2 vols. (Dorset, 1989).
\par \tab Mosey, Chris. Cruel Awakening: Sweden and the Killing of Olof Palme (St. Martin's, 1991).
\par \tab Nordstrom, Lars. Sweden (Great Arts Center, 1990).
\par \tab Scott, Franklin. Sweden: The Nation's History (Southern Illinois Univ. Press, 1988).\par \tab A key landlocked nation in Central Europe, Switzerland is bordered on the north by Germany, on the east by Austria and the tiny principality of Liechtenstein, on the south by Italy, and on the west by France. Its north-south maximum extent is about 140 miles (220 kilometers), while its east-west stretch is roughly 225 miles (360 kilometers), for a total area of less than 16,000 square miles (41,400 square kilometers).
\par \tab Switzerland is a major watershed that is drained to the North Sea by the Rhine River, to the western Mediterranean Sea by the Rh⌠ne, to the Adriatic Sea by way of the Ticino, and to the east by the Inn. The waters of this magnificent country are almost as famous as its snowcapped mountains. Among the better-known lakes are Geneva, Constance, NeuchΓtel, Lucerne, Zⁿrich, and Maggiore.
\par \tab Switzerland has fashioned unity and prosperity out of diverse linguistic groups and varied religions. It is one of the world's oldest stable democracies, an excellent example of a developed nation.
\par {\b Landform Regions}
\par \tab The Alps make up Switzerland's main terrain region, covering 60 percent of its land area. This complicated zone is formed by the Bernese, Pennine, Lepontine, and Rhaetian mountain systems. The Alps extend from France on the west to Germany and Austria on the north and east and into Italy on the south. A notable peak is the Dufourspitze of Monte Rosa, a mountain with several summits, on the Switzerland-Italy border at 15,203 feet (4,634 meters), Switzerland's highest point. The region's chief mountain passes are the Simplon, Furka, and St. Gotthard. Two other famous peaks in the Alps are the Jungfrau near Interlaken and the Matterhorn near Zermatt.
\par \tab The Jura Mountains, covering 10 percent of Switzerland, are a lower and less rugged system of mountain ranges. They lie along the France-Switzerland border. Altitudes vary from 3,000 to 5,600 feet (900 to 1,700 meters), but the ridges have relatively few natural interruptions, and they are therefore a notable barrier to settlement and movement. Like the Alps, the area is sparsely populated.
\par \tab The Mittelland, with an average elevation of 1,500 feet (460 meters), occupies 30 percent of the country. It is a region of gently rolling hills and valleys formed by glaciers thousands of years ago. It extends from Lake Geneva on the southwest to Lake Constance on the northeast, where Germany, Austria, and Switzerland meet. Most of Switzerland's cities and economic activities are in the Mittelland.
\par {\b Climate}
\par \tab The temperatures of Switzerland are particularly varied. Subtropical palm trees are found along the lakes in the south on the border with Italy, while permanent snow and ice (glaciers) are found in the high Alps at heights above 10,000 feet (3,000 meters), depending on altitude and exposure. The climate of the Mittelland is transitional between that of continental Eastern Europe and the maritime West. Outside the mountain regions summers are relatively cool, with average monthly temperatures below 70░ F (21░ C), while January temperatures are well below the freezing level. Bern, the capital city, has an average annual precipitation of approximately 40 inches (102 centimeters). Local winds are also a climatic element. The cold wind called the bise is characteristic of Geneva, while the foehn, a warm wind, occurs in the valleys of the northern Alps.
\par {\b Vegetation}
\par \tab As the climate varies, so does the original vegetation. It is affected most by altitude. Deciduous and evergreen trees rise to the snow line. Above that level mountain meadows and tundra dominate the landscape. Forests are one of Switzerland's treasures.
\par {\b Natural Resources}
\par \tab Switzerland's mineral resources are limited. There are small iron and manganese deposits in the Jura but no known deposits of coal. A variety of materials is worthy of commercial exploitation. Among them are lime, salt, sand, gravel, clay, and marble.
\par \tab Switzerland's lack of mineral resources is largely counterbalanced by its greatest asset--water power--which is harnessed by huge dams that produce hydroelectric power for industry. There are also several thermal power plants that use imported fuels. Nuclear energy is destined to provide a significant share of Switzerland's electricity despite the growing criticism by environmentalists.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab Switzerland's annual population growth in the mid-1980s was 0.2 percent. This reflects a birthrate of less than 12 people per thousand and a death rate that averages nine people per thousand. The infant mortality rate is among the lowest in Europe, averaging six per thousand live births. Life expectancy is 72 years for men and 76 years for women.
\par \tab With a population of 6.6 million, the country's average density is only about 412 persons per square mile (159 per square kilometer) but it is more than 700 (270) in the Mittelland. As a result of rural-urban migration and natural increase, the country has become increasingly urbanized since World War II, though 42 percent of the population are still rural. Only a limited number of these rural dwellers are farmers. The four chief cities are Zⁿrich, Basel, Geneva, and the capital, Bern.
\par \tab Although there is no marked ethnic differentiation, there is considerable linguistic variety: 65 percent of the population speak German, 18 percent French, and 12 percent Italian. Fewer than 1 percent speak the ancient Romansh tongue. There is also a marked religious diversity. About 49 percent of the residents are Roman Catholics, and 48 percent claim Protestant affiliation. The foreign population of nearly 1 million is mainly composed of guest workers largely from Italy, France, and Spain. They are overwhelmingly Roman Catholics. The Jewish community is very small.
\par {\b Education}
\par \tab The country boasts universal literacy. This is tied to an excellent school system administered at the canton level. Education has been compulsory for children between the ages of 7 and 15 since 1874, and in many cantons an additional year is required. About a sixth of the students go on to higher secondary schools. There they receive a "maturity" certificate that qualifies them to attend a higher technical institute or a university. There are seven universities in Switzerland, with the oldest located at Basel. There are also two Federal Institutes of Technology that are equivalent to universities, a higher institute dedicated to the social sciences, and other specialized schools. The high quality of Swiss elementary and secondary education is attributed in part to the teachings of Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, an educational reformer of the late 18th and early 19th centuries. There is a clear commitment on the part of the Swiss to devote a major share of their resources to all branches of education.
\par {\b Social Welfare}
\par \tab Switzerland's social welfare system is comprehensive and contains provisions for free subsidized health care, including maternity benefits. The state also provides old-age pensions and long-term nursing care. The cantons share with the federal government and the trade unions the costs of the welfare system.
\par {\b Cultural Life}
\par \tab Although Switzerland was by no means a leader in the development of European culture, it can be proud of its contributions to the arts and sciences. Many Swiss artists have chosen to live abroad, particularly among their linguistic counterparts in neighboring France and Germany. Yet Switzerland has always been a haven for foreign artists and scholars in times of war and unrest. The mid-1840s was such a period, and the 1930s and 1940s brought artists like the German Thomas Mann and the Italian Ignazio Silone.
\par \tab In the 20th century Le Corbusier created an international school of architecture that for a time dominated building trends in Europe, the United States, and Latin America. Modern Swiss artists of international reputation include the sculptor Alberto Giacometti and the painter Paul Klee. The dramatists Friedrich Dⁿrrenmatt and Max Frisch are world renowned, and their plays have been translated into many foreign languages. Among famous writers of Swiss birth were the philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau and the historian Jakob Burckhardt, while popular authors Johanna Spyri wrote 'Heidi' and Johann Wyss, 'The Swiss Family Robinson'. Switzerland was also the home of the noted psychologist Carl Jung. Albert Einstein was educated and spent a portion of his adult life in Switzerland.
\par \tab Although the country has not been a leading music center, the 20th-century composers Arthur Honegger and Frank Martin received worldwide recognition. Igor Stravinsky spent most of the World War I years in Switzerland. Notable Swiss performers were the pianist Edwin Fischer and the conductor Ernest Ansermet, who founded l'Orchestre de la Suisse Romande in Geneva in 1918.
\par \tab The number of Swiss scientists who have been awarded the Nobel prize is remarkable considering the small population. The Federal Institutes of Technology have also produced many award-winning scholars.
\par {\b Communications}
\par \tab Switzerland publishes a number of quality newspapers and magazines. Among the newspapers is the noted Neue Zⁿrcher Zeitung. This paper and several of its competitors are international in focus and rank among the world's best. Swiss television and radio are controlled by the state, and programs are broadcast for each of the three major language groups. There are also programs in Romansh and several other languages. Paid advertising is forbidden on radio; on television it is limited to about 20 minutes each day.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab Switzerland has a highly developed market-oriented economy based on international trade and banking as well as manufacturing. Industries are heavily dependent on foreign guest workers, who account for a large segment of the employed labor force. Unemployment levels run less than 4 percent. The gross national product (GNP) per capita in the mid-1990s was well over 33,000 dollars, higher than in any other industrial country.
\par \tab Switzerland's rugged terrain limits the arable land to about a tenth of the total area, and agriculture accounts for only 3 percent of the GNP and 5 percent of the labor force. Like that of the European Union, Swiss agriculture is protected and highly subsidized, but it supplies only half of the nation's grain needs. The leading agricultural activity is cattle grazing. Pastures support an estimated 2 million dairy cattle and an equivalent number of beef cattle. There is considerable regional diversity in crops, ranging from the irrigated horticulture of the southwest to the modified Mediterranean crops of Ticino Canton in the south. The leading crops are wheat, barley, potatoes, sugar beets, and hardy fruits. The production of wine, basically for domestic consumption, meets only a fraction of Swiss demands. Food industries, based on the country's milk production, focus on cheese (Emmentaler and GruyΦre) and chocolate products.
\par \tab Despite Switzerland's limited supply of raw materials, its economy has prospered. This prosperity can be attributed to abundant hydroelectric power, a central position on international trade routes, and a skilled labor force. Switzerland's industries are predominantly high value-added and labor- and capital-intensive enterprises.
\par \tab The nation's transformation into an industrial state began during the late 19th century. Major exports now consist of machinery, watches, pharmaceutical products, and chemicals. The nature of industrial activities necessitates imports of raw and semifinished materials by costly overland routes. Only the notable quality of its manufactured goods permits Switzerland to remain competitive. Manufacturing industries account for roughly 60 percent of the GNP. Leading manufacturing sectors include the production of turbines, generators, watches, precision instruments, textiles, chemicals, and foodstuffs.
\par \tab The longtime dominance of the Swiss watch industry has been severely challenged by Asian competitors--particularly Taiwan and Japan. The Swiss have moved to combat the threat with a merger of several companies to reduce costs, with research and development to produce higher-quality products, and with the mass production of inexpensive plastic watches to compete in that market. The innovations have kept the watch industry competitive.
\par \tab Heavy industry has markedly declined, with a corresponding rise in services and trade. Hi-tech and communications industries are in the forefront of Swiss economic development. Zⁿrich and Basel are the chief manufacturing centers, but industrial plants are scattered throughout the Mittelland--even within the rural countryside. Switzerland's noted banking system and its reputation for financial secrecy have made it a key center of international finance. Foreign investors are drawn to Swiss banks by the nation's economic stability, the solid Swiss franc, and the long experience of Swiss bankers. Many domestic and foreign fortunes are invested in Swiss banks.
\par {\b Transportation}
\par \tab For centuries land transportation routes have traversed the nation because it is an international crossroads. Because of the terrain, Swiss routes have necessitated the building of hundreds of bridges and tunnels--particularly through the Alps. Some of the tunnels are among the longest in Europe. Five international railways pass through Switzerland. All of the key rail lines are double-tracked, and since the 1960s the entire system has been electrified. The Swiss Federal Railways are complemented by the Federal Postal System, which is responsible for bus transportation as well as the mails. Highways and highway tunnels are among the best in the world, connecting all key urban centers and roads that lead to Switzerland's neighbors. Basel, the country's chief port on the Rhine, handles millions of tons of goods, which are typically bulk imports that feed Swiss industries. There are three international airports--near Basel, Geneva, and Zⁿrich--served by the national airline, Swissair, and more than 30 foreign carriers.
\par {\b Tourism}
\par \tab Switzerland is one of the world's leading tourist centers. Its visitors bring in huge revenues to the economy. Tourism is a year-round industry, with a seasonal shift in activities from winter to summer. Winter sports include skiing, sledding, tobogganing, and ice skating. The leading winter resorts are St-Moritz, Gstaad, and Interlaken. All three are world-renowned resorts. Summers bring golf, boating, swimming, hiking, and climbing. Switzerland has been called a country of hotel keepers, and many people are employed in hotels, inns, spas, and restaurants. The Swiss are world famous for their hospitality and the quality of their cuisine.
\par {\b Government and History}
\par \tab Switzerland is a decentralized federal republic composed of 20 cantons and six half cantons. These in turn are divided into communes. Legislative power is the responsibility of the dual-chamber Federal Assembly. One chamber consists of 200 representatives chosen by the electorate for four-year terms. The other, which has 46 representatives, is selected directly by the cantons. Each sends two representatives, but the mode of their election and the terms of their service depend on the laws of the individual cantons. Executive power is in the hands of the Federal Council, which is chosen by the assembly. The council consists of seven members elected for four-year terms, and they act as a cabinet. One of the members of the council is chosen as president but serves for only one year. The president's powers are therefore extremely limited. Women did not attain suffrage until 1971. While men in one of the half cantons continued to reject proposals to allow women the right to vote on local matters, the nation's high court in 1990 ordered them to grant women the right.
\par \tab Settlements of hunters, fishermen, gatherers, and agriculturists occupied Switzerland before the Christian era. The Neolithic dwellers, of whom there are archaeological records, made their homes around Switzerland's lakes.
\par \tab A people known as the Helvetians apparently lived in western Switzerland, while the ancient Rhaetians controlled the east. The Romans conquered both territories in the 1st century BC and remained in firm control for four centuries, using garrisons stationed in strategic mountain passes. From the 3rd through the 6th century, the region was settled by a host of Germanic tribes--one succeeding another. A century later missionaries converted the population to Christianity.
\par \tab Much of present-day Switzerland became part of the Holy Roman Empire during the 11th century. Between the 13th and the 15th century, various administrative units known as cantons formed a loose confederation, which gradually grew to today's borders.
\par \tab In the 16th century Switzerland was the focus of the Protestant Reformation, and the cantons split along religious lines. One of the greatest political and religious leaders of the Reformation was John Calvin. His success lay in his extraordinary ability to combine extreme political convictions with administrative talent. Calvin made much of Switzerland a tower of Protestant strength. Both civil and secular law were dominated by Calvin's preachings. His religious base was Geneva, but his ideas spread rapidly to Scotland, the Netherlands, and even to southern France. Another famous religious leader was Huldrych Zwingli, who preached in Zⁿrich and led the Protestants in an extended civil war with their Roman Catholic neighbors.
\par \tab Switzerland's secession from the Holy Roman Empire was recognized by the Treaty of Westphalia, which followed the Thirty Years' War early in the 17th century. The desire for independence ultimately overshadowed religious conflict, and the new state soon regained political stability. There was an intellectual flourishing of literature and philosophy in centers like Geneva, Basel, Bern, and Zⁿrich. During the Napoleonic era that followed, Switzerland was occupied by the French, who imposed their institutions on the country. This all ended with the defeat of the French and the convening of the Congress of Vienna in 1815, which guaranteed Swiss neutrality for the foreseeable future. The desire for independence may have led ultimately to the Swiss focus on defense, which even today consumes significant expenditures of human and monetary resources.
\par \tab In the century that followed, the Swiss Confederation experienced growing prosperity. Of significance was the textile industry--wool, cotton, linen, and silk goods--which flourished in Zⁿrich and Basel. The watch industry also had its beginnings at this time.
\par \tab Switzerland remained neutral through the Franco-Prussian War and the two world wars. The country thus gained the respect of the world as a peaceful and tolerant nation. It has welcomed refugees from war and persecution, and its people have led world humanitarian and peace efforts. Originally the site of the League of Nations, Switzerland is currently one of several United Nations headquarters, though it is not a member.
\par \tab Switzerland has often been the site of prestigious international conferences. While it refuses to join the European Union or the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), Switzerland has joined the European Free Trade Association (EFTA), the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), and the Council of Europe.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by Allan Rodgers, Professor of Geography, Pennsylvania State University, University Park.
\par \tab {\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR SWITZERLAND}
\par \tab Hilton, L.M., ed. Switzerland: Its People and Culture (National Textbook Co., 1992).
\par \tab Robertson, Ian. Switzerland, 5th rev. ed. (Black, 1992).\par \tab The Syrian Arab Republic is located in the Middle East at the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea. It is bordered on the north by Turkey, on the east and southeast by Iraq, on the south and southwest by Jordan, on the southwest by Israel, and on the west by Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea. Syria is at the heart of a region that has experienced intense political conflict since World War II. Its strategic location and considerable military power give it a political significance within the Middle East that contrasts with its small size of 71,498 square miles (185,179 square kilometers) and economic potential. Syria has been deeply involved in many of the region's political problems.
\par \tab {\b Land and climate.}
\par \tab Syria's terrain, climate, and vegetation are diverse. Mountains dominate the western and southwestern margins and separate the narrow coastal plain from the interior. The Anti-Lebanon Mountains, the highest range, straddle the boundary with Lebanon and are high enough to receive heavy snow in winter. Most of the remainder of Syria to the east of these mountains is a plateau.
\par \tab The coastal plain experiences warm, humid summers and mild, wet winters and receives enough rain for crops to be grown without irrigation. The interior, by contrast, has cold winters, especially in the north, and extremely hot summers, particularly in the east. Much of the interior is desert or semidesert. Because so much of Syria is dry, no large rivers originate within the country. The two major rivers, the Euphrates and Orontes, have headwaters in Turkey and Lebanon. Both are crucial for irrigation. A large dam was constructed on the Euphrates in 1973 to open new areas for farming as well as to generate electricity. Access to water governs where people live. Most of Syria's almost 14 million people (1994 estimate) live on the coastal plain between the ports of Latakia and Tartus and in a north-south axis between Damascus, the capital, and Aleppo, Syria's second largest city. Few Syrians live outside the country's more humid western and northern margins.
\par \tab {\b People.}
\par \tab Syria's rate of population growth, almost 4 percent annually, is among the highest in the world, and the population will probably double every 20 years. The cities, particularly Damascus, are growing even more quickly because of migration from the countryside. Because of the high birthrate, almost half of all Syrians are under the age of 15. Syrians are well educated by Middle Eastern standards, and great strides have been made in reducing illiteracy, especially in urban areas and among males.
\par \tab Almost all Syrians are Arabs. Arabic is the first language of 85 to 90 percent of the population. The largest non-Arab group is the Kurds (6 percent).
\par \tab About 90 percent of Syrians are Muslims, but they belong to several sects. Sunnite Muslims make up some 75 percent of the population. Approximately 15 percent of Syrians belong to three splinter Shi'ite Muslim sects: the ' Alawites (12 percent), Druzes (3 percent), and Isma'ilis (less than 1 percent). The 'Alawites have played a key (and controversial) role in Syria's political life since 1963, despite their minority status, because of their overrepresentation in the military and the Bath party, which rules the country. Many prominent members of the political elite are 'Alawites.
\par \tab The non-Muslim population is largely Christian and is concentrated in Damascus and Aleppo. Syria is also the home of 300,000 refugees, most of them Palestinians.
\par \tab {\b Economy.}
\par \tab Syria's economy has undergone a profound transformation since the 1960s. Agriculture is still a leading sector of the economy and a main source of employment, though its share of gross domestic product has declined relatively as Syria has industrialized. Less than one third of the country is cultivated because of aridity and poor soils. The most common crops are wheat and barley. Extreme fluctuations in grain production from year to year because of rainfall variability have traditionally caused much hardship for the rural population. Cotton is the chief cash crop and was Syria's leading export until the mid-1970s. Other leading crops include vegetables, citrus fruits, olives, tobacco, and sugar beets. Sheep and goats are grazed in many areas. In the driest environments nomadism is common, though this way of life is declining and is practiced by very few Syrians today.
\par \tab Many of Syria's industries are agrarian based--such as food processing and textiles. In the mid-1960s the government began a policy of rapid industrialization, especially in the areas of iron and steel and other heavy industries. Factories now turn out a wide range of products, including tractors and television sets. Rapid industrial growth has encouraged many Syrians to move to cities.
\par \tab Syria is not a major petroleum producer by Middle East standards. Nevertheless, petroleum accounts for some 40 percent of total exports, and a petrochemical industry has developed around the main refineries. A major oilfield was discovered in the Deir-ez-Zor region in the mid-1980s. Syria also has large phosphate deposits, which are used in its growing fertilizer industry. Syrian development has given a high priority to building a good transportation system, the absence of which hindered the country's economic growth in the past. Modern ports have been developed at Latakia and Tartus, with the result that Syria no longer needs to trade through Beirut in Lebanon. Major cities are now all linked by modern highways or by an extensive railway network.
\par \tab {\b History and government.}
\par \tab Syria has one of the world's longest recorded histories. Excavations at Ebla indicate there was a large state in the region in the 3rd millennium BC. Damascus boasts of being the world's oldest continuously settled city.
\par \tab Historically Syria was frequently invaded because of its strategic location at the crossroads of many civilizations. Its earliest rulers included the Egyptians, Hittites, Assyrians, Persians, and Greeks. The Romans included it in their empire in 64 BC. Subsequently it became part of Byzantium. The most significant and lasting conquest occurred in the 7th century AD, when Syria fell under Muslim Arab control. The country converted to Islam and was gradually influenced more and more by the Arab culture.
\par \tab From the mid-7th to the mid-8th century, Damascus was the capital of the great Muslim Arab Umayyad Empire. After that empire was overthrown Syria came under 'Abbasid control. The Seljuk Turks, Crusaders, Mamelukes, and Mongols also left their mark on Syria. From 1516 until World War I, Syria was part of the Ottoman Empire. Although Syria has been inhabited since antiquity, the modern state was not created until after World War I, when the French assumed control. Syria won full independence in 1946.
\par \tab Since independence Syria's history has been stormy. Frequent changes of government and military coups d'Θtat characterized the period between 1949 and 1963, during which Syria involved itself deeply in moves to bring about Arab unity in the region. Between 1958 and 1961 Syria merged with Egypt to form the United Arab Republic. Syria's instability stemmed in part from deep regional and ideological cleavages and in part from the disruptive effects of the conflict with Israel and from the Cold War between the superpowers.
\par \tab In 1963 a military coup d'Θtat brought the socialist, pan-Arab Ba'th party to power. The Ba'th regime redistributed wealth and undermined the power base of the traditional ruling class through land reform and nationalization measures. Disputes within the Ba'th regime produced political change. In 1966 a more radical wing of the Ba'th party under Salah Jadid took power. Its unpopularity, and the loss of the Golan Heights to Israel in the 1967 Arab-Israeli War, helped to bring Hafiz al-Assad to power in 1970. Assad, a moderate Ba'thist and pragmatist, tried initially to mend relations with Syria's Arab neighbors and to liberalize the economy. Syria's economy boomed in the early 1970s, partly because of the explosion of oil prices in the Arabian Peninsula. Assad's popularity also grew following the 1973 Arab-Israeli War, in which the Syrian armed forces performed creditably. Following a disengagement agreement with Israel, Syria recovered a small portion of the Golan Heights.
\par \tab The Assad regime's problems grew after the mid-1970s. Syria became deeply involved in the civil war in neighboring Lebanon in 1976. Israel, alarmed by the presence of many Palestinian Arabs and an extremely unstable political situation on Israel's northern border, invaded Lebanon in 1982; and Syria once again engaged in military skirmishes with Israel.
\par \tab Syria's involvement in Lebanon and its goal of achieving strategic parity with Israel have required enormous military expenditures. The defense budget accounts for approximately 30 percent of total government spending despite considerable assistance from other Arab countries.
\par \tab Discontent over the performance of the economy was accentuated by resentment among some Sunnites of the key role played by the 'Alawite minority in the regime. Muslim fundamentalist groups began a campaign of bombings and assassinations of leading 'Alawites in 1976. These attacks took the lives of several hundred Syrians and polarized the population along sectarian lines. The regime responded with harsh repression, further alienating some sectors. Large-scale disturbances broke out in Aleppo in 1980. In 1982 the army was called in to put down an insurrection in Hama. As many as 25,000 civilians are believed to have died in the fighting.
\par \tab Under Assad Syria has emerged as one of the Middle East's leading powers. Assad's powerful military machine relied on the Soviet Union for weapons and training. Syria supported Iran in its eight-year war with Iraq. By 1990, however, reliance on the Soviet Union had become impossible, as that nation drifted toward collapse. Thus, when Iraq invaded Kuwait in 1990, Syria was quick to denounce the action and to ally itself with the United States and its allies in liberating Kuwait. In 1991 Assad also agreed to join Middle East peace talks between Arab states and Israel. Syria was rewarded with new economic development loans from the European Community and other sources.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab Alasdair Drysdale
{\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR SYRIA}
\par \tab Devlin, J.F. Syria: Modern State in an Ancient Land (Westview, 1982).
\par \tab Nyrop, R.F., ed. Syria: A Country Study (American Univ. Press, 1979).
\par \tab Petran, Tabitha. Syria (Praeger, 1972).
\par \tab Rabinovich, Itamar. Syria Under the Ba'th 1963-66: The Army Party Symbiosis (Transaction Books, 1972).
\par \tab Van Dam, Nikolaos. The Struggle for Power in Syria: Sectarianism, Regionalism and Tribalism in Politics, 1961-1980, 2nd ed. (Croom Helm, 1981).\par \tab Since its final retreat during the last months of 1949, the government of the Republic of China, also known as Nationalist China, has been in exile on the island of Taiwan, formerly called Formosa. The Nationalist government fled from the mainland of China after the Chinese Communists defeated the Chinese Nationalists in a long civil war.
\par \tab Since then Taiwan has developed as an independent nation, though for many decades its government persisted in the claim that it was the sole legal government for all of China. The Communist government in Beijing made the same claim for itself. Taiwan's political position regarding this claim declined sharply after 1950, especially after Beijing was awarded membership in the United Nations in 1971 and Taiwan was expelled. Taiwan has made great economic progress and is now one of the wealthiest and most industrialized nations in Asia. It also has one of the highest population densities in the world.
\par {\b Land and Climate}
\par \tab Taiwan is situated in the South China Sea, about 100 miles (160 kilometers) off the southeast coast of mainland China. More than two thirds of the country consists of rugged mountains. Its location on the Tropic of Cancer gives the lowlands of the country a mostly subtropical climate, which provides a year-round growing season. This enables the nation's farmers to produce more than enough food to feed the people. The average annual rainfall of 102 inches (259 centimeters) is ample for agriculture and the production of hydroelectricity. Most of the lowlands lie along the west coast of the island, and that is where most of the people live.
\par \tab Much of Taiwan's natural wildlife has disappeared from the island because of the human overpopulation. Dense subtropical and temperate forests cover much of the mountainous interior, but they are increasingly threatened by the lumber industry and by farmers seeking to clear them for crops. The plains have little natural vegetation left. Nearly every square mile of land is divided into plots of farmland, with roads and railroads crisscrossing between the hundreds of villages, towns, and cities.
\par \tab The Taiwan government controls several islands around the main island. The most important of these are the Penghu Islands, or Pescadores, off the west coast. The government also controls the islands of Quemoy, or Jinmen, and Matsu, or Meizhou, which are directly off the coast of China's Fujian Province. These two islands are heavily fortified against possible Chinese Communist attack.
\par \tab Taiwan has few mineral resources. The island produces some coal and natural gas, but most raw materials for the production of energy and for industry must be imported from other countries. The shortage of petroleum is the most critical, and crude petroleum is the chief import.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab Taiwan's people reflect the complex history of the island. The earliest inhabitants were various aboriginal tribes that migrated to Taiwan from Southeast Asia several thousand years ago. These peoples practiced hunting and gathering and shifting cultivation. Today, about 250,000 aborigines live on the island, most of them in the mountainous interior.
\par \tab The rest of the people--those commonly referred to as Taiwanese--are mostly of Han Chinese cultural origin and are descendants of emigrants from the mainland provinces of Fujian and Guangdong. There are also about 2 million Chinese and their descendants, who fled from other parts of the mainland to Taiwan with the Nationalist government in 1949.
\par \tab The Taiwanese people can be further divided into two main groups. The largest group is made up of the Hokkien, also called the Fujianese or Fukienese. They came primarily from Fujian Province and speak a form of the Min dialect that is used there. The other major Taiwanese group consists of the Hakka, who migrated mainly from Guangdong Province and speak their own dialect.
\par \tab Several centuries of living on the isolated frontier island of Taiwan produced a unique culture and society among the people who settled there. A variety of religions and philosophies became widespread on the island, including Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism. The people also worshiped their own gods, derived from mythology or figures in Chinese history. Although a modern industrial society has been firmly established in Taiwan, hundreds of temples devoted to various gods and religions are scattered throughout the country.
\par \tab The Japanese occupation of Taiwan, from 1895 to 1945, influenced Taiwanese society. Some elderly people speak Japanese better than they do Mandarin Chinese, which was made the official language in 1945, when Japan returned Taiwan to China. Japanese influences are also evident in food, housing, and other elements of the culture.
\par \tab Another major foreign influence has been that of Western countries, especially the United States, since 1950. This Westernization can be seen most vividly in the largest cities, where Western cultural tastes are changing the way people live, particularly the generations born after 1949.
\par \tab Population growth is a serious problem on overcrowded Taiwan. The population has more than doubled since 1950, and there is concern that Taiwan will not be able to maintain its high standard of living if the birthrate does not decline.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab Since 1950 the base of Taiwan's economy has changed largely from agriculture to industry. Most of the people now live in cities and towns and work in industry or in service occupations. Only about 12 percent still work in agriculture, and farming accounts for a very small portion of the gross national product. This economic change has caused the standard of living to improve. Taiwan has the fourth highest per capita income in East Asia--after Japan, Singapore, and Hong Kong--and its average income is 20 times that of mainland China. The quality of life, particularly in the cities, is approaching that of Japan and other developed nations.
\par \tab Taiwan's economy improved rapidly after 1950. One reason for the improvement was United States economic and military assistance. However, the main reason was the government's decision to promote an export-oriented economy based on manufactured goods and relying on Taiwan's main resource--its abundant and well-educated labor force. Taiwan's industry specialized in such products as textiles, radios, television sets, tape recorders, appliances, toys, and many other consumer goods. These are still the mainstays of the economy, but they have been supplemented by some heavy industry, including the manufacture of automobiles, iron and steel, and refined petroleum products.
\par \tab The Taiwan government has been promoting the development of high-technology industry, such as the production of computers, calculators, and related products, in order to remain competitive in world markets. The main markets for Taiwan's products are the United States, the nations of the European Union, and Japan. Exports account for more than half of Taiwan's gross national product.
\par \tab Agriculture on the island, while declining in relative importance, has made major advances since 1950. At the end of the Japanese colonial era, Taiwanese farming was based mainly on rice and sugarcane. Today the agricultural base is greatly diversified. Although rice remains the single most important crop and the mainstay of the people's diet, many other crops have become significant for both the domestic market and for export. These include sugar, many kinds of vegetables, and a variety of fruits. In addition, livestock production has increased greatly. Taiwan is one of the largest pig producers in the world on a per capita basis. Fishing, including fish farming, is also a major activity. Seafood is a principal part of the people's diet.
\par \tab One of the farmers' chief problems is the shortage of farmland and the small size of the farms. In addition, the diet of the people has been changing, with decreased rice consumption and increased use of meat and wheat products. As a result, Taiwan's relative self-sufficiency in food has been slowly declining, with increased imports of certain key commodities, especially wheat, corn, soybeans, and cotton. The United States is the major supplier of these vital imports.
\par {\b Transportation, Communication, and Education}
\par \tab With the economic transformation of the island, there have been improvements in transportation as well. The north-south railroad has been expanded, double tracked, and electrified. Rail lines linking the isolated east coast with the west have nearly been built. A superhighway was built to link Taipei, the nation's capital and largest city, in the north with the major industrial city of Kaohsiung in the south. In addition, several east-west highways were built across the island's central mountains to improve access to that area. Three television networks and more than 80 radio stations serve the Taiwanese people.
\par \tab Improvements in education have been a major factor in Taiwan's economic success. The educational system is among the best in the world in terms of numbers served, levels of literacy, and the number of people who go to college.
\par {\b Government and International Relations}
\par \tab When the government of the Republic of China, under Gen. Chiang Kai-shek, fled to Taiwan in 1949, it brought much of the structure and many personnel of the Nationalist government from the Chinese mainland. The government structure established by the Chinese constitution of 1946 is still in effect in Taiwan.
\par \tab The government has five branches, of which the executive, legislative, and judicial divisions are patterned loosely after those of the United States government. The control and examination branches are derived from traditional Chinese government of the past. The people elect the members of the National Assembly, which chooses the president and vice-president and amends the constitution.
\par \tab A major political issue since 1950 has been the dominance of highest-level political and military affairs by officials who came from the Chinese mainland. These leaders were reluctant to give the native Taiwanese the right of significant participation in decision making. In addition, Taiwan was under martial law from 1949 to 1987, and many basic legal and human rights were suspended at will by the government. This authority permitted the government to suppress political dissent; it claimed such action was necessary to prevent Communist subversion. A less restrictive national security law was passed in 1987. Taiwan politics also began to change as leaders from the mainland died and Taiwanese politicians took their place in government.
\par \tab After Chiang Kai-shek died in 1975, his son, Chiang Ching-kuo, took over as president until his death in early 1988. His successor, Lee Teng-hui, was the first native Taiwanese to hold the office. He came to symbolize a new era of democratic freedoms in Taiwan, including opposition political parties, growing freedom of speech, and other human rights.
\par \tab Taiwan's international relations have also been undergoing dramatic change. In the 1950s most non-Communist nations recognized the government of the Republic of China as the legitimate government of all China. Gradually, however, most nations switched recognition to the Communist government in Beijing, especially after the ouster of the Republic of China from the United Nations and from most other international organizations.
\par \tab The United States switched recognition in early 1979. Yet the United States and many other countries greatly expanded their economic ties with Taiwan because of its emergence as one of the major industrialized nations and as an attractive center for foreign investment. Taiwan also began to soften its rigid stand against any dealings with the government in Beijing. Trade, tourism, and other linkages began to develop, and by the early 1990s there was a general outlook on the part of both governments that Taiwan would eventually rejoin China.
\par {\b History}
\par \tab Taiwan was one of the last frontier regions of China to be settled by the Chinese, and foreigners first made the island well known. Portuguese sailors passing it in the late 1500s thought the island was so beautiful that they called it Ilha Formosa (Beautiful Island). The name Formosa became popular for the island among foreigners, but it is no longer widely used. The Chinese eventually began to call the island Taiwan. The Dutch took control of the southwestern part in 1624 and were the dominant power in Taiwan until 1661. During their brief rule they introduced what were then modern farming methods and brought many Chinese settlers from the mainland.
\par \tab The Dutch were ousted from Taiwan by Cheng Ch'eng-kung, or Koxinga, a Chinese adventurer and supporter of the Ming Dynasty, which was collapsing on the mainland at the time. Koxinga's forces planned to use Taiwan as a base from which to attack the mainland and drive out the Manchus, who had just established the Ch'ing dynasty in Peking (Beijing).
\par \tab The Manchus took over Taiwan by 1683, however, and ruled Taiwan for the next two centuries as a remote and unimportant frontier prefecture of Fujian Province. Many Chinese settlers moved to Taiwan during this period. Foreign interest in Taiwan was revived in the mid-1800s because the natives often mistreated sailors who had been shipwrecked on the island. Both the French and Japanese sent expeditions to Taiwan. These actions prompted the Ch'ing government to try to exert greater control over Taiwan and to introduce reforms. But it was too late. When China and Japan went to war in 1895, China lost, and one of Japan's prizes was Taiwan.
\par \tab The next 50 years were decisive for Taiwan. The Japanese regarded the island as having two main purposes for them. One was as a source of agricultural products to help feed Japan. The Japanese expanded Taiwan's production of rice, sugarcane, bananas, and other crops. The other function of Taiwan was to serve as a "stationary aircraft carrier," as the Japanese described it. They developed the island as the main staging area for their invasion of the Philippines and Southeast Asia in 1941 and 1942 during World War II. Although the Japanese were repressive, they introduced industrialization, improved the transportation system and health care, and started public education in Taiwan.
\par \tab Taiwan was returned to China after World War II. The Chinese treated the island as conquered territory and regarded the people of Taiwan as collaborators with the Japanese enemy. Relations between the two steadily worsened, and the Taiwanese revolted in 1947. The Chinese put down the uprising but then faced the major problem of winning back the trust and support of the Taiwanese, especially after the Communist forces conquered the mainland in 1949.
\par \tab The United States at first withdrew support of the Nationalist government after it fled to Taiwan. However, after the North Korean invasion of South Korea in 1950, the United States changed its policy and provided military support to the Republic of China. This support was formalized in a mutual security treaty signed in 1954.
\par \tab After the People's Republic of China was admitted to the United Nations in 1971 and Taiwan was expelled, many nations began to switch their diplomatic ties from the Nationalists to the Communists. On Jan. 1, 1979, the United States ended diplomatic relations with Taiwan and granted diplomatic recognition to the People's Republic of China.
\par \tab After 38 years of martial law ended in 1987, political parties became legal for the first time since 1949. President Teng-hui was reelected in 1990. Reforms in 1990 resulted in the popular election of Taiwan's president and the mayors of its two major cities. In September 1990 the Taiwanese parliament opened--the first in forty years to have elected representatives. A small but radical independence movement has been consistently outvoted.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by Jack F. Williams, Professor of Geography, Michigan State University, and author of numerous publications on China and other Asian subjects.
\par \tab {\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR TAIWAN}
\par \tab Gates, Hill. Chinese Working-Class Lives: Getting by in Taiwan (Cornell Univ. Press, 1987).
\par \tab Nerbonne, J.J. Taiwan: Guide to Taipei and All Taiwan (IBD Ltd., 1985).
\par \tab Speare, Alden, Jr., and others. Urbanization and Development: The Rural-Urban Transition in Taiwan (Westview, 1987).\par \tab Until declaring its independence in 1991, Tajikistan was the southernmost republic in the Soviet Union. Located in Central Asia, the country is bounded on the south by Afghanistan, on the east by China, on the west and north by Uzbekistan, and on the north by Kyrgyzstan. Sometimes spelled Tadzhikistan, it has an area of 55,250 square miles (143,100 square kilometers). The capital city is Dushanbe.
\par \tab Most of the republic has high mountain terrain. In the Pamir range there are several mountains more than 20,000 feet (6,100 meters) high. Among them are Lenin Peak at 23,405 feet (7,134 meters) and Communism Peak, the highest mountain in Tajikistan, at 24,590 feet (7,495 meters). To the south of Communism Peak is the glacier called Lednik Fedchenko. At 44 miles (71 kilometers) in length, it is the largest glacier in Tajikistan.
\par \tab The chief rivers of the republic are the Zeravshan, the Syr Darya, and the Amu Darya (formerly the Oxus), the longest river in Central Asia. There are many lakes, some of which were formed by glaciers or avalanches that blocked existing streams. Largest of the glacier-formed lakes is Karakul.
\par \tab The lowlands are hot and dry in summer, with an average annual rainfall of less than 10 inches (25 centimeters). In the foothills it is cooler and there is more rain. In the high mountains the yearly average temperature is below freezing, with little rain.
\par \tab The Tajik peoples, who make up more than half the population, speak a form of Persian called Tajik. They are Muslims, as are their close neighbors, the Uzbeks. The Muslims of Central Asia perpetuated their religious practices and education in spite of strong opposition from the Soviet government. Other major ethnic groups in the population include Uzbeks, Russians, Tatars, Germans, and Ukrainians.
\par \tab Prior to 1991, about half of the population was engaged in collective farming. The government owned the land, and communities of people performed the work to produce cereals, cotton, potatoes, vegetables, and fruits.
\par \tab The country has a great variety of industry and manufacturing. There are rich mineral deposits of iron, lead, zinc, antimony, mercury, gold, tin, and tungsten. There are also nonmetallic deposits of common salt, carbonates, fluorite, arsenic, quartz sand, asbestos, and precious and semiprecious stones. Coal is the major fuel resource, though there are considerable deposits of petroleum and natural gas.
\par \tab Among the products manufactured in Tajikistan are cotton and silk textiles, carpets, clothing, dried fruits, wines, tobacco, and cement. Also produced are equipment for use in the petroleum industry, electrical equipment, household appliances, and spare parts for tractors and agricultural machinery.
\par \tab Many of the Tajiks were brought under Russian rule late in the 19th century. After the October Revolution in 1917, much of the region was attached to other republics. In 1929 Tajikistan became a separate republic. A major earthquake struck the republic in January 1989, killing about 275 people and burying two villages in mud and clay. In February 1990, after several thousand Armenian refugees from Azerbaijan arrived in Tajikistan, volatile anti-Armenian riots erupted in Dushanbe. On Sept. 9, 1991, Tajikistan declared its independence. In October the leading member of the old Communist party won the country's first presidential elections. In 1992 Tajikistan joined the United Nations. Population (1991 estimate), 5,358,300.\par \tab The United Republic of Tanzania is located on the East African coast of the Indian Ocean. It incorporates mainland Tanganyika and the islands of Zanzibar and Pemba as well as half of Lakes Victoria and Tanganyika. Formerly a German colony, then a League of Nations mandate and United Nations Trust Territory administered by the United Kingdom, Tanganyika gained independence in 1961. Zanzibar, a British protectorate after 1890, became independent in 1963, and Tanzania was formed by their union in 1964.
\par {\b Land and People}
\par \tab Tanzania is a country of about 365,000 square miles (945,000 square kilometers). It is bordered to the north by Kenya and Uganda; to the west by Rwanda, Burundi, and Zaire; and to the south by Zambia, Malawi, and Mozambique. Tanzania has claimed a portion of Lake Nyasa, but the disputed border with Malawi is most often shown as the eastern shore of the lake. Tanzania is complex geologically, including a narrow coastal zone, lake plains and plateaus exceeding 3,000 feet (900 meters), and mountains created as part of the East African Rift Valley. Mount Kilimanjaro at 19,340 feet (5,895 meters) in height is Africa's highest mountain. Lake Tanganyika is the world's second deepest lake.
\par \tab The climate is dominated by the effect of altitude on otherwise equatorial warmth. Only in the Southern Highlands is frost a risk at high altitudes. Two rainy seasons occur in the north, with a single peak of rain in the south, both caused by monsoonal wind changes that occur as the sun passes northward and southward. Rainfall totals range from less than 20 inches (50 centimeters) in the arid, tsetse fly-infested central regions to more than 50 inches (127 centimeters) in the more well-watered lake and highland areas. Rainfall on the windward side of mountains sometimes exceeds 100 inches (250 centimeters). The pattern of rainfall and elevation leads to four climatic zones--the hot, humid coastal zone; the hot, arid interior; the warm, moist lake regions; and the cooler subtropical highlands.
\par \tab Ecological conditions range from highland forests through the widespread miombo (an East African name for a sparse, open woodland of trees that lose their leaves) to wooded grassland. Except for natural reserves, the highland and miombo areas have been strongly modified by cutting for agriculture and firewood collection. The grasslands, as well as national parks, host a wide variety of animal life. The grasslands are also used by herders. The highland areas attracted European settlers, who established coffee and tea plantations and wheat farms. Most plantations once owned by non-Tanzanian citizens have been nationalized or acquired by Tanzanians.
\par \tab Arid interior regions have fewer than 20 people per square mile (8 per square kilometer), while the more densely populated edges of the country have more than 100 people per square mile (39 per square kilometer), with densities approaching 1,000 per square mile (386 per square kilometer) on the slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro. The population is only 16 percent urban; 90 percent of the rural population live in registered villages. The annual rate of population growth is 3 percent. Life expectancy at birth is 52 years.
\par \tab Tanzania's official language is Kiswahili; English, an official language until 1967, is still used in higher education, government, and business. Nearly all Tanzanians are bilingual or trilingual, speaking one of 120 local languages plus Kiswahili and perhaps English. Arabic and South Asian languages are spoken along the coast and by the urban Asian population.
\par \tab An estimated 66 percent of the population are literate, and 93 percent of children attend free primary schools, a significant achievement for a nation with less than $250 annual income per capita. About 4 percent attend secondary school. The University of Dar es Salaam, along with teacher-training and vocational institutions, provides post-secondary education.
\par \tab Tanzania is truly multinational, with no single ethnic group exceeding 13 percent of the population and none politically dominant. Tanzanians practice Christian (35 percent) and Muslim (35 percent) faiths, with a declining number following traditional beliefs.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab The rural population depends on subsistence and export-oriented agriculture. Staple crops include cassavas, corn, sorghum, millets, bananas and plantains, rice, potatoes, and wheat. Export crops--which include coffee, cotton, cloves, cashew nuts, sisal, tea, and tobacco--account for about three fourths of export earnings. Although agriculture contributes some 54 percent of the gross national product (GNP), domestic food production has been augmented by food imports, particularly during drought periods. Livestock production and fisheries serve local needs.
\par \tab Tanzania's industry supplies about 13 percent of the GNP, focusing primarily on textiles, agricultural processing, light manufacturing, petroleum refining, brewing, and cement and fertilizer manufacture. Petroleum and manufactured products are principal imports. Industrial growth was under 2 percent annually during the 1970s and declined during the 1980s. This decline resulted from shortages of foreign exchange, raw materials, and equipment as well as greatly increased energy costs. In the mid-1980s industry operated at only 55 percent of total capacity. Both hydroelectric and thermal plants provide electricity for Dar es Salaam and regional towns. Diamonds are the major mineral product and export, followed by salt and gold. Deposits of coal, iron ore, phosphate, and kaolin remain largely unexploited.
\par \tab Dar es Salaam, meaning "haven of peace," was founded by the sultan of Zanzibar in 1862. It became the German colonial capital in 1891 and served through the colonial and post-independence period as both the capital and the major industrial, commercial, and transportation center. In 1974 Dodoma was designated the capital, and government functions have gradually been relocated.
\par \tab Transportation is primarily by road, but about 1,600 miles (2,600 kilometers) of railroad extend from Dar es Salaam to Kigoma-Ujiji, Tanga, Moshi, and the Zambia border. There are international airports at Dar es Salaam and Arusha, plus small regional airports.
\par {\b History and Government}
\par \tab Some of the earliest human remains have been found at Olduvai Gorge. Tanzania has been successively occupied by hunter-gatherer and later agricultural and pastoral societies. It was occupied by Germany after 1885 and incorporated with present Rwanda and Burundi into the German Empire in 1891. Rwanda, Burundi, and a small triangle of Mozambique were separated after World War I. Zanzibar was a major trading center with Arabia and Persia.
\par \tab Tanzania, Kenya, and Uganda were members of the East African Community, which was dissolved in 1977. Tanzania is a member of the Commonwealth, the United Nations, the Organization of African Unity, and the Southern African Development Coordination Conference (SADCC).
\par \tab Internally Tanzania is organized into 25 regions: 20 on the mainland, three on Zanzibar, and two on Pemba. The regions are further divided into 60 mainland districts and nine island areas. Tanzania has a one-house National Assembly and has been a single-party state since 1965.
\par \tab The Tanganyika African National Union (TANU), founded prior to independence and led by Julius Nyerere, and the Afro-Shirazi party of Zanzibar merged into one revolutionary party, the Chama Cha Mapinduzi (CCM) in 1977. The constitution provides for a majority of territorially elected delegates, with two CCM-approved candidates competing for each district seat. The constitutionally strong central executive power has been held by Nyerere since independence except in 1962, when he served as head of TANU. In 1985 Vice-president Ali Hassan Mwinyi succeeded Nyerere as president, but Nyerere remained as CCM head until August 1990. Population (1990 estimate), 24,403,000.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab C. Gregory Knight\par \tab One of the most popular tourist stops in Asia, the proud, independent Kingdom of Thailand was never a colony. Thailand was long known as Siam. The Siamese of the Central Plains, however, are only one of the broader Tai peoples. In 1939 the country's name was changed to the more nationalistic Muang Thai, or Land of the Thais, a name that itself means "free."
\par \tab In the center of mainland Southeast Asia, Thailand extends for about 985 miles (1,585 kilometers) from north to south and about 510 miles (821 kilometers) from east to west. Its area is nearly 200,000 square miles (518,000 square kilometers). It is bordered on the north and west across the Salween River by Myanmar (Burma), on the north and east across the Mekong River by Laos, on the southeast by Cambodia (Kampuchea), and on the south across the Isthmus of Kra by Malaysia. It also has 1,200 miles (1,900 kilometers) of coastline along the Gulf of Thailand, an inlet of the South China Sea. The western side of the Malay Peninsula fronts on the Andaman Sea.
\par \tab The Thais often describe their land as an elephant's head. The trunk is the south; the elephant's ear is the northeast; the bristling top of the head is the mountainous north; the mouth is the delta and harbor of the Chao Phraya River. The Central Plains of the Chao Phraya Basin also contain the eyes and much of the brain. The living skin, stretched across the entire country, is composed of rice plants, more than 250 varieties of bamboo, coconut palms, banana plants, and orchards of durian, mango, rambutan, litchi, mangosteen, papaya, and other tropical fruits.
\par \tab {\b The Central Plains.}
\par \tab The Central Plains, the region formed by deposits of sediments from the Chao Phraya River, is the core of the country. It contains the highest density of population and the great metropolis of Bangkok. The river has provided irrigation water and fertile silt for intensive rice cultivation. Fruits and vegetables also thrive. Tapioca is grown in the southeast, while corn is a major crop in the bordering hills. The plains have no mineral wealth, but the mountainous borders produce sapphires, fluorite, and tungsten.
\par \tab {\b The Northern Highlands.}
\par \tab The Northern Highlands is a region of north-south mountain ranges soaring to more than 8,000 feet (2,400 meters) and deep, narrow valleys of tributaries to the Chao Phraya. The valleys have been largely cleared of their natural vegetation and planted with rice, fruits, and tobacco. People living in the mountains farm upland rice and corn by shifting cultivation. As mountain land is cleared for lumbering and farming, the pressure on the fragile environment increases soil erosion in the mountains and silting of the valleys' irrigation systems.
\par \tab The northern forests, with teak and other tropical hardwoods, have been a major national resource. Forestry and replanting, however, have not kept up with harvesting, and the government has restricted cutting and export. Elephants are still used to carry and pile the heavy logs. The region contains most of Thailand's lignite, a low grade of coal, as well as some tungsten, barite, and zinc.
\par \tab {\b The northeast.}
\par \tab The northeast is the Khorat Plateau. The plateau slopes from the low hills that separate it from the Central Plains toward the Mekong River, which is its boundary on the north and northeast. The forested mountains that separate the plateau from Cambodia have been the scene of guerrilla warfare for more than 20 years. The soils, formed from sandstone, are infertile and hold water too poorly for productive rice farming. Relatively large areas are covered with salt caps. A series of dams on the tributaries of the Mekong have irrigated some areas and brought hydroelectric power to the region. The northeast's monsoon deciduous forest, which loses its leaves in the dry season, has been repeatedly burned to make charcoal and to clear land for planting kenaf, a fiber that is a major product of the region.
\par \tab Historically, the northeast has been known for livestock production. Animals graze in the forest and on soils unsuitable for rice. Great annual buffalo drives once gathered and herded tens of thousands of animals hundreds of miles to the Central Plains, where the bullocks and water buffalo are needed to pull plows and carts. Elephants were bred and were caught as calves in the forest and trained for transportation and as beasts of burden. Domesticated elephants continue to be used, especially in the lumber industry of the north. Wild elephants, however, are near extinction, as their habitat is continually converted to agricultural land. Today farmers in the northeast plant some corn and tapioca as well as their traditional sticky rice. The only important mineral of the northeast is rock salt.
\par \tab {\b The south.}
\par \tab The south extends for hundreds of miles on the mountainous Malay Peninsula through the Isthmus of Kra to Malaysia. There is dense settlement of people farming rice in river valleys and along narrow coastal plains, especially in the east. Where rivers deposit silt and extend land along the coast, there are vile-smelling mangrove swamps that are biologically productive, especially for fish and shrimp breeding. Where silting does not occur, sparkling sandy beaches are rimmed with coconut palms or graceful casuarina trees. There are also small harbors on the east coast. Thailand has modernized its fishing fleet to become one of the world's largest marine fishing nations and a major exporter of shrimp, squid, and cuttlefish. In recent years, however, there has been a growing problem with overfishing in the Gulf of Thailand.
\par \tab Most of the south is composed of a ridge of granite hills rising to 6,800 feet (2,070 meters). In these hills there is rubber tree cultivation, which provides one of Thailand's major exports. The region is also rich in tin deposits, providing the biggest source of income from Thailand's minerals. Since 1975 natural gas production offshore in the gulf has become significant in supplying the country's fuel needs.
\par {\b Climate}
\par \tab Thailand has a monsoon, or wet-dry, climate. From May to October the monsoon, meaning seasonal wind, blows from the southwest across the tropical sea. Days are hot and humid. At least 40 inches (100 centimeters) of rain falls during these months, more than 90 percent of the year's total. In October the northeast monsoon begins to blow from continental Asia. It brings a cool, dry season that both Thais and tourists find delightful for travel. Starting in late March and continuing into May, the tropical sun begins to warm the land again, but the monsoon resists shifting because of circulation patterns in the upper atmosphere. The weather becomes very hot but remains dry. Fields and roads turn to dust, wells sometimes become dry or polluted, and cities swelter, waiting for the monsoon to break and cool the land. Regional patterns alter this general picture. In the northern mountains, for example, temperatures may drop to almost freezing, while the southern peninsula remains constantly warm and wet.
\par {\b People and Culture}
\par \tab More than 55 million people live in Thailand. As the death rate was brought down by vaccination, preventive medicine, and other public health practices, growth increased until, in the 1960s, the population was growing at a rate of almost 4 percent per year. After a decade of a family planning program that has been much studied and admired by other countries, population growth is less than 2 percent a year and individuals' incomes are increasing.
\par \tab The people of Thailand are more culturally homogeneous than those of most developing countries. More than a million Malay-speaking Muslims live in the south. Karens live in the isolated, rugged mountains along the Myanmar border. Other hill tribes, such as the Hmong and Yao, live in the northern mountains. Thousands of Khmer have lived for centuries in the northeast near the Cambodian border, and they are augmented by Cambodian refugees housed in camps. The majority of the people in the northeast are ethnic Lao, a branch of Tai peoples linguistically and culturally akin to the Siamese. In Bangkok especially and in other cities, people of Chinese descent have much influence on the economy. They are being assimilated as Thais, however, and there has been so much intermarriage that the number of ethnic Chinese is difficult to determine. They have Thai names; speak, read, and write Thai; attend Thai schools; and are Thai citizens. Although there is diversity, more than 90 percent of the population understand Thai, are Theravada Buddhists, enjoy spicy Thai cooking, and give homage to the king of Thailand.
\par \tab Theravada Buddhism is deeply rooted in Thai culture. Saffron-robed Buddhist monks are common sights in the early morning walking in single file with their bowls, begging for food and money. In the Thai view, the monks provide opportunities for people to earn merit by giving food and alms.
\par \tab Every village has its wat, or temple complex. There is usually a temple, a convocation hall, and living quarters for monks. In the major cities or ancient places, the temples are decorated with murals, carved wood, gold leaf, and graceful statues of the Buddha. A wat serves its village as a fairground for festivals, as a sports field, and as a social club. Travelers stay overnight. Traditionally the wat served as school, orphanage, and hospital. Monks were skilled in local medicine. These functions have largely been taken over by other institutions.
\par \tab Most Thai holidays mark events in the Buddhist calendar or commemorate royal or constitutional occasions. Two of the most popular festivals are less official. Songkran, the Thai New Year, is traditionally celebrated in April by symbolically washing sins away and blessing friends with a little water. Young people have a wonderful time lying in ambush with buckets of water, turning garden hoses on passing vehicles, and in general striving to keep everyone soaking wet. Loy Krathong is an ancient festival to honor the water spirits. Small floats are made out of banana leaves and other materials, decorated, and adorned with a candle, incense stick, and coin.
\par \tab Thais participate actively in all major world sports such as soccer, field hockey, and boxing. Bangkok has several times hosted the Asian Games. Thai boxing involves kicking as well as punching. A popular spectator sport is kite flying in which massive male kites and small, quick female kites with jagged glass glued to their strings do acrobatic struggles in the pre-monsoon winds.
\par \tab Influences from both India and China can be found in the classical Thai arts, but the Thai combination is unique. Classical dancers may dance to stories from the Indian epic 'Ramayana', but the five-tone Thai music and some of the accompanying stringed instruments originated in China. There are regional specialities. Many traditional arts--such as lacquerware, enameling and etching silver, and weaving and dying silk--have been maintained by the tourist trade.
\par \tab The metropolis of Bangkok dominates Thailand in every way. With more than 5 million people, it is 50 times as large as the second largest city and is growing rapidly. The Greater Bangkok area, encompassing the city of Thonburi across the river, contains about 12 percent of the Thai population and produces half of the gross national product. The city is more than the capital and major port. It is the center of higher education, of medical services, of religion, and of banking and business.
\par \tab The city has become choked with air pollution and traffic jams. People who pour into the city looking for work often find housing only in the squatter slums. Floods have increased markedly, and the city appears to be sinking. Nevertheless, Bangkok continues to dominate national politics and economics and also serves as headquarters for many Asian operations of the United Nations.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab Thailand's economy is overwhelmingly agricultural. Three quarters of the labor force work in agriculture. For more than a century rice has been the leading export, followed at a distance by rubber. Tin from the south and tea from the north have also been traditional bulwarks of the economy.
\par \tab Agriculture has now become more diverse. Thai farmers grow corn for chicken feed for export to Japan. Tapioca, sugarcane, and mung beans are other important exports. American agribusinesses are involved in growing pineapples in the south, coffee in the north, and in harvesting prawns and other seafood from the gulf. Most Thai farmers continue to own their land, but tenancy and absentee ownership are increasing.
\par \tab Although manufacturing employs less than 10 percent of the labor force, it produces more than 20 percent of the gross domestic product and is expanding rapidly. Most industry consists of processing agricultural products--freezing shrimp, milling rice, and canning fruits. But textiles are being expanded, and Thailand has become a major cement producer. The lack of large reserves of iron ore or quality coal has hindered heavy industry, but natural gas is piped ashore from the Gulf of Thailand.
\par \tab Transportation and communication are focused on Bangkok. A network of navigable rivers and canals--which once earned Bangkok the nickname of Venice of Asia--moves great tonnage of logs, rice, charcoal, and other produce to Khlong (canal) Thoey, Bangkok's port. The canals support produce markets on boats and supply small manufacturing plants along the waterways, but most have been paved for roads.
\par \tab A national highway network consists of thousands of miles of paved roads and ties peripheral provinces to Bangkok. The state railroad has five main lines that radiate from Bangkok. The port and railroads carry not only goods to be used within the country but also those for landlocked Laos.
\par \tab Khlong Thoey handles more than 98 percent of imports and 65 percent of exports. Because it is in the delta of the Chao Phraya River, however, it has continual problems with silting and sandbars, and it can take only shallow draft ships. A deepwater port has been developed at Sattahip on the southern gulf coast, while in the south Songkhla and the island of Phuket are major fishing ports.
\par {\b Government and History}
\par \tab The Kingdom of Thailand is a constitutional monarchy. It is governed by a prime minister and cabinet and National Assembly. There have been a dozen constitutions since 1932, when the absolute monarchy was overthrown in the first of a series of military coups. The numerous changes in government have been notably without bloodshed. The Thais have experimented with one and two houses in parliament and have used various combinations of elected and appointed membership, with different ways of representing the provinces, population groups, and economic interests. A partially elected two-house legislature was reestablished under the constitution of 1978. All the various governing groups continued to revere and honor the monarch.
\par \tab The Chakri Dynasty has had a succession of extraordinary kings. In the 19th century they opened Thailand, then called Siam, to Western influences and trade. The present king--acclaimed by national referendum in 1985 as "King Bhumibol the Great"--has ruled since 1950 and is the country's longest-reigning monarch. Although without direct governmental power, he is the moral leader of the nation.
\par \tab Before the 12th century the Kingdom of Dvarati was located in the Chao Phraya River basin. After centuries its Mon-Khmer people became vassals of Angkor, the empire based in what is now Kampuchea. The Tai people originated in what is now Yunan, China. They migrated down the Mekong River, gradually separating into Siamese, Lao, Shan, and other groups. The Thai formed the first Kingdom of Sukhotai in northern Thailand in the 12th century. They expanded southward and eventually defeated Dvarati and Angkor. In the 14th century the Kingdom of Ayutthaya brought all the Chao Phraya basin under its rule and controlled Lao and Malay vassals. During this period Thai culture developed. In 1767 the Burmese invaded and sacked Ayutthaya. The modern period began with the location of the capital in Bangkok, the establishment of the Chakri Dynasty, and the development of commerce abroad.
\par \tab During the Vietnam War Thailand was an active United States ally. Tens of thousands of American military personnel were stationed in Thailand at air bases from which Vietnam was bombed. After the war ended, refugees from Laos, Kampuchea, and Vietnam came to Thailand in large numbers. Especially after the Vietnamese invaded Kampuchea and deposed the Khmer Rouge government, more than 100,000 refugees poured across the border. Some were fleeing the war, but most were escaping famine. Many thousands remained in holding camps near the border in the late 1980s while still more continued to arrive.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by Melinda S. Meade, Professor of Geography, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, and Fellow, Carolina Population Center.\par \tab William Shakespeare's definition of the world in 'As You Like It' still applies:
\par \tab All the world's a stage,
\par \tab And all the men and women merely players:
\par \tab They have their exits and their entrances;
\par \tab And one man in his time plays many parts.
\par \tab Shakespeare used "world" as a metaphor, a figure of speech in which an analogy is made between two different things. His metaphor is a valid definition, however, because the world is the arena of human experience. As such it can be defined in many ways. It is not primarily a geographical term. Earth and world are not precisely the same, though the terms are sometimes used interchangeably. The Earth is a planet, as are Mars and Jupiter. But Mars and Jupiter are not worlds except in science fiction. There, when they are spoken of as worlds, they are populated by humanlike inhabitants. The planets and all the other heavenly bodies, nevertheless, may be considered part of the astronomer's world; the rocks and minerals of Earth belong to the world of the geologist.
\par \tab All the ways of defining world depend on human perception, and each definition is valid for its purpose. It can refer to the whole universe, or--for those who believe in God--the whole order of creation. This is its largest possible definition. Unlike Earth, world can be used in the plural to define much smaller units. There are many worlds, depending on an individual's perspective. For each person all the rest of the Earth's inhabitants and environments may form a world. If the individual is a native of the Amazon jungles, however, the world may be very small.
\par \tab World can also be used in a cultural sense: the world of Western civilization, the Communist world, the world of Islam, the world of art. Animals do not have worlds but natural habitats.
\par {\b The World as Universe}
\par \tab In its largest sense, the world is the universe. The Greek word is kosmos, meaning "order and beauty." It is the opposite of chaos, or total disorder. Trying to understand the world in this sense has been one of the major tasks of philosophy and religion for thousands of years. This task has centered on three primary questions: Is there only one world, or are there many? What is its structure? Is the world eternal, or does it have a beginning and an end? In considering answers to these questions, it must be remembered that the world as a universe was much smaller from the point of view of the ancient scientists and philosophers than it is for today's astronomers.
\par \tab {\b The number of worlds.}
\par \tab In ancient civilization the Greek philosophers Plato and Aristotle denied that there could be more than one world, or universe. Plato believed that the world was made as the image of an eternal idea. If the idea, originating with God, were perfect, then there could be only one perfect copy. Aristotle taught that the world is composed of all possible matter. Therefore there can be only one world because all matter has been used to form it. The Christian philosopher St. Augustine taught that this world is the only actual one as well as the only possible one. This is because God, by His nature, produced the universe in the only way possible. The 17th-century philosopher Baruch Spinoza made the same point: the actual world is the only possible one.
\par \tab The chief exponent of numerous worlds was Lucretius, the Roman philosopher of the 1st century BC. He taught that all matter is composed of atoms that combined accidentally. It seemed reasonable to him that in the infinity of space an infinite amount of matter would combine to form other worlds. Whether he meant that there are many universes, however, is questionable. His approach seems quite similar to that of the 20th-century scholar Carl Sagan, who stated that there must be other planets somewhere in the universe much like Earth with humanlike inhabitants. The words of Lucretius are: "You must admit that in other parts of space there are other earths and various races of men and kinds of wild beasts."
\par \tab {\b Structure.}
\par \tab Lucretius and the other atomistic philosophers Leucippus and Democritus believed the world is made of atoms that formed matter by accident. Most other philosophers have denied this, though in the 20th century nuclear physicists have vindicated them in many respects. Plato derided atomism as nonsense and insisted the world is a living organism animated by a soul. A few centuries later the Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius agreed, calling the universe "one living being, having one substance and one soul." Jewish and Christian theologians disagreed because they insisted upon viewing God as separate from His creation. That He created and sustains the world they were sure, but they also realized the world is destructible, whereas God is not.
\par \tab In the 17th century, under the influence of Isaac Newton and Rene Descartes, the laws of mechanics were transformed into laws of nature. Hence the world came to be regarded as machinelike. God created it and set it in motion, and it keeps operating according to His divine plan. The English writer Henry Fielding summed up the Newtonian view: "The world may indeed be considered as a vast machine."
\par \tab {\b Beginning and end.}
\par \tab Lucretius believed that atoms are eternal. The world too must be eternal. Earlier Plato and Aristotle held the same point of view though for different reasons. Christian teachers denied this, saying that the whole universe will one day end in a giant conflagration. After the destruction it will be refashioned by God and exist forever.
\par \tab Modern astrophysicists disagree among themselves on the end of the universe. All agree it had a definite beginning. Some insist it will expand forever. Others suggest that it will eventually contract to its original state before starting to expand all over again.
\par {\b The Worlds of Earth}
\par \tab {\b Earth as one world.}
\par \tab World, in its customary meaning, refers to the Earth, the third planet from the sun and the only one known to have life on it. The Earth manifests a great deal of diversity in its landforms and climates. Its surface, to a depth of about 14 miles (22.5 kilometers) in some places, is composed mostly of water. The waters, whether fresh or salt, contain a seemingly unlimited variety of life forms from the tiniest microorganisms to the largest mammals.
\par \tab The landforms, composed of seven continents and uncounted islands, are equally diverse. Climates range from the extreme cold of Antarctica to the unbearable heat of deserts. The varieties of plant and animal life on land seem as great as those of the bodies of water. The land itself is composed of a great number of minerals, and all the matter of Earth is made up of more than 90 elements.
\par \tab Above the Earth, and essentially part of it, is the atmosphere with its air, jet streams of wind, and ozone layer. Above these is the ionosphere, which begins about 34 miles (55 kilometers) above the Earth's surface and extends upward for several thousand miles.
\par \tab The Earth--with its waters, landmasses, and atmosphere--constitutes one huge ecosystem--a complex community of interacting natural components and forces. Just as a slight disturbance in a small ecosystem can upset nature's balance, so too do large disturbances upset the balance of Earth's interconnected life systems. These disturbances can be the fault of human error or folly, or they can derive from nature itself.
\par \tab Massive destruction of Brazil's rain forests, in the name of economic progress, diminishes the amount of oxygen over the whole Earth. When the Indonesian volcano Krakatoa erupted on Aug. 26, 1883, it threw into the air 5 cubic miles (21 cubic kilometers) of rock fragments and ash. The ash was caught in the atmosphere and circled the globe, affecting weather worldwide. Acid rain in the Northern Hemisphere is gradually destroying lakes and small ecosystems such as Germany's Black Forest. The Chernobyl nuclear plant meltdown in the Soviet Union in April 1986 emitted radioactive poisons into the air, and these contaminated the food chain for hundreds of miles downwind of the site.
\par \tab {\b The many worlds of people.}
\par \tab Humanity as part of the animal kingdom belongs to the Earth's ecosystem. Human beings as creators of culture and civilization add to nature, and they often disrupt it. They build on it and next to it, and in so doing they make their own worlds. The Earth, which is one world, then becomes home to a nearly unlimited number of smaller--and often temporary--worlds.
\par \tab As an arena of human experience, the smallest world is that of the infant mother, father, crib, and room. As time passes, this world becomes larger. It incorporates more people and places until finally the individual sees himself as a member of a society and of a nation. There are about 180 independent nations on Earth, and each tries to be a world for itself.
\par \tab Larger geographic areas also constitute worlds based on their distinctive cultural, religious, or political distinctiveness. Language recognizes this fact. Americans who travel to Europe often say they are going to the Old World. The Western Hemisphere, five centuries after its discovery, is still referred to as the New World. Those who visit North Africa or the Middle East think of themselves in the Arab World.
\par \tab All human worlds are smaller than the planet Earth, and they are changing and temporary worlds. There was, for example, a world of the Roman Empire. It lasted for several hundred years before it disintegrated and gave way to the world of the Middle Ages. Throughout history human worlds have coexisted, and some have survived longer than others. Gradually the ancient and early modern system of empires gave way to a complex of nations, which in its present form has existed only since the end of World War II.
\par \tab It is said by some that humans prefer exclusive small worlds to large inclusive ones. Since the remotest antiquity, groups of people forming their own little worlds have been suspicious of and hostile to many other groups. This tendency to cling together, while excluding outsiders, is called tribalism. It is also called xenophobia, or fear of strangers. No society is free from this antipathy toward the unfamiliar. Humanity has always, to some degree, exhibited tribalism, as evidenced by ethnic and racial distinctions as well as by language, morality, nationality, religion, and political systems.
\par \tab The only force that has been partially successful in competing with international tribalism is the unintended formation of an international economy in the 20th century. As this occurred, however, the traditional tribalisms of nationality, politics, and religion reasserted themselves to preserve their smaller worlds.\par \tab On April 27, 1960, political freedom came to French Togoland. This was a territory in West Africa administered by France from 1922 to 1946 under a League of Nations mandate and from 1946 to 1960 under a United Nations trusteeship. Togo thus became the third United Nations trust territory to achieve complete self-government and the ninth African nation after 1951 to gain its independence from foreign colonial domination. In their joy at winning their freedom, tens of thousands of Togolese held extended celebrations in the streets of LomΘ, the capital. For them, as well as for the other peoples of Africa in general, the decade of 1950 to 1960 was an age of nationalism and political self-determination. Political turbulence continued to disrupt the country into the 1990s.
\par \tab Togo is located north of the equator in Africa's great western bulge. It is a narrow, oblong-shaped country that lies along the Gulf of Guinea for only 32 miles (51 kilometers) but extends inland for 320 miles (515 kilometers). At no point is its width greater than 75 miles (120 kilometers). Its area is about 22,000 square miles (57,000 square kilometers).
\par \tab Togo is bounded on the west by Ghana, on the north by Burkina Faso, and on the east by Benin. Like its neighbors, Togo has a lagoon-lined coast and a coastal zone noted for tall grasses and low trees. The Togo Mountains cross the central part of the gradually rising inland plateau. To the north, dry, dusty plains alternate with well-watered grasslands. The grasslands are a southern extension of the great savanna known as the Sudan. Many game animals are found there.
\par {\b People and Economy}
\par \tab Togo's many tribes include the Ewe, Mina, and Ouatchi in the south and the Kabre and Gourousi in the north. About three quarters of the people practice traditional African animist religions. One fifth are Christians, mainly Roman Catholics. A small percentage, mostly in the north, are Muslims. French is the official language, but Ewe is widely spoken. The government runs primary school programs to increase literacy. Many children are educated in Christian mission schools. A university is located at LomΘ.
\par \tab Togo has well-diversified agriculture. Cattle are the principal wealth of the pastoral uplands. Considerable numbers of sheep and goats are also raised. Corn, yams, cassavas, pineapples, bananas, and peanuts are grown for home consumption. Coffee, cacao, cotton, and copra are produced mainly for export. Togo has rich deposits of phosphate, chromite, iron, and bauxite. The chief forest products are dyewoods, or wood from which coloring matter is extracted, and palm kernels, from which palm oil is obtained. A good system of roads and railroads enables products to be transported easily to LomΘ for export.
\par {\b History}
\par \tab Togo was originally part of the Togo protectorate that Germany acquired in 1884. Commercial and political treaties were the means of checking the expansion of Great Britain and France along the Guinea coast. Germany held the protectorate until the outbreak of World War I. British and French troops then occupied the territory. After the war it was divided between Britain and France in accordance with mandates confirmed by the League of Nations in 1922. The mandates over British Togoland in the west and French Togoland in the east were converted to United Nations trusteeships in 1946. Ten years later a referendum showed that the Togolese wanted self-government. France made French Togoland a self-governing republic within the French Union.
\par \tab Togo won independence and joined the United Nations in 1960. Sylvanus Olympio became president in 1961 and maintained economic relations with France. Togo joined the Organization of African Unity in l963. In 1963 Olympio's government was overthrown, and he was killed. An army coup led by Gen. Gnassingbe Eyadema ousted the succeeding government in 1967. Eyadema assumed the presidency and banned opposition parties. In a referendum held in 1972, Eyadema was overwhelmingly confirmed as president. Relations between Togo and Ghana were strained while Kwame Nkrumah was president of Ghana, but they improved after Nkrumah's downfall in 1966. A new constitution was adopted in 1979. In September 1986 commandos from Ghana tried unsuccessfully to overthrow Eyadema. The border with Ghana was subsequently closed.
\par \tab Togo remained active in the Economic Community of West African States in the 1980s. Population (1988 estimate), 3,486,000.\par \tab A kingdom in the southwestern Pacific Ocean, Tonga consists of about 170 islands. They are divided into three main groups: Vava'u in the north, Ha'apai in the center, and Tongatapu in the south. The capital is Nuku'alofa, located on the island of Tongatapu, the largest and most heavily populated island of the group. The total land area is 288 square miles (746 square kilometers). Tonga's closest neighbors are Fiji, Western Samoa, and Niue.
\par \tab The islands of Tonga are the peaks of underwater volcanoes, many of which are capped with coral limestone. A coral reef protects the island of Tongatapu from the sea and wind erosion that afflicts many of the other islands. The climate is semitropical. High humidity and high temperatures make the months of December to April frequently uncomfortable. Mean annual rainfall varies from 63 inches (160 centimeters) in Tongatapu to 87 inches (221 centimeters) in Vava'u. The northern islands closest to the equator are subject to typhoons.
\par \tab The economy of Tonga centers around agriculture, and most people live in villages. Coconuts, bananas, and vanilla beans are the main cash crops. All land belongs to the crown, but it is subdivided among the nobility. All male citizens over the age of 16 are allotted land for raising crops. This policy necessarily diminishes the amount of land available for each person to cultivate. A growth in population has resulted in land shortages. Because of this and a high unemployment rate, many people have left the kingdom. There are a few manufacturing enterprises, mostly food processing. Tourism has begun to increase significantly. Petroleum was discovered around Tongatapu in the late 1970s.
\par \tab Tonga has a constitutional monarchy. Executive authority is vested in the monarch, a privy council, and the cabinet. A one-house legislature represents both nobles and commoners. Judges are appointed by the monarch.
\par \tab Primary education is compulsory between the ages of 6 and 14, and the government schools are free. There are secondary schools, several vocational and technical schools, and a teacher training college.
\par \tab The first European to visit Tonga was Dutch navigator Jakob Le Maire in 1616. Tonga was Christianized in the 19th century by Methodist missionaries. It remains predominantly Methodist, and the monarch is the head of the Free Wesleyan Church, the largest of several Methodist denominations. There are also significant numbers of Roman Catholics and Mormons. Both Tongan, a Polynesian dialect, and English are official languages.
\par \tab Tonga's monarchy has existed since the 10th century. By the 13th century Tongan kings' rule extended as far as Hawaii. Several dynastic changes led to civil war in the 19th century. The victorious chief, Taufa'ahau, was proclaimed king in 1845 and took the name George Tupou I. The current dynasty is descended from him. In 1900 Tonga became a British protectorate and received full independence in 1970. It joined the Commonwealth the same year. Population (1984 census), 96,592.\par \tab The islands of Trinidad and Tobago form an independent republic in the West Indies. Trinidad lies near the northeastern coast of Venezuela, from which it is separated by the shallow Gulf of Paria. Geologically it is more like the adjacent mainland of South America than like other islands of the Caribbean. Tobago lies 20 miles (32 kilometers) northeast of Trinidad and is largely mountainous.
\par \tab With an area of 1,980 square miles (5,130 square kilometers), Trinidad is the fifth largest island of the West Indies. Three low mountain ranges cross the island from west to east. Highest is the heavily forested Northern Range, rising to 3,085 feet (940 meters) at Mount Aripo. Farther south is the Central Range, and another range parallels the southern coast.
\par \tab Between the mountains are fertile rolling plains and forested hills. Swamps along the eastern and western coasts serve as refuges for birds such as egrets, herons, pink spoonbills, and scarlet ibises. Tobago, only 116 square miles (300 square kilometers) in area, has a maximum elevation of 1,890 feet (580 meters) in the Main Range and very limited areas of level land. Nearby Little Tobago Island is a sanctuary for birds of paradise.
\par \tab The climate of Trinidad and Tobago is warm and humid, but the easterly trade winds temper the heat. The average annual temperature at Port-of-Spain, on the western side of Trinidad, is 77░ F (25░ C). Rainfall is abundant throughout most of the island and occurs mainly from June to December. It exceeds 100 inches (250 centimeters) per year on the windward slopes of the Northern Range and in the highest parts of the Central Range. Lying only about 11 degrees north of the equator, Trinidad and Tobago are spared the destruction from hurricanes experienced by many other islands of the Caribbean.
\par \tab The economy of Trinidad and Tobago is dominated by petroleum. Production peaked in 1978 and has since declined. Fortunately, large quantities of natural gas have been discovered, largely through offshore drilling, and will supply the nation's energy requirements for many years. Asphalt is produced from the famous Pitch Lake in southwestern Trinidad and is exported as a material for paving roads.
\par \tab The petroleum refineries of southwestern Trinidad are among the largest in the world, and a government-owned steel mill using natural gas for fuel opened in 1980. Other industries include chemicals, fertilizers, food products, electronics, rum distilling, paper products, textiles, and automobile assembly. The leading agricultural crop is sugarcane, but cacao (which is used to make chocolate), citrus fruits, bananas, coffee, and rice are also raised. The Trinidad branch of the University of the West Indies conducts research related to the economy through its faculties of agriculture and engineering.
\par \tab Development plans since 1958 have included new roads, expanded production of electricity, and an increase in the variety of industry. To accommodate increasing tourism, luxury hotels have been constructed in Port-of-Spain, the capital and largest city of the republic. Piarco International Airport, 17 miles (27 kilometers) east of the city, is a major terminal for air travel between North and South America. Trinidad is the headquarters for British West Indies Airways and is served by numerous other airlines. Tobago, known as Robinson Crusoe Island, is said to be the setting of Daniel Defoe's famous story. It depends heavily on small-scale farming and international tourism. Scarborough is its major town.
\par \tab Almost half of the nation's population of about 1,200,000 is black, and 40 percent is East Indian. The remainder is of mixed ancestry, including Europeans and Chinese. Settlement is concentrated mainly in western Trinidad, especially in and around Port-of-Spain. Most of the population receives some formal education, and literacy exceeds 95 percent--one of the highest rates in the Caribbean region. The official language is English; the predominant religion is Roman Catholicism. Calypso music, steel bands, and the limbo are distinctive features of the nation's culture. Several Trinidadians are prominent in the literature of the West Indies.
\par {\b Government and History}
\par \tab Under the constitution of 1976 Trinidad and Tobago is governed as a parliamentary republic with an elected president as head of state and a prime minister as head of government. Its House of Representatives has 36 elected members, including two for Tobago, and its Senate has 31 appointees. Legislation passed in 1980 gave Tobago considerable autonomy, and it maintains a separate 15-member House of Assembly. In 1987 Tobago was granted full internal self-government. For local government, Trinidad is divided into the capital city, three boroughs, and six counties.
\par \tab Christopher Columbus reached Trinidad in 1498 during his third voyage to the New World. The name of the island is derived from three low mountain peaks he sighted along its southeastern coast. Trinidad's original Arawakan Indian people were sent into slavery in Spanish possessions before the island was successfully colonized in 1592. The economy developed slowly under Spanish and French settlers. The island was seized by a British force in 1737, and in 1802 it was ceded to Great Britain by the Treaty of Amiens. Tobago (originally Tobaco) changed hands many times during the colonial period but was finally awarded to Britain by the Treaty of Vienna in 1814.
\par \tab Cacao was introduced to Trinidad in 1525 and soon replaced tobacco as the leading commercial crop. After 1845 sugarcane cultivation, using laborers from the East Indies, expanded rapidly. The first large-scale sugar mill was built in 1871 near San Fernando, still the center of Trinidad's sugar production. The political link between Tobago and Trinidad, forged mainly because of a collapse of the Tobago sugar industry, dates from 1889. The United States constructed air bases on Trinidad during World War II to protect approaches to the Panama Canal. In 1956 Trinidad and Tobago joined the British West Indies Federation as parts of a new nation. The federation was dissolved in 1962, and Trinidad and Tobago became an independent nation within the Commonwealth. The islands were declared a republic in 1976. In 1990 a Black Muslim sect, which opposed government austerity measures, failed in an attempt to overthrow the regime.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab C.W. Minkel\par \tab The smallest North African country, Tunisia is located at the eastern end of the Maghreb (the northern tip of Africa), forming a wedge of territory between Algeria and Libya. Tunisia was the site of ancient Carthage and, as the province of Ifriqiyah, or Africa Minor, was a keystone of Arab and Turkish empires in North Africa. France established a protectorate over Tunisia in 1883 and granted independence in 1956. Since 1957 Tunisia has been governed as a constitutional republic. It has followed an independent course among the Arab nations of North Africa and the Middle East.
\par {\b Land and People}
\par \tab Tunisia is a country of 63,170 square miles (163,610 square kilometers). In the north the Atlas Mountains separate into two chains. The Northern Tell are lower, with elevations of about 1 to 3 thousand feet (300 to 900 meters). The mountains follow the coast, extending almost to Tunis. The High Tell, an extension of the Saharan Atlas of Algeria, are more extensive and rugged. Djebel Chambi, near the Algerian border, reaches an elevation of 5,066 feet (1,544 meters). The Medjerda River valley separates the mountain chains. The Medjerda, which is the only constant stream in Tunisia, flows into the Gulf of Tunis.
\par \tab Northern Tunisia has a Mediterranean climate. Rainfall averages from 16 to 39 inches (40 to 100 centimeters) annually and falls in the warm winter months. Summers are hot and dry. Cork oak and evergreen oak forests cover the wetter and more remote slopes of the Northern Tell Mountains. As a result of widespread deforestation from overgrazing and fuel gathering, as well as sparse rainfall, scrub bushes and grasses are the most common vegetation. The mean annual rainfall at Tunis is 22.5 inches (57.2 centimeters) and the temperature 64░ F (18░ C).
\par \tab In central Tunisia an extensive plateau slopes gradually eastward from the High Tell to the coastal plain. The High Steppes are broad alluvial basins separated by low mountains, and the Low Steppes to the east are a flat, gravel-covered plateau. The Isle of Djerba is located in the Gulf of GabΦs (also Qabis) near Zarzis (also Jarjis). Rainfall averages from 8 to 16 inches (20 to 40 centimeters) annually and falls during the winter months. After heavy rains wadis contain intermittent streams that drain into sebkhas, or salt flats, on the coastal plain, where water evaporates. The steppes have sparse, drought-resistant scrub vegetation.
\par \tab South of the steppes an extensive depression contains three seasonal chotts, or salt lakes. The Chott el Djerid (also Chott al Jarid) is the largest. The Chott el Gharsa, which is 75 feet (23 meters) below sea level, and the Chott el Fedjadj are much smaller. During the winter rainfall drains into the chotts and evaporates, leaving a thick salt crust on the surface.
\par \tab Tunisia extends southward into the Sahara, where the flat-topped Monts des Ksour separate the Djeffara coastal plain from a sandy lowland that is partially covered by sand dunes of Algeria's Grand Erg Oriental. The hot arid climate produces less than 8 inches (20 centimeters) of rainfall annually. Underground water supplies support permanent settlement at scattered oases. Elsewhere large areas have no permanent vegetation. The mean annual rainfall at GabΘs is 7.3 inches (18.5 centimeters) and the temperature 66.7░ F (19.3░ C).
\par \tab The majority of the Tunisian people live in urban areas. The rural population is concentrated in rich agricultural lands of the northeast and the Sahel. Arabic is the official language. French is taught as a second language and is widely used in commerce and government. Islam is the state religion. Ninety-eight percent of the people are Sunni Muslims. Berber minorities live in a few isolated communities in southern Tunisia. An estimated 62 percent of the adult population is literate. Primary and secondary education is compulsory. The University of Tunis, founded in 1960, is in Tunis.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab One third of Tunisia's labor force is employed in agriculture. Wheat, barley, corn (maize), oats, and sorghum are the main cereal crops. Grapes, oranges, and figs are grown on Cape Bon and near Tunis and Bizerte. Olive groves are located on the Sahel near Sfax (also Safaqis). Although the size of the harvest varies, Tunisia usually is the world's fourth largest producer of olive oil. Dates are grown at Gafsa, Nefta, Tozeur, and other oases in southern Tunisia.
\par \tab About 22 million acres (9 million hectares) are in permanent cultivation. Most crops are grown by dry-farming methods. Agricultural production varies widely, primarily because of erratic rainfall. Tunisia has had to import cereals, as demand exceeded domestic production. Although a large-scale water development program has been undertaken, only 494,200 acres (200,000 hectares) can be irrigated.
\par \tab Tunisia is rich in petroleum and calcium phosphates. Petroleum, which is the principal source of export earnings, was first discovered in 1964 at El Borma, near the Algerian border in southern Tunisia. Seven fields in Tunisia and three in the Gulf of GabΦs produce petroleum. The offshore fields account for half the total production. Petroleum is shipped by pipeline to La Skhirra on the Gulf of GabΦs and then to the country's only refinery at Bizerte. Crude oil from the El Borma field flows through a pipeline from Algeria's Zarzaitine and Edjeleh fields. Other fields in Tunisia have pipelines to La Skhirra. The majority of the natural gas is from the El Borma field. Tunisia's industries provide a quarter of the domestic income--almost twice that of agriculture. Tunis is the major industrial center. Other cities have specialized industries. Food and textiles each account for a quarter of industrial production. Also important are cement, mechanical and electromechanical equipment, chemicals, paper, and wood. The chemical industry depends on processing phosphate rock into fertilizer and phosphoric acid. Two steel mills are located at Bizerte. Electricity is produced at nearly 20 power plants, most of which burn coal.
\par \tab Tunisia is one of the world's largest producers of calcium phosphates. They are mined from several deposits in central Tunisia and are processed at Gafsa and GabΦs for export through the port at Sfax. Iron ore, lead, and zinc are also mined. Tunis is the capital and largest city, with a population of about 620,000. It is linked by canal to the principal port of Halq el Oued (in French, La Goulette) on the Gulf of Tunis. Sfax is the second largest city and port. Sousse, Bizerte, and GabΦs are smaller cities, each with port facilities. Kairouan and Gafsa are regional centers. The transportation system is well developed, with about 11,800 miles (19,000 kilometers) of surfaced roads and about 1,300 miles (2,100 kilometers) of railways. Tunisia has five international airports, two of which serve Tunis.
\par {\b History and Government}
\par \tab Ancient Tunisia was a Phoenician colony. By the mid-5th century BC Carthage controlled commerce in the central Mediterranean. Carthage became part of the Roman Empire and was included in the Byzantine Empire after the Vandals took the city in AD 439.
\par \tab Arabs expanded into North Africa in the mid-7th century. Kairouan, founded in 670, became a permanent base of military operations against the Berbers and a center of Muslim influence. Islam spread rapidly among the Berbers. In 698 the Arabs took Carthage and established Tunis.
\par \tab Ifriqiyah, or Africa Minor, as Tunisia was called, was a province of Arab and Muslim empires through the 15th century. The Normans controlled Tunis from 1148 to 1160. After a brief period of Moroccan rule, Ifriqiyah was once again incorporated into empires ruled from Baghdad and Cairo. Berber families, however, controlled provincial governments. Spanish and Ottoman Turks battled for control of Tunisia in the early 16th century. The Ottomans ended Spanish rule in 1574, and Tunisia became a Barbary state. After a brief period of direct rule, the Ottomans recognized the de facto independence of Tunisia. It was ruled as a monarchy by beys and deys, who were officers of the Ottoman occupation forces. After France occupied Algeria, Tunisian affairs came under the control of France, Great Britain, and Italy.
\par \tab Tunisia became a French protectorate in 1883. Although the monarchy continued, France controlled the government. Large-scale colonization by French and Italian settlers on nationalized land brought the best agricultural land under European control. The Tunisian independence movement began in 1920, when the Destour, or Constitution, party called for a self-governing constitutional regime with an elected legislature. In 1934 the Neo-Destour, or New Constitution, party, which was led by lawyer Habib Bourguiba, revived the nationalist movement.
\par \tab In 1950 France instituted political reforms designed to give Tunisia internal autonomy in cooperation with France. Independence was granted on March 20, 1956, and Bourguiba became prime minister. His party was renamed the Destourian Socialist party. After the National Assembly abolished the monarchy on July 25, 1957, Bourguiba was named head of state. French military forces finally left Tunisia in June 1962. In May 1964 Tunisia expropriated all French-owned land and distributed it to landless peasants.
\par \tab A constitution adopted in 1959 provided for the election of the legislature and the president every five years by direct universal suffrage. It also stipulated that the president could not be reelected more than three times consecutively. After Bourguiba was reelected in 1964, 1969, and 1974, he was proclaimed president-for-life in 1975 and held office for another 12 years. On Nov. 7, 1987, the 84-year-old leader was ousted on the grounds of senility. The peaceful takeover was engineered by Zine al-Abidine Ben Ali, whom Bourguiba had named prime minister a month earlier. Ben Ali was reelected in 1989 and 1994 with no opposition.
\par \tab Since the mid-1970s the General Union of Tunisian Workers has been a major political force. Under political reforms instituted in 1981, Tunisia officially became a multiparty state, but the Socialist party--renamed Rassemblement Constitutionnel DΘmocratique (RCD), or Constitutional Democratic Assembly, in 1988--and the union combined to retain absolute control. Although a fundamentalist Islamic party gained popularity in 1989, it was not granted official recognition. Population (1994 census), 8,735,885.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab Gary L. Fowler\par \tab The country of Turkey occupies a position between Europe and Asia. This geographical location has had a major influence on the history of Turkey and on the politics and culture of its people. At one time Turkey was the heart of the large Ottoman Empire that contained much of the Middle East, North Africa, and southeastern Europe.
\par \tab Since World War I, Turkey has played a more modest, but still significant, role in international politics. Turkey controls one of the most vital seaways in Europe, the two sets of narrow straits that link the Black Sea with the Mediterranean.
\par {\b Land}
\par \tab Turkey is about 300,000 square miles (780,000 square kilometers) in area. About 97 percent of this area lies in Asia and about 3 percent in Europe. The Asian part of the country is mainly a long peninsula, bounded on the north by the Black Sea and on the south by the Mediterranean. In the southeast it borders Syria and Iraq, in the east Iran, and in the northeast Georgia and Armenia. The European part of Turkey borders Greece and Bulgaria.
\par \tab Turkey is traditionally divided into two main provinces. Turkey in Asia is known as Anatolia, or Asia Minor, while Turkey in Europe is called Trakya, or Thrace. Most of Anatolia consists of a large plateau, or raised flat area. This Anatolian Plateau rises from about 2,000 feet (600 meters) in the west to more than 6,500 feet (1,800 meters) in the east. It is bounded on the north by the Pontic Mountains, which stretch along the Black Sea coast, and in the south by the higher ranges of the Taurus and Anti-Taurus Mountains. The latter reach their highest point on Erciyas Dai at 12,851 feet (3,917 meters). The plateau slopes in the west to the Aegean Sea and becomes a region of small hills and valleys. In the east the Pontic and Taurus mountains meet in a complex group of mountain ranges that contain the highest mountain in Turkey, Mount Ararat, at 16,853 feet (5,137 meters).
\par \tab Apart from the areas of flat land on top of the plateau and along the coasts, there are few extensive lowlands. The coast of the Black Sea has only a narrow plain. In the south the Mediterranean coastal plain is wider in places, notably along the Gulf of Antalya and the Gulf of Iskenderun. The latter, known as the Cilician Plain, is reached from the plateau by a pass through the Taurus Mountains called the Cilician Gates. In the west there are scattered areas of lowlands intermixed with hills. Although there are no active volcanoes in Turkey, much of the country is geologically unstable, and severe earthquakes have occurred.
\par \tab The longest river is the Kizilirmak. It is 734 miles (1,181 kilometers) long and flows into the Black Sea, as do the Sakarya and the Yeil Irmak. The Gediz and Menderes rivers flow westward to the Aegean Sea, and the Seyhan and Ceyhan rivers flow southward into the Gulf of Iskenderun. The two great rivers of Iraq, the Tigris and the Euphrates, both begin in the heart of eastern Turkey and flow to the southern border. Turkish rivers are often low in summer and of little use for navigation. Some have been dammed to provide water for irrigation.
\par \tab In the center of the plateau there is a large salt lake, Tuz Lake, which dries up in summer. There are several other lakes, of which Lake Van, near the eastern border, is the largest.
\par \tab Turkey in Europe is bounded on the north and south by mountain ranges. Between these two ranges lies the valley of the Ergene River. The Maritsa River forms part of the boundary between Turkey and Bulgaria. The European and Asian parts of Turkey are separated by the two straits known as the Bosporus in the north and the Dardanelles in the south. Between the two lies the Sea of Marmara.
\par \tab Turkey has a variety of mineral resources. The most important deposits are located along the lower slopes of the Pontic and Taurus mountains. High-quality coal is mainly found in the region near Zonguldak on the western Black Sea coast. Lignite, an inferior type of coal, is found in Turkey in Europe and in western Anatolia. It is mainly used to produce electric power. Small amounts of petroleum are produced in Turkey. Some comes from southeastern Anatolia near Adana, but the main oilfields are in the east along the Tigris River.
\par \tab Turkey is particularly rich in metallic minerals such as iron ore, chrome, copper, lead, zinc, and manganese. Most of the iron ore comes from central Anatolia and is of good quality. Turkey is one of the world's largest producers of boron, which is used in the chemical industry. It is found in western Anatolia. Other minerals of importance are antimony, magnesite, bauxite, mercury, sulfur, tungsten, and asbestos.
\par \tab There are several hydroelectric power stations on the major rivers, of which the largest is the Keban Dam on the Euphrates. More than half of the electricity produced in Turkey comes from water power.
\par {\b Climate, Vegetation, and Animal Life}
\par \tab {\b The climate.}
\par \tab The climate of Turkey is more extreme than its southern location would suggest. This is because of the relatively high altitude of much of the country. The plateau has cold winters, often accompanied by high winds. In January Ankara in the west has an average temperature of 31░F (-1░ C) while Erzurum in the east, 6,400 feet (1,950 meters) above sea level, has a temperature of 15░ F (-9░ C). In summer the two places have average temperatures of 73░ F (23░ C) and 65░ F (18░ C), respectively. Most of the plateau is dry throughout the year, as the surrounding mountains prevent moisture from the seas from reaching the interior. The average annual precipitation varies from 10 inches (25 centimeters) in the west to more than 20 inches (50 centimeters) in the more mountainous east. In winter snow may lie for three or four months. In the summer the heat in the interior of the plateau can often be extreme and is accompanied by drought.
\par \tab The coastal regions in general have a Mediterranean climate with hot, dry summers and mild, rainy winters. Istanbul has average temperatures of 42░ F (6░ C) in January and 75░ F (24░ C) in July, as does Samsun on the Black Sea coast. Both places have about 29 inches (74 centimeters) of precipitation in the year, much of it in winter. The highest levels of precipitation--100 inches (254 centimeters) a year--are found along the Black Sea coast close to the Georgian border.
\par \tab {\b The vegetation.}
\par \tab The vegetation of Turkey is limited. In general, much of the country is a region of treeless, barren grasslands and bare hills. The plateau consists mainly of grass. In the spring, flowers such as crocuses and tulips bloom for a short period. The coastal regions have a typically Mediterranean vegetation. It consists of trees such as pines, oaks, cedars, junipers, and chestnuts except where cutting, burning, and grazing have prevented tree growth. Here, in place of trees, scrub vegetation known as maquis appears. The only lowland region with dense forest is the eastern Black Sea coast where precipitation is high.
\par \tab The soils of Turkey vary widely in type. Much of the country is covered with stony acidic soils that are poor for farming. In hilly areas that have been grazed by livestock, there is serious soil erosion. In the coastal regions a typical Mediterranean soil known as terra rossa is found. It is formed from limestone and is good for farming. In the valleys and plains there are areas of rich alluvial soils, or those deposited by running water.
\par \tab {\b Animal life.}
\par \tab Animal life in Turkey is widely varied. In the western and southern areas with a Mediterranean climate, such animals as deer, wild goats, lynxes, wildcats, bears, and occasionally leopards are found. In the drier areas of the plateau and the east, gazelles, hyenas, ground squirrels, jerboas, hares, and foxes occur. Wolves, jackals, badgers, and otters are found throughout the country, but many species are located mainly in isolated and wooded regions. Birds include owls, partridges, quail, buzzards, storks, vultures, and eagles. Among a variety of snakes the only poisonous one is the viper.
\par {\b People and Culture}
\par \tab The population of Turkey is more than 50 million. The earliest known inhabitants were the Hittites, who probably came from Central Asia. Although the present-day Turks are proud of their descent from the Hittites, they are in fact a mixture of other peoples who entered the country at various times such as Persians, Celts, Romans, Arabs, and Seljuk Turks. The Seljuk Turks came from Central Asia, where they had adopted the Muslim faith, and entered Asia Minor in the 11th century. They intermarried with the inhabitants of their conquered territories and lost the racial features of the Central Asian Turkic peoples. Most Turks have fair skins and dark hair, similar to the other peoples of the eastern Mediterranean region.
\par \tab About 90 percent of the population is made up of Turks. The largest minority group is the Kurds, who probably number about 4 million, or 7 percent of the population. They speak an Iranian language and are separated by political boundaries from other Kurds who live in Iran and Iraq. They have fiercely resisted attempts to turn them into Turks. Other minority groups are much smaller and include Arabs, Greeks, Armenians, Georgians, Circassians, and Jews.
\par \tab About 99 percent of the population is Muslim, the remainder being Christian or Jewish. Turkey differs from many other Muslim countries because Atatⁿrk, the national leader from 1923 to 1938, attempted to reduce the influence of the religion of Islam in Turkey. He abolished Islamic law and removed the power of the religious leaders. Islam was declared no longer to be the state religion.
\par \tab About 44 percent of the population lives in cities and towns. The largest city is Istanbul with nearly 3 million inhabitants. Formerly known as Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine and Ottoman empires, Istanbul contains many historic buildings of the Christian and Muslim periods. It is situated on the shore of the Bosporus in Europe. Ankara, with nearly 2 million inhabitants, has been the capital of Turkey since 1923. It is located on the western plateau. Ankara was selected as the capital instead of Istanbul because its location was more secure from attack from abroad. Other major cities are Izmir, the major port of Asia Minor, and Adana, on the Cilician Plain.
\par \tab Turkish literature reflects both Middle Eastern and European influences. Until the 19th century the main influence was the religion of Islam, and most writers and poets followed the patterns of Persian and Arabic literatures. In the 1850s, however, writers began to imitate European forms of the novel and poetry. Notable writers of this period were Halid Uakligil and Hⁿseyin Gⁿrpinar and the poet Tevfik Fikret. Rising nationalism was reflected in the works of Ziya G÷kalp and Reat Gⁿntekin. After World War II the trends toward a more original native Turkish literature continued, and such writers as Kemal Tahir and Orhan Kemal described village life in realistic terms. Popular present-day writers include Yaar Kemal, whose works have been translated into English and other languages, Mahmut Makal, and the woman writer Nehziye Meriτ.
\par \tab Because of the Muslim ban on the use of the human figure in art, there was little development of painting and sculpture in Turkey until 1923, when the ban was removed. There is virtually no interest in modern art and little market for it--even among educated people. Folk and decorative arts are the most popular forms. Oriental carpets, vases, pottery, and copper articles are all used to decorate the home.
\par \tab Turkish music reflects its Middle Eastern origin and has strong Arabic and Persian influences. Folk music and folk themes are still popular, though Western influenced music--especially for dancing and in places of entertainment--has appeared in recent years.
\par \tab Children in Turkey must attend school between the ages of 7 and 12. After three years at a secondary school, they may go to a lycΘe, which prepares them for the university. There are also technical, agricultural, and commercial secondary schools. Education at state schools is free. There are 27 universities, of which nine were founded in 1982 alone. The oldest and the largest is the University of Istanbul. There are four universities each in Istanbul and in Ankara and two in Izmir. Among other universities are those in Erzurum and Trabzon.
\par \tab The Latin alphabet was introduced in place of the Arabic alphabet in 1928, which made the writing of Turkish easier. But about 38 percent of the population--mainly in the rural areas--is still unable to read or write.
\par {\b Economy, Transportation, and Communication}
\par \tab {\b Economy.}
\par \tab Farming is the most important branch of the economy and employs about 60 percent of the working population. About 37 percent of the land area is suitable for cultivation and another 12 percent for livestock grazing. Most of the best farming land is found on the coastal plains and the river valleys, while much of the plateau and the mountain regions are suitable only for grazing.
\par \tab Much of the cultivated land is used to grow grain. The most important grain crop by far is wheat. Barley is grown in the drier areas, and a little rye, corn, and rice are also cultivated. Because there is not much rain, irrigation is necessary for farming in many parts of the country. The government has invested in the construction of dams, reservoirs, and canals for this purpose.
\par \tab The most important industrial crop is cotton. It is the single largest export of the country by value and also provides raw material for the country's textile industry. It is grown mainly on the Cilician Plain. Tobacco is also a major export crop, grown mainly in the southwest and on the Black Sea coast. Sugar beets are grown in order to reduce the amount of sugar imported from abroad.
\par \tab Along with citrus fruits and figs, Turkey is a major producer and exporter of sultana raisins and hazelnuts, which grow on the Black Sea coast. Tea is grown in the areas of high rainfall on the eastern Black Sea coast. At one time the opium poppy formed an important source of revenue for the farmers, but now production is restricted.
\par \tab Because of the large areas of dry grasslands and mountains that are unsuitable for crops, livestock herding is an important branch of Turkish agriculture. Sheep and goats are the main livestock. About one quarter of the goats are of the Angora variety that produces mohair. Cattle, oxen, and water buffaloes are also kept. Much of the livestock is of poor quality and does not produce much milk or meat.
\par \tab Because of the destruction of much of Turkey's forest by overgrazing and cutting, the forests are of little economic importance. In spite of the fact that the government owns all the forests, little has been done either to curb their misuse or to develop a well-managed forest industry.
\par \tab The seas around Turkey contain many fishes of different species, but the fishing industry is only of minor importance. There is a small canning industry. The most common fishes caught are mackerel, anchovies, and tuna.
\par \tab In recent years Turkey has made considerable progress in the development of tourism. The climate of the Mediterranean coast and its beaches are major attractions along with the historic buildings and museums of Istanbul. About half the tourists come from Western Europe.
\par \tab Industry is becoming an increasingly important branch of the economy. Turkish industrial development has been affected by the lack of foreign investment, the result of nationalism and a distrust of foreign investors. The state controls certain key industries such as mining, power, iron and steel, and transportation.
\par \tab The most important industry is food and tobacco processing, which includes fruit canning, sugar refining, flour milling, and cigarette manufacturing. The second largest is the cotton and wool textile industry.
\par \tab Turkey has a state-owned iron and steel industry with three major plants located at Karabⁿk and Ereli--both near the coalfields at Zonguldak--and at Iskenderun on the southeastern coast. Most of the steel produced goes to the engineering industry, which has developed rapidly in recent years aided by the government.
\par \tab A variety of products are manufactured such as machine tools, small engines, industrial equipment, and household appliances. There is also a small production of tractors, trucks, and automobiles.
\par \tab There are chemical plants located close to the Zonguldak coalfields and a petrochemical plant at Izmit in the northwest. Izmit is also the site of a petroleum refinery and an aluminum plant.
\par \tab {\b Transportation.}
\par \tab Because of rugged terrain and long distances, it has been difficult to develop an effective transportation system. The 5,400 miles (8,700 kilometers) of railroad are still not enough for a country of Turkey's size but nevertheless form the best transportation network in the country. The major cities are linked by highways, but most villages have no good roads in or around them.
\par \tab Sea transportation is important for this country with its long coastline. The main port is Istanbul, which handles about two thirds of Turkey's trade. Other smaller ports--such as Izmir, Mersin, Samsun, and Trabzon--handle both local and foreign trade.
\par \tab The Turkish national airline is the government-owned Tⁿrk Hava Yollari, or Turkish Airlines, which offers domestic flights as well as flights to several European and Middle Eastern countries. Both Istanbul and Ankara have international airports.
\par \tab {\b Communication.}
\par \tab Television and radio are government monopolies. The telephone and telegraph services are also government-controlled.
\par {\b Government}
\par \tab In recent years the governmental system of Turkey has undergone some drastic changes. Since becoming a republic in 1923, Turkey had been governed through a parliamentary system consisting of a Grand National Assembly with a lower house (National Assembly) and an upper house (Republican Senate). Because of political and social unrest and violence in the country, a military regime took over the government and dissolved the Grand National Assembly in 1980. The country was run by a National Security Council consisting of four commanders of the armed forces. In 1981 a Consultative Assembly was established, and in the following year a new constitution was adopted. General Kenan Evren was elected at the same time as president for a seven-year term. There is a one-chamber Grand National Assembly with 450 members elected every five years. In 1983 elections were held, and the military leadership returned control to a civilian government. The largest parties in parliament are the Motherland party, which holds most seats, the Populist party, and the True Path party.
\par {\b History}
\par \tab During the 11th century, bands of Turkish horsemen invaded western Asia from Turkestan. They adopted the religion of Islam, but they plundered the Muslim lands in their path. The strongest of these tribes was the Seljuks. They took their name from an early sultan, or chieftain.
\par \tab The Seljuks established a small state in Anatolia called the sultanate of Rum (Rome). From here they attacked both the Arabs in Syria and Palestine and the Christians of the Byzantine Empire in Asia Minor. In 1071 they defeated the army of the Byzantine emperor Romanus IV at Manzikert and took him prisoner. In the same year they conquered Jerusalem and with it the Holy Land.
\par \tab The Byzantines still held most of Asia Minor and their capital at Constantinople (now Istanbul). They appealed for help to the pope in Rome, and for two centuries the Christians of Europe fought the Turks in seven Crusades. After the last Crusade the Seljuks still held their land. Now, however, they were attacked by new invaders from Turkestan.
\par \tab {\b Ottoman Empire.}
\par \tab An outstanding leader among the newcomers was Othman I, or Osman I, who was born in 1258 and died in 1326. He founded the dynasty of Turkish rulers called after him Osmanli, meaning "sons of Osman." In time the English transformed the name to Ottoman.
\par \tab Othman's son Orkhan (ruled 1326-59) pushed his conquests to the Aegean coast. By peaceful barter he gained a foothold on the European side of the Dardanelles at Gallipoli. He built his army by exacting a tribute of children from his Christian subjects. The strongest and brightest boys were taken from their parents, reared in the Muslim faith, and trained for military or government service. From these slaves Orkhan filled the ranks of his infantry, the Janizaries (also spelled Janissaries). His successors continued this practice. In later centuries no force in Europe could match this hard and ruthless corps.
\par \tab Orkhan's son Murad I (ruled 1359-89) conquered Thrace and moved his capital to Adrianople. Mohammed II (ruled 1451-81) captured Constantinople in 1453 and made it the capital. During Selim's reign from 1512 to 1520, the Ottomans moved eastward and southward. At Mecca in Arabia, the shrine of the Muslim world, Selim took the title caliph--ruler of all Muslims. Henceforth the Turkish sultan was the spiritual head of the entire Muslim world.
\par \tab Under Sⁿleyman I the Magnificent (ruled 1520-66) the Ottoman Empire reached its greatest extent, but the sultans who followed Sⁿleyman were weak and dissolute. In 1571 the combined fleets of Venice, Spain, and the Papal States defeated the Turks in the great naval battle of Lepanto off the coast of Greece. This victory dispelled the legend of the "invincible Turk." Russia annexed the Crimea in 1783. In 1821 Greece began its long fight for freedom. The Janizaries revolted in 1826, and the sultan abolished the famous corps after slaying thousands.
\par \tab Russia waged war against the Turks in 1806 and again in 1828 and 1829, winning the Caucasus and the northeastern coast of the Black Sea. Russia, now master of the Black Sea, was determined to control its outlet. Great Britain, France, and Sardinia helped Turkey in the Crimean War of 1854 to 1856 and blocked Russia. The Russo-Turkish war of 1877 and 1878 brought Russia almost to Constantinople. Turkey was forced to sign the harsh Treaty of San Stefano, which would have ended its rule in Europe. The Western powers, however, quickly called the Congress of Berlin in 1878 and once more revived the failing Ottoman Empire.
\par \tab By the end of the 19th century, the sultan's government was tottering. To get money, the sultan gave special rights to foreigners in Turkey--the so-called capitulations. Railways, mines, banks, and ports fell into the hands of foreign capitalists.
\par \tab Sultan Abdⁿlhamid II (ruled 1876-1909) developed strong ties with Germany. German engineers began work on a railway across Turkey that was to link Berlin with Baghdad and the Persian Gulf. Turkey sided with Germany in World War I and succeeded in holding the straits and Constantinople. But in the end Turkey was defeated.
\par \tab In 1920 the sultan's representatives signed the Treaty of SΦvres, which would have confined Turkey to the Anatolian Plateau. The Aegean and Mediterranean coasts were assigned to Greece and Italy. Armenia was to be independent.
\par \tab {\b Turkish Republic under Atatⁿrk.}
\par \tab Resentment flamed high in Turkey. A new government sprang up at Ankara in Anatolia, led by the dynamic Mustafa Kemal, an army officer. Kemal first subjugated Armenia, then turned westward and drove the Greek forces from Smyrna. The sultan, Mohammed VI, fled from Constantinople.
\par \tab In July 1923 the Treaty of Lausanne repudiated the Treaty of SΦvres. On Oct. 29, 1923, Turkey was proclaimed a republic with Kemal as president. Kemal in 1924 gave Turkey a liberal democratic constitution. Later in the same year, however, he announced that he would rule as a dictator.
\par \tab The new government was intensely nationalistic. Kemal uprooted 1,300,000 Greeks who lived in Asia Minor and shipped them to Greece. At the same time some 353,000 Muslims who lived in Macedonia were admitted to Turkey. The large Armenian population had already been reduced by the massacres of 1915.
\par \tab Kemal abolished the office of caliph, suppressed religious orders, and closed religious schools and law courts. He forbade men to wear the fez. He encouraged women to cast off their face veils, gave them equal rights before the law, and made polygamy illegal. He abolished titles of nobility--pasha, bey, and effendi--and ordered Turks to take family names, which they had not had before. For himself he chose the name Atatⁿrk, meaning "father of the Turks".
\par \tab Atatⁿrk entered into friendly relations with the Soviet Union and established state socialism. In 1934 he launched a five-year development plan with machines and financial aid from the Soviets. He enforced a strict ban, however, on the Communist party. When he died in 1938, the assembly elected his prime minister and friend, Ismet In÷nⁿ, president.
\par \tab {\b After Atatⁿrk.}
\par \tab In÷nⁿ made a defense pact with Britain and France when World War II broke out in 1939, but it was not implemented because of Germany's early victories. The 1936 Montreux Convention had restored to Turkey the right to fortify the Dardanelles, and Turkey closed the straits to Allied shipping during the war. In February 1945, after Germany's defeat seemed assured, Turkey entered World War II on the side of the Allies.
\par \tab The most notable change after the war was the liberalization of political life. A growing class of professional and business people demanded more freedom. The government allowed new political parties to form, extended the right to vote, and allowed direct elections.
\par \tab In 1946 the Democrat party was founded from a split in Atatⁿrk's Republican People's party. It gathered immediate support and by 1950 won a majority in the assembly. Adnan Menderes became prime minister, the first time this office surpassed the presidency in importance.
\par \tab Turkey's troops strongly supported the United Nations forces in the Korean War, and the country joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1952. The new government had great success the first few years, but as economic problems developed it became increasingly repressive. The army staged an almost bloodless takeover of the government in 1960, and a 38-member committee ran the country. Menderes and two other ministers were executed.
\par \tab A new constitution was adopted in 1961, and the military withdrew from direct political control. It began a period of political moderation. The Democrat political prisoners were released, new labor legislation promoted a great expansion of trade unions, and workers became more active in politics. The new Justice party drew its main support from the same elements that had supported the Democrats, and it had a similar philosophy. It won the election of 1965, and Sⁿleyman Demirel became prime minister. He headed a weak government, but he was skillful in balancing the increasingly radical left and a newly emerging radical right as well as holding his party to a moderate line. By the late 1960s Demirel's government was unable to deal with increasing disorders, and in 1971 the army called for his resignation.
\par \tab Short-lived coalition governments were in power for the next decade. Inflation, unemployment, political violence, and the imposition of martial law led to another military takeover in 1980 and a new constitution in 1982. Turgut Ozal, founder of the Motherland party, was elected prime minister in 1983 and 1987 and president in 1989. Martial law was lifted by 1987. Sⁿleyman Demirel was elected to the presidency after Ozal died in April 1993. In June 1993 Tansu Ciller of the True Path party became the country's first female prime minister.
\par \tab The outlawed Kurdish Workers' party in southeastern Turkey, which was responsible for more than 500 deaths in the late 1980s, continued its campaign of violence into the 1990s. When Iraq invaded Kuwait in August 1990, precipitating a crisis in the Persian Gulf, Turkey complied with United Nations sanctions against Iraq and closed the pipeline that carried Iraqi oil to the Mediterranean coast. Later, Turkey sent troops to fight against Iraq.
\par \tab {\b The Cyprus question.}
\par \tab In the 1950s the Greek Cypriots demanded independence from Great Britain and union with Greece. This led to strife with the Turkish Cypriots, who looked to Turkey for help. Tension between Turkey and Greece resulted, which was eased somewhat by the granting of independence to Cyprus in 1959.
\par \tab Disputes between Turkish and Greek Cypriots after independence led to civil war in 1963, bringing Turkey and Greece themselves to the brink of war. A United Nations peacekeeping force helped control the conflict until Archbishop Makarios, the Greek president of Cyprus, was forced out in mid-1974. Turkish troops then occupied the northern part of the island. The Turkish-occupied zone declared independence in 1983, an action condemned by the United Nations. Relations with Greece improved in 1988 following a dispute over petroleum rights in the Aegean Sea in 1987.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by Ian M. Matley, Professor of Geography, Michigan State University, East Lansing.
\par \tab {\b FURTHER READING FOR TURKEY}
\par \tab Balim, Cigdem, ed. Turkey--Political, Social, and Economic Challenges in the 1990s (Brill, 1995).
\par \tab Heper, Metin. Historical Dictionary of Turkey (Scarecrow, 1994).
\par \tab Mango, Andrew. Turkey: The Challenge of a New Role (Greenwood, 1994).
\par \tab Spencer, William. The Land and People of Turkey (Harper, 1990).\par \tab Formerly a republic of the Soviet Union, the Republic of Turkmenistan is located in Central Asia east of the Caspian Sea. It borders Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Iran, and Afghanistan. Turkmenistan has an area of approximately 188,500 square miles (488,200 square kilometers). The capital is Ashkhabad.
\par \tab Turkmenia, as it is often known, is mostly desert. The Kara-Kum, a desert of long sand ridges, is its largest single feature and accounts for more than 70 percent of its land area. The only part of the republic that is not essentially flat is the Kopetdag Mountains at Turkmenia's southern boundary. There is only one major body of water--the Amu Darya, which flows through the republic's easternmost regions.
\par \tab Low humidity, little rainfall, and high evaporation make Turkmenia's climate very dry. The Kara-Kum receives only about 6 inches (15 centimeters) of rainfall a year and the Kopetdags no more than 16 inches (40 centimeters). The average temperature in July is 82░ F (28░ C) in the north and 90░ F (32░ C) in the south.
\par \tab Although Russians, Uzbeks, and Kazakhs live in Turkmenia, the largest ethnic group is the Turkmen, making up two thirds of the republic's population. The Turkmen migrated to Central Asia beginning in the 8th century AD and intermingled with the local population. They speak a language known as Turkic, a branch of the Altaic language family, which makes them linguistically similar to the Azerbaijanis and the Turks. The Turkmen were nomads throughout most of their history but are now mostly farmers.
\par \tab Turkmenia has one of the highest rates of population growth of all the former Soviet republics, but it is the least densely populated. Most people live in the oasis areas in the south and along the Amu Darya in the east.
\par \tab Since the Russian Revolution of 1917, the economy of Turkmenia has been transformed. Agriculture has been mechanized and, because of widespread irrigation, greatly expanded. The Kara-Kum Canal, using water from the Amu Darya, irrigates approximately 1,000,000 acres (404,700 hectares).
\par \tab Cotton is the main agricultural product, though grain crops--especially wheat, barley, and corn--are grown. Livestock raising follows cotton in importance. Karakul sheep, whose wool is used to make carpets, are the most plentiful.
\par \tab Discoveries of petroleum and natural gas have greatly expanded Turkmenia's heavy industry and made the republic one of the former Soviet Union's major energy producers. Production of chemicals and generation of electricity are also significant in the economy. Light industry has centered on food processing and textiles, especially cotton, woolen, and silk fabrics. Rug making and embroidery are major activities of local industry.
\par {\b History}
\par \tab As early as the 6th century BC, Turkmenia was part of the Persian Achaemenian empire. It fell to Alexander the Great in 331 BC and then to his successors, the Seleucids. The Parthians and then the Sassanids controlled the area in the early centuries of the Christian Era, but Arabs conquered it in the 7th century. The migration of Turkic peoples into Turkmenia began about the same time. The Mongols, under Genghis Khan, overran Turkmenia in the 13th century, and it passed to various local khanates thereafter.
\par \tab Russian penetration into Turkmenia began in the 18th century in an attempt to control Asian trade routes. Despite some resistance, Turkmenia was annexed by Russia between the years 1869 and 1881. After the Russian Revolution, it was an administrative subdivision of the Turkistan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic, but in 1924 it became the Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic. There was resistance to Soviet rule throughout the 1930s. Amid the disintegration of the Soviet Union, Turkmenistan declared its independence in 1991. Population (1991 census), 3,714,100.\par \tab Turks and Caicos Islands, West Indies; 193 sq mi (500 sq km); cap. Grand Turk; explored by Ponce de Leon 1512; salt, sponges, lobster; pop. 12,300\par \tab Formerly known as the Ellice Islands, Tuvalu is a constitutional monarchy made up of nine small islands in the west central Pacific. The islands are located 2,500 miles (4,000 kilometers) northeast of Australia and have a total land area of 9 1/4 square miles (24 square kilometers). Funafuti Atoll is the capital and main port. The other islands are Nanumaga, Nanumea, Niulakita, Niutao, Nui, Nukufetau, Nukulaelae, and Vaitupu.
\par \tab Tuvalu's islands stretch northward for 366 miles (589 kilometers) from Niulakita to Nanumea. The climate is hot and humid year round. Temperatures range from 78░ to 90░ F (26░ to 32░ C). Average rainfall varies from 102 inches (259 centimeters) in the northern islands to l46 inches (371 centimeters) in the south.
\par \tab Because the soil is primarily derived from coral, it is of poor quality for plants. Vegetation is limited to about three dozen species. Coconut palms, pandanus, casuarina, herbs, ferns, and grasses predominate. The amount of wildlife is also limited. The Polynesian rat, lizards, and turtles are found the most. The surrounding oceans, by contrast, are filled with an abundance of sea life. Castor-oil fish, bonito, tuna, kingfish, and flying fish are prevalent; octopuses, crustaceans, and other fishes inhabit the reefs.
\par \tab The people of Tuvalu are about 92 percent Polynesian except for the inhabitants of Nui, who are mostly Micronesian. There are very few Europeans or other foreigners in the islands. The language is a Samoan dialect of Polynesian except for the use of Kiribati on Nui.
\par \tab Tuvalu's economy is a developing one, based mainly on subsistence agriculture, fishing, and limited production of copra, which is a cash crop derived from coconut. Pigs, goats, and chickens are the primary livestock animals.
\par \tab Tuvalu became a British protectorate in 1892, a colony in 1916, and an independent commonwealth in l978. The British monarch is the head of state and is represented by a Tuvaluan governor-general. The one-house Parliament has 12 members. Population (l984 estimate), 5,000.\par \tab A republic of East Africa and a member of the Commonwealth since independence in 1962, Uganda has been forced to cope with internal rivalries between its traditional kingdoms and tribes. It has suffered under frequent changes of leadership, a brutal dictatorship, invasion by Tanzania, and civil war--all of which have prevented economic growth. The landlocked country is bordered on the east by Kenya, on the north by Sudan, on the west by Zaire, and on the south by Rwanda, Tanzania, and Lake Victoria.
\par {\b Land}
\par \tab The country covers an area of 93,070 square miles (241,050 square kilometers) and consists of a broad, open plateau between 3,000 and 5,000 feet (900 and 1,500 meters) above sea level underlain by ancient crystalline rocks. It is a land of many lakes and swamps, which cover about 15 percent of the total area. The waters of Lake Victoria and Lake Kioga overflow into the upper reaches of the Nile River. On the western boundary a large rift valley and a mountain group, Mount Ruwenzori, are associated with dormant volcanoes. Mount Margherita is the highest peak in the mountain group, at 16,763 feet (5,109 meters). In this valley are found Lake Edward, Lake George, and Lake Mobuto Sese Seko (also known as Lake Albert). To the east a similar rift valley marks the end of the Uganda plateau. Mount Elgon is a high volcano (14,178 feet; 4,321 meters) on the edge of this rift. To the north the plateau slopes gently toward southern Sudan and the great swamp As Sudd.
\par \tab Located on both sides of the equator, all regions of Uganda except the extreme east and north receive abundant rainfall, which lasts from nine to 11 months of the year, with March to June the wettest season. Around Lake Victoria and in the western mountains, some 60 inches (150 centimeters) of annual rainfall enables farmers to grow food crops throughout the year. On Mount Ruwenzori and the high volcanoes there is permanent snow cover. Temperatures over most of the country are more tropical than equatorial because of the high elevation, making it comfortable despite its location on the equator. Average temperatures at Kampala are around 72░ F (22░ C).
\par \tab At one time much of southern Uganda and the lower slopes of the mountains were covered with tropical rain forests. These were steadily cleared for farming so that only a few scattered areas survive today. To the north, as rainfall decreases, the vegetation changes to tall, grassy woodlands. Unusual forms of giant plant life occur on Mount Ruwenzori and Mount Elgon.
\par \tab Wild animals of all kinds were once abundant, but forests have been cleared, eliminating many habitats, and animals have been driven off the grassy woodlands. People have also hunted game for meat and trophies. A few national parks have been established as wildlife preserves. The largest is Kabalega (formerly Murchison Falls), an area on either side of the Victoria Nile River where herds of elephant live.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab Ugandan society is largely rural, though there are several cities, including Kampala, Jinja, Mbale, Masaka, and Entebbe. The greater part of the population is concentrated in a wide band along the shores of Lake Victoria. It is difficult to count the total population because of the internal strife, but in the early 1990s it was estimated to be about 17 million. Large numbers of refugees have been lost to neighboring countries. With an annual growth rate of more than 3 percent, half of the population is under the age of 15 years. Life expectancy is 49 years for males and 53 for females, and infant mortality is 103 per 1,000 live births. Some 10 percent of the population is estimated to be urban. Kampala is the main commercial center and capital city, while most industry is concentrated in Jinja.
\par \tab The Bantu-speaking peoples are concentrated in the south and southwest and are the largest group. They include the Ganda, Soga, Nyoro, and Nkole. To the north and east are Nilotic and Nilo-Hamitic peoples, composed of many different tribes. The dominant languages are Luganda (spoken by the Ganda) and Swahili, the East African lingua franca. English is used throughout the country as the official language.
\par \tab The country has become increasingly Christian (78 percent) due to the efforts of Protestant and Roman Catholic missionaries. About 7 percent of the population are Muslims. More than half of Uganda's people are literate, the result of the Christian missions and British colonial rule. Makerere University in Kampala has played a leading role in training Ugandans in medicine, engineering, law, and the arts. There are only a handful of daily newspapers published, with a total circulation of fewer than 70,000. The government-run radio and television stations offer programs in English, Swahili, and Luganda.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab Most of Uganda's people are farmers, producing either food or export crops. Except on the lower slopes of volcanic mountains, soils are not rich. Reliable rains make farming possible. Food crops consist of bananas and plantains, cassava, sweet potatoes, sugarcane, corn (maize), sorghum, dry beans, and peanuts. People usually grow enough for their families and to sell in local markets.
\par \tab Cash crops were introduced in about 1900 and quickly became a major part of the economy. While a number of plantations (estates) were established, it was the small farmer who took to producing robusta coffee for export. Cotton, tea, and sugarcane followed, providing regular income for most Ugandans.
\par \tab Cattle represent another major part of Ugandan life and agriculture. The western part of the country (Ankole) is known for its large-horned Sanga cattle. Elsewhere nagana, or sleeping sickness, which is carried by the tsetse fly, restricts the number of animals.
\par \tab On such lakes as Victoria and Kioga commercial fishing is a major activity. There are only a few areas that still yield quality hardwoods for local use.
\par \tab There are no extensive mineral deposits except copper. It was mined at Kilembe, 125 miles (200 kilometers) west of Kampala, and transported to Jinja, where a smelter converted it to exportable metal. Unfortunately the mine has ceased production. Uganda exports substantial amounts of apatite and it mines tungsten, beryl, and tin on a small scale. There are also unexploited deposits of high-grade iron ore at Kigesi.
\par \tab Because Uganda has no fossil fuels, a hydroelectric power plant was built on the Victoria Nile at Owen Falls, near Jinja and Kampala, and opened in 1954. Grain milling, food processing, and textiles became the main industries of Jinja, while Kampala concentrated on such light industries as brewing and manufacturing import substitutes.
\par \tab Because Uganda is landlocked, the need for the country to have an outside link for its exports and imports was recognized in the 1890s. The British government provided funds to complete a railroad by 1902 from Mombasa, on the east coast of what is now Kenya, to Kisumu on Lake Victoria, using indentured East Indian laborers. Lake steamers from Uganda made connections at Kisumu.
\par \tab The Busoga Railway, the first railroad within Uganda, was completed in 1912, linking Jinja and Lake Kioga. When the main line was realigned through Tororo in 1928, it joined the Busoga at Mbulamuti, offering a better outlet for cotton exports. In 1948 a line was extended to Kasese to bring out the Kilembe copper ores. The country is covered by a 28,000-mile (45,000-kilometer) network of roads. An international airport is located at Entebbe.
\par {\b History and Government}
\par \tab From the 15th century, rival kingdoms in what is now Uganda were gradually overcome by the well-organized state of Buganda, which was ruled by a kabaka, or king, and followed an animist religion. Arab traders arrived in the 1840s, and the kabaka, Mutesa I, adopted some of the teachings of Islam in 1867. He allowed Anglican missionaries to teach Christianity in 1877 and Roman Catholics in 1879. After Mutesa died in 1884, there was rivalry between the Muslims, Anglicans, and Catholics.
\par \tab The British, worried by German penetration into the region, set up the British East Africa Company in Buganda in 1890. The area that is now Uganda was declared a protectorate in 1894 to control the Upper Nile and Egypt, which was also under British control.
\par \tab After World War II Ugandans prepared for independence, which came in 1962. A general election was held, and a Westminster Cabinet-style government under Milton Obote was formed. A republic was declared in 1963, with the kabaka, Mutesa II, as president and Milton Obote as prime minister. In 1966, with the support of the army under Col. Idi Amin, Obote suspended the constitution, made himself executive president, forced the kabaka to flee the country, and nationalized many of the banks and industries.
\par \tab In 1971 Amin deposed Obote and during the next seven years expelled 40,000 East Indians and slaughtered at least 300,000 Ugandans. Amin's army was attacked by troops from Tanzania in 1979, forcing him to flee the country. Obote eventually returned to the presidency, but he was unable to restore unity and was deposed in July 1985 by Tito Okello.
\par \tab The National Liberation Army, led by Yoweri Museveni, a prominent member of the Ankole tribe, took control of Kampala in January 1986 after an extensive field campaign in the south and southwest. Museveni was sworn in as president and suspended political activity until elections were held in 1989.
\par \tab A new constitution was drafted in 1990. The interim legislature, called the National Resistance Council, is made up of 278 members and includes 68 nonelective seats. Uganda's government is plagued by conflicts within the country, especially in the north and southwest, and by continuing disagreements with Kenya and Rwanda and guerilla activity along the borders.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab David Lawrence Niddrie\par \tab In late 1991 the Soviet Union rapidly fell apart. Each of the republics was determined to go its own way. On December 1 citizens of Ukraine voted overwhelmingly for independence. Thus what had been since Dec. 30, 1922, the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic became simply Ukraine. For the first time in centuries the Ukrainian people were out from under Russian or Soviet control and free to plan and direct their own national destiny.
\par \tab By voting for independence, Ukraine immediately became the largest country entirely within Europe and one of its most populous. Ukraine occupies more than 233,100 square miles (603,700 square kilometers), and its population exceeds 51 million. The country is a bridge from Europe to Asia. Hence its name is significant: Ukraine means "borderland." It is bounded by Belarus on the north; by Russia on the north and east; by the Black Sea, the Sea of Azov, Moldova, and Romania on the south; and by Poland, Slovakia, and Hungary on the west. Its capital is the ancient city of Kiev, with a population of more than 2.6 million. Only 80 miles (130 kilometers) north of Kiev is Chernobyl, the site of the world's worst nuclear power station accident, which occurred in April 1986.
\par {\b Land and Climate}
\par \tab Geographically part of the vast East European Plain, Ukraine has only two mountainous areas: the Carpathians in the west and the Crimean Mountains in the south. These occupy only about 5 percent of the total land area. The average elevation of Ukraine is 574 feet (175 meters) above sea level, though the plains are broken by highlands such as the Dnepr Plateau, which lies between the Dnepr and Southern Bug rivers. The highland areas are intersected by numerous rivers, ravines, and gorges. The northeastern part of Ukraine is a section of the Russian Upland, where the average elevation is 774 feet (236 meters).
\par \tab Consisting of several parallel ranges, the Ukrainian Carpathians in the west extend more than 150 miles (240 kilometers). They include Mount Hoverla--at 6,762 feet (2,061 meters) the country's highest point. The majority of forest lands are in the Carpathian region. Mountain passes provide routes for both highways and railroads. The Crimean Mountains stretch for about 90 miles (145 kilometers) in the south, in three ranges with valleys between them. Here Mount Roman-Kosh is the highest point, at 5,059 feet (1,542 meters). These mountains form the south coast of the Crimean Peninsula, an area that remained in dispute between Ukraine and Russia after independence. Lowlands extend along the shores of the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov.
\par \tab In the northern part of the country is the Polesye (or the Pripyat Marshes). This vast, waterlogged region is the largest swamp in Europe. It lies in the heavily forested basins of the Dnepr and Pripyat rivers. Within the marshes are enough forests to support a lumber industry. A great variety of wildlife can also be found there--elk, wolf, bear, lynx, wild boar, beaver, marten, mouflon, weasel, and badger, along with many kinds of birds and fish.
\par \tab There are nearly 23,000 rivers within Ukraine. For 748 miles (1,204 kilometers) the Dnepr courses through the country. Other major rivers include the Dnestr, Donets, Bug, and Danube. The Danube flows from Germany eastward through Austria and Hungary to the Black Sea. Within Ukraine almost all the rivers drain southward toward the Azov and Black seas; only a few drain northward into the Baltic Sea basin. The rivers are vital as a source of water for drinking, transportation, and hydroelectricity. The hydroelectric dams have been used to form lakes in a country that has few large natural ones. Lake Svityaz, one of the largest natural lakes, has an area of only 11 square miles (28 square kilometers). Wide sections of the Dnepr River form two very large reservoirs. The supply of water to dry areas has been increased by building canals.
\par \tab Lying in a temperate continental climate zone, Ukraine has mean January temperatures of about 26░ F (-3░ C) in the southwest and 18░ F (-8░ C) in the northeast. The mean July temperatures are about 73░ F (23░ C) in the southwest and 66░ F (19░ C) in the northeast. The southern shores of the Crimea, between the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov, have a warm Mediterranean-type climate. Odessa and Yalta are both well known as Black Sea resort areas.
\par \tab The steppe, or grasslands, zone in southern Ukraine is part of the great Eurasian Steppe, the world's largest flat grassland. The Ukrainian section, constituting about 40 percent of Ukraine, is covered with chernozems, or black soils, some of the most fertile soils in the world. More than three quarters of the steppe zone is under cultivation. Because of occasional dry spells, large areas are irrigated.
\par \tab The conservation of distinctive plant and animal life has been given high priority for most of the 20th century. Ukraine has several steppe and forest preserves and game reserves. The largest of these is the Askaniya-Nova reserve. Established in 1921 to protect the natural vegetation of the steppe, it covers 25,900 acres (10,500 hectares). About 40 different types of mammals have been introduced there as part of a program to protect endangered species. In the south is a Black Sea reserve covering 90,400 acres (36,600 hectares). Its main attraction is waterfowl. The Nikitsky Botanical Garden near the city of Yalta is known for its plants from almost every country in the world.
\par {\b Natural Resources}
\par \tab No nation in Europe has more abundant natural resources than Ukraine. Its most valuable resource is its exceptionally fertile soil, which for many years made it the breadbasket of the Soviet Union. Arable land covers about 60 percent of the country. Unfortunately, widespread removal of grass cover has led to soil erosion in the 20th century. Excessive use of pesticides and herbicides has also damaged the land and harmed the rivers and lakes.
\par \tab In addition to the land itself, there is a great variety of minerals. Foremost are the manganese-bearing ores, some of the largest reserves in the world. Anthracite and bituminous coal are found in the in the Donets Basin, and there are large reserves of brown coal in the Dnepr Basin. Iron ore deposits are found mostly in the southeast. Ukraine also has three large petroleum producing centers. Other mineral deposits include titanium ores, bauxite, nepheline, alunite, mercury, ozokerite (paraffin wax), potassium, rock salt, phosphorites, and sulfur.
\par \tab Forested land occupies about 19.8 million acres (8 million hectares), and much of this has been planted. Most of the forests are in the Carpathians, but there are woodlands in the steppes and in the ravines and gorges of the Dnepr Plateau.
\par {\b People and Culture}
\par \tab There are more than 100 different nationality groups in Ukraine. Ukrainians make up about 71 percent of the population of the republic. As part of the East Slavic language group, Ukrainian is related to Russian and Polish. Most Ukrainians are members of the Eastern Orthodox church, though there is a sizable Roman Catholic population. Serious religious divisions have become a problem for Ukrainians since independence. Russians make up the second largest ethnic group, followed by Belorussians, Poles, and other Slavs. There is a tiny Jewish minority, and there are also Greeks, Romanians, Armenians, Gypsies, Hungarians, Tatars, Lithuanians, Chuvash, Bashkirs, and Kazakhs.
\par \tab The population density of Ukraine is among the highest in Europe, especially in the highly industrialized Donets River basin and Dnepr River lowland. Principal cities in addition to Kiev are Khar'kov, L'viv, Odessa, Donetsk, and Dnepropetrovsk. About half the rural population lives in villages having from 1,000 to 5,000 inhabitants. Other rural dwellers live on the state farms or collective farms that were established by force during the late 1920s and early 1930s.
\par \tab In 1917, before Ukraine became part of the Soviet Union, more than 70 percent of the people were illiterate. Today this problem has been eliminated: nearly 100 percent of the population can read and write. The chief reason for this success has been the building of an extensive school system. Education is compulsory for all children between the ages of 7 and 17. Ukrainian is the major language of instruction, but there are schools in which Russian, Moldavian, Polish, Bulgarian, French, German, or even English is the dominant language.
\par \tab There are about 140 institutions of higher learning, including the A.M. Gorki State University in Khar'kov and the T.G. Shevchenko State University in Kiev. The Kiev-Mogila Academy has long been a major center of learning. The Ukrainian Academy of Sciences coordinates the work of numerous scientific institutions. The government has also opened vocational and correspondence schools for young people who want to continue schooling while they work. Ukraine also has computer centers, astronomical observatories, and several botanical gardens.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab For seven decades Ukraine was part of a highly centralized Soviet Union. All industrial and agricultural undertakings of the republics were centrally planned by bureaucrats in Moscow. Production directives were passed down to the local Communist party officials and to the various industries. With independence and a democratic political system, Ukrainians were in a state of difficult and painful transition to a less centralized, more market-oriented system.
\par \tab The German invasion of 1941 nearly destroyed Ukrainian agriculture, but by 1955 it had been restored. Farming had been collectivized in the 1930s, and it remained so after World War II. There were at the time of independence in 1991 about 7,400 collective farms and 2,200 state farms.
\par \tab Highly mechanized and specialized agriculture now produces grains, commercial crops, and livestock products. Modern farming methods--with tractors, trucks, and grain-harvesting combines--are widely used. The republic was the principal granary of the Soviet Union, as it was for much of Europe earlier in its history. Ukraine produces such grains as wheat, rye, barley, oats, corn, millet, and buckwheat. It also ranks very high in cultivation of sugar beets. Other crops are flax, cotton, tobacco, hemp, soybeans, and hops. Potatoes, a food staple, are also grown for making starch and alcohol; sunflowers are cultivated for their seed oil and latex. Grapes, medicinal and essential-oil plants (mint, coriander, lavender, roses), and vegetables are also grown on a large scale. Mechanized poultry farming, beekeeping, sericulture (silkworm raising), and pond fishing contribute to the republic's economy. Large numbers of cattle are raised for meat and milk. Other livestock include pigs, sheep, and goats.
\par \tab There is a fishing industry based along the coasts of the Black and Azov seas and in the Dnepr, Dnestr, Bug, and Donets rivers. Unfortunately, serious pollution problems in the Sea of Azov and the rivers have hurt fishing. The pollution comes mostly from pesticides and chemical fertilizers.
\par \tab Much of Ukraine's industry is concentrated in the Donets Basin, where rich deposits of coal, limestone, and iron ore exist. The Krivoy Rog area is noted for its iron-ore mines, the Nikopol' area for manganese ore, and the Transcarpathian area for petroleum, salt, and natural gas deposits.
\par \tab The Ukrainian ferrous metal industry formerly produced nearly half of the Soviet Union's cast iron, about two fifths of its steel, and about a quarter of its steel pipe. Other major industries are machine building, metalworking, metallurgy, and the processing of energy fuels. Manufactured items include diesel railway engines, tractors, television sets, fertilizers, machine tools, radio and electronic equipment, turbines, aircraft, aluminum products, motor vehicles, textiles, garments, shoes, paper, and pulp. Sugar-beet processing, winemaking, and distilling are the chief food processing industries. Kiev is known for its flour and textile mills, sugar refineries, glassworks, and tobacco factories; L'viv for its breweries and distilleries; and Odessa for its shipyards.
\par \tab Ukraine has a sizable industry devoted to chemical products. This includes the manufacture of mineral fertilizers, sulfuric acid, coke products, synthetic fibers, caustic soda, photographic chemicals, pesticides, and petrochemicals. The industrial plants are mainly in Kiev, Korosten', Sumy, and Fastov.
\par \tab Railroads are the chief means of transportation. The heaviest concentration of railroads is in the Donets Basin. The generally flat terrain has also made possible construction of a network of good highways connecting the industrial centers. An international airport is at Borispol near Kiev. There are also airports at Odessa and Khar'kov.
\par \tab Prior to the breakup of the Soviet Union the ports on the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov handled about one-fifth of the union's ocean freight. The chief ports are Odessa, Ilyichevsk, Nikolayev, Kherson, Feodosiya, Kerch', and Mariupol'. Trade with other European countries is carried on along the Danube River, mainly from its port at Izmail. Within Ukraine river shipping is mainly on the Dnepr and its tributaries and on the Bug River. The waterways of Ukraine are joined to Poland and the Baltic states by the Dnepr-Bug Canal in Belarus. Major tourist attractions are the coasts of the Black and Azov seas, the Crimea and Carpathian regions, and the cities of Kiev and L'viv.
\par {\b Government}
\par \tab The government of Ukraine underwent a rapid transition in 1991. A provisional declaration of independence from the Soviet Union was issued by the parliament on August 24. This declaration was upheld by a popular referendum on December 1. It is somewhat ironic that under the 1937 Soviet constitution Ukraine gained the apparent status of an independent state, though it was fully part of the Soviet Union. It had the presumed right to engage in foreign relations and had its own seat in the United Nations (UN). The only right Ukraine was actually allowed to exercise was to take its UN seat. When Ukraine became independent, it joined with other former republics in a loose federation called the Commonwealth of Independent States.
\par \tab On Aug. 25, 1991, the property of the Communist party--the ruling power for 70 years--was seized in Ukraine and all political prisoners were freed. Early in September the Communist party of the Soviet Union was outlawed, quickly bringing down the whole political apparatus that had governed the entire nation. This left each republic with the chance to form new, democratically elected governments. New political parties and factions emerged as well.
\par \tab In Ukraine, as in other republics, the previous structure was generally retained--minus official control by Communists. Many former Communists remained in power, but they dropped their allegiance to the Soviet Union and became Ukrainian nationalists. This was the case with the president, Leonid Kravchuk, and many members of the legislature.
\par \tab The president is the chief executive officer and has the authority to sign legislation and serves as commander in chief of the armed forces. The executive cabinet is called the Council of Ministers, which has a prime minister as presiding officer.
\par \tab There is a single-house legislature called the Supreme Council of Ukraine. Members are elected to four-year terms. Since policy is no longer mandated by a central government in Moscow, the legislature actually plays an active role in running the government and debating laws. The Supreme Council established a commission to study and reform the constitution, with the goal of creating a bicameral, or two-house, legislature. When the Supreme Council is not in session, its affairs are conducted by smaller Presidium.
\par \tab Ukraine has a Supreme Court made up of five judges. They are elected by the legislature to five-year terms. The main role of this court is to supervise the justice system of the republic. It has no role in deciding constitutional issues.
\par {\b History}
\par \tab In the ancient world, the first people known to have settled in Ukraine were the Cimmerians, who probably arrived from Central Asia in about 1500 BC. An invasion and settlement by Scythians in about 750 BC forced the Cimmerians to move south into Anatolia, or Asia Minor. The Scythians were a warlike, nomadic people, but they were willing to trade with Greek colonies that flourished along the Black Sea coast.
\par \tab Scythian society lasted until the late 4th century BC. After a severe defeat by King Philip II of Macedon, their power diminished, and they easily fell prey to conquest by the Sarmatians, another nomadic people from the east. Sarmatian culture lasted for about 400 years, until the 3rd century AD. Then it began to give way to fierce invaders from farther east, some of whom were the barbarians that would overrun the Roman Empire in the 4th and 5th centuries.
\par \tab The Sarmatians were pushed aside by the Goths in about AD 200. Then, in about 375, began the invasion of the Huns, tribes that terrorized Europe well into the 5th century. After the Huns came Avars, Bulgars, and other tribes. By the 7th century the ancestors of today's Ukrainians began expanding into the land that now bears their name. These were the Slavs, an Eastern European people whose home seems to have been between the Pripyat Marshes and the northern Carpathian Mountains.
\par \tab By the 9th century these people had been organized into political units, with trade and a flourishing economy. Many historians believe that the organizers were not the Slavs themselves but a people called Varangians. The Varangians were very likely Norsemen from Sweden invading eastward, just as their Viking counterparts from Norway and Denmark headed west and south for their conquests. The state the Varangians founded was based at Kiev and its generally accepted name was Rus. Since the word Russia is derived from Rus, the Varangians were also the founders of the Russian state.
\par \tab The Kiev-based leaders of the state of Rus were Varangian merchants and nobles. Within a century they had established a domain much larger than the present Ukraine. Their rule extended from southern Finland in the northwest to the steppe, or grassland, in the southeast. The most notable of the Kiev princes was Vladimir I, who ruled from 980 until 1015. He converted to Christianity in its Eastern Orthodox, or Byzantine, form in about 989 and made it the religion of Kiev. Under Vladimir and his son, Yaroslav (who ruled from 1019 to 1054), close ties were established with the Byzantine ruler and church at Constantinople.
\par \tab With the death of Yaroslav in 1054 the Kiev-based state of Rus went into a slow decline. Local princes set up their own small states, and Kiev was unable to maintain control. Local rivalries weakened the state, and by the time the Mongols under Genghis Khan invaded in 1220 there was no strong defense. The Mongols destroyed Kiev in 1240. From that time on there would be no truly independent and unified Ukraine until 1991, more than 750 years.
\par \tab As the area around Kiev went into decline, two other princely domains emerged not only as nearly independent states, but also as a temporary base of Ukrainian unity--Galicia and Volhynia in the west. Galicia, on the northern edge of the Carpathian Mountains, became an independent principality in 1087. In 1199 it was annexed to its eastern neighbor, the principality of Volhynia, by Volhynia's ruler, Roman Mstislavich. For the next 65 years under Roman and his son Daniel, the provinces managed to fight off Polish and Hungarian attempts at conquest. Both Galicia and Volhynia were invaded and devastated by the Mongols in 1260, and the lands farther east came under Mongol rule. Volhynia remained an independent principality from the 10th to the 14th century. Roman's dynasty lasted until 1340, when Galicia was annexed by the Polish king, Casimir III. Volhynia was absorbed by the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the 14th century. What is now Ukraine was thus occupied in the east by Mongols and in the west by Poland and Lithuania.
\par \tab Lithuania was at first the more active conqueror, spreading its influence well into the old Kiev-based state and into the steppe. The only remnant of Mongol rule by the mid-15th century was in the Crimea. Called the Crimean Khanate, it was a Muslim state, and it associated itself with the Ottoman Empire based in Constantinople, which was renamed Istanbul in the 20th century.
\par \tab In 1569 Poland and Lithuania were integrated by the Union of Lublin, and Poland's power grew at the expense of Lithuania. The Ukrainian lands belonging to Lithuania were annexed to Poland. This had fateful consequences for the religious history of Ukraine. Eastern Orthodoxy had long been the state religion, but the Poles introduced Western Christianity in the form of Roman Catholicism. This made a religiously divided state and introduced enmities that persist.
\par \tab In the eastern Ukraine a new social order of highly organized, militant adventurers had come into existence during the 15th century. They took the name Cossacks, derived from a Turkic word, kazakh (outlaw, adventurer, or free man). These Cossacks resisted rule by either Poland or the Mongols. They inhabited the uncontrollable frontier regions. By banding together for mutual protection the Cossacks--who were very adept horsemen--created effective military units. By the 16th century the Cossacks had become a state within a state. The Poles hired them to fight against the Tatars, Ottoman Turks, and the growing power of Muscovy, the future Russia. But the Cossacks would not submit to anyone's rule, and attempts to subject them failed. Moreover, during the religious wars of the 17th century the Cossacks took the side of the Orthodox church, and in so doing put themselves at odds with Roman Catholic Poland.
\par \tab The enmity between the Cossacks and Poland broke into open warfare in 1648. The rebellion was led by a Cossack nobleman and officer named Bohdan Khmelnytsky. His revolt achieved independence, but success came at a price. The Cossacks asked Russia for help against Poland, and they took an oath of loyalty to the Russian czar. Their actions opened the way for Russia eventually to gain control of eastern Ukraine while Poland continued to hold the west.
\par \tab In 1667 Ukraine was officially partitioned along the Dnepr River. The west remained under Polish control, while the east became a Cossack state. The east enjoyed independence and self-government for about a century, but its power weakened as that of Russia increased under Czar Peter the Great and his successors. Under Catherine II the Great, beginning in 1764, Russia asserted control over Ukraine in both east and west. Catherine's armies destroyed the main Cossack stronghold in 1775.
\par \tab In the west Catherine forced three successive partitions of Poland. Its lands were divided among Austria, Prussia, and Russia, and it ceased to be an independent state until after World War I. Catherine thereby absorbed most of Ukraine within the expanding Russian Empire. Ukraine was reorganized as Russian provinces with no national distinctiveness. Part of Ukraine acquired from Poland became the Pale of Settlement, within which the Jewish population was confined. Vacant lands throughout Ukraine were gradually colonized by Russians, Ukrainians, Germans, and others during the 19th century. In Moscow's view, Ukrainians were "Little Russians," who needed to be fully integrated into Russian society.
\par \tab Control by Moscow did not prevent the emergence of Ukrainian nationalism and a desire for independence during the 19th century. Nationalist activities were suppressed by Russian authorities. Use of the Ukrainian language was banned. Only after the Revolution of 1905 did the repression ease. After the Revolution of 1917 Ukraine was soon absorbed into the new Soviet Union.
\par \tab Under the rule of Joseph Stalin (from 1922 to 1953) Ukraine experienced repression unlike anything it had known before. Forced collectivization of farming led to massive famine in the early 1930s, during which about 7 million people perished. Ukrainian leaders were arrested by the hundreds and executed. With the German invasion of June 1941, a free Ukrainian state was proclaimed, but the Germans had no interest in a free Ukraine. The invaders virtually destroyed the land and exterminated thousands of its people.
\par \tab After the war Stalin increased Ukraine's territory by adding territory taken from Poland and Romania. The Crimean region was transferred to Ukraine in 1954 to strengthen Russian-Ukrainian unity. This was a decision that the Russian government of 1991 hoped to reverse.
\par \tab On April 26, 1986, a catastrophic nuclear reactor meltdown and explosions occurred at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant, 80 miles (130 kilometers) north of Kiev. A fire burned out of control and released radioactive materials that spread over vast sections of Europe. This disaster has caused widespread illnesses and death in the local population and rendered the land in the area unusable.
\par \tab In 1989 a number of grass-roots organizations wanting change came together in a loose coalition called Rukh (Movement), patterned after the nationalist popular fronts of the Baltic states. At its first congress in September, Rukh called for and won the dismissal of the Ukrainian Communist party chief. In local elections in March 1990, Rukh candidates scored large majority victories in L'viv and Kiev. In July the Ukrainian parliament declared the republic's sovereignty, asserting the precedence of its laws over those of the Soviet Union. In 1991 the republic declared its independence and formed a new government.
{\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR UKRAINE}
\par \tab Dull, Ralph, and Dull, Christine. Soviet Laughter, Soviet Tears: An American Couple's Six-Month Adventure in a Ukrainian Village (Stillmore, 1991).
\par \tab Oparenko, Christina. The Ukraine (Chelsea House, 1988).
\par \tab Procyck, Oksana, and Heretz, Leonid. Famine in the Soviet Ukraine, 1932-1933 (Harvard Univ. Press, 1986).
\par \tab Subtelny, Orest. Ukraine: A History (Univ of Toronto Press, 1988).
\par \tab Sullivant, Robert. Soviet Politics and the Ukraine, 1917-1957 (Columbia Univ. Press, 1962).
\par \tab Szporluk, Roman. Ukraine: A Brief History (Univ. of Toronto Press, 1979).\par \tab A union of seven Arab kingdoms on the eastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula, the United Arab Emirates consists of Abu Dhabi, Dubai, Sharjah, Ajman, Umm al Qaiwain, Ras al Khaimah, and Fujairah emirates. The capital and the largest town of the federation is Abu Dhabi. Bordered by Qatar and the Persian Gulf on the north, Saudi Arabia on the west and south, and Oman on the east and northeast, the United Arab Emirates covers an area of about 32,300 square miles (83,600 square kilometers).
\par \tab The country's relief, or geographical layout, consists of a low-lying, flat desert coastal plain. The climate is hot and dry year-round. Indeed, summer temperatures may reach 114░ F (46░ C). Annual rainfall averages only 3 to 4 inches (7.6 to 10 centimeters). Natural vegetation is very sparse.
\par \tab The native population, largely of Arab descent, follows Islam, the official religion. A large number of people still live a nomadic life. Arabic is the official language, but Hindi, Urdu, and Persian are also widely spoken. A large portion of the work force consists of foreign skilled laborers. The United Arab Emirates University is the country's only institution of higher learning.
\par \tab Petroleum is the chief economic resource of the region. Proven reserves of petroleum and natural gas are among the world's largest. Production is largely concentrated in Abu Dhabi, Dubai, and Sharjah. Since the discovery of petroleum in the late 1950s, the country has undergone extensive modernization. Because of huge profits from petroleum exports, the United Arab Emirates has one of the world's highest per capita gross national products.
\par \tab Less than 0.2 percent of the land can be cultivated. Wheat, barley, millet, fruits, and vegetables are grown with the aid of irrigation. Date palm and alfalfa are produced in oases. Fishing is of some economic significance. Dubai, with an extensive transit trade, is the chief seaport.
\par \tab The area became known as the Trucial Coast in 1853 when the Treaty of Maritime Peace in Perpetuity was signed. From 1873 to 1947 the region was administered by British India and after 1947 by the London Foreign Office. Each of the states maintained full internal control, however. In 1960 the Trucial States Council was formed, with representation from each state. The British vacated in 1971, and the Trucial States became a federal union known as the United Arab Emirates. Ras al Khaimah joined in 1972, and Bahrain and Qatar became independent states.
\par \tab Each of the seven emirates is governed by its own hereditary ruler. The highest federal authority lies with the Supreme Council of Rulers, which consists of the rulers of the seven emirates. Population (1991 estimate), 1,945,000.\par \tab The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is the political union of England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. It is not a federation but a unitary state, and its inhabitants elect members to represent them in a parliament that meets in London. Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland, however, retain a degree of autonomy in running some of their own affairs.
\par {\b History}
\par \tab The first union of separate states in the British Isles took place in 1301, when Wales was joined to England by the creation of the title of prince of Wales for the son of Edward I of England. Wales was not officially incorporated with England, however, until 1536. In 1603 James VI of Scotland became king of England (as James I), uniting Scotland and England under one ruler and creating the so-called Union of the Crowns. Despite this unification, Scotland retained its own parliament until 1707, when the parliaments of the two states were formally united.
\par \tab Although this union was opposed by many Scots, it ultimately gave them entry to the larger world of English politics and business. The name Great Britain was officially adopted for this union; when Ireland was added to Great Britain by the Act of Union of 1801, the title United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was introduced.
\par \tab As a result of Irish demands for independence, the Irish Free State was declared in 1922. The six northern counties of Ireland, which had a predominantly Protestant population, remained as part of the United Kingdom but were officially named Northern Ireland. The present title for the union of England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland--the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland--dates from 1927. Northern Ireland sent representatives to the London Parliament but had its own legislature and executive to deal with domestic matters. In 1972, because of continuing political and religious problems (between the Roman Catholics and the Protestants) in Northern Ireland, the London Parliament suspended the Northern Ireland Parliament. The London Parliament then established its own direct control over this province.
\par \tab In 1885 a secretary of state was appointed to look after Scottish affairs. There are separate departments in Scotland for home affairs, health, agriculture, fisheries, education, and economic development. The Scottish legal system is also separate from the English system.
\par \tab In 1964 a Welsh Office was established to oversee matters of interest to Wales. The office is headed by a secretary of state for Wales.
\par \tab The Channel Islands and the Isle of Man do not belong to the United Kingdom. They are direct dependencies of the Crown, or sovereign, and have their own legislative and taxation systems.
\par {\b Constitution}
\par \tab The United Kingdom does not have a written constitution like that of the United States. The British constitution is formed partly by statutes, or legislative enactments of Parliament; partly by common law, based on decisions of courts of law; and partly by practices and precepts, which are known as conventions. These conventions are not part of the law of the country but are nevertheless necessary for running the machinery of government. Because the constitution is not written, it can be adapted as necessary either by an act of Parliament or by the general acceptance of a new convention.
\par \tab There are three organs of government in the constitution: the legislature, the executive, and the judiciary. The legislature consists of Parliament, which is the supreme authority in the country. The executive consists of the Cabinet members and other ministers who make and direct the policy of the country, along with government departments and local authorities. The judiciary determines common law and also interprets statutes.
\par {\b The Crown}
\par \tab The Crown is the supreme power in the legislature, the executive, and the judiciary. The sovereign is also the head of the established Church of England and is commander in chief of the armed forces. In practice, however, the present queen, Elizabeth II, acts only on the advice of her ministers and cannot reject or ignore their advice.
\par \tab These restrictions on the powers of the sovereign are the result of several centuries of confrontation and interaction between the sovereign and Parliament. In effect the United Kingdom is governed by her majesty's government in the queen's name.
\par \tab The queen still has several significant functions. She calls and dissolves Parliament, and she opens a new session with a speech from the throne. This speech is not written by her, however, but by the government in power, and it outlines the government's policy for the forthcoming session of Parliament. Similarly, the queen confers honors--in the form of peerages, knighthoods, and decorations--that are given on the advice of the government and that often reward people for services to the political party in power. She can award some honors herself, however--such as the Order of the Garter. She appoints judges, army officers, diplomats, and officials of the Church of England also on advice.
\par \tab Although the queen has in fact little authority of her own, she is kept informed of events and is sometimes consulted by the government in power. The queen has the advice of a Privy Council, which consists of ministers of the government and other persons recommended by the government in power. In the event of an inconclusive national election, the queen may be required to choose a new prime minister.
\par \tab In addition to her other functions the queen is head of the Commonwealth, which consists of a number of states that formerly belonged to the British Empire. The Commonwealth includes such countries as Australia, Canada, and New Zealand and a number of smaller states such as Jamaica, the Bahamas, and Fiji. The queen is represented in these countries by governors-general, who are not members of the United Kingdom government and who act independent of it. The United Kingdom government cannot interfere in the affairs of a Commonwealth country, except in the case of such dependencies as the Falkland Islands and Gibraltar, which have not achieved complete independence from the United Kingdom.
\par \tab The history of the monarchy plays a large part in the history of the British Isles. The present sovereign is a descendant of Sophia--the electress of Hanover--whose son came to the British throne in 1714 as George I. Sophia was the nearest Protestant descendant of James I, her grandfather. The Act of Settlement in 1701 provided for the accession to the throne of Sophia and her heirs in order to ensure a Protestant monarchy. By this act all sovereigns must be members of the Church of England. The act also strictly limited the role of the sovereign in the government of the country. In 1917 the royal family dropped their German titles and took the name of the House of Windsor because of the unpopularity of everything German during World War I.
\par \tab The queen and her family members are largely supported by the state. Parliament annually approves allowances for members of the royal family. The queen's private expenditures come partly from her own funds and partly from an inheritance known as the Duchy of Lancaster. The prince of Wales receives revenues from another estate--the Duchy of Cornwall.
\par {\b Parliament}
\par \tab In theory the queen functions as the supreme legislative authority through Parliament. In practice, however, the queen and Parliament rarely come together, except at the openings of Parliament sessions. Parliament consists of two houses--the House of Commons and the House of Lords.
\par \tab {\b The House of Commons.}
\par \tab The House of Commons consists of 650 members--523 from England, 72 from Scotland, 38 from Wales, and 17 from Northern Ireland. The United Kingdom is divided into a number of constituencies, each of which returns one member to Parliament. All persons over the age of 18 are eligible to vote for a member from their local constituency. The number and size of constituencies occasionally change with variations in population. Members receive a salary and hold their seats for the duration of a Parliament. A general election for all members must be held at least every five years but may be called at any time within that period. For example, a government may face a general election if it is defeated in some major issue by a vote in Parliament.
\par \tab The speaker of the House of Commons is elected by the members and acts as the president of the House. Other elected and appointed officials look after the running of the House. Members of Parliament are controlled by their party whips, who round up members before a vote and organize debates in the Commons.
\par \tab Members of the House of Commons belong to one of the British political parties. The party that wins the majority of parliamentary seats forms a government with the party leader as prime minister. Of the remaining parties, the one with the largest number of seats becomes the official opposition.
\par \tab The party in power in the early 1990s was the Conservative party, led by John Major, who was selected in November 1990 to replace Margaret Thatcher as prime minister. Thatcher was the longest continuously serving prime minister in the 20th century. The Conservatives held power since 1979.
\par \tab The Labour party was the largest minority party in the government of the late 1980s. Its leader was Neil Kinnock. The Labour party advocates socialism and supports the nationalization of basic industries and services. In general it opposes the power of big business. Many of its members would like to abolish the House of Lords and the annual awards of titles and honors. The party supports higher rates of unemployment compensation, old-age pensions, and other forms of welfare. It was responsible for the establishment in 1948 of the United Kingdom's free medical service, known as the National Health Service. The party gains much of its support from the trade unions, but it has been troubled with internal divisions and decreasing numbers of trade-union members. It lost many votes in the 1987 election because of its controversial defense policy, which called for partial British unilateral disarmament. The main strongholds of Labour support are in the industrial north of England, in Scotland, and in southern Wales.
\par \tab The Social Democratic party (SDP) is an offshoot of the Labour party. Its members regard Labour and its policies as too left-wing. The SDP allied with the Liberal party in order to attract voters in the 1987 elections but gained fewer votes than it had hoped.
\par \tab There are small nationalist parties in Scotland and Wales--the Scottish National party and the Welsh Nationalist party, Plaid Cymru. In Northern Ireland there are several parties, including the Ulster Unionist party, the Ulster Democratic Unionist party, and the Social Democratic and Labour party. There are also some small far-left parties in Britain--such as the Communist party, the Socialist Workers' party, and the Workers' Revolutionary party--which play no real role in present-day politics.
\par \tab {\b The House of Lords.}
\par \tab The House of Lords has more than 1,100 members. These include hereditary peers, or nobles by inheritance or birth; life peers, or individuals with nonhereditary titles conferred by the Crown; law lords; and archbishops and senior bishops of the Church of England. All hereditary peers may attend sessions, but only those Irish peers who also hold an English or Scottish peerage may attend. Peers receive no salary. In practice no more than about 380 peers regularly attend sessions. In the House of Lords the lord chancellor fulfills the same role as does the speaker in the Commons.
\par \tab {\b The functions of Parliament.}
\par \tab The functions of Parliament are to make laws, to appropriate money for various state purposes, and to provide a forum for debate. Debates in the House of Commons are controlled by the speaker.
\par \tab Legislation is initiated by the introduction of bills in either house. In general most bills are introduced by the government, though members may introduce their own bills. Finance bills can only be introduced in the Commons. A bill is given three readings in the house in which it is introduced; if passed, it is sent to the other house, where it is submitted to the same procedure. If a bill is passed by both houses, it becomes law. In theory the sovereign has a right to veto a bill, but this has not occurred since the 18th century. Likewise the House of Lords has little power to stop or delay bills that have been passed by the Commons. It is hoped that the members of the Lords--often senior political figures who have been knighted for their services--will use their experience to suggest amendments to a bill. The Lords cannot interfere with a money bill or with a bill that has been passed by the Commons in two consecutive sessions.
\par \tab There has been talk of abolishing the House of Lords because of its limited role and because its members are not elected and represent, at least in part, an aristocracy that no longer plays a major role in British life. No action has been taken, however, except to limit further the power of the Lords.
\par \tab There are a number of committees appointed by the House of Commons to conduct various kinds of business. Some of these committees are permanent; others--the select committees--are appointed temporarily to examine special matters.
\par {\b The Government}
\par \tab The head of the government is the prime minister. (The title of prime minister dates back to the 18th century.) The prime minister is the leader of the majority party in Parliament and has the power to appoint and dismiss ministers. The prime minister is the main representative of the government and recommends the appointment of some senior judges and of senior clergy of the Church of England. The prime minister also draws up the annual list of honors, which are usually awarded on New Year's Day.
\par \tab The prime minister selects a Cabinet of ministers. The Cabinet develops the government's policies, which are presented as proposed legislation to Parliament, and exercises control over government departments. Meetings of the Cabinet are held in private, and strict secrecy is maintained. Some matters are discussed by Cabinet committees, which consist of the ministers involved. The Cabinet Office handles the records of Cabinet meetings and provides information to ministers. To maintain stability the Cabinet must act as a collective group and issue unanimous statements and policies. If a minister does not agree with Cabinet policies, that minister must resign.
\par \tab Ministers head government departments and are responsible for the work of those departments. The ministers must be prepared to answer questions about their departments in the House of Commons. Ministers who sit in the House of Lords have a parliamentary secretary who answers questions raised in the Commons. This system of parliamentary control over government departments discourages inefficiency and irresponsibility.
\par \tab There are many government departments of various sizes and complexity. Major departments include the Treasury, which handles the country's finances; the Ministry of Defence; the Ministry of Health, which operates the National Health Service; the Home Office, which controls the police and other law-and-order institutions; the Foreign Office; and the Post Office. There are several Scottish and Northern Irish departments. A Welsh Department of the Ministry of Education deals with special aspects of Welsh education. Most of the work of government departments is carried out by members of the civil service. Because none of the positions held by civil servants is an elective or political appointment, a change in government does not affect a department's staff.
\par {\b Local Government}
\par \tab Local government is carried out primarily by locally elected councils. There are numerous administrative divisions, each with its own council. The largest division is the county; it has a county council. There are also borough councils, rural district and urban district councils, district town councils (in Scotland), and parish councils. These councils are responsible for providing such services as garbage disposal, water supplies, sewerage, and street cleaning. They also administer the police and fire services as well as education, certain health services, and housing.
\par \tab In 1974 seven metropolitan district councils were established for certain large cities and their regions, including London, Manchester, and Liverpool. These councils were abolished in 1980, and their work was passed to borough and district councils and to joint authorities. Members of councils are elected and generally belong to one of the major political parties. Councils in some of the large cities consist predominantly of Labour members. The controversial actions of some left-wing councils in London and Liverpool led to the Conservative government's breakup of the metropolitan councils in order to remove their influence.
\par \tab Income for the operation of local government comes partly from the national government and partly from property taxes, or domestic rates. The introduction of the unpopular community charge, or poll tax, to replace the property taxes--in Scotland in 1989 and in England and Wales in 1990--was largely blamed for the sudden resignation of Prime Minister Thatcher. The government was forced to revise its tax program.
\par {\b The Judiciary}
\par \tab The judiciary is independent of the legislature and the executive. No one--not even the sovereign--can control or influence the courts' operations or decisions. The judicial system is administered by the lord chancellor (who is a government minister) and by the home secretary. The lord chancellor recommends candidates for various judicial appointments.
\par \tab The legal system of Scotland differs in many ways from that of England and Wales; however, both systems have civil and criminal divisions, and both use the jury system for trying persons accused of serious crimes. The legal system of Northern Ireland is similar to that of England and Wales.
\par \tab In England and Wales the courts most often used for civil cases are the county courts. Cases that involve large sums of money, however, are heard in one of the divisions of the High Court of Justice. There is a Court of Appeal, from which a further appeal is possible to the House of Lords, the United Kingdom's Supreme Court of Appeal for civil cases.
\par \tab Criminal cases involving minor offenses may be tried without a jury in magistrate's courts. Other cases may be heard in Courts of Assize. These courts are served by judges who travel around county towns or by so-called Courts of Quarter Sessions, which convene four times a year in a number of counties and boroughs. In London the Central Criminal Court handles cases for the capital city and its surrounding districts. A Court of Criminal Appeal also exists.
\par \tab In Scotland most civil cases are heard in sheriff courts, which are similar to English county courts. Minor civil matters are often tried by a justice of the peace. The supreme civil court is the Court of Session, from which appeals may be made to the House of Lords. Minor criminal cases are handled by the sheriff courts, with or without a jury. More serious criminal cases go to the High Court of Judiciary in Edinburgh.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by Ian M. Matley, Professor of Geography, Michigan State University.
\par \tab {\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR THE UNITED KINGDOM}
\par \tab Britain, an Official Handbook (Central Office of Information, annual).
\par \tab Evans, R.H. Government (Vista Books, 1964).
\par \tab Harvey, Jack and Bather, L. The British Constitution (St. Martin, 1964).
\par \tab Ingle, Stephen. The British Party System (Basil Blackwell, 1989).
\par \tab Whitaker's Almanack (Whitaker, annual).
\par \tab The United States represents a series of ideals. For most of those who have come to its shores, it means the ideal of freedom--the right to worship as one chooses, to seek a job appropriate to one's skills and interests, to be judged equally before the law. It means the ideal of the frontier, of overcoming obstacles--taming the West, curing diseases, voyaging to the planets. It means the ideal of progress--that personal life and political, social, and economic institutions will improve through hard work, fair play, and honest endeavor. It means the ideal of democracy--the right to be heard as an individual, the right to cast a ballot in a free election, the right to dream of a better life and to work toward one's goals. In order to understand the United States, it is necessary to consider the role its landscape and its ideals have played in its development.
\par \tab The mainland United States is located between Mexico on the south and Canada on the north and between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Two of its 50 states, however, are far removed from the continental core: Hawaii lies in the Pacific Ocean, 2,400 miles (3,900 kilometers) from San Francisco; Alaska, in the northwestern corner of North America, is nearly 700 miles (1,100 kilometers) from Seattle, Wash. If the outlying states are included, the area is 3,618,770 square miles (9,372,571 square kilometers), making the United States the fourth largest country in the world. The United States also ranks fourth in population. At the 1990 census its population was 249,632,692.
\par \tab The American landscape has evolved over millions of years. Mountains have risen to great heights only to be worn down by the forces of erosion. Rivers have changed course. Plains and plateaus have been alternately raised and lowered. Glaciers have created new landforms and moved rich soil from one location to another. Wetlands have become deserts; arid wastes have become filled with lakes. Landscape changes have often meant extinction for native plants and animals, and their replacements have been forced to adapt to new environments. Change is an axiom of the American landscape.
{\b PHYSIOGRAPHIC PROVINCES}
\par \tab The United States is dominated by a range of old mountains and plateaus--the Appalachians--that runs north and south on the east side of the North American continent and young ranges of lofty mountains--the Rockies, Cascades, and Sierra Nevada--that run north and south in the western quarter of the continent. The great interior lowland extends from the Canadian Shield to the Gulf of Mexico. These dominant mountain and lowland areas have helped to define what are called the physiographic provinces of the United States.
\par {\b Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain}
\par \tab The Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain extends 2,200 miles (3,540 kilometers) from Cape Cod to the Rio Grande. Its western layers border the Piedmont of the Appalachian Highlands, but a portion extends in a wide swath in the lower Mississippi River valley from Cairo, Ill. to the Gulf of Mexico and westward to the Balcones escarpment in Texas. An extensive continental shelf exists offshore. The elevation is low and the relief minimal. The eastern shore features the glacier deposits of Long Island; the estuaries of New York, Delaware, and Chesapeake bays and Albemarle and Pamlico sounds; and the sea islands off Georgia. From Cairo, Ill., to the gulf the Mississippi slopes only 8 inches per mile (12.6 centimeters per kilometer), near the gulf fewer than 6 inches (9.5 centimeters). The river meanders and has formed numerous oxbow lakes, and south of New Orleans the river has created a vast and growing delta.
\par {\b Appalachian Highlands}
\par \tab Immediately to the west of the Atlantic Coastal Plain is the Piedmont, followed on the west in turn by the Blue Ridge, the Ridge and Valley, and the Appalachian Plateau--all sub-provinces of the Appalachian Highlands. New England and the Adirondacks, located farther north, are also included.
\par \tab North of the Potomac River the Piedmont looks down--often 100 to 200 feet (30 to 60 meters)--on the Coastal Plain. Rivers coming off the Piedmont drop to the lower elevations in waterfalls. The fall line is an imaginary line connecting the waterfalls. Washington, D.C., Philadelphia, and Baltimore are fall-line cities, as are Richmond, Raleigh, Columbia, and Macon farther south.
\par \tab From the fall line elevations rise steadily westward over a hilly terrain to 1,100 and 1,200 feet (335 and 365 meters) near the Blue Ridge boundary. In the north the Palisades of the Hudson, opposite New York City, and the Watchung Mountains of northern New Jersey are considered part of the Piedmont. So too is Georgia's Stone Mountain.
\par \tab The eastern scarp, or line of cliffs, of the Blue Ridge, from Pennsylvania to Georgia, stands 1,000 to 1,500 feet (300 to 460 meters) above the Piedmont. In western North Carolina a number of peaks tower more than 6,000 feet (1,800 meters). Mount Mitchell, the highest peak, stands 6,684 feet (2,037 meters) above sea level. In the west the old rocks of the Blue Ridge meet the younger folded rocks of the Ridge and Valley Province.
\par \tab The Ridge and Valley extends from the St. Lawrence River southward to Alabama. A series of linear ridges is arranged in a northeast to southwest progression that includes the accompanying valleys. The Great Valley portion includes Lake Champlain, a part of the Hudson River, and the Lebanon, Cumberland, Shenandoah, Tennessee, and Coosa valleys.
\par \tab At the Allegheny Front the Appalachian Plateau stands 3,000 feet (900 meters) above the Ridge and Valley. The plateau itself has been much dissected by streams and appears mountainous in places. The Kanawha River, for example, lies 1,000 to 1,500 feet (300 to 460 meters) below the Appalachian Plateau surface. The highest parts of the plateau are in the Catskill Mountains, and the most scenic perhaps are the Finger Lakes--both in New York State.
\par \tab New England and the Adirondacks have been modified by glaciation. Kettle holes, kame and esker hills, and drumlin ridges are common. New England is famous for its rockbound coast. In places small isolated mountains called monadnocks rise above the general level of the land, as in Mount Monadnock, N.H.
\par {\b Central Lowlands}
\par \tab The Central Lowlands extend from the Appalachian Highlands westward to the Great Plains and from the Interior Highlands northward to the Canadian Shield. Elevations tend to be low. They range from 1,000 feet (300 meters) in the extreme east, to 500 feet (150 meters) at the Mississippi River, and to only 2,000 feet (600 meters) near the Great Plains boundary. Much of the province was glaciated, which helped to create the Great Lakes and the kame-and-kettle topography. In the far north the Red River Valley, famous for its spring wheat, is a remnant of glacial Lake Agassiz. Where the glaciation did not strike, as in the driftless area of Wisconsin, such unusual landforms as natural bridges, arches, and occasional monadnocks occur. The plains east and west of the Mississippi are mantled with loess, a wind-deposited silt long subject to erosion.
\par {\b Interior Highlands}
\par \tab Unlike the landforms of the Appalachian Highlands, the topography of the Interior Highlands is oriented east and west. The linear ridges of the Ouachita Mountains, 2,600 feet (790 meters) high, stand 1,500 feet (460 meters) above the Arkansas River; the Boston Mountains stand 2,000 feet (600 meters) above the Arkansas and White rivers.
\par \tab On the Ozark Plateau both Iron Mountain and Pilot Knob are more than 1,000 feet (300 meters) high. Local relief varies from 800 to 900 feet (240 to 270 meters), and the topography in general is similar to that of the Appalachian Highlands.
\par {\b Lake Superior Uplands}
\par \tab The Lake Superior Uplands are part of the Laurentian Highlands, or Canadian Shield. They are found in northeastern Minnesota, northern Wisconsin, and the Upper Peninsula of Michigan. Glacial lakes are common. Ranges of iron ore include Cuyuna, Mesabi and Vermilion, Gogebic, Marquette, and Menominee.
\par {\b Great Plains}
\par \tab The Great Plains extend from Montana and North Dakota southward to Texas. In the north the eastern boundary is the Missouri Coteau, which stands 500 feet (150 meters) above the Central Lowlands. In Texas the eastern boundary is marked by the Balcones escarpment. In Kansas and Nebraska the boundary is barely noticeable. The horizontal layers of the plains rise constantly to the west--from 2,000 feet (600 meters) on the eastern margin to nearly 5,000 feet (1,500 meters) where they strike the Rocky Mountains. The High Plains between Nebraska and Texas, however, are conspicuously flat and indicate little erosion. Western Nebraska has sand hills, and western South Dakota has its Black Hills--an outlier of the Rocky Mountains that stands 3,000 feet (900 meters) above the level of the plains.
\par {\b Rocky Mountains}
\par \tab The Rocky Mountains tower from 5,000 to 14,000 feet (1,500 to 4,270 meters) above the Great Plains. In bold, rugged ranges they stand more than 14,000 feet above sea level. They look down upon the Cordilleran Plateaus to the west. The Colorado Front, Sangre de Cristo, Laramie, Wind River, and Wasatch ranges and the Uinta, Bighorn, and Bitterroot mountains are all parts of the Rocky Mountain system. One of the few major breaks in the system can be found at South Pass in the Wyoming Basin--a favorite route of the settlers moving west.
\par {\b Cordilleran Plateaus}
\par \tab West of the Rockies are the Cordilleran Plateaus: the Colorado Plateau, the Great Basin, and the Columbia River and Snake River Plateau. The horizontal layers of the Colorado Plateau have been cut by the Colorado River to form the Grand Canyon, in places 6,000 feet (1,800 meters) deep and from 0.1 to 18 miles (0.2 to 29 kilometers) wide. The plateau is a land of dissected mesas, domed mountains, arches and natural bridges, stone monuments, and spires. Monument Valley in northwestern Arizona is a case in point. Shiprock in New Mexico rises 1,400 feet (430 meters) above the surrounding surface.
\par \tab The Great Basin lies between the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevada. It is made up of numerous north-south-trending ranges that rise 3,000 to 9,000 feet (900 to 2,700 meters) above the basin floor, or to 10,000 feet (3,000 meters) above sea level. In former times much of the area was covered by Lake Bonneville, of which the Great Salt Lake is a remnant. Western Nevada was covered by Lake Lahontan. Pyramid, Winnemucca, Honey, North Carson, and Walker lakes are remnants of it.
\par \tab Farther north is the Columbia River and Snake River Plateau, essentially a great lava flow. The Snake River has cut a deep canyon in the lava, and the Columbia River also crosses the plateau. Conspicuous features are the Craters of the Moon and the Grand Coulee.
\par {\b Pacific Mountain System}
\par \tab Included in the Pacific Mountain System are the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Range on the east and the Pacific Coast Ranges on the west. Between them are Puget Sound and the Willamette Valley in the north and the Valley of California in the south. Also included are the Salton Sea and the Sonoran Desert.
\par \tab The Sierra Nevada stands high above the present-day landscape. Twelve peaks rise more than 14,000 feet (4,270 meters) above sea level. North of the Sierras are the Cascades, separated into northern and southern sections by the gorge of the Columbia River. Crater Lake and Wizard Island are prominent features of the southern Cascades. Mount Rainier, Mount Adams, Mount St. Helens, and Mount Baker are prominent volcanic peaks of the northern Cascades.
\par \tab The Puget Sound-Willamette Valley lowland lies between the northern Cascades and the Pacific Coast Ranges. The 400-mile- (640-kilometer-) long Valley of California lies between the Sierra Nevada and the Coast Ranges. The San Andreas Fault is located in the Coast Ranges. Movement in the fault caused the San Francisco earthquakes of 1906 and 1989.
\par \tab The Salton Sea was created by a break in the right bank of the lower Colorado River in 1905. Colorado River water flowed into the Salton trough. In 1907 the flow from the river was checked, and the Salton Sea has been shrinking ever since. Most of the Sonoran Desert is located in northwestern Mexico.
\par {\b Alaska}
\par \tab The Pacific Mountain system also appears in southern Alaska. The Alaska Range-Aleutian Islands province is a northern extension of the Pacific Coast Ranges; Cook Inlet and the Copper River lowland are northern extensions of the Puget Sound-Willamette Valley area; and to the north is an extension of the Cascades. The Alaska interior is an extension of the Cordilleran Plateaus. The Brooks Range is the northern outlier of the Rocky Mountains, and the Arctic Central Plain has its equivalent perhaps in the Great Plains. The trend of the provinces in Alaska, however, is different: the mountains and lowlands run east and west. Mount McKinley, at 20,320 feet (6,194 meters) the highest peak in North America, is located in the Alaska Range.
\par {\b Hawaiian Islands}
\par \tab The Hawaiian Islands are really mountain peaks formed from lava that stand above the junction of two submarine ridges. The oldest islands are in the west, the youngest in the east. Thus the volcanic peaks on the island of Hawaii stand highest above sea level: Mauna Kea, 13,796 feet (4,205 meters), and Mauna Loa, 13,679 feet (4,169 meters). Both are still active. The peaks on Oahu and Kauai are much lower, as they have been reduced by erosion. The older islands are also flanked by coral reefs. There is a small coastal plain on Oahu and a significant harbor at Pearl Harbor.
{\b CLIMATE}
\par \tab The United States is affected primarily by air masses that blow southward from Canada, north- and eastward from the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico, and westward from the Pacific Ocean. In winter cold blasts of Arctic air make their presence felt in the northern parts of the country.
\par \tab In late summer winds of hurricane force from the Caribbean strike the Atlantic and Gulf coasts. Occasionally they strike even farther north. In all seasons the westerlies affect the climate and weather of much of the country.
\par \tab The westerly winds, charged with the waters of the Pacific, run into the Cascades and leave much precipitation on the western, or windward, side of the mountains. The eastern, or leeward, side therefore receives little precipitation. Portland, Ore., averages 40 inches (100 centimeters) of precipitation per year, The Dalles only 13 inches (33 centimeters). The Sierra Nevada range leaves the Great Basin relatively dry. Nevada City, Calif., averages 48 inches (122 centimeters); Carson City, Nev., only 9 inches (23 centimeters). The Great Plains lie in the so-called rain shadow of the Rocky Mountains. Accordingly Coeur d'Alene, Idaho, receives 22 inches (56 centimeters); Great Falls, Mont., but 15 inches (38 centimeters).
\par \tab In general the 100th meridian tends to separate a wet East from a much drier West. New Orleans receives more than 60 inches (152 centimeters) of precipitation per year; Miami more than 55 inches (140 centimeters); Birmingham, Ala., more than 50 inches (127 centimeters); Boston, New York City, and Washington, D.C., all more than 40 inches (102 centimeters); Chicago and St. Louis more than 30 inches (76 centimeters); but Bismarck, N.D., only 16 inches (41 centimeters), Wichita, Kan., 28 inches (71 centimeters), and Albuquerque, N. M., but 8 inches (20 centimeters). There is much precipitation, however, in the extreme Northwest. Seattle averages more than 35 inches (90 centimeters) per year.
\par \tab In both Alaska and the Hawaiian Islands, precipitation varies considerably. Sitka, for example, records 87 inches (221 centimeters), Nome 17 inches (43 centimeters), and Barrow less than 5 inches (13 centimeters). Downtown Honolulu records but 20 inches (51 centimeters) of rain, but more than 200 inches (508 centimeters) are often recorded in the surrounding hills. Waialeale on Kauai averages more than 480 inches (1,219 centimeters), making it one of the wettest places on Earth.
\par \tab Temperatures also vary considerably. The average January temperature in Miami, for example, is 68░ F (20░ C); New Orleans 55░ F (13░ C); New York City 33░ F (0.6░ C); Chicago 27░ F (-3░ C); Phoenix 52░ F (11░ C); Denver 31░ F (-0.6░ C); Seattle 40░ F (5░ C). The average July temperature in Miami is 82░ F (28░ C); New Orleans 83░ F (28░ C); New York City 77░ F (25░ C); Chicago 75░ F (24░ C); Phoenix 91░ F (32░ C); Denver 73░ F (23░ C); Seattle 65░ F (18░ C). Fairbanks, Alaska, averages -11░ F (-24░ C) in January, 60░ F (16░ C) in July. Honolulu averages 72░ F (22░ C) in January, 79░ F (26░ C) in July, moderated by the Pacific Ocean.
\par \tab Temperature and precipitation regimes help to define the climatic regions of the mainland United States of which there are nine--four east of the 100th meridian, five west of it. Tropical Savanna, Humid Subtropical, Humid Continental Warm Summer, and Humid Continental Cool Summer are found east of the 100th meridian; Steppe, Desert, Western High Areas, Mediterranean, and Marine West Coast regions are found west of it. Alaska is made up of Subarctic and Tundra regions. The Hawaiian Islands are part of an Oceanic region.
\par {\b Tropical Savanna}
\par \tab The southern portion of Florida is Tropical Savanna, which is a tropical wet and dry climate with one distinct dry season--winter. Miami receives 55 inches (140 centimeters) of rain, but most of it falls in the summer half year and the early fall because of the hurricane influence. Nine of the 55 inches, however, fall in October. The winter half year is relatively dry. Temperatures are uniformly high.
\par {\b Humid Subtropical}
\par \tab Humid Subtropical is a warm, temperate, rainy climate with no distinct dry season. This climate affects the region that covers the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain, most of Appalachia, and the Interior Highlands. Its western boundary lies approximately at the 100th meridian. The 40 inches (102 centimeters) of precipitation in Washington, D.C., is fairly evenly distributed throughout the year. The same is true for Charleston's 49 inches (124 centimeters) and New Orleans' 60 inches (152 centimeters). There is no dry season. Temperatures vary considerably between northern and southern locations.
\par {\b Humid Continental Warm Summer}
\par \tab The Humid Continental Warm Summer region lies north of the Humid Subtropical. Its northern border runs just south of lakes Erie and Michigan and includes the area between western Pennsylvania and Kansas, Nebraska, and South Dakota west to the 100th meridian. The region has a cold climate, though summers are warm and winters humid. Pittsburgh averages 35 inches (89 centimeters) of precipitation evenly distributed throughout the year. The average temperature for January is 31░ F (-0.6░ C), but July's average is 74░ F (23░ C). Omaha, Neb., averages 28 inches (71 centimeters) of precipitation. The average temperature for January is 22░ F (-6░ C), but it is 77░ F (25░ C) in July.
\par {\b Humid Continental Cool Summer}
\par \tab The Humid Continental Cool Summer region lies north of the Humid Continental Warm Summer region. It includes northern New England, the Great Lakes area, and portions of Minnesota and North Dakota west to the 100th meridian. A cold climate with cool summers and humid winters characterizes the region. Marquette, Mich., averages 32 inches (81 centimeters) of precipitation per year, much of it in the form of snow during the winter. The average temperature in January is 16░ F (-9░ C), in July only 65░ F (18░ C). In Duluth, Minn., there is 26 inches (66 centimeters) of precipitation per year, with much snow. January temperatures average 1░ F (-17░ C); July temperatures, like Marquette's, average 65░.
\par {\b Steppe}
\par \tab Steppe is a mid-latitude cold-and-dry region in which there is usually a winter drought. The region covers the Great Plains, much of the Great Basin, and portions of the Columbia and Snake River Plateau. Helena, Mont., receives less than 14 inches (36 centimeters) of precipitation per year. Nine inches (23 centimeters) of the total falls between April and September. The winter months are very dry. Helena's average temperature in January is 20░ F (-7░ C); in July it is 68░ F (20░ C). Boise, Idaho, receives only 12 inches (30 centimeters) of precipitation per year but receives most of it in the winter half, showing a strong influence from the Pacific Ocean. Boise's average January temperature is 29░ F (-17░ C); in July it is 74░ F (23░ C).
\par {\b Desert}
\par \tab Desert includes portions of the Great Basin, the Salton Sea area, southern Arizona and New Mexico, and the Sonoran Desert. Precipitation is meager, and temperatures are high. Yuma, Ariz., receives less than 4 inches (10 centimeters) of rain per year, most of it coming in the winter half. The months between April and July are very dry. In January Yuma's average temperature is 53░ F (12░ C); in July, 91░ F (33░ C).
\par {\b Western High Areas}
\par \tab The Western High Areas include the northern Rockies, the Sierra Nevada, and the Cascades. The region, like the Humid Continental Cool Summer, is cold with cool summers and humid winters.
\par {\b Mediterranean}
\par \tab Classic Mediterranean has three times as much rain in the wettest month of winter as in the driest month of summer. The climate in most of western California comes close to this definition. San Francisco records 21 inches (54 centimeters) of precipitation per year, 18 inches (46 centimeters) in the winter half. January receives 4.4 inches (11 centimeters); there is no precipitation in July. January temperatures average 50░ F (10░ C); the temperature in July averages only 57░ F (14░ C). San Diego, much farther south, records only 10 inches (25 centimeters) of precipitation per year, most of it in the winter months. The summers are very dry. January temperatures average 55░ F (13░ C); the July temperature climbs to only 67░ F (19░ C) and in August to only 69░ F (21░ C).
\par {\b Marine West Coast}
\par \tab Marine West Coast is a warm, temperate, rainy climate. Most of the precipitation occurs in the winter half year, and there is little during the summer months. The region lies west of the Cascades between northern California and the Canadian border. Olympia, Wash., receives 52 inches (132 centimeters) of precipitation per year. Nearly half falls from November through January, and less than 2 inches (5 centimeters) is recorded in July and August. The average temperature in January is 38░ F (3░ C); in July, 63░ F (17░ C). Portland, Ore., records nearly 44 inches (112 centimeters) of precipitation per year, including nearly 20 inches (51 centimeters) from November through January. The average temperature in January is 39░ F (4░ C); in July, 67░ F (19░ C). Precipitation is extremely heavy over the western Olympic Mountains.
\par {\b Subarctic}
\par \tab An extension of the Marine West Coast extends northward into Canada and southeastern Alaska. Sitka records 87 inches (221 centimeters) of precipitation per year, 42 inches (107 centimeters) from September through December. The average January temperature is 33░ F (0.6░ C), the July average only 55░ F (13░ C). But most of central Alaska can be classified as Subarctic, a cold climate with relatively little precipitation and short, cool summers. Fairbanks receives only 11 inches (28 centimeters) of precipitation fairly evenly distributed throughout the year. August, however, is usually the rainiest of the months. The average January temperature is -11░ F (-24░ C); the July, 60░ F (16░ C). Nome, on Norton Sound, records 17 inches (43 centimeters) of precipitation fairly evenly distributed throughout the year, but August is the rainiest of the months. The average temperature in January is 3░ F (-16░ C); in July, 50░ F (10░ C). In the Aleutian Islands there is a very different climatic regime: at Dutch Harbor 56 inches (142 centimeters) of precipitation, much of it in the winter half year, and average temperatures in January of 32░ F (0░ C) and in July of 51░ F (11░ C).
\par {\b Tundra}
\par \tab Essentially a polar climate with little precipitation and low temperatures, the Tundra's average temperature in the warmest month is below 50░ F (10░ C). Barrow, on the Arctic Ocean, records a total precipitation of 4 inches (11 centimeters), an average January temperature of -16░ F (-26░ C), and a July average of 40░ F (4░ C).
\par {\b Oceanic}
\par \tab The Pacific Ocean keeps the trade winds that blow across the Hawaiian Islands filled with water. There is much precipitation in the islands. The Pacific also plays a major role in modifying the islands' temperatures. Location in the low latitudes helps to make the islands tropical, and topography--the leeward and windward effects--plays a significant role in precipitation at particular places. At Hilo, on the island of Hawaii, precipitation averages 140 inches (356 centimeters) per year. March alone produces 14 inches (36 centimeters), November nearly 14 inches, and June, the month with the least precipitation, nearly 8 inches (20 centimeters). There are climatic stations on the same island that produce more than 200 inches (500 centimeters) and some with less than 20 inches (51 centimeters). Mauna Kea and Mauna Loa are often covered with snow. Honolulu, on Oahu, records 23 inches (58 centimeters), most in the winter half year. The January temperature averages 72░ F (22░ C), July only 79░ F (26░ C). Other climatic stations on Oahu and those on the other islands show great differences in precipitation amounts. The temperatures, however, remain equable. Unlike many areas in the tropics, the climate of the Hawaiian Islands can be described as very pleasant.
{\b VEGETATION}
\par \tab Plants tend to adapt to particular precipitation and temperature regimes, hence to particular climatic regions. Topographic and soil conditions are also of consequence. Through adaptation plant formations or plant communities are formed. They may contain a number of different species from which a dominant, or climax, vegetation emerges. In the humid climates the climax vegetation is likely to be the forest; in the subhumid areas the grasses; in the deserts the desert grasses and shrubs. In much of the United States the climax, or natural, vegetation has been removed. Forests have been cut, grasslands destroyed by fire, and new plants and crops introduced to many of the country's regions. Nevertheless, five vegetation regions are distinguished in the coterminous United States: Subtropical Evergreen Forest, Mid-latitude Deciduous Forest, Coniferous Forest, Grasslands, and Desert. Alaska adds a sixth, Tundra; and the Hawaiian Islands a seventh, Oceanic.
\par {\b Subtropical Evergreen Forest}
\par \tab The Subtropical Evergreen Forest includes much of the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain and the Tropical Savanna and Humid Subtropical climatic regions. The tip of southern Florida is marked by a mangrove forest; cypress is found along the streams. Broom, saw, and marsh grasses line the coasts. The dominant tree in the interior is the southern, or yellow, pine, known for its strength compared to other conifers. Some oaks and gums are interspersed among the evergreens--probably because of particular soil conditions.
\par {\b Mid-latitude Deciduous Forest}
\par \tab The Mid-latitude Deciduous Forest extends from southern New England to eastern Texas and eastern Iowa. It includes the Ohio and much of the Mississippi River valleys. Its northern border is south of lakes Michigan and Erie. Before European and American settlement the area was covered with a wide variety of deciduous trees: oak, maple, walnut, beech, hickory, ash, tulip, poplar, and others. Much of the original forest was stripped by indiscriminate cutting and was ravaged by fire. Only remnants are left.
\par {\b Coniferous Forest}
\par \tab The Coniferous Forest lies north of the Mid-latitude Deciduous Forest. It extends from northern New England to the Great Lakes and Minnesota. Portions of the Western High Areas and the Marine West Coast are also included, as is the central interior of Alaska. Conifers dominate--spruce and fir in northern Maine; white pine in Michigan and Wisconsin; ponderosa pine and Douglas fir in the Western High Areas; redwoods in northern California; and Douglas fir, hemlock, and red cedar in the Marine West Coast. White-pine cutting was at its peak in the 1890s in Michigan, and by 1910 most of the trees were gone. The conifers in the Western High Areas remain, as do the tallest trees in the world--the redwoods--most of which are on private land. In the 1960s Redwood National Park was created in an effort to preserve the trees. Hemlock, spruce, and cedar continue to dominate the coasts of Oregon and Washington, while the Douglas fir is predominant inland.
\par {\b Grasslands}
\par \tab Grass--tall-grass prairie and short-grass prairie-steppe--marked the land from Iowa west to Wyoming and from Montana and North Dakota south to Texas. A portion of the tall-grass prairie is included in the so-called Prairie Wedge in Illinois; short-grass prairie-steppe is found in eastern Oregon, Washington, and western Idaho in the Palouse Hills. The Central Valley of California is also part of the Grasslands. In the moister eastern parts big bluestem was the most characteristic grass. In the drier Great Plains grama, buffalo, and bunch grasses were dominant. The deep and tangled root systems of these grasses made the prairies especially difficult to plow; yet most of the tall-grass prairie was brought under cultivation. Ranching and winter wheat (Texas to Nebraska) and spring wheat (the Dakotas) are dominant enterprises in the drier prairie-steppe. Wheat is grown under dry-farming methods in the Palouse Hills. Fruit, nut, and vegetable crops replaced the native grasses in the Central Valley of California.
\par {\b Desert}
\par \tab Deserts cover most of the Interior Plateau. They are found in the lee of the Cascades, in the Great Basin, and south into southwestern Texas and California. These areas tend to be scrublands dominated by sage and short grass. Varieties of cactus are found in the arid southwest, and mesquite is familiar in western Texas. Upslope in the plateau country are pi±on and juniper and at higher elevations ponderosa pine and Douglas fir.
\par {\b Tundra}
\par \tab The tundra in Alaska extends along the shores of the Arctic Ocean, the Bering Strait, and southward to the Aleutian Islands. It is treeless. Grasses, lichens, and mosses dominate the vegetation. Tundra is also found at high elevations in the Lower 48.
\par {\b Oceanic}
\par \tab Isolation, a temperate climate, and great environmental variations created a unique vegetation pattern in the Hawaiian Islands. There are several thousand native plants, most found nowhere else in the world. Plumeria, ornamental hibiscus, coconut, and taro--which are closely associated with the islands--are exotics introduced from elsewhere. Much of the native vegetation, however, has been destroyed by both human and animal predators.
{\b SOILS}
\par \tab Soil is the natural medium in which plants grow. No two soils are exactly alike, but similar soils form under similar environmental conditions. The parent rock, topography, living matter, age of materials, and climate all contribute to soil formation.
\par \tab Soils are so complex that classification is sometimes a problem. The following classification is based on the Seventh Approximation of the United States Department of Agriculture.
\par {\b Spodosols and Ultisols}
\par \tab Spodosols, acidic and low in nutrients, tend to develop in cool, moist places. Accordingly, they are found under the Coniferous Forest region in northern New England and in the Great Lakes area of northern Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota. Spodosols also appear in central Florida.
\par \tab The ultisols have been much weathered and leveled. They are highly acidic but can be productive. They are found in the heavy moisture areas of southern Florida and on the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain, excluding the lower Mississippi Valley, where udalfs tend to dominate. They are also found under coniferous forests in the Cascade Range and the Sierra Nevada on the West coast.
\par {\b Alfisols}
\par \tab Alfisols are found in many areas, but they are most common in humid and subhumid regions on surfaces that have been relatively free of erosion. Four groups of alfisols are found in the United States: udalfs, boralfs, ustalfs, and xeralfs.
\par \tab Udalf soils are the soils of the mid-latitude forests and forest-grassland borderlands. The udalfs occur in humid climates with at least one moisture-deficient period. Like the ultisols they are somewhat acidic, but applications of lime can make them quite fertile. They underlie the Mid-latitude Deciduous Forest from New York State to eastern Iowa and Missouri. They are also the dominant soil type in the lower Ohio and lower Mississippi valleys.
\par \tab Boralf soils were formed under the forest cover at considerably lower temperatures. They are acidic but have little agricultural potential. They can be found in west-central Wisconsin and east-central Minnesota.
\par \tab Ustalfs exist in warmer areas where there are strong seasonal variations in precipitation. They are found primarily in Texas, Oklahoma, and New Mexico.
\par \tab Xeralfs are brownish red soils that form in Mediterranean climates (hot dry summers and cool moist winters). They are quite productive and are found in the Great Appalachian Valley and southern California.
\par {\b Inceptisols and Vertisols}
\par \tab The alfisol boralfs merge into inceptisols (also soils of the humid regions) under the spruce-fir forests of the Rocky Mountains. They in turn merge into still other inceptisols, cryaquepts, which are found at the higher elevations, in the tundra. Inceptisols dominate in the Appalachians.
\par \tab Vertisols are clayey soils that occasionally crack (open and close) over time, depending on the weather. They can be found along the Gulf coast in southwestern Louisiana and southeastern Texas; in Mississippi, Alabama, and Arizona; in the Coast Ranges of California; and in the Hawaiian Islands.
\par {\b Mollisols and Aridisols}
\par \tab The mollisols are the thick, dark-brown-to-black, high-nutrient soils of the Grasslands. They are naturally fertile and are conducive to growing cereal crops. Mollisols are found on the Great Plains, in the Illinois Wedge, and in the area east of the Cascade Range. The fine wheat crops of the Palouse Hills, for example, are grown on mollisols.
\par \tab The pale-colored aridisols form in areas of little moisture and sparse vegetation. They are low in organic matter. Aridisols are found in much of the Great Basin and in Wyoming, eastern Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, and southern California. Grazing is the ideal form of land utilization, but crops can be grown under irrigation.
\par {\b Inceptisols of Alaska and Hawaii}
\par \tab Aquepts are wet inceptisols associated in Alaska with low temperatures and little precipitation. Permafrost, or permanently frozen ground, increases soil wetness. Outside southeastern Alaska, the Aleutian Islands, and the Brooks Range, aquepts are the dominant soil in Alaska.
\par \tab Because of the great variety of climates, topography, and land cover in the Hawaiian Islands, there is also a multiplicity of soils. Oxisols, with high organic and clay content, are prominent in the older, western islands. They are found on the windward eastern side of Kauai and on Oahu's Schofield Plateau, which is planted with pineapples. Histosols--light soils that hold water well--can be found on Kauai, Oahu, and Hawaii. The inceptisols include soils of great diversity and are common on Hawaii, a newer island. The soil variety andepts occurs on or near active volcanoes and develops from volcanic ash.
{\b REGIONS}
\par \tab Physiographic provinces and climatic, vegetation, and soil regions provide a way of organizing a complex set of data that deals with the physical characteristics of the United States. Many other regions have also been delineated. There are economic, cultural, and sociocultural regions; there are political, manufacturing, and dialect regions. There are regions where one religion or another has had a strong influence. There are obviously many others.
{\b PEOPLES AND CULTURES}
\par \tab North America was first settled by immigrants from Asia. The ancestors of the peoples who came to be termed American Indians crossed over land, sea, and ice bridges in the Bering Strait region between about 25,000 and 10,000 years ago. A fleshing tool discovered at Old Crow Flat in the Yukon drainage, Alaska, is one of the oldest known artifacts in North America, as determined through carbon-dating techniques. These early inhabitants, or Paleo-Indians, continued to migrate from Asia, settling throughout the continent's temperate regions over the next several thousand years. The Indians became hunters on the Great Plains and hunters and gatherers in the Great Basin and nearby California. As fishermen they occupied the Columbia River Valley and the North Pacific Region. Farming was established in the Semiarid Southwest and diffused to the South, the Middle Atlantic Region, and New England. Maize, squash, and beans were the favored crops. By the 15th century, highly developed Native American cultures had taken root in every climatic region of the continent. At the time of the European discoveries, there were perhaps 2 million or more American Indians in what is now the coterminous United States.
\par \tab Spanish settlements were established in Florida and in the Semiarid Southwest. The English settled in the South, the Middle Atlantic Region, and New England; the Dutch, Swedes, and Finns in the Middle Atlantic Region; the French on the Gulf coast and in the Mississippi Valley. The onslaught of Europeans brought chaos and devastation to the Indians. They succumbed to disease and warfare, their life patterns were changed, and most were driven west to the forests and prairies beyond the Appalachians.
\par \tab Blacks from Africa were transported to Virginia as early as 1619. Portugal and Spain had been the first European nations to transport African slaves to the Americas, where they worked on sugar plantations. In the 1600s, England, the Netherlands, and France began the large-scale capturing and buying of Africans to labor in their colonies. Some estimates of the eventual total of Africans enslaved and brought to America range between 400,000 and 1,200,000. By 1790 slaves were a majority in the South and made up 20 percent of the American population. Their numbers continued to climb with the adoption of the cotton culture in the South.
\par \tab Between 1830 and 1850 the population of the United States increased from 13 million to 23 million. Some 2.5 million immigrants--most from Great Britain and, after the potato famine, from Ireland--set sail for America during these years. The Irish provided much brawn for their adopted land. They helped dig the canals, prepare track for the new railroads, and run the steamboats. They settled in the manufacturing towns and worked in the factories. As many of them were Roman Catholics, they were much disliked by the majority Protestants of the time. They went into politics in New York City, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Boston.
\par \tab Meanwhile Germans moved into the Ohio Valley and Great Lakes areas. They published and read their own newspapers, met at the local beer gardens, fought the public school movement, and organized their own school system. French Canadians went south into the New England mills. Dutch farmers moved to Michigan, Iowa, and Wisconsin and Scandinavians to the upper Great Lakes.
\par \tab Both immigrants and long-time Americans moved west. They carried with them the American traits of democracy, equality of opportunity, optimism, and individualism. There was low-cost land and abundant soil in the West. Separation of church and state had become a fixed principle. Education was something for which every American could work.
\par \tab Following the Civil War the United States paused long enough to celebrate its centennial in Philadelphia (1876). There were 40 million Americans--many caught up in the country's material progress and with national pride. The typewriter, elevator, and telephone were born. 'Tom Sawyer' was published. Phineas T. Barnum displayed his traveling circus. Americans played croquet, tennis, and baseball. There were the Grant scandals and the disputed Tilden-Hayes election. It was the year that Susan B. Anthony issued her "Declaration of Rights for Women" and Helen Hunt Jackson wrote "A Century of Dishonor"--her discourse on the plight of the American Indians. It was also the year of George Custer's last stand.
\par \tab In 1876 there were perhaps three Americas. One east of the Mississippi River--civilized and urbane--where most of the people lived; the frontier area west of the Mississippi, where relatively few people lived; and the large wilderness area in the remote West--still largely unsettled and untapped. Alaska had only recently been purchased from the Russians, and the Hawaiian Islands were still independent. For the Europeans all of America was a frontier--a new, sparkling, and teeming place where life would be better.
\par \tab In 1884 Frederic Bartholdi's creation, the Statue of Liberty, was presented by the people of France to the people of the United States. At the base--17 years later--Emma Lazarus' words, "Give me your tired, your poor, Your huddled masses yearning to breathe free, . . ." were affixed. The immigrants came--from new sources--in the late 19th and early 20th centuries: Italians from southern Italy, Jews from the empire of the czars, and immigrants from the Austro-Hungarian Empire. A million arrived in 1905, another million in 1906, and a million and a quarter in 1907. They brought new vigor to the land.
\par \tab During the 1920s immigration was severely restricted. A Congressional act in 1921 introduced the quota system. Each year there was to be admitted of each nationality a number equal to 3 percent of those in the country in 1910. The act served to restrict immigration to about 350,000 each year. It favored immigrants from Northern Europe and discriminated against those from Eastern and Southern Europe. In 1927 further restrictions were introduced, and immigration was limited to 150,000. Emma Lazarus' words and thoughts had been relegated to the scrap heap. The Great Depression and World War II helped to restrict immigration even further.
\par \tab Not until 1965 did the United States abandon the discriminatory features of its national origins quota system. Legislation, however, restricted annual immigration from the Eastern Hemisphere to 170,000, of whom no more than 20,000 could come from any single country. Ceilings were also placed on immigrants from the Western Hemisphere--up to 120,000 (1968).
\par \tab Meanwhile the country had liberalized its policy toward refugees from other lands. When the Soviets suppressed the Hungarian revolution in 1956, more than 30,000 Hungarians were admitted to the United States. In the 1960s and 1970s more than 650,000 anti-Castro Cubans arrived. Between 1975 and 1980 about 360,000 Vietnamese found their way to the United States. Legal and illegal immigrants continue to come north from Mexico. For a period the illegals could appeal under the law for citizenship. The United States has continued to welcome refugee "boat people"--the Haitians are an example.
\par \tab Among the American people today about 80 percent owe their origins to Northern, Southern, and Eastern Europe; Germany, Great Britain, Ireland, Scandinavia, and The Netherlands have made some of the largest contributions. Blacks, or African Americans, total 12.1 percent; Hispanics, largely from the Western Hemisphere, about 9 percent; and Native Americans, including Eskimos and Aleuts, about 1 percent. Many other ethnic groups contribute to the cultural diversity of the United States, one of the great strengths of the nation.
{\b LANGUAGE}
\par \tab An overwhelming majority of Americans speak English. It is the first language in the schools, in the media, and in the marketplace. Spanish, however, is the everyday tongue among the Cubans in Florida and Mexican Americans in Texas, California, and the Southwest. Puerto Ricans have also retained the Spanish language. French is still heard in parts of New England, in Cajun Louisiana, and among the Haitians in Florida. Second- and third-generation Americans, however, tend to drop their mother tongues and concentrate on English. Yiddish, widely spoken on New York City's streets early in the 20th century, is fast disappearing. Jewish children, even in their religious schools, are not likely to learn Yiddish. They concentrate on Hebrew, the language of Jewish law and the State of Israel. There are also small enclaves of people, mostly in the cities, who still speak the Eastern and Southern European languages--Polish, Czech, Hungarian, Greek, Italian, and others.
\par \tab Of special concern is the lack of linguistic competence in the United States. Except for the foreign-born, few Americans have mastered a second language. School requirements have been dropped or lowered over the decades since 1945. This trend stands in stark contrast to students in Europe and the Far East, who struggle to master English and other languages. Another failure in the United States is the increasing number of those who cannot read or write, even among adults. Efforts are being made to increase foreign language studies in American schools and colleges, and there are new programs for teaching adults and school dropouts to read.
{\b RELIGION}
\par \tab The Christian religion predominates in the United States--64 percent of the American people are Protestants, 25 percent Roman Catholics. Jews represent only 2 percent of religious adherents, and there are small percentages of other faiths. At least 7 percent of the American people have no religious ties.
\par \tab Of the Protestant denominations the Baptists are the largest, with 33 percent. The Methodists number 19 percent, Lutherans 12 percent, Presbyterians 7 percent, and Episcopalians 4 percent.
\par \tab Of the blacks in the country, 88 percent are Protestants--69 percent Baptists, an indication of Southern beginnings. The Irish are 55 percent Protestant, 34 percent Roman Catholic. The large Protestant figure is attributable to the early Scotch-Irish immigration, the Roman Catholic figure to immigration in the 19th and 20th centuries. The former chose to live in rural settings, the latter for the most part in the large cities of the Middle Atlantic Region and New England. Cubans, Mexican Americans, and Haitians are predominantly Roman Catholic.
{\b ARTS AND LITERATURE}
\par \tab Early in the 19th century someone asked, "Who reads an American book?" The implication was that no one in the United States wrote anything of merit. By mid-century this was no longer true. Edgar Allan Poe, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Herman Melville, Walt Whitman, Emily Dickinson, and many other writers of note were flourishing. Toward the end of the century the writings of Mark Twain were gaining large audiences.
\par \tab The 20th century continued this vigorous trend in literature. John Dos Passos viewed American society between 1900 and 1930 in his trilogy 'U.S.A.'. James T. Farrell portrayed the Irish slums of Chicago in 'Studs Lonigan'. Sinclair Lewis criticized small-town Protestant morality in 'Main Street' and other books. Ernest Hemingway went to Europe after World War I and wrote his best early work, including 'The Sun Also Rises'. Another expatriate, F. Scott Fitzgerald, published 'The Great Gatsby' and other novels. John Steinbeck told the story of a family of migrant workers from Oklahoma in 'The Grapes of Wrath'. William Faulkner reported on life in the South. The second half of the 20th century saw the rise of many black writers, including James Baldwin and Toni Morrison, and a growing literary sophistication was reflected in the popularity of regional and experimental fiction.
\par \tab Americans have also made their mark in painting, sculpture, architecture, music, dance, theater, photography, and filmmaking. In each field the mainstream is primarily a continuation and development of Western European traditions. In addition, the American Indians continued their traditional work in ceramics, stonework, metals, painting, and music. Blacks brought sculpture, metalworking, and weaving from their African roots. In the new America they developed song, dance, music, and poetry and created a black renaissance. Hispanic and Asian immigrants and their descendants have influenced American arts. Museums, theaters, and galleries across the country display the general excellence of American arts.
{\b HEALTH AND EDUCATION}
\par \tab In a world much distressed by poverty and disease, the United States is a relatively wealthy and healthy land. The standard of living and the quality of life are high. The average white American can anticipate a life span of more than 70 years (77 for females). For other Americans the life span is a bit lower--70 for females, 65 for males. Incomes in the United States are high and have risen substantially since the 1940s. From $5,583 in 1941 the median family income rose to $12,840 in 1974. By 1989 it had increased to $39,484 in the northeast, $34,613 in the Midwest, $30,499 in the South, and $35,698 in the West. Americans own cars and homes. Unlike most people in the world, they depend on machines--dishwashers, garbage disposals, clothes dryers, food freezers, steam irons, and vacuum cleaners. Their diet is dominated by meat, dairy products, fruits, and vegetables and is undoubtedly the most varied in the world. In spite of the affluence, poverty and unemployment are well known--especially in urban areas.
\par \tab Diseases that cause pain and death are also prevalent. The chief causes of death are heart disease, cancer, and the cerebrovascular diseases. Research on all three continues.
\par \tab Education is an aid in the struggle. It is available to Americans (both private and public) from pre-kindergarten through graduate school. All Americans do not or cannot take advantage of these opportunities, but enrollment in colleges has increased remarkably. In 1940 nearly 1.5 million students were enrolled in American colleges. In 1973 the figure was more than 8,370,000. Today about half of the American population between the ages of 18 and 21 are enrolled in college programs--a feat of incredible dimensions.
{\b INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS}
\par \tab Since World War II the United States has been one of the world's leading powers--in essence a superpower. It is one of the five permanent members of the Security Council of the United Nations.
\par \tab To protect its own territory and the territory of the free world, the United States is a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). The United States maintains its armed forces in a number of NATO countries.
\par \tab The United States is also a member of the Organization of American States (OAS), formed to defend the sovereignty of the nations of the Western Hemisphere. It is much interested in the Caribbean Community and Common Market (CARICOM), designed to promote unity in the Caribbean area.
\par \tab As one of the wealthiest nations in the world, the United States administers aid to the world community through its Agency for International Development (AID). Most of this aid goes to the Near East, South and East Asia, and Europe with lesser amounts to Latin America and Africa.
\par \tab The United States is among the leading trading nations in the world. Major exports include machinery and transportation equipment (computers, electrical apparatus, motor vehicles and parts, and aircraft, parts, and accessories), chemicals, mineral fuels, beverages, tobacco, and food (wheat and corn). The United States receives in return machinery and transportation equipment (electrical apparatus, automobiles, and parts), chemicals, mineral fuels, beverages, paper, metals, textiles, clothing and footwear, and food (meat, fish, coffee, tea, and bananas). The leading trading partners are Canada, Japan, Saudi Arabia, Mexico, Great Britain, and Germany.
\par \tab The United States has penetrated deeply into the Canadian economy. The relationship between the two countries is excellent, and many American multinational corporations have large investments in Canada. Mining and smelting, petroleum and natural gas, and much of the manufacturing enterprise is dominated by American firms.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by Daniel Jacobson, Professor of Geography, Michigan State University, East Lansing, and author of 'Great Indian Tribes' (1970), 'The Hunters' (1974), 'The Fishermen' (1975), 'The Gatherers' (1977), 'Indians of North America' (1983), and 'The North Central States' (1984).
{\b BIBLIOGRAPHY FOR UNITED STATES}
\par \tab Bergheim, L.A. Weird Wonderful America: The Nation's Most Offbeat and Off-the-Beaten-Path Tourist Attractions (Macmillan, 1988).
\par \tab Collins, J.L. Exploring the American West (Watts, 1989).
\par \tab Davis, K.C. Don't Know Much About History: Everything You Need to Know About American History but Never Learned (Crown, 1990).
\par \tab Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc. The Annals of America (EB Inc., 1987).
\par \tab Meinig, D.W. The Shaping of America (Yale Univ. Press, 1986).
\par \tab National Geographic. The Story of America: A National Geographic Picture Atlas (National Geographic, 1984).
\par \tab National Geographic Society. Preserving America's Past (National Geographic, 1983).
\par \tab Tindall, G.B. America: A Narrative History (Norton, 1988).\par \tab One of the smallest of the countries of South America, the Republic of Uruguay (Rep·blica Oriental del Uruguay) is a buffer between Latin America's two largest and most powerful republics. Covering an area of about 68,000 square miles (176,000 square kilometers), the nation is dwarfed by its giant neighbors Brazil, to the north, and Argentina, to the west and south. The Atlantic Ocean on the east and the estuary of the Rφo de la Plata on the south create a maritime influence that somewhat modifies climatic extremes. They also give Uruguay immediate access to international trade. Roughly triangular in shape, Uruguay stretches less than 350 miles (560 kilometers) from north to south and about 300 miles (480 kilometers) from west to east.
\par {\b Land and Climate}
\par \tab Uruguay's primary landform is an undulating plain composed of low, rolling, grass-covered hills divided by broad river valleys. Occupying roughly two thirds of the country's total area, it is dotted with outcrops of crystalline rocks, particularly along ridge crests. These outcrops often create long ridge lines, known as cuchillas, which act as watershed divides.
\par \tab There are two other landscape types. Almost featureless coastal plains extend as a narrow fringe along the Uruguay River, the Rφo de la Plata, and the eastern lagoon area, occupying about 15 percent of the country. Their fertile sedimentary soils and low relief give them high agricultural potential. Beautiful sand beaches along the coast east of Montevideo are major attractions for tourists.
\par \tab Uruguay's third major physical region, the serranφas, is a series of low mountains that stretch in a gentle arc from north-northeast to south-southwest in the eastern third of the country. They are mostly no more than large hills, and their highest peak is Mount Catedral. At only 1,683 feet (513 meters) in elevation, it is the highest point in the nation.
\par \tab Uruguay is surrounded on three sides by rivers. In the north the Guareim River forms the border with Brazil for more than 175 miles (280 kilometers). The Uruguay, from which the country took its name, forms the western boundary and is by far the largest and most picturesque of the country's rivers. The Uruguay is navigable as far north as Salto, more than 200 miles (320 kilometers) from its union with the Rφo Paranß. On the southern margin is the Rφo de la Plata, the large estuary formed by the union of the Uruguay and Paranß rivers.
\par \tab The largest river system within the country is the Rφo Negro. With headwaters in southernmost Brazil, it crosses Uruguay from northeast to southwest. The damming of the Rφo Negro provides a source of hydroelectric energy as well as a huge artificial lake, the Embalse del Rφo Negro, the nation's only large standing body of fresh water.
\par \tab Uruguay is the only country in Latin America completely outside of the tropics. With its maritime location and nearly 500 miles (805 kilometers) of coastline, extreme temperatures are reduced in both summer and winter. In Montevideo, the capital, the average annual temperature is 61░ F (16░ C), with a winter monthly low of 51░ F (11░ C) in June and a summer high average of about 80░ F (27░ C) in January. Temperature ranges are slightly greater in the interior, and the warmest conditions prevail in the northwest. Annual precipitation, which is more or less uniformly distributed throughout the year, ranges from a high of nearly 50 inches (127 centimeters) in the northwest to about 40 inches (102 centimeters) in the south.
\par \tab The apparent uniformity of climatic conditions is deceiving, however, as Uruguay is subject to extremes from the interaction of different air masses and frontal systems. For anyone who has lived in the country, the hot summer days and cold winter nights make a mockery of the statistical averages. Temperatures of 100░ F (38░ C) are common during the summer months, while freezing temperatures occur frequently during the winter. Periods of both major flooding and drought have occurred in Uruguay during every decade since the 1880s.
\par \tab Prairie grasses and herbaceous plants dominate the landscape and represent the nation's single major source of natural wealth. Covering more than 90 percent of the country, the grass-dominated scenery is broken only by montes, scrub woodlands that cover rocky hills and ridges, and planted eucalyptus windbreaks and forest lots.
\par \tab Aside from its rich agricultural potential, Uruguay is almost devoid of natural physical resources. Sand, amethyst, granite, and marble are the only mineral products mined in the country.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab Throughout its early history Uruguay lacked the things Spanish conquerors dreamed of: gold and converts to Christianity. For 200 years after it was first seen by Europeans in the early 1500s, the area of present-day Uruguay remained little more than a huge natural pasture inhabited by wild cattle, hostile Charr·a Indians, and occasional bands of gauchos, or cowboys. Lacking even a name, the area was simply referred to as the Banda Oriental del Uruguay (the east bank of the Uruguay River). Therefore Uruguayans are still known as orientales.
\par \tab The country's population totals about 3 million, and Uruguay has the slowest annual population growth rate in Latin America--averaging less than 0.6 percent per year. The overwhelming majority of Uruguayans live in the southern and western coastal margins, and more than 85 percent are urban. Montevideo is home to more than 1.2 million people, or nearly half the nation's total. Montevideo's predominance over the country's second largest city, Salto, makes it an outstanding example of a primate city.
\par \tab From the earliest period of settlement, Uruguay's economy was dominated by extensive grazing activities overseen by a relatively small number of gauchos. Thus rural areas have always had few employment opportunities. Much of the countryside remains very sparsely settled. Broad areas have population densities of less than 2 persons per square mile (0.8 per square kilometer), and large areas are essentially devoid of people.
\par \tab Nearly 98 percent of the people trace their ancestry to Europeans. Most Uruguayans are descended from immigrants who arrived in the country after 1870. People of Spanish origin make up the bulk of inhabitants, but more than a third are of Italian origin. The original Charr·a Indians were literally exterminated by the Spanish and Portuguese prior to Uruguayan independence, leaving the nation devoid of an indigenous population. Blacks, originally imported as slaves to work in the country's ports, form an extremely small but distinctive part of Montevideo's population.
\par \tab Unlike all other Latin American republics except Argentina, Uruguay has developed a social class structure in which the middle classes are numerically dominant. Free public education and subsidized health-care systems have resulted in extremely high literacy levels (more than 95 percent), high life expectancy at birth (more than 70 years), low infant mortality rates, and a relatively high per capita gross domestic product (GDP) when compared to other nations of the region. In appearance, behavior, and life-styles, Uruguayans are much more like Western Europeans than are most Latin Americans.
\par \tab Uruguay has no official state religion. While the majority of Uruguayans are Roman Catholics, the country is highly secular in its daily life. The separation of church and state is complete. Civil marriage and divorce have been legal since the early 1900s.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab Although it contributes only slightly more than 9 percent to the country's GDP, agriculture remains the basis of the Uruguayan economy. Nearly 10 million cattle and more than 20 million sheep occupy about three fourths of the agricultural land. Most livestock operations are extensive, substituting land for technical improvements. Raw wool and beef are the major commodities produced. These two items represent only about a third of exports by value, but sheep and cattle products provide the raw materials for the many industries that produce more than 90 percent of Uruguayan exports. The country is heavily dependent on agriculture for tax revenue to support government spending programs and employment in other sectors.
\par \tab For the second half of the 20th century, Uruguay's terms of trade, the relative value of exports to imports, have been highly unfavorable. The nation has been excluded from selling fresh or chilled beef in some overseas markets, ostensibly because of the presence of anthrax (hoof-and-mouth disease) within the country. As a result Uruguay's agricultural production has been stagnant, with a severe effect on the entire economy. Some attempts have been made to develop new markets to replace traditional ones, but these have generally turned out to be unstable and less profitable. The leading area of expansion in the agricultural sector has been processed dairy products--especially milk, cheese, and ice cream, which have found a ready market in Brazil.
\par \tab More than three fifths of Uruguay's GDP is produced through the service sector, mainly in public administration and tourism. Nontraditional export-oriented industrialization is encouraged by the government in an effort to diversify the employment and export base. Historically industry has been costly and inefficient but has survived because of protective tariff barriers and government subsidies. Because of its attractive coastal amenities, increased tourism is seen as a means of improving economic conditions over the long term. The government owns and operates the railroads, a national airline, a shipping fleet, the telephone and telegraph system, petroleum refining and processing, the cement industry, and a number of other activities. Privatization, however, has become a major policy consideration of the government. Severe inflation during the early 1970s and mid-1980s and an excessive foreign debt, largely caused by increased oil prices and unwise spending during the military dictatorship of 1973 to 1984, left Uruguay vulnerable.
\par {\b History and Government}
\par \tab The area that is now Uruguay was discovered by Juan Dφaz de Solφs in 1516, but it remained largely devoid of European population until the Portuguese established the town of Colonia opposite Buenos Aires in 1680. Montevideo was founded in 1726 by a handful of Spanish colonists in an effort to contain Portuguese influence. In 1776 the Banda Oriental del Uruguay became a part of the Spanish viceroyalty of Rφo de la Plata.
\par \tab In 1811 Uruguay's national hero, JosΘ Gervasio Artigas, rallied the orientales against Spanish rule and organized a gaucho army to win independence from Spain. Although Artigas defeated the Spanish at the battle of Las Piedras and laid siege to Montevideo, his successes were foiled by the entry of Portuguese troops and Brazil's subsequent occupation of the area. Artigas led his followers in an exodus to Paraguay and after 1820 never again set foot in Uruguay.
\par \tab In 1825 Brazil's domination of its newly acquired Cisplatine Province was challenged by the Treinta y Tres Orientales--33 patriots led by Juan Antonio Lavalleja and aided by Argentina. With British commercial intervention and the agreement of Brazil and Argentina, the Rep·blica Oriental del Uruguay was established in 1828. After a constitution was adopted in 1830, there were 70 years of nearly continuous civil war. The antagonists, identified by the color of their headbands worn in battle, were the Colorados (Reds), representing liberal urban interests, and the Blancos (Whites), led by conservative landowners. Uruguay's major political parties today are the Colorado and the Blanco, officially the National party.
\par \tab The country's last civil war was fought in 1904 during the first presidency of JosΘ Batlle y Ord≤±ez, Uruguay's most notable political figure and leading citizen. Batlle was largely responsible for the advanced social legislation and democratic traditions of modern Uruguay. During the first half of the 20th century, despite several constitutional changes, Uruguay became a very wealthy and egalitarian nation-state, admired throughout the world for its social programs and democratic liberties. This prosperity was based on the expanding exportation of wool and beef to Europe and a slow growth in population. In the 1950s, however, the Uruguayan economy stagnated. It was followed by political unrest in the 1960s and culminated in a military dictatorship inaugurated in 1973.
\par \tab The military takeover was broadly supported. Citizens felt that firm leadership was needed to end urban guerrilla terrorism, which had beset the country since the mid-1960s, and to right an economy that was on the verge of collapse. The military crushed the "internal state of war" and sought to revitalize the economy by reducing the government's role and by creating free-market mechanisms. While initially successful, the military government was viewed as increasingly repressive and antithetical to the Uruguayan political tradition of open and free democracy.
\par \tab In 1984 a freely elected civilian government replaced the military dictatorship. Severe economic problems remain, but the restoration of democracy was enthusiastically received by Uruguayans.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by Ernst Clark Griffin, Professor and Chairman, Department of Geography, San Diego State University.\par \tab A former republic of the Soviet Union, Uzbekistan is a Muslim cultural center. The republic gained its independence in 1991. It is bordered on the north and northwest by Kazakhstan, on the east and southeast by Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan, on the southwest by Turkmenistan, and on the south by Afghanistan. Its area is 172,700 square miles (447,300 square kilometers).
\par \tab Nearly four fifths of the area is a flat, sunbaked lowland. The country lies between the Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers, and the delta of the Amu Darya spreads over a portion of the land. The waters are used up by irrigation, filtration, and evaporation. Most rivers disappear into the sands. Many natural tributaries are captured for mechanized irrigation before they reach the main riverbed. The climate is dry and continental. Summers are long and warm, and winters are short, with occasional severe frosts.
\par \tab There are about 60 different ethnic groups in Uzbekistan. About 70 percent of the residents are Uzbeks, who live mainly in rural areas. Russians, Tatars, and Kazakhs make up high percentages of the urban population, with a lesser number of Tajiks.
\par \tab Tashkent is the capital of Uzbekistan and is Central Asia's largest metropolis. The republic's oldest and second largest city is Samarkand, which is located in the Zeravshan River valley. It dates back at least 2,500 years. These and the other ancient cities of Bukhara, Khiva, and Kokand were in irrigated areas or on caravan trade routes when they were originally established. Such younger towns as Chirchik, Angren, Bekabad, Almalyk, and Navoi were established near rich mineral resources. Yangiyul, Gulistan, and Yangiyer began as cotton, silkworm, or fruit-processing centers.
\par \tab Many Uzbek cities were famed for centuries as educational centers. Thousands of students came each year from many parts of the Muslim East to attend seminaries. The Uzbek Academy of Sciences was established in 1943 as a branch of the central academy in Moscow. The 'Uthman Koran, an original transcription of the Koran, is kept in the Tashkent Museum of the History of the Peoples of Uzbekistan.
\par \tab Uzbekistan was the chief source of the Soviet Union's cotton supply and is the third largest cotton producer in the world. It is also the region's major center for the raising of Karakul sheep and silkworms. Cattle raising, orchards, and fur farming also help the economy. Uzbekistan is Central Asia's main producer of machines and heavy equipment. Its chemical industry produces fertilizers for the cotton fields. The country is one of the leading centers of the region's natural gas industry. Large reserves of petroleum, coal, and metallic ores are also found here. In the Kuramin Range are deposits of copper, zinc, lead, tungsten, and molybdenum. Gold is found in the Kyzyl Kum Desert.
\par \tab Traces of human habitation date back some 55,000 to 70,000 years. Beginning in the 6th century BC, a succession of invaders swept over the region. From the 13th to 16th centuries the area was part of the empire of Timur Lenk, or Tamerlane, and his successors. Various dynasties ruled until Russia conquered the region in the 19th century. The republic was founded in 1924.
\par \tab In 1989 ethnic violence directed by the Uzbek majority against the Meskhetians, a Turkic minority, erupted. The unrest in the Fergana Valley had economic, racial, and religious overtones. The next year more violence erupted along the Kyrgyz border. More than 100 people were killed in the ethnic disturbance. In June 1990 the Uzbek parliament approved a declaration that demanded greater rights to self-government. On Aug. 31, 1991, the republic declared its independence; however, it remained a part of the Soviet Union until the country's dissolution in December 1991. After independence the Communist party retained power by changing its name to the Popular Democratic party and appropriating all property held under its former name. Population (1992 estimate), 21,363,000.\par \tab The Republic of Vanuatu consists of 12 islands and 60 islets that form a Y-shaped chain in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. Formerly known as New Hebrides, it is situated about 1,200 miles (1,900 kilometers) east of Australia. Vanuatu's total land area is 4,600 square miles (11,900 square kilometers). The capital and largest city, Vila, is on Efate, the main island.
\par \tab Mountainous interiors, narrow coastal plains, and offshore coral reefs characterize the islands. There are several active volcanoes, and the islands are subject to frequent earthquakes. Rainfall ranges from 90 inches (230 centimeters) in the south to 155 inches (395 centimeters) in the north.
\par \tab The largest ethnic group is Melanesian. There are small minorities of Europeans, Chinese, and Polynesians. The languages spoken are French, English, and Bislama, a Melanesian pidgin.
\par \tab Agriculture, fishing, and cattle raising are the major occupations. Chief crops are copra, cocoa, coffee, bananas, yams, taro, and breadfruit. Large-scale commercial fishing of tuna and bonito is conducted with Japanese and Australian assistance. Some manganese is mined. Manufacturing includes meat packing, fish freezing, and the production of soft drinks and furniture. A lack of direct taxation fostered Vanuatu's development as a financial and banking center.
\par \tab First sighted by a Portuguese navigator in 1606, the islands were named in 1774 by the English explorer James Cook after the Scottish Hebrides Islands. During World War II they were a major Allied base. The islands became independent under the name of Vanuatu in 1980. Population (1987 estimate), 145,000.\par \tab The official residence of the Roman Catholic church's pope is Vatican City (Cittα del Vaticano). It is one of the smallest independent states in the world and lies entirely within the confines of Rome, Italy, on the west, or right, bank of the Tiber River. Here the pope directs the government of his church, which has more than one billion adherents.
\par \tab To all intents and purposes Vatican City as the territorial base of the Holy See, or the government of the Roman Catholic church, is a theocracy--that is, a state governed by divine guidance or by people who are believed to be divinely guided. It remains, at the same time, a recognized secular state because it possesses territory, population, and government.
\par \tab The official name of the papal territory, which has an area of 1/6 square mile (0.4 square kilometer), is the State of Vatican City. More often it is called the Vatican or the Holy See.
\par {\b Within the City Walls}
\par \tab An ancient Roman wall marks the boundaries of Vatican City on all sides except the southeast. Here St. Peter's Square, designed by Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini, serves as a stately entrance to the Vatican. Vatican City contains some of the most famous buildings in the world. Foremost are St. Peter's Basilica, to which pilgrims have journeyed for centuries, and the Vatican Palace, the home of popes since the 14th century. These two buildings preserve an extraordinary record of history and art--both religious and secular.
\par \tab {\b St. Peter's Basilica.}
\par \tab St. Peter's Basilica is the second largest Christian church in the world after the one in Yamoussoukro, C⌠te d'Ivoire, which was designed in imitation of St. Peter's. It is built on the site of a 4th-century basilica that is believed to enclose the tomb of St. Peter, the founder of the church. The present structure was consecrated in 1626 after more than a century of building. Notable architects directed the construction. Among them were Donato Bramante, Raphael, and, perhaps most important, Michelangelo. Michelangelo designed the great dome, which rises 390 feet (119 meters) above the floor. It can be seen from all districts of Rome.
\par \tab Many celebrated Renaissance artists contributed to the rich ornamentation of the interior. Above the high altar, where traditionally the pope alone may celebrate mass, is the well-known baldachin sculpted by Bernini. It is a gleaming bronze canopy 95 feet (29 meters) high with striking twisted pillars. The world-famous sculptor also designed St. Peter's throne behind the high altar and crafted many of the wall decorations and the colored pavement of the floor. The statue of St. Peter, by an unknown artist, has been an object of devotion for centuries. It is argued that the kisses of countless pilgrims have worn down one foot of this bronze statue. In one of the many side chapels of St. Peter's is Michelangelo's 'Madonna della Pietα', the only work he is reputed ever to have signed.
\par \tab {\b Vatican Palace.}
\par \tab In 1377 Pope Gregory XI began to reside in a house on Vatican Hill. The popes who followed made repeated additions. Thus gradually the house became a palace. Today the Vatican Palace is a collection of buildings of different periods that cover 13 1/2 acres (5.5 hectares) and contain more than 1,400 rooms. Much of the surrounding area consists of formal gardens. Only a small portion, on the southeast side, however, is taken up by the apartments of the pope, the secretary of state, and other officials. The remainder is given over to the vast library and to the many museums that house great art treasures.
\par \tab The most celebrated section of the palace is the Sistine Chapel with magnificent frescoes by Michelangelo. On the ceiling are nine scenes that depict the story of Genesis from the creation to the flood. On the wall behind the altar is 'The Last Judgment', painted from 1533 to 1541. In the early 1990s the frescoes were being restored--among much controversy in artistic circles because of the fear of some art historians that the cleaning solution would remove some of the artist's own later corrections. The small chamber is also the private chapel of the pope and the meeting place of the conclave of cardinals during the election of a new pope. The second major chapel is called the Pauline. It is the parish church of the Vatican.
\par \tab The Pinacoteca (Picture Gallery) houses hundreds of paintings by Giotto, Fra Angelico, Leonardo da Vinci, Titian, Sandro Botticelli, Perugino, Pinturicchio, Correggio, Guido Reni, and other masters. The collection of classical sculpture, one of the foremost in the world, is displayed in the museums east of the library--the Chiaramonti and the Pio-Clementino. Masterful frescoes and remarkable paintings are found on the walls of the Borgia Apartments and the Raphael Rooms.
\par \tab The Vatican museums also contain and display large collections of relics from Egyptian, Etruscan, and Roman times and from early Christian days. The immense archives contain records of the Holy See dating back to the 13th century. Equally important to scholars is the collection of manuscripts and early printed books in the library, one of the great libraries of the world. There is also a major geographic chart collection. Other buildings include the Propaganda, Cancelleria, Dateria, and Vicareate.
\par \tab {\b Service facilities.}
\par \tab Within the city walls all normal public services are maintained. These include a telephone and telegraph system, a 900-foot (274-meter) railway that connects with the main Italian line, electric power and water services from Rome supplemented by a local water supply, and a small electric power plant. The city has a post office that issues its own stamps and a bank that issues currency as well as Vatican automobile license plates. Its flag is yellow and white with the papal coat of arms on the white stripe. The Vatican has its own elementary school, restaurants, fire department, supermarket, souvenir shops, soup kitchen, shelter for homeless women, hospice, pharmacy, medical staff and infirmary, mosaic factory, and printing plant. This facility prints a vast array of literature produced by the papacy. Other structures include an astronomical observatory.
\par \tab The Vatican radio station HVJ broadcasts several hundred programs weekly. Besides papal messages and addresses, the station broadcasts news, general information, and cultural programs. The Vatican newspaper, L'Osservatore Romano (The Roman Observer), also has a worldwide audience. It is published daily by the Vatican Publishing House. This division of the Vatican press also publishes liturgical and juridical works of the Holy See and Roman Curia as well as works pertaining to the government of the state. In addition it publishes the official bulletin, 'Acta Apostolicae Sedis' (Acts of the Apostolic See), and the papal yearbook and directory, 'Annuario Pontificio'.
\par {\b Government}
\par \tab Vatican City is an absolute monarchy, with the pope as sovereign. Upon his election as supreme pontiff of the Roman Catholic church, he assumes complete civil and political authority in the state. The pope, however, does not personally carry out the functions of a temporal sovereign. He delegates his temporal governing power to the Pontifical Commission for Vatican City, confining himself to the spiritual leadership of the church.
\par \tab {\b Citizenship.}
\par \tab Citizenship in Vatican City is regulated by the terms of the Lateran Treaty of 1929. It is given to all persons and their families whose offices require that they live in the territory. It is ended when their office or residence is terminated. Vatican citizenship does not necessarily preclude citizenship in other countries but may suspend such citizenship temporarily. It is never acquired by birth but is always voluntary.
\par \tab Although the population of Vatican City is more than 700, the number of citizens is actually somewhat greater. Certain prelates and Vatican diplomats reside outside the city. The great majority of the population are Italians, and Italian is the official language. Latin is used in official documents.
\par \tab Clergymen, lay people, and the Vatican military are included in the population. The military consists of the Swiss Guard, which protects the person of the pope. In addition some 1,200 people commute to work daily in Vatican City.
\par \tab {\b Neutrality.}
\par \tab Vatican City is pledged by the Lateran Treaty to permanent neutrality in international relations. It is bound not to wage war or to enter alliances that might lead to war. Unless a direct appeal is made to the Vatican, it may not take part in international attempts to settle disputes among nations.
\par \tab {\b Diplomatic relations.}
\par \tab The right of the Holy See to send and receive diplomats is recognized in the Lateran Treaty. It guarantees the Vatican full communication with other governments--even those at war with Italy. Complications arose over this guarantee during World War II. While Italy remained an active opponent of the Allies, Vatican envoys from Western countries moved to cramped quarters within Vatican City. When Rome was occupied in 1944 by the Allies, envoys from the Axis powers in turn moved to the neutral Vatican territory.
\par \tab In the diplomatic relations that the pope maintains with some 50 governments, his representative is a papal nuncio. This Vatican diplomat has the rank of full ambassador and traditionally is dean of the diplomatic corps in the country where he serves. A papal representative without diplomatic status is the apostolic delegate. He serves as an intermediary between the Vatican and Roman Catholics of the country to which he is assigned.
\par {\b History}
\par \tab The Vatican was established as the state of the pope by the Lateran Treaty and the Concordat of Feb. 11, 1929--an agreement between the Holy See and the Italian government. In 1870 the former Papal States, which had existed since the 8th century, were dissolved. By the 19th century these papal territories extended through central Italy and covered 17,000 square miles (44,000 square kilometers). These states included Rome, which was the seat of papal power from the time the popes returned from Avignon, France, in 1377. To protest their incorporation into a unified Italy, each pope thereafter remained a "voluntary prisoner of the Vatican," never leaving the small papal grounds. This situation lasted nearly 60 years. Finally the Fascist government of Italy under Benito Mussolini began negotiations with the Holy See. The outcome of these sessions was the Lateran Treaty and the Concordat.
\par \tab The treaty established a territory of 109 acres (44 hectares) on Vatican Hill as an independent state with the pope as absolute sovereign. In doing so it recognized that complete freedom from all secular political authority was vital to the papacy. The treaty guarantees that the boundaries of the Vatican state are fixed and unchangeable.
\par \tab Outside Vatican City the popes also have jurisdiction over certain areas where the church functions or has historic interests. These extraterritorial areas include the buildings that house the pontifical ministries; certain key historical churches--the basilica of St. John Lateran, Santa Maria Maggiore and St. Paul Outside the Walls; the Catacombs; and Castel Gondolfo, the summer residence of popes since the 17th century located about 6 miles (10 kilometers) southeast of Rome.
\par \tab On June 10, 1946, Italy adopted a republican form of government. Its new constitution, adopted in December 1947, provided for the continuance of the Lateran Treaty and the Concordat, which had worked well since their inception in 1929. The Concordat, which established Roman Catholicism as the official religion of Italy, was revoked in 1985.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by Allan Rodgers, Professor of Geography, Pennsylvania State University, University Park.
\par \tab {\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR VATICAN CITY}
\par \tab Fellucci, Mario. The Masterpieces of the Vatican (American Classical College Press, 1975).
\par \tab Hebblethwaite, Peter. In the Vatican (Adler and Adler, 1986).
\par \tab Heuzinger, Lutz and Mancinelli, Fabrizio. The Sistine Chapel (Scala, 1984).
\par \tab Lo Bello, Nino. Nino Lo Bello's Guide to the Vatican (Chicago Review, 1987).
\par \tab Packard, J.M. Peter's Kingdom: Inside the Papal City (Scribner, 1985).
\par \tab Walsh, M.J. Vatican City State (ABC-Clio, 1983).\par \tab When the explorer Alonso de Ojeda first saw the Indian villages built on stilts along the swampy shores of Lake Maracaibo in 1499, he named the site Venezuela (Little Venice). Today the country is known for its crude oil production--4 percent of the world's output. This is greater than that of any other Third World country outside the Middle East.
\par \tab Venezuela is a coastal, mountain, and plains republic. Its 1,748-mile (2,813-kilometer) Caribbean coastline provides tourist beaches and connects the country to its island neighbors. Some of these--Trinidad and Tobago, Costa Rica, Honduras, and Puerto Rico--were the focus of economic assistance from Venezuela for industrial development projects in the 1960s and 1970s.
\par \tab The Andes originate in northeastern Venezuela and stretch 750 miles (1,210 kilometers) westward to Colombia, where they turn southward and increase in length and width in Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia. They reach 16,427 feet (5,007 meters) in Pico Bolφvar in the western Andes.
\par \tab The Andean states of Venezuela account for some two thirds of the population, reflecting the original Spanish colonists' preference for the temperate uplands. Venezuela is a member of the Andean Pact, within which it supports its less economically advanced Andean neighbors.
\par \tab Venezuela has vast tropical plateaus and plains, stretching southward to occupy more than half the national territory. This region is sparsely populated. The territory of Amazonas has a population density that is one seventh that of Alaska.
\par \tab Venezuela's 18.3 million people (1987 estimate) make it the sixth largest Latin American country in population. With an area of 352,144 square miles (912,050 square kilometers), its population density is 51.9 per square mile (20.0 per square kilometer). Its rate of natural increase (excess of births over deaths) was 2.7 percent in 1986, the highest of any Latin American country its size.
\par \tab Venezuela's overall population growth is greater, however, because of the migration of from 25,000 to 50,000 undocumented Colombians across its western border each year. The per capita income of 3,330 dollars is the highest of any Latin American country except for several oil- and tourist-supported Caribbean islands.
\par \tab Venezuela's location is generally east of the United States--the longitude of Caracas (67░ W), the capital, is east of any point in the United States. Miami, Fla., is the closest major United States city. Venezuela extends through 14 degrees of longitude and 11 degrees of latitude, but because of the country's proximity to the equator, this latitudinal spread results in minimal temperature differences in the winter.
\par \tab Venezuela before 1959 was governed by a string of military dictatorships. Although oil wealth from the 1920s onward provided capital for many government projects, economic development was strongly concentrated in the capital region, and most of the rural population lived in poverty. In 1959 Venezuela elected a civilian president and in succeeding years established a two-party system in which presidents are elected from each party in alternating five-year terms. This representative democratic system remains strong despite economic setbacks after 1978.
\par {\b Physical Regions and Their Economic Bases}
\par \tab Venezuela can be divided into four regions with different elevations and topographic features. These regions are the Andes, the Guiana Plateau, the Orinoco Llanos, and the Maracaibo Basin.
\par \tab {\b Andes.}
\par \tab The Venezuelan Andes are chiefly sedimentary, with an exposed crystalline core (igneous and metamorphic rocks) in the higher elevations. They run east-west instead of north-south as in the rest of South America. This results from the eastward push of the gigantic Caribbean plate that borders the country to the north. This slow but irresistible process bends the Andean mountain chain toward the east, creates volcanoes in the islands of the eastern Caribbean, and causes earthquakes along its southern margin as the plate slips past the westward-moving South American plate. In 1967 a quake in Caracas killed hundreds, and in 1755 and 1812 much stronger quakes totally destroyed the city.
\par \tab The Andes can themselves be divided into four subregions. The Cordillera de MΘrida, extending from the Colombian border to the city of Trujillo, is the highest and most rugged. In this subregion climate and land use are determined by elevation. Up to an elevation of 2,950 feet (900 meters) is the tierra caliente (hot zone), with the raising of sugarcane, tropical fruits, and rice. The tierra templada (temperate) extends from 2,950 to 5,900 feet (900 to 1,800 meters), and is the zone of coffee, still a major export product. The tierra frφa (cold), from 5,900 to 9,850 feet (1,800 to 3,000 meters), is where wheat and potatoes are raised on a limited scale. A striking scene is the yellow wheat fields near Apartaderos on the Trans-Andean Highway at harvesttime in March. Up to the snow line at about 15,000 feet (4,600 meters) is the pßramo--a treeless, cloud-enshrouded realm where such thick-leaved succulents as the agavelike frailej≤n, alpine shrubs, and lichens prevail. These carpet the mountains with white and yellow blossoms at the beginning of the rainy season in March. The government is actively reforesting the lower pßramo between Santo Domingo and MΘrida to protect the watershed from floods, landslides, and the silting of reservoirs.
\par \tab The population of this subregion is clustered in basins around such cities as MΘrida, Valera, and San Crist≤bal. MΘrida is the capital of the high Andes, with a pleasant climate (64░ F, or 18░ C, average yearly temperature). Snowcapped peaks near MΘrida provide skiing, mountain climbing, and the highest cable-car system in the world. San Crist≤bal is the center of the Venezuelan coffee region and maintains strong ties with Colombia.
\par \tab The Segovia Highlands subregion extends from Trujillo to Puerto Cabello and centers on Barquisimeto, a city that specializes in agricultural processing and light manufacturing for the commercial grain and cattle area of the western Llanos (plains). The mountains are lower and drier here than they are around MΘrida. From the 1960s sugarcane has been raised in the mixed forest-grassland region around San Felipe. Petrochemical refining around the cities of Mor≤n and Cardon capitalize on good harbors for shipping. Puerto Cabello, the major port serving the industries in Valencia and Maracay, benefits from the same ideal harbor conditions.
\par \tab The Central Highlands form the key cultural, economic, and population center of the country. They stretch from Puerto Cabello to near Barcelona. Their central portion rises abruptly from the coast to form a mountain barrier 9,067 feet (2,764 meters) high in Pφco Naiguatß, which provides a spectacular green backdrop of broadleaf and coniferous forests for the capital city of Caracas but which limits growth northward. A series of national parks protects the Andean summit watersheds from MΘrida to east of Caracas. Elevations are generally from 650 to 6,500 feet (200 to 2,000 meters) in this subregion, with the population concentrated in the upper tierra caliente and lower tierra templada. The climate is ideal for human settlement. The subregion is composed of a coastal range, a series of interior valleys carved by the Tuy and Aragua rivers and the tributaries of Lake Valencia, and a lower interior chain of hills and mountains to the south, grading into the Llanos.
\par \tab Caracas, in the tierra templada at about 3,300 feet (1,000 meters), has average temperatures that range from 64░ to 72░ F (18░ to 22░ C) and an average rainfall of 32 inches (81 centimeters). With a population of 1.2 million (3.2 million in the metropolitan area, 1987 estimate), it is the center of national life in every sense. It is the headquarters of the petroleum industry and the center of manufacturing, with 30 percent of the firms and 40 percent of the workers. Downtown Caracas is only 10 miles (16 kilometers) from the Caribbean by freeway. Caracas has spread 15 miles (24 kilometers) from east to west in its narrow valley and some 8 miles (13 kilometers) southward into the canyons of the interior range.
\par \tab A major goal of the government in the 1970s was to decentralize population growth toward the south in the Tuy River valley around such new towns as Ocumare del Tuy, some 37 miles (60 kilometers) from the capital. Some food-processing industries and water-supply projects have been located here, but the residential subdivisions laid out by the government architects lie largely unoccupied because of the long commuting distance to jobs in the capital.
\par \tab Thirty miles (48 kilometers) west of Caracas, atop the coastal mountain ridge at 6,200 feet (1,890 meters) elevation, is the picturesque German village, Colonia Tovar. Established in 1843, it maintains its traditional agricultural economy and German language, offering delightful food and lodging for Caraque±os and other tourists on weekend outings.
\par \tab Besides Caracas, two other major cities are found in the Central Highlands--Valencia, which is the country's third largest city, and Maracay. These cities are the centers of durable consumer-goods manufacturing--automobiles, appliances, furniture, kitchenware, and textiles--and they have benefited from government decentralization policies since 1970. They are located at either end of the fertile Lake Valencia basin--traditionally the country's richest agricultural zone, with sugarcane, cotton, coffee, sesame, and dairying. Production here was eclipsed by that in the western Llanos in the 1970s.
\par \tab The Sierra de Cumanß, the last of the four Andean subregions, stretches from Barcelona to the Paria Peninsula. It is a dry zone with low hills and mountains, resembling the Segovia Highlands. The economy revolves around its attractive tourist beaches and the oil shipping through Barcelona from the eastern Venezuelan oil fields. Cumanß, the first city founded in Venezuela (1523), is a major service city for its agricultural hinterland to the south.
\par \tab {\b Guiana Plateau.}
\par \tab Southeast of the Orinoco River and encompassing more than a third of the national area, the Guiana Plateau is part of a huge metamorphic-igneous shield--the center of the old supercontinent Pangaea--that covers much of Brazil and Africa. In the deeply incised tributary canyons the rock is more than a billion years old, but in between are younger tepuφs (sandstone mesas) that rise spectacularly from their riverbeds. One of these, the Auyßn-Tepuφ, is more than 270 square miles (700 square kilometers) in extent. It collects enough rainfall to feed rivers on its surface. One plunges 3,212 feet (979 meters) to form Angel Falls, the highest waterfall in the world. The Guiana Plateau reaches more than 10,000 feet (3,000 meters) in elevation at its southern margin in Amazonas territory.
\par \tab Where the sedimentary cover is stripped away, as on the northern rim, the mining of iron ore, bauxite, and precious stones takes place. Ciudad Guayana is the industrial center of eastern Venezuela. Its steel and aluminum mills produce for domestic markets and export. Some 50 miles (80 kilometers) to the south, the Guri Dam provides power for these industries as well as more than half the country's electrical needs.
\par \tab {\b Orinoco Llanos.}
\par \tab Constituting about a third of Venezuela, the Orinoco Llanos runs parallel to and south of the Andes region across the length of the country. Its tropical wet and dry climate brings rainfall favorable to the growing of corn and dryland rice in the wet season (April to October) and to paddy rice, tobacco, and sesame in the dry season (November to March).
\par \tab The government successfully colonized the western Llanos with, in progression, German, Spanish, Polish, and other immigrant settlers. It built the Gußrico Dam south of Caracas in the late 1950s. In the 1970s irrigation and drainage projects on the Bocono and Tucupido rivers further extended cultivation. By 1975 more than two thirds of the country's rice, half of its corn, and 90 percent of its oilseeds were grown in the western Llanos. This new breadbasket is centered on Acarigua. Farther west the city of Barinas is the northern and eastern outlet for a great tropical forest and cattle-grazing area.
\par \tab Since 1976, when the petroleum industry was nationalized, the eastern Llanos (Orinoco Delta) has been the focus of heavy oil exploitation. This "liquid coal"--a low-grade oil emulsion--is in demand for United States and Canadian power plants because its price is less than that of conventional crude oil.
\par \tab {\b The Maracaibo Basin.}
\par \tab In northwestern Venezuela, The Maracaibo Basin has the country's highest average temperatures. Climatically it ranges from desert in the north to tropical rain forest in the south. Isolation limits the south to subsistence agriculture and cattle grazing, but northward are Venezuela's major petroleum fields, especially the Bolφvar field on the northeastern shores of Lake Maracaibo. Before 1955 most Venezuelan oil was refined overseas or offshore on Curaτao, but government development of refineries at Mor≤n, Cardon, and ultimately Maracaibo (in the 1970s) changed this. The region focuses economically on Maracaibo, Venezuela's second largest city. It is a modern and progressive city but climatically oppressive, with an average annual temperature of 82░ F (28░ C).
\par {\b People and Culture}
\par \tab In racial composition 69 percent of the Venezuelan people are of mixed Indian and European descent, 20 percent are of European descent, 9 percent are of black descent, and 1 percent are Indian. Those of mixed Indian and European heritage are spread throughout the country, but the other groups tend to be more concentrated--the whites in the largest cities, the blacks along the Caribbean, and the Indians toward the farthest reaches of the Llanos, Guiana Plateau, and Maracaibo Basin.
\par \tab Venezuela's high natural increase of population--2.7 percent per year--reflects a relatively progressive economy and a comparatively hands-off policy toward birth control by the government. This contrasts with the active family-planning programs in other countries of the region. Because of the large numbers of illegal Colombians who cross the western border for work, net immigration is about equal to natural increase, resulting in an overall population growth rate of more than 5 percent per year.
\par \tab In 1985, 85.7 percent of the Venezuelan population were classified as urban--the highest such rate in all of tropical South America. In the period from 1960 to 1980, secondary urban areas--those with populations of between 250,000 and 1 million--were growing at faster rates than either Caracas or smaller cities. More than 90 percent of internal migration is now from one urban area to another, with only 10 percent from rural to urban areas.
\par \tab {\b Education.}
\par \tab Venezuela channels a higher portion of its budget into education than do other large Latin American countries such as Mexico and Brazil. As a result its literacy rate is considerably higher--88 percent. Primary and secondary education is free and compulsory. Higher education at state universities is tuition free, but places in the best institutions--such as the Central and Sim≤n Bolφvar universities in Caracas--are limited. Better students can get government scholarships for overseas study under the Reca de Ayacucho program, the best of its kind in Latin America. The government funded many new vocational high schools in the 1970s to provide technicians for the emerging manufacturing industries.
\par \tab {\b Health care.}
\par \tab Venezuela also spends well above the Latin American average on health facilities and programs. The average life expectancy of 68 years is higher than in Mexico and Brazil, indicating the effectiveness of programs to control contagious diseases. New hospitals were directed to such peripheral regions as the western Andes, the Segovia Highlands, and Sierra de Cumenß in the 1970s. The birthrate in the late 1980s was about 28 per thousand.
\par \tab {\b Religion and language.}
\par \tab Venezuela is more than 90 percent Roman Catholic, with less than 2 percent Protestant. Spanish is the predominant language except in a few enclaves of blacks and among the Indians, who speak more than 25 different languages.
\par \tab {\b Arts and letters.}
\par \tab Venezuelan art, music, and letters are well advanced and respected in Latin America, especially for a country its size. Sim≤n Bolφvar, the liberator, was himself a poet and essayist. One of the best-known Venezuelan novelists, R≤mulo Gallegos, went on to become president of his country. The leading vanguardista writer was Andriano Gonzßlez LΘon.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab The recent history of the Venezuelan economy has been one of diversification. It has moved away from petroleum dominance toward food self-sufficiency and import-substituting industrialization.
\par \tab {\b Petroleum.}
\par \tab Petroleum provides nearly half of total government revenue and about 85 percent of exports. The industry was nationalized in 1976. In 1981-82 curtailment of production--in keeping with OPEC policies--resulted in a drop of 50 percent in production. (Venezuela was a founding member of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries, or OPEC.) This had disastrous effects on government programs.
\par \tab Production has since rebounded, aided by heavy petroleum development in the Monagas province in eastern Venezuela. The rise in oil prices after the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in 1990 benefited the economy of Venezuela, which increased its output 25 percent by the end of the year.
\par \tab {\b Agriculture and manufacturing.}
\par \tab Agriculture and manufacturing have been the beneficiaries of the Venezuelan policy of "sowing the petroleum"--diversification with the help of government oil taxes and royalties--since the R≤mulo Betancourt administration began in the late 1950s. These policies culminated in the administration of Carlos AndrΘs PΘrez in the 1970s with extensive credit and rural-road programs in agriculture and with steel, aluminum, and petroleum-refining projects in manufacturing. These policies suffered setbacks from the low oil prices in the early 1980s. In 1985 there were bumper harvests of rice, corn, and sorghum. Food imports began a dramatic decline in the mid-1980s. In the manufacturing sector production has been focused on the processing of raw materials that were formerly exported. The decentralization policy led to a shift in the location of industrial jobs. Tax relief and loans were provided to industries that located in certain specified peripheral zones.
\par \tab In 1989 PΘrez became the first Venezuelan president to gain a second term. He launched a bold economic austerity program that was designed to reduce the country's dependence on oil. The gross national product declined, however, and massive price increases led to violence in the streets.
\par \tab {\b Transportation.}
\par \tab Transportation in Venezuela is highly variable. The air network is well developed between Caracas and all other cities. The road network is dense along the Andean spine, with an autopista, or superhighway, connecting Barquisimeto to Caracas by way of Valencia and Maracay and with good rural roads radiating from this main axis into the western Andes and Llanos. There are few roads in the rest of the Llanos and the Maracaibo Basin, however, and practically none in the Guiana region. Although Venezuela's road mileage is low compared with Mexico, Brazil, and Argentina, the Caracas-Valencia and Caracas-Maiquetφa autopistas are among the best engineered in Latin America.
\par {\b Government and History}
\par \tab Venezuela is a federal republic divided into 20 states and four federally controlled areas. The constitution of 1961 declares Venezuela a federal republic with "autonomous states," but in fact nearly all power is held by the national government. The president is elected by direct vote for a single five-year term. Congress consists of the Senate and Chamber of Deputies. Voting is compulsory for persons 18 years of age and older.
\par \tab The Venezuelan coast was first sighted by Christopher Columbus in 1498, and the land was settled shortly thereafter by the Spanish. For more than three centuries the people were under Spanish rule. In 1811 revolutionary forces led by Francisco de Miranda declared a republic, but the revolution was soon crushed. The struggle continued under the leadership of Bolφvar, who finally defeated the Spanish in 1821.
\par \tab For a few years Venezuela was part of the Republic of Gran Colombia, but it seceded and became an independent republic in 1830. After that the country was ruled by a series of military dictators, including Antonio Guzmßn Blanco (1870-88), Cipriano Castro (1899-1908), and Juan Vicente G≤mez (1909-35).
\par \tab Boundary disputes with British Guiana (now Guyana) came to a head in 1895. Great Britain threatened to use force. United States President Grover Cleveland sent a message to Congress, stating that any attempt by Britain to enforce its claims without recourse to arbitration would be considered a violation of the Monroe Doctrine and might lead to war with the United States. (The dispute was settled by arbitration.) In 1903 Castro's overbearing violation of foreign rights led Britain, Germany, and Italy to declare a blockade of Venezuelan ports. When United States President Theodore Roosevelt protested that this violated the Monroe Doctrine, Britain and Italy consented to refer the dispute to arbitration. Germany declined to arbitrate until Roosevelt announced his intention of sending an American fleet to the Caribbean.
\par \tab Castro plunged his country into new difficulties in 1908, and the offended nations paralyzed Venezuelan commerce by quarantining the ports. Castro then fled. When General G≤mez became president he built roads and schools, began to develop petroleum resources, and paid off the national debt, but his rule was so tyrannical that his death in 1935 was welcomed. The petroleum boom of the 1940s and 1950s paid the government huge royalties. These funds were used for public works, but strongman rule continued.
\par \tab Betancourt was the first elected president to serve his full term (1959-64). His administration attempted to decentralize economic growth and to make Venezuela more visible through stronger prosocialist stances and through economic independence from the United States. The administrations of Ra·l Leoni (1964-69) and Rafael Caldera (1969-74) had the same goals.
\par \tab Under PΘrez (1974-79), the country went through a period of intense economic nationalism spurred by huge petroleum profits after the Arab embargo--the nationalization of the steel (1975) and petroleum (1976) industries; the buying of foreign companies by incentives and coercion; and "sowing the petroleum" in a wide variety of domestic programs. The petroleum earnings could not begin to finance all the projects, however, so the government borrowed massive amounts of foreign capital at high rates of interest, thereby greatly increasing the national debt. Inefficiency in project design and administration resulted from the lack of skilled personnel.
\par \tab President Luis Herrera Campins (1979-84) inherited huge debts and bureaucratic corruption, exacerbated by the petroleum price drops of 1981-82. Under President Jaime Lusinchi (1984-89) the economy continued to be hurt by the further lowering of petroleum prices. PΘrez began a second term in February 1989. His first weeks in office were marked by the nation's worst rioting in 30 years. Gubernatorial elections in December were a setback to the ruling Democratic Action party when they lost eight of 20 posts they had held.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by Richard C. Jones, Associate Professor of Geography, University of Texas at San Antonio.
\par \tab Lombardi, J.V. Venezuela: The Search for Order, the Dream of Progress (Oxford, 1982).
\par \tab Lye, Keith. Take a Trip to Venezuela (Watts, 1988).
\par \tab Marsland, W.D. and Marsland, A.L. Venezuela Through Its History (Greenwood, 1976).
\par \tab Morrison, Marion. Venezuela (Childrens, 1989).\par \tab The Socialist Republic of Vietnam consists of the former Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam) and the former Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam). The division of the country resulted from the defeat of the French by Communist-inspired nationalists in 1954. A prolonged civil war resulted in a victory for the Communist north, and reunification occurred in mid-1976.
\par {\b Physical Setting}
\par \tab Vietnam has an area of 127,207 square miles (329,465 square kilometers) and is located in Southeast Asia. The country has a coastline of nearly 1,440 miles (2,317 kilometers), much of which fronts on the South China Sea. Border countries are China, Cambodia, and Laos. The latter two countries, along with Vietnam, constituted the former French Indochina.
\par \tab Northern Vietnam is quite mountainous, especially the extreme north and northwest. The Red River (Song Hong), which originates in China's Yunnan Province, is the principal river of the north and is about 725 miles (1,167 kilometers) in length. The major lowland area is a delta that has been created by deposits from the Red River as it enters the Gulf of Tonkin. The river passes through the capital city of Hanoi. For more than 2,000 years the Tonkin Lowland, considered the cradle of Vietnamese civilization, has been the scene of considerable water control efforts in the form of canals and dikes.
\par \tab The southernmost portion of the country is dominated by another lowland that is much more extensive than that in the north. This lowland has essentially been created by the Mekong River (Song Cuu Long) and its various tributaries. Just north of Ho Chi Minh City (formerly Saigon) the landscape becomes more varied and rolling with forested hills.
\par \tab The central portion of Vietnam varies in width but is only 35 miles (56 kilometers) at its narrowest point. This region has only a narrow coastal strip in contrast to the rest of the coastline, where wider lowlands exist.
\par \tab The westernmost portion of the area is dominated by the Annamese, or Annamite, Cordillera, a major mountain chain, which forms the spine of the country from north to south. Along with the two major rivers, there are many shorter rivers that drain the highlands and flow eastward to the South China Sea. The country also has six island groups, 14 separate mountain ranges, and three large lakes.
\par \tab The climate of Vietnam is largely tropical, though the north may be distinguished as subtropical. Differences in humidity, rainfall, and temperature are caused largely by changes in elevation. The north has a hot and humid five-month-long wet season lasting from May through September. The remainder of the year is relatively warm and rainfree, but humid. A prolonged period of fog, cloudiness, and drizzle occurs from December through April in the central zone and coastal lowlands. The south is characterized by a monsoon-type climate dominated by a changing wind pattern that brings rainfall. The rainy period is shorter than in the north.
\par \tab In the north maximum rainfall occurs in July and August, while in the south these peaks are in June and September. Average rainfall at Hanoi is 72 inches (183 centimeters) per year, at Hue 117 inches (297 centimeters), and at Ho Chi Minh City 81 inches (206 centimeters). In the higher elevations of the Annamese mountain chain, rainfall can exceed 175 inches (445 centimeters). The region is subject to typhoons, which may occur from July through November. Daily temperatures in the south range between 64░ and 92░ F (18░ and 33░ C), while in the north the climate is considerably cooler. Average summer temperatures are approximately 82░ F (28░ C) with the winter average at 63░ F (17░ C).
\par {\b People and Culture}
\par \tab The population of Vietnam in the early 1990s was estimated at more than 67 million. Birth- and death rates respectively were 31 and 9 per thousand. The natural rate of increase per year is 2.3 percent. If this rate continued, the population of the country would double within 30 years. Family planning services, including contraception and abortion, are widely available. A major goal is to reduce the rate of population growth to less than 2 percent per year. The infant mortality rate of 69 per 1,000 live births is close to that of the Philippines but higher than that of Malaysia. The average life expectancy is 60 years.
\par \tab Given the contrasting landforms of the country, the distribution of the population is very uneven. Major concentrations are found in the Red and Mekong river deltas, where densities may exceed 2,000 persons per square mile (772 per square kilometer). The average density, however, is much lower--488 persons per square mile (188 per square kilometer).
\par \tab A major element of current development planning is the forced relocation of more than 10 million Vietnamese into new economic zones that are scattered throughout the country. Earlier movements of people occurred largely in response to war activity, with refugees migrating from north to south and subsequently into urban areas. In the mid-1970s there also was an evacuation effort carried out by the United States that took more than 135,000 Vietnamese to that country. Movement out of Vietnam in small fishing vessels continues. These migrants seek destinations largely in other Southeast Asian countries.
\par \tab As a result of a United Nations effort, a coordinated orderly departure program has been in place since 1980. Ethnic Chinese and children of American and Asian (Amerasian) descent are conspicuous in this program because they are the objects of discrimination if they remain in Vietnam. Illegal emigration continues but at a reduced rate, as the penalty when caught is severe. Property confiscation and hard labor and reeducation camps are common punishments.
\par \tab The urban population in Vietnam is 19 percent of the total, comparable to that of Thailand and Myanmar. The largest cities are Ho Chi Minh City in southern Vietnam and Hanoi in the north. Other large cities are Haiphong (the major port for Hanoi), Da Nang, Bien Hoa, Can Tho, Nha Trang, Qui Nhon, Hue, and Cam Ranh. The latter was for many years the site of the Soviet naval fleet, which occupied the facility built by the United States during the Vietnam War.
\par \tab The Vietnamese are descended from both Chinese and Thai peoples. Originating in southern China, the Vietnamese people pushed southward over the course of several hundred years to occupy much of the current area of Vietnam. A strong sense of national identity was produced as a result of the struggle for political independence from China. Vietnamese culture, however, still reflects the strong influence of Chinese civilization. Nearly 100 years of French rule instilled many European cultural traits as well. The Vietnamese, however, continue to maintain their own culture through such customs as attaching great importance to the family and observing rites honoring their ancestors.
\par \tab Although 90 percent of the population is Vietnamese, there are several significant minorities. The largest of these is the Chinese, who number about 4.1 million and constitute nearly 7 percent of the total population. The Chinese minority is concentrated largely in urban areas, especially the Cholon section of Ho Chi Minh City. The Chinese have long played major roles in the Vietnamese economy, being active in rice trade and milling, real estate, banking, shopkeeping, stevedoring, and mining.
\par \tab Another minority group, known collectively as Montagnards, is made up of two main ethnic-linquistic groups--Malayo-Polynesian and Mon-Khmer. More than 25 tribes of various cultures and dialects are spread throughout the hill areas of the country. Still another minority group is the Khmer, or Cambodians. These people, perhaps numbering 1 million, are concentrated in the southern provinces near the Cambodian border and at the delta of the Mekong River. Most of them are farmers.
\par \tab Government policy appears to be directed toward the assimilation of minorities into the mainstream culture. There are attempts to place ethnic Vietnamese among minority peoples in order to strengthen control. A further emphasis is the encouragement of minorities to emigrate, as noted above. Ethnic Chinese are often denied official employment and educational opportunities.
\par \tab The three traditional religions are Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism. Buddhism was brought into Vietnam from China in the 2nd century AD and has the largest number of followers. About 32 million Vietnamese follow Buddhism, and most of these followers are Mahayana Buddhists. Both Mahayana and Theravada Buddhism are practiced. Most of Vietnam's Theravada Buddhists are Khmer Krom. They number about 900,000 and live in southern and southwestern Vietnam. It is this group that has supplied the Vietnamese army in Cambodia with interpreters and staff for its government there. Confucianism serves as a means of forming social patterns. Rules for social interaction, the cult of ancestor worship, and the male-dominated family structure are by-products of the religion. Roman Catholicism was introduced into Vietnam in the 16th century and flourished especially under the French. There are about 2 million followers of the religion today.
\par \tab The government tolerates religion and permits religious services but restricts conversion activities and growth in general. Reports indicate that the Roman Catholic church is a special target for control, and as a result church membership has begun to dwindle. Since 1975 government authorities have attempted to suppress and intimidate the Mahayana Buddhist leaders. Temples have been closed, and monks have been forced into reeducation camps.
\par \tab The official language of the country is Vietnamese. It is monosyllabic and belongs to the Mon-Khmer family. There is considerable borrowing from Chinese in the vocabulary. Of the numerous other languages spoken, Thai, Sino-Tibetan and Miao-Yao are the most widespread. Once widely spoken, French has fallen from use. Given the American intervention in Vietnamese affairs, English is not encouraged. Russian is of some importance because of the history of support and economic cooperation that Vietnam had with the Soviet Union.
\par \tab Education in Vietnam is universal and compulsory for children ages 6 to 11. The educational system has been altered somewhat since reunification. This basically involves the use of new texts in the south to conform to those in the north. In addition many teachers in the south have undergone political indoctrination programs. Private schools are now under government control. The school year extends from September to May. Primary and secondary education accounts for more than 12,600 schools, 566,000 teachers, and 15.8 million students. There were more than 80 institutions of higher learning with a total enrollment of 160,000 in the mid-1980s.
\par \tab Health services and facilities are being refurbished and expanded to make up for wartime destruction. Yet expenditures on health services are grossly inadequate. It is estimated that only 15 percent of the population has access to safe water. The government appears to have eliminated such major diseases as tuberculosis, smallpox, malaria, leprosy, and bubonic plague. In the early 1980s there were approximately 11,000 hospitals and 14,000 physicians in the country.
\par \tab Vietnamese cooking has been influenced by Chinese, French, and Malay food preparation. The Vietnamese cuisine in upper-class homes has a rich sophistication that rivals Chinese and Thai cooking. A fermented fish sauce called nuoc mam is used in many prepared dishes. Rice, the staple food, is usually eaten with cooked leafy green vegetables or in soup. Rice is grown wherever possible in irrigated rice fields. Rice is supplemented by corn, sweet potatoes, and cassavas. Many people raise fruits and vegetables. Meat is only consumed at festivals or sacrifices. Fresh fish and dried fish, however, are readily available. Red chili is used in most meals in some form, and occasionally boiled maize is eaten as a snack. Agriculture in the south-central coastal plain and on the Cambodian border has been historically dominated by market gardening rather than wet rice agriculture.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab Vietnam is viewed by the World Bank as one of 37 low-income countries. It has a centrally planned economy in which the dominant sector is public. Very few current statistics are available because no financial or production information is reported to outside agencies. Gross national product was estimated for 1982 at 9 billion dollars, with a per capita income of 175 dollars. The economy has evolved in phases that have attempted to eliminate capitalism, elevate state control and planning, and deal with financial indebtedness and weak resources. Efforts to redistribute land in the north were coupled with an attempt to implement a cooperative movement. Cooperative land has been contracted to families or production teams to meet production targets. Excess production above a quota may be sold by peasants on the open market. Individual land ownership is still widespread in the south. Similarly, private enterprise in the south has only gradually changed and continues to play a significant role.
\par \tab The economy is guided by a five-year development plan that corresponded to the Soviet and Eastern European planning cycle. During the 1970s emphasis moved from heavy industry to agriculture and light industry in order to improve material living standards within Vietnam as well as develop exports to earn foreign exchange. The south was viewed as the main food basket and supplier for the nation as well as a producer of light industrial goods.
\par \tab The plan was built on the assumption of United States aid after normalization of ties. However, contrary to expectations, little aid from the United States was delivered, and foreign aid in general was reduced in reaction to Vietnam's invasion of Kampuchea (Cambodia). Conflict with China further drained resources. It is estimated that more than 40 percent of the country's budget is being spent on defense.
\par \tab A new plan not yet implemented emphasizes small practical projects in agriculture, consumer goods, energy, and communications. The new domestic economic policy, which was announced in early 1988, in effect abandoned centralized planning in favor of managerial decision making at the factory level in state enterprises. Worker incentives, quality control, shareholding, an expanded banking industry, and wage scales linked to productivity were part of this sweeping reform.
\par \tab In 1976 Vietnam joined the International Monetary Fund, World Bank, and Asian Development Bank, but no requests for loans have been honored since 1978. Most aid has come from the United Nations Development Program, France, Japan, and the Scandinavian countries. The Soviet Union assisted with major development projects during the 1970s and 1980s.
\par \tab Agriculture--the mainstay of the economy--employs 60 percent of the labor force. It accounts for an estimated 45 percent of the gross domestic product. Only 23 percent of the total land area is cultivated. The deltas of the Red and Mekong rivers, as well as other lowland areas, are the prime rice-growing regions. Multiple cropping is common in the north, accomplished through an extensive system of irrigation. Single cropping is the rule in the south because of dry conditions half of each year and an inadequate water supply. High-yielding varieties of rice are commonly used. Elsewhere such dry crops as corn, sweet potatoes, cassavas, and pulse plants are grown.
\par \tab Before 1980 chronic food shortages consistently caused widespread malnutrition. Natural disasters as well as collectivist policies were responsible for the food deficits. Food production improved as a result of production contracts and increased prices. Mechanization of agriculture is thwarted by the lack of fuel, so the raising of draft animals is encouraged. In the absence of adequate local fertilizer production, there is increased use of green and natural fertilizers in rice terraces. Commercial forest production was affected by the war, but more than 800 million cubic feet (22.7 million cubic meters) of valuable hardwoods were harvested in 1982.
\par \tab There is considerable potential for the fishing industry in the rich offshore fishing grounds. A variety of fish species are caught in addition to prawns, lobsters, and crayfish. The collective model has been employed in this industry and has adversely affected the annual catch and fishermen's incomes. Refugee movements have gradually removed vessels from the fishing fleet, and this, too, has hurt the industry.
\par \tab The heavy industrial base of Vietnam is concentrated in the north. Productive capacity rebounded after the destruction of the war period. Machine tools, iron and steel, and fertilizer operations contribute to the industrial output. Light manufacturing and processed agricultural products are focused in the south. Industrial production is difficult to monitor, but apparently growth rates have been stronger in locally run and handicraft industries and weaker in large-scale industries. Consumer industries too often require imported components or materials that are difficult to obtain because of inadequate foreign exchange. Emigration has seriously affected the industrial sector, as management expertise is conspicuously uneven. Vietnamese industry continues to be troubled by power shortages.
\par \tab The north is endowed with mineral resources that include coal, tin, chrome, and phosphate. The coal mines of Hong-Quong are quite large and produced more than 800,000 tons of coal in 1982.
\par \tab The railway system includes more than 1,700 miles (2,700 kilometers) of track. Since 1976 a trans-Vietnam railway links the two largest cities. There are more than 22,500 miles (36,200 kilometers) of roads, of which only 15 percent are paved. Human-powered three-wheel vehicles are more common than motorized vehicles. Major ports are at Haiphong, Ho Chi Minh City, Nha Trang, Da Nang, Qui Nhon, and Hon Gai. Vietnam's national airline, Hang Khong Vietnam, has an old fleet of DC-4 aircraft along with some newer aircraft that operate primarily on domestic routes.
\par \tab Telephones are a rare luxury in Vietnam. In the late 1980s only 116,000 were in operation.
\par \tab Trade figures for 1984 show that imports far exceeded exports: 596 million dollars and 254 million dollars, respectively. Manufactured goods, handicrafts, and agricultural products were the major export goods and were sold principally to Japan, Hong Kong, the Soviet Union, and Singapore. Imported goods consisted of fuels, raw materials, machinery, and food products. Some 60 percent of these came from the Soviet Union, Japan, India, Singapore, and Hong Kong.
\par {\b History}
\par \tab In the 2nd century BC the northern area of Vietnam and part of southern China were conquered by the army representing the Han Dynasty of China. Chinese rule lasted for more than 1,000 years until AD 939, when the Vietnamese managed to throw off their conquerors. A southward expansion continued over the following 800 years, reaching as far as the Gulf of Siam (now the Gulf of Thailand). Internal strife, however, produced a struggle that lasted more than two centuries. Essentially Vietnam was divided near the 17th parallel with two states--Tonkin in the north and Cochinchina in the south. Following a civil war the country was reunited briefly in 1802.
\par \tab Political weakness permitted French intervention and expansion. Cochinchina became a French colony in 1867, and Annam and Tonkin became French protectorates in 1883. Later all three were merged with Laos and Cambodia to form French Indochina. Throughout the period of French rule, strong nationalist and revolutionary movements were present. During World War II the French yielded Indochina to Japan. After the Japanese surrender in 1945, a nationalist coalition known as the Viet Minh, led by Ho Chi Minh, proclaimed the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. French resistance to the Viet Minh led to a war that lasted eight years. After a crucial battle at Dienbienphu, a cease-fire agreement was signed in 1954. The cease-fire provided for a partitioned Vietnam, the south becoming the Republic of Vietnam under Ngo Dinh Diem. This anti-Communist southern regime was opposed by a growing resistance movement that became known as the Viet Cong.
\par \tab Just prior to the overthrow of Diem in the south, the United States joined the conflict between north and south. Ground forces were committed, and bombing was carried out against the north from 1965 to 1968. Peace negotiations began between the Hanoi government and the United States in 1969; the Paris accord was signed on Jan. 27, 1973. More than 47,000 American troops were killed before the last forces departed in March 1973. Two years later the National Liberation Front forces of the north pushed southward and captured Saigon. The three-decade war produced an estimated toll of 2 million Vietnamese dead with another 4 million wounded. More than half of the population were left homeless, and large areas of cultivated land and infrastructure were devastated.
\par \tab Vietnam was admitted to the United Nations in 1977. Close cooperation has existed with the Soviet Union, and a quest for authority over Laos and Cambodia has been maintained. Some 50,000 to 70,000 Vietnamese troops are permanently based in Laos. Cambodian resistance to Vietnamese demands led to full-scale warfare and Vietnamese occupation of the country. This conquest has made it necessary for Vietnam to deploy troops on the Chinese and Thai borders in addition to maintaining armies of occupation in both Cambodia and Laos.
\par \tab Governmental ties and commercial relations have been established with all members of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). Vietnam also has close ties to India. More significant is the restoration of relations with France. The settlement of many issues, including compensation for the seizure of French property, opened the way for French development aid. Vietnam and the United States have no diplomatic relations, though discussions continue on the subject of American military personnel missing in action. This matter and the occupation of Cambodia hinder the resumption of any official relationship. In 1989 Vietnam announced that it would withdraw its remaining troops from Cambodia by the fall.
\par \tab By 1992 Vietnam had altered its domestic and foreign policies significantly. In response to the fall of Communism in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union, it began to modify its economic policies. No further assistance would be forthcoming from its old ally the Soviet Union, since that nation was in the process of disintegration. The leaders of Vietnam sought foreign investment to help their economy. Vietnamese forces did pull out of Cambodia, and a Cambodian peace agreement was signed on Oct. 23, 1991. Relations were renewed with China in mid-1991 after 13 years of hostility. Relations with the United States also showed signs of improvement in October 1991, when United States Secretary of State James Baker met with the Vietnamese foreign minister in Paris.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by Thomas R. Leinbach, Professor of Geography and International Affairs, University of Kentucky, Lexington, and author of 'Mobility and Employment in Urban Southeast Asia' and 'Development and Environment in Peninsular Malaysia'.
\par \tab {\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR VIETNAM}
\par \tab Fincher, E.B. The Vietnam War (Watts, 1980).
\par \tab Huynh Quang Nhuong. The Land I Lost (Harper, 1986).
\par \tab Karnow, Stanley. Vietnam: A History (Viking, 1983).
\par \tab Page, Tim. Ten Years After: Vietnam Today (Knopf, 1987).
\par \tab Sharma, Ritu. Vietnam (Apt, 1987).
\par \tab Summers, H.G. Vietnam War Almanac (Facts on File, 1985).
\par \tab Taylor, K.W. The Birth of Vietnam (Univ. of Calif. Press, 1983).\par \tab Composed of three large islands and some 50 islets, the Virgin Islands of the United States are located in the northeastern Caribbean Sea about 40 miles (64 kilometers) east of Puerto Rico. They cover an area of 136 square miles (352 square kilometers). St. Croix, the largest of the islands, has an area of 84 square miles (218 square kilometers). The capital of the Virgin Islands, Charlotte Amalie, is on St. Thomas, the second largest island. The third major island is St. John.
\par \tab The islands are covered mostly with steep hills. St. Croix's northern hills, however, give way in the south to a plain that varies from rolling to level. The lofty hills and deep valleys of Virgin Islands National Park cover nearly two thirds of St. John. Native tropical forests are found only on St. Thomas. Only 5 percent of the land is forested, though the government has replanted parts of St. Croix and St. Thomas. All of the islands are surrounded by coral reefs.
\par \tab Tourism is a leading industry. Visitors like the tropical climate, beautiful scenery, beaches, and sport fishing. Proximity to the United States mainland and free-port status also attract tourists. In addition to the traditional rum-distilling industry, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, and clothing are manufactured on a small scale, and watches are assembled. In the 1980s the petroleum-refining and alumina industries on St. Croix were expanded. Exports are shipped mainly to the United States, Puerto Rico, and the British Virgin Islands. Ferries and seaplanes travel between the islands and to Puerto Rico. There are deepwater ports at Charlotte Amalie and at Frederiksted on St. Croix. On the northeastern coast of St. Croix is the port of Christiansted, the capital of the former Danish West Indies. The town has no wells, so drinking water must be imported by barge from Puerto Rico.
\par \tab Since the 1970s the islands' agriculture industry has expanded from reliance on sugarcane to cultivation of a variety of crops. Citrus fruits, tamarinds, mangoes, bananas, and vegetables are the primary nonexport food crops. Cattle, goats, sheep, and pigs are the principal livestock.
\par \tab The Virgin Islands are in an area that is susceptible to hurricanes. Islanders celebrate a local Thanksgiving Day on October 25 at the traditional end of the hurricane season. Hurricane Hugo, the devastating storm of September 1989, caused an estimated 450 million dollars in insured losses on St. Croix and St. Thomas. More than 90 percent of the existing buildings were destroyed or damaged. The National Guard was called in to calm violent episodes of looting and gunfire, which heightened existing racial tensions.
\par \tab Nearly 80 percent of the people on the islands are descended from black Africans. About 15 percent of the people are descended from white Europeans. There is a significant Hispanic heritage in both groups and in the remainder of the population. Residents are United States citizens and elect their own governor, local legislature, and a nonvoting representative to the United States Congress. The islanders do not vote in United States national elections.
\par \tab Arawak Indians were probably the original inhabitants of the islands, though they had been replaced by Carib Indians when Christopher Columbus landed on St. Croix in 1493. The islands were controlled by a series of countries until becoming a colony of Denmark in the 18th century. The Danes planted sugarcane, first using convicted criminals and then African slaves for labor. The sugar industry declined in the early 1800s, and slave revolts shook the economy. In 1848 slavery was abolished. The United States bought the territory from Denmark in 1917. Population (1980 census), 96,569.\par \tab Bordered by Israel on the north, south and west, and Jordan on the east, the West Bank has been a focal point of tension in the Middle East for over fifty years. The West Bank is separated from Jordan by the Jordan River to the east. The Dead Sea completes the West Bank's border with Jordan in the southeast. Prior to 1967 the area belonged to Jordan, but Israel occupied the west bank of the Jordan River during the 6-Day War between Israel and the Arab states in June 1967. Since that time there have been several diplomatic initiatives aimed at creating a just and lasting peace in the Middle East that have affected the status of the West Bank.
\par \tab The UN Security Council adopted Resolution 242 in November 1967. The resolution called for Israel to withdraw its armed forces from territories occupied during the 6-Day War, but the Arabs rejected the resolution. In 1974 the Palestinian Liberation Organization was granted the right to set up an autonomous state on the west bank of the Jordan River provided Israel withdrew its forces from the area. Jordan continued to provide social and economic support to the area, although they had effectively relinquished their claim to the area. In 1978 the Israelis agreed to limit settlement of the West Bank. The Camp David meetings hosted by US President Jimmy Carter between Egyptian President Sadat and Israeli Prime Minister Begin led to the signing of a peace treaty between Egypt and Israel in 1979.
\par \tab In spite of the diplomatic efforts, the area has been beset by violence: in 1970 Jordan fought a civil war against a Palestinian guerrilla force; in 1973 Jordan and other Arab states fought a war against Israel; the intifada, a Palestinian uprising, in the West Bank began on Dec. 9, 1987. Several hundred Palestinians were killed during the next few years, and the violence was exacerbated by Israel's renewed efforts to settle the area.
\par \tab In 1994, under the terms of a declaration made jointly with the PLO, Israel agreed to transfer certain powers and responsibilities to the Palestinian Authority, and subsequently to an elected Palestinian Council, as part of interim self-governing arrangements in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. The agreement provides that Israel will retain responsibility during the transitional period for both internal and external security, including preserving order among Israeli settlers. Final status is to be determined through direct negotiations within five years.\par \tab A region of unresolved sovereignty, Western Sahara lies on the Atlantic to the south of Morocco in northwestern Africa. It borders Mauritania on the south and east and Algeria for a few miles in the northeast. Part of the vast Sahara, the territory covers 103,000 square miles (266,769 square kilometers). The Tropic of Cancer cuts east-west across its southern third. El Aai·n, near the northwest coast, is the capital.
\par \tab Population is sparse. There is little agriculture, as the arid land has only streambeds and lake beds that are usually dry. Along the coast, villagers catch fish and dry them for export to the Canary Islands in the Atlantic--about 150 miles (240 kilometers) northwest of El Aai·n. Inland, nomadic people raise camels, goats, and sheep, moving the herds as needed for grazing. Western Sahara's major attraction--and a factor in its dispute for independence--is its wealth of phosphate deposits. The world's largest are found at Bu Craa southeast of El Aai·n.
\par \tab Rock engravings in Saguia el Hamra and other locations suggest there were societies of hunters in prehistoric times and perhaps a few agriculturalists in places favored with water. By the 4th century BC there was trade between the Western Sahara and the Mediterranean regions of North Africa and Europe. The Phoenicians, a seafaring Middle Eastern people, traded along the west coast of Africa.
\par \tab In medieval times this part of the Sahara was occupied by Sanhaja Berber tribes who were later dominated by Arabic-speaking Muslim Bedouins. Scottish and Spanish merchants arrived in the mid-19th century. The Spanish government claimed a protectorate over the coastal zone soon after Emilio Bonelli signed treaties with the indigenous tribes in 1884. In the next 50 years Spain's influence spread to the current borders, and the region--Spanish Sahara--remained a colony until 1958. It then became a province of Spain with El Aai·n as the capital.
\par \tab Phosphate mining began in 1972, and neighboring countries took interest in claiming the land. In November 1975 Spain, Morocco, and Mauritania set up a joint provisional administration. When the Spanish departed in February 1976, Morocco and Mauritania divided the area between themselves, Morocco gaining the phosphates.
\par \tab A movement for Western Saharan independence had developed, however, with encouragement from Algeria. Mauritania withdrew its claim in 1979, but sporadic fighting continued between Moroccan forces and guerrillas of the Polisario Front (from Popular Front for the Liberation of Saguia el Hamra and Rφo de Oro--the two geographic areas of Western Sahara). A year-long informal cease-fire ended in October 1989 after negotiations for a referendum of the inhabitants failed. A 1991 cease-fire was the first step in a peace plan intended to allow inhabitants to decide their own future. A United Nations peacekeeping force was sent to Western Sahara to prepare for a 1992 referendum on whether the territory would become an independent state or be absorbed by Morocco. Population (1989 estimate), 195,000.\par \tab The island country of Western Samoa, located in the south-central Pacific Ocean, is one of the smallest countries in the world. Covering an area of 1,093 square miles (2,831 square kilometers), it comprises the two large islands of Savai'i and Upolu, seven small islands (five of which are uninhabited), and several small islets lying off the coast. Apia, with a population (1981 census) of 33,170, is the capital and largest town.
\par \tab Surrounded by coral reefs, the islands are of volcanic origin. There is little flat land except along the coasts. The tropical climate is characterized by 100 to 275 inches (250 to 700 centimeters) of rainfall per year and an average temperature of 80░ F (27░ C). The mountainous island centers are covered with evergreen rain forests that include an abundance of vines and ferns. Almost half of the land area is forested, yielding timber for sawmilling and veneer-manufacturing industries.
\par \tab The people of Western Samoa are mostly Polynesian, with small minorities of Europeans and Chinese. Traditional culture is strong, and the extended family is the basis of social structure. Samoan and English are both official languages. Samoans have a high rate of literacy--virtually 100 percent. Education is free and compulsory from age 7 to 15. There is a tropical agriculture college, and in 1985 the legislature voted to create a national university. The Apia National Hospital has a nursing school.
\par \tab Almost 75 percent of the people are farmers, producing coconuts, cocoa, bananas, coffee, tropical fruits and nuts, yams, breadfruits, and tobacco. Other income sources include fishing, lumber, tourism, and such diversified industries as traditional food processing, handicrafts, light metals, clothing, and footwear. There are no railways, but there are more than 250 miles (400 kilometers) of paved roads. Two deepwater ports are at Apia and at Asau. There is also an international airport near Apia.
\par \tab The country was a German protectorate from 1900 to 1914. During an influenza epidemic in 1918, nearly 8,500 people died. New Zealand administered the country from 1920 to 1961--first as a League of Nations mandate and then as a United Nations trust territory. It became independent on Jan. 1, 1962.
\par \tab Western Samoa is a constitutional monarchy. Executive power lies with a prime minister and cabinet elected from a 47-member Legislative Assembly. The Legislative Assembly has 45 members elected from among the native chiefs and two elected from among the other residents. According to the constitution, the current head of state, paramount chief Malietoa Tanumafili II, will hold office for life. Subsequent heads of state will be elected for five-year terms by the Legislative Assembly. Population (1991 estimate), 166,000.\par \tab From 1962 until unification in 1990, Yemen was divided into two warring states: the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen, a single-party Communist republic known as South Yemen or Aden, and the Yemen Arab Republic, a single-party Islamic republic known as North Yemen or Yemen (San'a). In 1990 San'a was made the capital of the new Republic of Yemen, and Aden was designated as the economic center.
\par \tab Yemen lies along the southeastern edge of the Arabian Peninsula. The islands of the Kamaran group in the Red Sea and Socotra in the Arabian Sea are also under the control of Yemen. The country's precise area is uncertain; part of its northern border was defined by a 1934 treaty, but most of this desert area is not officially demarcated. With an area of some 205,356 square miles (531,870 square kilometers), Yemen is bordered by Saudi Arabia on the north, Oman on the northeast, the Gulf of Aden on the southeast, and the Red Sea on the southwest.
\par \tab {\b Land.}
\par \tab Yemen has several distinct physical regions: a sandy and narrow coastal plain; the dry and hilly Yemen Plateau that rises to more than 10,000 feet (3,000 meters); the Yemen Highlands, where Hadur Shu'ayb at 12,336 feet (3,760 meters) is the highest point on the Arabian Peninsula; the Tihama, a narrow, arid coastal plain along the Red Sea; and a broad desert plateau that slopes into the Rub' al Khali. The coastal plain is arid and hot, with high humidity. The desert areas receive less than 5 inches (13 centimeters) of rainfall a year, and the southwestern highlands more than 16 inches (41 centimeters).
\par \tab {\b Economy.}
\par \tab Agriculture is the main economic activity and employs more than half of the Yemeni work force. Sorghum is grown in the southwest, and cotton is largely cultivated in the Tihama and around Lahej. Other crops include tomatoes, coffee, onions, millet, potatoes, sesame, tobacco, and wheat. Kat, a woody narcotic shrub, has become a valuable cash crop and is cultivated on the best agricultural land. Such fruits as bananas, grapes, papayas, and watermelons are also grown. Sheep, goats, and cattle are raised on the meadows and pastures that occupy about one third of the country's land. The developing fishing industry is centered at Mukalla.
\par \tab Petroleum was discovered in commercial quantities in 1983. Refineries at Aden and Marib, dependent on imported petroleum, account for most of the industrial production. There are cement, brick and tile, paint, match, and textile factories and soft-drink bottling and dairy plants. Traditional handicrafts include weaving, leatherwork, and jewelry. Yemen's major exports include coffee, cigarettes, biscuits, leather, grapes, and sesame seeds. Its principal imports are food items and consumer goods, machinery, and transport equipment. International airports are located at Hodeida, San'a, Ta'izz, Khormaksar, and Riyan. There are about 25,000 miles (40,000 kilometers) of roads in Yemen but no railroads.
\par \tab {\b People.}
\par \tab Yemen's population is almost entirely Arab and Muslim. More than half of the population adheres to the Sunnah sect of Islam. The tribal Zaydi group are members of the Shi'ah sect. About 90 percent of Yemenis are settled tribal people living in villages and small towns in the southwest. A small number of pastoral nomads who raise camels live in the interior plateau region.
\par \tab Yemen has one of the highest rates of adult illiteracy in Asia. Most of the adult population has no formal schooling, though education is free in state-run primary and secondary schools. San'a University and the University of Aden are the institutions of higher learning. Arabic is the official language.
\par \tab {\b Government.}
\par \tab In April 1993 the first elections since unification were held to select the 301-seat parliament. The balloting marked the first multiparty elections on the Arabian Peninsula. The former ruling parties of North Yemen and South Yemen agreed to merge and govern Yemen as a single party. Ali Abdullah Saleh was the first president.
\par \tab {\b History.}
\par \tab The early histories of the two Yemeni states are similar, and the region has long been a meeting place for ancient cultures. Islam was largely accepted as the principal religion of the region in the mid-7th century. Over the centuries Yemeni imams--Muslim religious and political leaders--established a series of theocratic monarchies. By the end of the 9th century, the 'Alid Zaydi Dynasty was founded.
\par \tab Aden has long been a major seaport. Ruled by the Ottoman Turks in the 16th and 17th centuries and later by local chieftains, the city fell to the British naval forces in 1839. The last foreign nation to rule Aden was the Ottoman Empire, from whom it gained independence in 1918 when the empire was coming to an end. Aden became a British crown colony in 1937.
\par \tab Through treaties with Great Britain, the surrounding sultanates and sheikhdoms had become known collectively as the Aden Protectorate. Six of them formed the Federation of Arab Emirates of the South in 1959. After the addition of more members it became the Federation of South Arabia in 1962. Aden joined the federation in 1963. Meanwhile, violence erupted between nationalists and the British government. In 1967 political control passed to the National Liberation Front, and the region achieved independence as the People's Republic of Southern Yemen. The single-party Communist republic was renamed the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen in 1970--the Arab world's only Marxist state.
\par \tab Yemen traded with Egypt as early as the 14th century BC. The Biblical kingdom of Sheba flourished around the 1st century BC. In 1945 Yemen (San'a) helped form the Arab League. The last ruling imam was overthrown in 1962, and Yemen (San'a) was declared a republic. Civil war erupted and continued until 1970. Yemen (San'a) was declared a parliamentary democracy with a constitution in 1970, which was suspended after a military coup in 1974. A military-dominated single-party Islamic republic governed the country for the next 16 years. The two Yemens were unified as the Republic of Yemen on May 22, 1990. It was a fragile unity, however. The armies were not merged, and many tensions remained. By the early 1990s poverty had worsened, and the unemployment rate reached 30 percent. On May 4, 1994, the tensions erupted into civil war. The more populous north part of the country claimed victory when it captured the seaport of Aden, former capital of South Yemen. Population (1993 estimate), 12,459,000.\par \tab The Republic of Zaire straddles the equator in the middle of Africa, one of only a few countries with boundaries established to occupy a single, large river basin. In the latter part of the 19th century Leopold II, king of the Belgians, used his private resources in an attempt to unite the entire basin of the Congo River. He did not succeed, as parts of the basin fell under the rule of Portugal (northern Angola), France (middle Congo), Great Britain (northern Rhodesia), and Germany (German East Africa). He acquired most of the basin, however, a country of some 905,365 square miles (2,344,885 square kilometers) with more than 250 ethnic groups.
\par \tab Zaire is bordered on the north by the Central African Republic and Sudan; on the east by Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, and Tanzania; on the southwest by Angola; and on the west by Congo. The western tip of this republic fronts the Atlantic Ocean. In 1971 the river and country were renamed Zaire, a version of nzadi, meaning "river."
\par {\b Land and Climate}
\par \tab The main physical feature of the country is the Congo, or Zaire, River. It stretches 2,900 miles (4,700 kilometers) through the heart of Africa. The river is unusual because it is impassable for 220 miles (350 kilometers) from its mouth on the Atlantic Ocean, where treacherous rapids and cataracts known as Livingstone Falls prevent any form of navigation. Yet at the top of these rapids lies a 15-mile- (24-kilometer-) wide expanse known as Malebo Pool, which is the beginning of one of the longest stretches of navigable waterways in Africa. Kinshasa, the capital and largest city of the country, is located at Malebo Pool.
\par \tab Kisangani is situated at the next terminus of navigation--Stanley Falls, 1,071 miles (1,724 kilometers) away. Upstream from Kisangani the river is partly navigable--but only by perogues, or small boats--for 500 miles (800 kilometers) to another cataract called the Gates of Hell. The town of Kongolo then becomes a terminus for another long stretch of navigable waterway for 351 miles (565 kilometers).
\par \tab Not only is the river system the most prominent feature of the landscape, it is also one of the most significant features of the country's economic life. With an extremely poor road and rail system--for example, the river is bridged only at Bukama and below Kinshasa, 1,740 miles (2,800 kilometers) apart--the Zaire and its tributaries are the principal means of transportation, moving products and people over the vast expanse of forest and savanna.
\par \tab The central basin is a vast depression of horizontal terraces that are deeply cut by the rivers. On the eastern edge is a chain of high mountains that are part of the Great Rift Valley of Central Africa. This valley includes Lake Tanganyika, which separates Zaire from Tanzania. A large plateau lies in the southern part, and the western edge comprises the lower, older Mayumbe Mountains.
\par \tab The country has an equatorial climate with high temperatures (cooler in the higher plateau) and abundant rainfall in all seasons. This climate has produced an evergreen equatorial forest with a great variety of trees and vegetation. On the northern and southern edges of the Great Forest are areas covered by sparse forests with grasses and shrubs. While this climate seems favorable for agriculture, the area has poor soils. The abundant, warm rainfall has leached away soluble and valuable nutrients. The climate is also especially conducive to germs, fungi, and carriers of numerous pests and infectious diseases.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab The ethnic and linguistic character of the people of Zaire is highly diverse and complex. The boundaries of the country actually divide numerous ethnic groups. The Kongo people live in Congo and Angola, the Zande in Sudan, the Chokwe in Angola, the Bemba in Zambia, and the Alur in Uganda. This diversity continues within the country with numerous ethnic groups occupying specific regions. The majority speak Bantu languages of great variety (there are about 700 dialects or local languages), and in the north the people belong linguistically to Sudan. Communication is facilitated by the ability of people to speak several languages and dialects or by the use of French, the official language.
\par \tab Nearly 60 percent of the 30 million people are rural, and density is least in the rain forest and in Shaba Province. Moderate densities occur where the forest has been successfully cleared for permanent agriculture. Besides Kinshasa, other large towns include Kananga, Lubumbashi, Mbuji-Mayi, Kisangani, Bukavu, and Panda-Likasi.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab A relatively good start on development was achieved in the colonial era with close ties to Belgium for exports of agricultural products and ores. Very little has been accomplished, however, since independence. The economy is stagnant at best and fraught with enormous problems. The value of the per capita gross domestic product (GDP) in 1980 was only a third of that of 1960; the share of agriculture and mining of GDP declined from 38 percent in 1959 to 36 percent in 1979; the share of services outside the productive sector climbed from 34 to 54 percent in the same period; and the transport sector suffered a drastic decline from 8 percent to 1.1 percent.
\par \tab There is an enormous gap between the privileged urban elite and the mass of poverty-stricken small-town and rural people. This condition has increased with a large migration of rural people to large urban areas where uncontrolled expansion has set off social unrest with potentially explosive political results. This unemployed and discontented urban population, especially the young, detracts from the country's productive capacity by diverting large sums of money to urban services that could be used to build an urgently needed infrastructure of the entire country.
\par \tab Like all developing countries, one or two crops dominate both the people's diet and the export trade. Cassavas and plantains dominate Zaire's agriculture with sugarcane, maize, bananas, and sweet potatoes as secondary crops. Principal exports are oil-palm products and coffee with some trade in rubber and cotton products.
\par \tab While the potential for significant agricultural production is great, there are numerous obstacles. These include a sparse and widely dispersed population, primitive cultivation methods, such cultural handicaps as the unwillingness of men to undertake agricultural chores, and many bottlenecks in the marketing, transporting, and processing of products. Credit, savings, and private investments are virtually nonexistent.
\par \tab The economy is heavily dependent on mineral products, which in the mid-1980s generated about 86 percent of foreign-currency earnings. The mining of copper, cobalt, gold, zinc, manganese, and coal provides many jobs, considerable wealth, and about half of the public revenue. Zaire's dependence on mineral exports, however, especially copper and cobalt, makes the country highly vulnerable to fluctuations in international markets. Falling demand and low prices have had significant adverse effects on the economy.
\par \tab Zaire has manufacturing activities worth about 40 percent of the country's investments. The industries are primarily consumer products destined for the domestic market: beverages, clothing, foods, leather goods, tobacco, chemicals (paint), metal engineering, cement, timber, and river transport equipment. Half of the plants are concentrated in Kinshasa, and another quarter are in the principal mining centers of Shaba Province. Both areas are well supplied with inexpensive electric power.
\par {\b Government and History}
\par \tab Prior to the penetration by European mercantilism, Zaire was politically organized into several major kingdoms: the Kingdom of Kongo, the Luba Empire, the Lunda Empire, the Lele and Kuba societies, and the Bola Group. The period of colonial conquest began during the latter half of the 19th century when King Leopold II of Belgium acquired the Congo Basin under the Treaty of Berlin in 1885. He was recognized by the European powers as the sovereign of the Independent State of the Congo. By the mid-1890s Leopold established control in most areas and aggressively pursued development plans for the exploitation of natural resources. Lacking sufficient funds to continue development, Leopold requested and received loans from the Belgian parliament, which annexed the Congo in 1908. This became the Belgian Congo.
\par \tab Although such atrocities as forced labor, committed during Leopold's reign, ended under Belgian rule, the Congo was still subjected to European dominance. The colonial administration gave no significant roles in the government to Africans. They formed the labor force for the European-managed plantations and mining operations. The establishment of Christian mission schools throughout the country contributed to an increase in the literacy rate, but not until the 1950s, when two universities opened, were there Congolese educated past the primary level.
\par \tab Economic expansion from the sale of strategic mineral resources during World Wars I and II and the Korean War led to a general transformation of Congolese society. In spite of an increased population and urbanization, active participation in the colonial political system by Africans did not occur until 1957. Congolese villages were then divided administratively and Africans given secondary responsibilities in the governing of their villages.
\par \tab This decentralization and regionalization of the Belgian colonial structure created an ethnically divided and politically stifled African elite. Unlike many Africans under British and French colonial rule, the Congolese lacked a national ideology. The ethnic association of the Kongo people, however, was the basis for the formation of one of the first African political parties in the Congo, Alliance des Ba-Kongo (ABAKO), under the leadership of Joseph Kasavubu. It was not until 1958 that the Mouvement Nationale Congolais (MNC) formed and began to work toward independence. Fast-growing political unrest led to independence on June 30, 1960, with Kasavubu as president and Patrice Lumumba as prime minister. Army chief of staff Col. Joseph Mobutu seized control when ethnic rivalry weakened the government. In 1961 Kasavubu resumed leadership and Lumumba was assassinated. By 1965, when Mobutu staged a bloodless military coup, secessionist movements had been quelled, but the economy was devastated.
\par \tab While initiating economic and monetary reforms, Mobutu consolidated his power by establishing a presidential system with a strong centralized government. In 1967 he presented a new constitution, which created the Mouvement Populaire de la RΘvolution whereby all citizens over 18 years of age are automatically members of the party. In 1971 the country was renamed the Republic of Zaire, and a year later Mobutu changed his name to the more African Mobutu Sese Seko.
\par \tab By the 1990s decades of economic mismanagement and political corruption had led to chaos--marked by riots, massacres, and mutiny. In 1990 Mobutu lifted the ban on opposition parties. For the next several years intermittent talks were held to try to draft a new constitution and create a transitional government to oversee the movement toward multiparty democracy until new elections could be held. Population (1991 estimate), 34,964,000.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by Gerald J. Karaska, Professor of Geography, Clark University, and editor of 'Economic Geography'.
\par \tab {\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR ZAIRE}
\par \tab Biebuyck, Daniel. The Arts of Zaire (Univ. of Calif. Press, 1985).
\par \tab Chatterjee, Dwarka. Storm Over the Congo (Advent, 1980).
\par \tab Lemarchand, Rene, and others. Political Awakening in the Belgian Congo (Greenwood, 1982).
\par \tab Young, Crawford, and Turner, Thomas. The Rise and Decline of the Zairian State (Univ. of Wis. Press, 1985).\par \tab The Republic of Zambia is a landlocked country located in southern Africa on the high plateau. Zaire borders it on the north; Tanzania on the northeast; Malawi on the east; Mozambique, Zimbabwe, a tip of Botswana, and Namibia on the south; and Angola on the west. From 1911 to 1964 the country was known as Northern Rhodesia.
\par {\b Land and People}
\par \tab Zambia's average elevation is about 3,500 feet (1,100 meters) above sea level, which moderates its otherwise tropical climate. The gently rolling plateau country varies from tropical forest to tall grasslands. Its streams are divided between those that flow northward to the Zaire, or Congo, River and the Zambezi River and its tributaries that flow eastward through Mozambique to the Indian Ocean. A rich belt of minerals known as the Copperbelt lies near the Zaire border.
\par \tab In the mid-1980s Zambia had a population of about 7 million. Africans--who speak mainly Bemba, Nyanja, and Tonga--constitute 98 percent of the population. There are small but significant European and Asian communities engaged in commerce, mining, and agriculture. English is the official language and is used in parliament and instruction. With an area of about 290,586 square miles (752,614 square kilometers) the country has a population density of only 21 persons per square mile (8 per square kilometer). Population is unevenly distributed, however, with nearly 45 percent living in urban centers along the rail lines. Lusaka, the capital and largest city (population, 1986 estimate, 1 million), and the Copperbelt towns are growing rapidly by natural increase and by rural-to-urban migration.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab Zambia's per capita income of 580 dollars is relatively high, but its national wealth is concentrated in cities. About 67 percent of the labor force are engaged in agriculture, in which incomes are very low. It is estimated that only 29 percent of Zambia's arable land is under cultivation.
\par \tab Food production has declined since independence in 1964. Rural development programs proved costly and often unworkable. The 1982-84 drought and military strikes by Rhodesian Commandos also hampered food production. Zambia has shifted from a food-surplus to a food-deficit nation. It relies on increasingly expensive imported grain from the West and from South Africa, though domestic production of corn (maize) improved in 1985.
\par \tab The Zambezi River, which forms much of the southern border, offers economic opportunities. Many Zambians sustain themselves by catching fish and selling them in nearby villages and cities. The Kariba power installation generates electricity for both domestic and industrial use. Victoria Falls, where the Zambezi plunges spectacularly into a gorge, is a major tourist attraction.
\par \tab The economy of Zambia is based on the mining of copper, cobalt, zinc, and other industrial minerals and on the commercial production of tobacco, groundnuts, and cotton. These are exported primarily to Western Europe, Asia, and the United States. Since independence, metal exports have accounted for about 95 percent of foreign-exchange earnings and have been the major source of investment capital for other parts of the economy. The economy remains overwhelmingly dependent on its copper exports, and fluctuation in world prices for copper since 1980 has contributed to severe shortages of foreign exchange. Financial problems forced Zambia to negotiate economic assistance loans from the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and to implement austerity measures.
\par {\b History and Government}
\par \tab Ancestors of the Tonga tribe reached the area between AD 1000 and 1100. Cecil Rhodes and his British South Africa Company claimed all the land between the Portuguese territories of Angola and Mozambique for Great Britain in the 1890s. It was later divided into Nyasaland (now Malawi), Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe), and Northern Rhodesia (Zambia). The company, in collaboration with the British government, built rail lines to link the Copperbelt with ports on the Indian and Atlantic oceans.
\par \tab Nyasaland and Northern and Southern Rhodesia were joined into the Central African Federation in 1953. The ill-fated federation dissolved in 1963, but the union strengthened the interdependence of its members. A rail line was built from the coal mines of Hwange in Southern Rhodesia to serve the Copperbelt. The Hwange line was then used to transport copper and other minerals to South Africa, a major market for them. The Kariba Dam and power installation were constructed so that the Rhodesias could share electric power for domestic and industrial (mining) use. The federation also permitted the free movement of labor.
\par \tab Since independence there have been serious economic and political problems. Zambia's relations with its eight neighbors in Southern Africa range from friendly to hostile. Zaire's Katanga Pedicle, which juts into the middle of Zambia, imposes international restrictions between the Copperbelt and the agricultural and fishing areas of Zambia's Luapula Province in the north. Zambia began shipping freight to Lobito on the Atlantic coast, but in 1975 the civil war in Angola closed this route. Zambia then had to rely almost exclusively on its other established routes through Zimbabwe, Mozambique, and South Africa. These routes proved unreliable as well.
\par \tab With routes to the sea severed, Zambia initiated a difficult and costly effort to redirect its trade northward. Agreements were ultimately reached with China to build the Tan-Zam Railway to connect the Copperbelt with the ports of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania; and Mombasa, Kenya. The railway was costly to operate, however, and the ports proved incapable of handling the increased volume of goods. Reluctantly Zambia turned again to the established route through South Africa, which encouraged even greater dependency by offering unusually favorable rates. Independence in Mozambique and majority rule in Zimbabwe allowed Zambia to reduce its dependency on South Africa, but in the 1980s about 30 percent of its exports and 12 percent of its imports still went through South Africa.
\par \tab After gaining independence from Great Britain in 1964, Zambia became in 1972 a one-party state in which the United National Independence party held power. The National Assembly has 142 elected members and eight appointed members. There are eight provinces in addition to the capital.
\par \tab The party leader, Kenneth Kaunda, was reelected for his sixth five-year term in 1988. His control of Zambia was threatened as the inflation rate increased (122.5 percent by the end of 1989), and there were attempted coups in 1988 and 1990. He negotiated a new IMF loan. After the price of cornmeal doubled in mid-1990, riots erupted. By year's end Kaunda was forced to approve legislation to legalize opposition parties for the 1991 elections. Frederick Chiluba, head of the Movement for Multiparty Democracy, was elected president in 1991. Population (1991 estimate), 8,780,000.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab Earl P. Scott
{\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR ZAMBIA}
\par \tab Bell, Morag. Contemporary Africa (Wiley, 1986).
\par \tab Lamb, David. The Africans (Random, 1987).
\par \tab Laure, Jason. Zambia (Childrens, 1989).
\par \tab Mazrui, A.A. The African Condition (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1980).\par \tab The Republic of Zimbabwe is located on the high plateau of southern Africa. The terrain is rugged and even formidable at the country's borders. This landlocked country is bounded on the north by the Zambezi River and Zambia and on the south by the Limpopo River and South Africa. Both areas are hot and humid with scattered forests and bush, and both rivers are difficult to bridge. The Inyanga Mountains, Zimbabwe's highest, form the eastern boundary with Mozambique, and to the west lie the semiarid and desert lands of Botswana. In the low veld, or short grassland, in the southeast bordering Mozambique, annual rainfall is less than 16 inches (41 centimeters). The central highlands are a series of fertile plateaus on which Europeans settled, built cities and towns, and established specialized commercial farming. The total area is about 150,873 square miles (390,759 square kilometers). The capital is Harare, formerly known as Salisbury.
\par \tab Zimbabwe's scenic beauty and large game parks are major tourist attractions. Victoria Falls, where the Zambezi River plunges into a deep chasm, is one of the greatest sights in Africa. Lake Kariba is popular for fishing, and hippopotamuses and elephants can be seen along its shores. Hwange National Park is one of the last great elephant sanctuaries in Africa.
\par {\b People and Economy}
\par \tab Zimbabwe's population of about 9 million is rapidly urbanizing but remains basically rural and agricultural. About 74 percent live in rural areas, and 60 percent of the labor force is engaged in agricultural activities. The largest African groups are the Shona, who make up about 70 percent of the population, and the Ndebele, about 16 percent. Less than 3 percent of the population are white. English is the official language, but Bantu languages are the most prevalent. About 45 percent of the people are Christians and 40 percent animists.
\par \tab After majority rule began in 1980, the government built rural service centers, especially in the former reserves, to absorb rural migrants and to encourage the farm population to remain on the land. With government economic incentives, they provide basic services and market outlets for farm produce. The former reserve lands have been transformed, making Zimbabwe a potential model for achieving food security in Africa as a whole.
\par \tab The economy, though relatively diverse, is dependent on the mining of gold, chrome, copper, asbestos, nickel, and iron ore and on the commercial production of cotton, tobacco, citrus fruits, cattle, and other commodities for export to Western Europe, the United States, and South Africa. Zimbabwe's mineral wealth is in the Great Dyke, which runs diagonally from northwest of Harare southward to West Nicholson. Gold accounts for almost 40 percent of output in value. Other major minerals are copper, asbestos, and chrome. Zimbabwe is different from most African countries in that it processes many of its metals for export. Output has increased since the mid-1970s, but transport constraints and low prices on the world market have caused problems.
\par \tab Agriculture accounts for nearly two fifths of all exports and employs about a quarter of the labor force. Like mining, agriculture is highly diversified, and despite drought and military incursions Zimbabwe has been a food surplus country.
\par \tab European estate farming is highly developed and regionally specialized. Estate farms are large, more than half consisting of between 1,000 and 5,000 acres (400 and 2,000 hectares). They are mechanized but are heavily dependent on low-cost African labor. They specialize in the production of such crops as corn, tobacco, tea, cotton, and citrus fruits.
\par \tab Manufacturing produces a wide range of goods and contributes about a quarter of the gross domestic product with about 16 percent of the employed labor force. The processing of cotton and tobacco crops contributes to its success.
\par {\b Government and History}
\par \tab Zimbabwe is a multiparty state--an independent republic with the president as head of state and a parliament consisting of a unicameral, 150-member House of Assembly. The seats reserved for elected members number 120, ten members are chosen by traditional chiefs, and 20 members are appointed by the president. A cabinet, led by the prime minister, is chosen from the parliament. The president and the members of the House of Assembly serve for six years. The judiciary is appointed by the president.
\par \tab The Monomotapa Empire, centered on its capital city of Zimbabwe, flourished between the 5th and 15th centuries. The Great Zimbabwe ruins, about 110 miles (180 kilometers) south of Harare, consist of an acropolis atop a 200-foot- (60-meter-) high granite hill and a great enclosure in the plains below. The fortified acropolis housed the priestly class of the Mwari Cult, and in the great enclosure traders exchanged local gold and ivory for porcelain, glass beads, and other luxuries from overseas markets as far away as India and China. In 1980 Rhodesia was renamed Zimbabwe in honor of its historical and cultural heritage.
\par \tab A British column called Pioneers, led by Cecil Rhodes, marched from South Africa in 1890 in search of precious minerals. They established Fort Salisbury, now Harare, and disbanded. The area was occupied by such African tribes as the Ndebele and the Shona, led by the powerful chief Lobengula. Through treaties and persuasion Rhodes and his British South Africa Company acquired mineral rights in Lobengula's kingdom. But Rhodes claimed the territory north of the Limpopo River for Great Britain and distributed it among his Pioneers and the indigenous Africans. The Ndebele took up arms in 1893 and again in 1896. European settlers spread from the area around Fort Salisbury, and by 1897 the railway had reached from South Africa to Bulawayo, the capital of Lobengula's former kingdom. A few years later the line was extended to reach the coalfields of Hwange, the Copperbelt in Northern Rhodesia (now Zambia), and Salisbury, which was already linked by rail to the port of Beira in Portuguese Mozambique.
\par \tab Southern Rhodesia was granted independence by the British in 1923 as an autonomous member of the Commonwealth, but the passage of the Land Apportionment Act in 1931 solidified political power in the hands of the white minority. In 1953 Southern Rhodesia was joined with Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland (now Malawi) into the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland. Vigorous opposition by nationalists in Zambia and Malawi led to the dissolution of the federation in 1963 and to independence for Zambia and Malawi in 1964. In 1965 Rhodesia's prime minister, Ian Smith, announced a unilateral declaration of independence.
\par \tab Nationalism was building in Rhodesia under the parties led by Joshua Nkomo and Robert Mugabe. Both groups had to take refuge in neighboring independent countries. From there they waged a seven-year struggle for liberation from white minority rule. At last an agreement was reached to hold a popular election in 1980. Mugabe won a landslide victory to become Zimbabwe's first prime minister under majority rule. In 1987 Mugabe and Nkomo united their parties under the name of Mugabe's party, the Zimbabwe African National Union-Patriotic Front (ZANU-PF). In March 1990 elections Mugabe, as leader of ZANU-PF, defeated Edgar Tekere of the Zimbabwe Unity Movement (ZUM). Low voter turnout, however, crushed Mugabe's hopes for a popular mandate in support of a one-party political system. The parliament passed a Land Acquisition Bill in 1992, allowing the government to forcibly purchase about half the land owned by white commercial farmers and redistribute it to black peasants. The worst drought on record in Southern Africa devastated crops, forcing the country to import corn.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by Earl P. Scott, Associate Professor of Geography and chairman, Department of Afro-American and African Studies, University of Minnesota, editor, 'Life Before the Drought'.
\par \tab Martin, David, and Johnson, Phyllis. The Struggle for Zimbabwe (Monthly Review, 1982).
\par \tab Schatzberg, M.G., ed. The Political Economy of Zimbabwe (Praeger, 1984).{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 31,200 telephones; limited telephone, telegraph, and radiobroadcast services; 1 public telephone in Kabul
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab one link between western Afghanistan and Iran (via satellite)
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 5, FM 0, shortwave 2
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab several television stations run by factions and local councils which provide intermittent service
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab about 55,000 telephones; about 15 telephones/1,000 persons
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab primitive; about 11,000 telephones in Tirane, the capital city
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab obsolete wire system; no longer provides a telephone for every village; in 1992, following the fall of the communist government, peasants cut the wire to about 1,000 villages and used it to build fences
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab inadequate; carried through the Tirane exchange and transmitted through Italy on 240 microwave radio relay circuits and through Greece on 150 microwave radio relay circuits
\par \tab 5 submarine cables; microwave radio relay to Italy, France, Spain, Morocco, and Tunisia; coaxial cable to Morocco and Tunisia; 2 INTELSAT (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean), 1 Intersputnik, 1 ARABSAT earth station
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 26, FM 0, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab 5.2 million
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 18
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab 1.6 million{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 17,700 telephones; digital microwave network
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab landline circuits to France and Spain
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 1, FM 0, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 0
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 40,300 telephones; 4.1 telephones/1,000 persons; high frequency radio used extensively for military links; telephone service limited mostly to government and business use
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab limited system of wire, microwave radio relay, and troposcatter routes
\par \tab 890 telephones; modern internal telephone system
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab radio relay microwave link to island of Saint Martin
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 3, FM 1, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 0
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab NA
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM NA, FM NA, shortwave NA
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 6,700 telephones; good automatic telephone system
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 1 coaxial submarine cable; 1 INTELSAT (Atlantic Ocean) earth station; tropospheric scatter links with Saba and Guadeloupe
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 4, FM 2, shortwave 2
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 2
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab no submarine cables{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 2,650,000 telephones; 12,000 public telephones; 78 telephones/1,000 persons; extensive modern system but many families do not have telephones; microwave widely used; however, during rainstorms, the telephone system frequently grounds out, even in Buenos Aires
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab microwave radio relay and domestic satellite network with 40 earth stations
\par \tab about 650,000 telephones; 177 telephones/1,000 persons; progress on installation of fiber optic cable and construction of facilities for mobile cellular phone service remains in the negotiation phase for joint venture agreement
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab international connections to other former republics of the USSR are by landline or microwave and to other countries by satellite and by leased connection through the Moscow international gateway switch; 1 INTELSAT satellite link
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM NA, FM NA, shortwave NA
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab NA; note - 100% of population receives Armenian and Russian TV programs
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 72,168 telephones; 1,100 telephones/1,000 persons; more than adequate
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab extensive interisland microwave radio relay links
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 1 submarine cable to Sint Maarten
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 4, FM 4, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 1
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab numerous submarine cables with most between continental Europe and the UK, North America and the UK, and in the Mediterranean; numerous direct links across Atlantic via INTELSAT satellite network{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 8,700,000 telephones; good international and domestic service
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab domestic satellite service
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab submarine cables to New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, and Indonesia; 10 INTELSAT (4 Indian Ocean and 6 Pacific Ocean) earth stations
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 258, FM 67, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 134
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 4,014,000 telephones; highly developed and efficient
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 2 INTELSAT (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean), and EUTELSAT earth stations
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 6, FM 21 (repeaters 545), shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 47 (repeaters 870)
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 710,000 telephones; 90 telephones/1,000 persons (1991); 202,000 persons waiting for telephone installations (January 1991); domestic telephone service is of poor quality and inadequate
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab a joint venture to establish a cellular telephone system (Bakcel) in the Baku area is supposed to become operational in 1994
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab connections to other former USSR republics by cable and microwave and to other countries via the Moscow international gateway switch; INTELSAT link installed in late 1992 in Baku with Turkish financial assistance with access to 200 countries through Turkey; since August 1993 an earth station near Baku has provided direct communications with New York through Russia's Stationar-11 satellite
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM NA, FM NA, shortwave NA
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab NA; domestic and Russian TV programs are received locally and Turkish and Iranian TV is received from an INTELSAT satellite through a receive-only earth station
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 99,000 telephones; totally automatic system; highly developed
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab tropospheric scatter and submarine cable links to Florida; 3 coaxial submarine cables; 1 INTELSAT (Atlantic Ocean) earth station
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 3, FM 2, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 1
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 98,000 telephones; 170 telephones/1,000 persons; modern system; good domestic services; excellent international connections
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 2 INTELSAT (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean) and 1 ARABSAT earth station; tropospheric scatter to Qatar, UAE; microwave radio relay to Saudi Arabia; submarine cable to Qatar, UAE, and Saudi Arabia
\par \tab 2 INTELSAT (Indian Ocean) earth stations; adequate international radio communications and landline service
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 9, FM 6, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 11
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 89,000 telephones
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab island wide automatic telephone system;
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 1 INTELSAT (Atlantic Ocean) earth station; tropospheric scatter link to Trinidad and Saint Lucia
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 3, FM 2, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 2 (1 pay)
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 1,849,000 telephones (December 1991); 18 telephones/100 persons; telephone service inadequate for the purposes of either business or the population; about 70% of the telephones are in homes; over 750,000 applications from households for telephones remain unsatisfied (1992); new investment centers on international connections and business needs; the new BelCel NMT 450 cellular system (a joint venture) is now operating in Minsk
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab international traffic is carried by the Moscow international gateway switch and also by 2 satellite earth stations near Minsk - INTELSAT (through Canada) and EUTELSAT (through the UK)
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM NA, FM NA, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab 3.14 million (5,615,000 with multiple speaker systems for program diffusion)
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab 3.538 million{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 4,720,000 telephones; highly developed, technologically advanced, and completely automated domestic and international telephone and telegraph facilities
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab extensive cable network; limited microwave radio relay network; nationwide mobile phone system
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 5 submarine cables; 2 Atlantic Ocean INTELSAT earth stations and 1 EUTELSAT earth station
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 3, FM 39, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 32
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 8,650 telephones; above-average system based on microwave radio relay
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab microwave radio relay
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 1 INTELSAT (Atlantic Ocean) earth station
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 6, FM 5, shortwave 1
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 1
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab NA telephones; fair system of open wire and microwave radio relay
\par \tab NA telephones; domestic telephone service is very poor with very few telephones in use
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab international telephone and telegraph service is by land line through India; an earth station was planned (1990)
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 1, FM 1, shortwave 0 (1990)
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 0 (1990)
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab about 150,000 telephones; about 2.0 telephones/100 persons; new subscribers face bureaucratic difficulties; most telephones in La Paz and other cities; microwave radio relay system being expanded; improved international services
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab microwave radio relay system
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 1 INTELSAT (Atlantic Ocean) earth station
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 129, FM 0, shortwave 68
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 43
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 727,000 telephones; telephone and telegraph network is in need of modernization and expansion; many urban areas are below average when compared with services in other former Yugoslav republics
\par \tab 112 (Brazil has the world's fourth largest television broadcasting system)
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 3,000 telephones; worldwide external telephone service
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab submarine cable communication links to Bermuda
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 1, FM 0, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 1
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 33,000 telephones (1987); service throughout country is adequate for present needs; international service good to adjacent Malaysia
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab INTELSAT (NA Indian Ocean and 1 Pacific Ocean) earth stations
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 4, FM 4, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab 74,000 (1987)
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab radiobroadcast coverage good
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 1
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 2,600,000 telephones; 29 telephones/100 persons (1992); extensive but antiquated transmission system of coaxial cable and microwave radio relay; direct dialing to 36 countries; telephone service is available in most villages; almost two-thirds of the lines are residential; 67% of Sofia households have phones (November 1988)
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 1 earth station using Intersputnik; INTELSAT link used through a Greek earth station
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 20, FM 15, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 29 (Russian repeater in Sofia 1)
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab 2.1 million (May 1990){\b Telephone system}
\par \tab NA telephones; all services only fair
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab microwave radio relay, wire, and radio communication stations
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 1 Atlantic Ocean INTELSAT earth station
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 2, FM 1, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 2
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 53,000 telephones (1986); meets minimum requirements for local and intercity service for business and government; international service is good
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 1 INTELSAT (Indian Ocean) earth station
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 2, FM 1, shortwave 0 (1985)
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab radiobroadcast coverage is limited to the most populous areas
\par \tab 20,000,000 telephones (summer 1994); domestic and international services are increasingly available for private use; unevenly distributed internal system serves principal cities, industrial centers, and most townships; expanding phone lines, interprovincial fiber optic links, satellite communications, cellullar/mobile communications, etc.
\par \tab 5 INTELSAT earth stations (4 Pacific Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean) and 1 INMARSAT earth station; several international fiber optic links to Japan and Hong Kong
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 274, FM NA, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab 215 million
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 202 (repeaters 2,050)
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab 75 million{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 1,890,000 telephones; modern system in many respects
\par \tab over 1,800 telephones; sparse system of radio relay and high-frequency radio communication stations for interisland and external communications to Madagascar and Reunion
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab high frequency radio and microwave radio relay
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab high frequency radio
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 2, FM 1, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 0
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 18,100 telephones; 7 telephones/1,000 persons; services adequate for government use; key centers are Brazzaville, Pointe-Noire, and Loubomo
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab primary network consists of microwave radio relay and coaxial cable
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 1 Atlantic Ocean INTELSAT earth station
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 4, FM 1, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 4
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 292,000 telephones; very good domestic telephone service
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab connection into Central American Microwave System; 1 INTELSAT (Atlantic Ocean) earth station
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 71, FM 0, shortwave 13
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 18
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 87,700 telephones; well-developed by African standards but operating well below capacity; consists of open-wire lines and radio relay microwave links
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab NA microwave radio relay
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 2 INTELSAT (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean) earth stations; 2 coaxial submarine cables
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 71, FM 0, shortwave 13
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 18
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 350,000 telephones
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab no satellite links
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 14, FM 8, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab 1.1 million
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 12 (repeaters 2)
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab 1.027 million{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 229,000 telephones; 20.7 telephones/1,000 persons; among the world's least developed telephone systems
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 1 INTELSAT (Atlantic Ocean) earth station
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 150, FM 5, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab 2.14 million
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 58
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab 1.53 million{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 210,000 telephones; excellent in both the area controlled by the Cypriot Government (Greek area), and in the Turkish-Cypriot administered area; largely open-wire and microwave radio relay
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab microwave radio relay
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab international service by tropospheric scatter, 3 submarine cables, and 2 INTELSAT (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean) and 1 EUTELSAT earth station
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b Greek sector}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 11, FM 8, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b Turkish sector}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 2, FM 6, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b Greek sector}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 1 (repeaters 34)
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b Turkish sector}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 1
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab NA telephones
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab NA
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM, FM, shortwave
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 4,509,000 telephones; excellent telephone and telegraph services; buried and submarine cables and microwave radio relay support trunk network
\par \tab NA telephones; telephone facilities in the city of Djibouti are adequate as are the microwave radio relay connections to outlying areas of the country
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab microwave radio relay network
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab international connections via submarine cable to Saudi Arabia and by satellite link to other countries; 1 INTELSAT (Indian Ocean) and 1 ARABSAT earth station
\par \tab 318,000 telephones; 30 telephones/1,000 persons; domestic facilities generally inadequate and unreliable
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 1 INTELSAT (Atlantic Ocean) earth station
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 272, FM 0, shortwave 39
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 33
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 600,000 telephones; 11 telephones/1,000 persons; large system by Third World standards but inadequate for present requirements and undergoing extensive upgrading
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab principal centers at Alexandria, Cairo, Al Mansurah, Ismailia Suez, and Tanta are connected by coaxial cable and microwave radio relay
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 2 INTELSAT (Atlantic Ocean and Indian Ocean), 1 ARABSAT, and 1 INMARSAT earth station; 5 coaxial submarine cables, microwave troposcatter (to Sudan), and microwave radio relay (to Libya, Israel, and Jordan)
\par \tab 1 INTELSAT (Atlantic Ocean) earth station; connected to Central American Microwave System
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 77, FM 0, shortwave 2
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 5
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 2,000 telephones; poor system with adequate government services
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab international communications from Bata and Malabo to African and European countries; 1 Indian Ocean INTELSAT earth station
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 2, FM 0, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 1
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab NA
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM NA, FM NA, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab about 400,000 telephones; 246 telephones/1,000 persons; telephone system is antiquated; improvements are being made piecemeal, with emphasis on business needs and international connections; there are still about 150,000 unfulfilled requests for telephone service
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab international traffic is carried to the other former USSR republics by land line or microwave and to other countries partly by leased connection to the Moscow international gateway switch, and partly by a new Tallinn-Helsinki fiber optic submarine cable which gives Estonia access to international circuits everywhere; substantial investment has been made in cellular systems which are operational throughout Estonia and also Latvia and which have access to the international packet switched digital network via Helsinki
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM NA, FM NA, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 3; note - provide Estonian programs as well as Moscow Ostenkino's first and second programs
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab NA telephones; open-wire and radio relay system adequate for government use
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab open wire and microwave radio relay links
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab open-wire to Sudan and Djibouti; microwave radio relay to Kenya and Djibouti; 3 INTELSAT (1 Atlantic Ocean and 2 Pacific Ocean) earth stations
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 4, FM 0, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab 9 million
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 1
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab 100,000{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 590 telephones
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab government-operated radiotelephone and private VHF/CB radio networks provide effective service to almost all points on both islands
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 1 INTELSAT (Atlantic Ocean) earth station with links through London to other countries
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 2, FM 3, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 0
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 53,228 telephones; 71 telephones/1,000 persons; modern local, interisland, and international (wire/radio integrated) public and special-purpose telephone, telegraph, and teleprinter facilities; regional radio center
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab important COMPAC cable link between US-Canada and NZ-Australia; 1 INTELSAT (Pacific Ocean) earth station
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 7, FM 1, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 0
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 3,140,000 telephones; good service from cable and microwave radio relay network
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab cable and microwave radio relay
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 1 submarine cable; INTELSAT satellite transmission service via Swedish earth station and a receive-only INTELSAT earth station near Helsinki for TV programs
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 6, FM 105, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 235
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 39,200,000 telephones; highly developed; extensive cable and microwave radio relay networks; large-scale introduction of optical-fiber systems; satellite systems for domestic traffic
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab microwave radio relay, optical fiber cable, and domestic satellites
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 2 INTELSAT earth stations (with total of 5 antennas - 2 Indian Ocean and 3 for Atlantic Ocean); HF radio communications with more than 20 countries; INMARSAT service; EUTELSAT TV service
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 41, FM 800 (mostly repeaters), shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab 48 million
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 846 (mostly repeaters)
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab 36 million{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 18,100 telephones; fair open-wire and microwave radio relay system
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab open wire and microwave radio relay
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 1 INTELSAT (Atlantic Ocean) earth station
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 5, FM 7, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 9
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 33,200 telephones
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 1 INTELSAT (Pacific Ocean) earth station
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 5, FM 2, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab 84,000
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 6
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab 26,400{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 15,000 telephones; telephone density - 13/1,000 persons
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab adequate system, comprising cable, microwave radio relay, tropospheric scatter, radiocommunication stations, and 12 domestic satellite links
\par \tab links via landline to CIS members and Turkey; low-capacity satellite link and leased international connections via the Moscow international gateway switch with other countries; international electronic mail and telex service available
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM NA, FM NA, shortwave NA
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab {\b western}
\par \tab 40,300,000 telephones; highly developed, modern telecommunication service to all parts of the country; fully adequate in all respects; intensively developed, highly redundant cable and microwave radio relay networks, all completely automatic
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab very modern
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab domestic satellite, microwave radio relay, and cable systems
\par \tab 1 INTELSAT earth station and 1 Intersputnik system
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b western}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 80, FM 470, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b eastern}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 23, FM 17, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab 67 million
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 246 (repeaters 6,000); note - there are 15 Russian repeaters in eastern Germany
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab 25 million in western Germany, 6 million in eastern Germany{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 42,300 telephones; poor to fair system; telephone density - 2.4/1,000 persons
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab primarily microwave radio relay
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 1 Atlantic Ocean INTELSAT earth station
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 4, FM 1, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 4 (translators 8)
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 9,400 telephones; adequate, automatic domestic system and adequate international radiocommunication and microwave facilities
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 1 INTELSAT (Atlantic Ocean) earth station
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 1, FM 6, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 4
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 4,080,000 telephones; adequate, modern networks reach all areas; microwave radio relay carries most traffic; extensive open-wire network; submarine cables to off-shore islands
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab microwave radio relay and open wire
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab tropospheric links, 8 submarine cables; 2 INTELSAT (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean) and 1 EUTELSAT ground station
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 29, FM 17 (repeaters 20), shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 361
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 17,900 telephones; adequate domestic and international service provided by cables and microwave radio relay
\par \tab 5,650 telephones; automatic, islandwide telephone system; new SHF radio links to the islands of Trinidad, Tobago, and Saint Vincent; VHF and UHF radio links to the islands of Trinidad and Carriacou
\par \tab 3 INTELSAT (1 Pacific Ocean and 2 Indian Ocean) earth stations; coaxial cable to Guangzhou, China; links to 5 international submarine cables providing access to ASEAN member nations, Japan, Taiwan, Australia, Middle East, and Western Europe
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 6, FM 6, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab 2.5 million
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 4 (British Broadcasting Corporation repeater 1; British Forces Broadcasting Service repeater 1)
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab 1.312 million (1,224,000 color TV sets){\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 1,520,000 phones; 14.7 telephones/100 inhabitants (1993); 14,213 telex lines; automatic telephone network based on microwave radio relay system; 608,000 telephones on order; 12-15 year wait for a telephone; 49% of all phones are in Budapest (1991)
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab microwave radio relay
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 1 INTELSAT and Intersputnik earth stations
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 32, FM 15, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 41 (Russian repeaters 8)
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 140,000 telephones; adequate domestic service
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab the trunk network consists of coaxial and fiber-optic cables and microwave radio relay links
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 2 earth stations carry all international traffic through an Atlantic Ocean INTELSAT satellite
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 5, FM 147 (transmitters and repeaters), shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 202 (transmitters and repeaters)
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab NA telephones; 5 telephones/1,000 persons; domestic telephone system is poor; long-distance telephoning has been improved by a domestic satellite system which also carries TV
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 3 INTELSAT (Indian Ocean) earth stations and submarine cables to Malaysia and the United Arab Emirates
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 96, FM 4, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 274 (government controlled)
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab submarine cables from India to United Arab Emirates and Malaysia, and from Sri Lanka to Djibouti and Indonesia{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 763,000 telephones (1986); domestic service fair, international service good
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab interisland microwave system and HF police net; 1 earth station for a domestic satellite
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 2 INTELSAT (1 Indian Ocean and 1 Pacific Ocean) earth stations
\par \tab microwave radio relay extends throughout country; system centered in Tehran
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 3 INTELSAT (2 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean) earth stations; HF radio and microwave radio relay to Turkey, Pakistan, Syria, Kuwait, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan; submarine fiber optic cable to UAE
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 77, FM 3, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 28
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 632,000 telephones; reconstitution of damaged telecommunication facilities began after the Gulf war; most damaged facilities have been rebuilt
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab the network consists of coaxial cables and microwave radio relay links
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 2 INTELSAT (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean), 1 GORIZONT (Atlantic Ocean) in the Intersputnik system, and 1 ARABSAT earth station; coaxial cable and microwave radio relay to Jordan, Kuwait, Syria, and Turkey; Kuwait line is probably non-operational
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 16, FM 1, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 13
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 900,000 telephones; modern digital system using cable and microwave radio relay
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab microwave radio relay
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 1 INTELSAT (Atlantic Ocean) earth station
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 9, FM 45, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 86
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 1,800,000 telephones; most highly developed in the Middle East although not the largest
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab good system of coaxial cable and microwave radio relay
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 3 submarine cables; 3 INTELSAT (2 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean) earth stations
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 9, FM 45, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 20
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 25,600,000 telephones; modern, well-developed, fast; fully automated telephone, telex, and data services
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab high-capacity cable and microwave radio relay trunks
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab international service by 21 submarine cables, 3 satellite earth stations operating in INTELSAT with 3 Atlantic Ocean antennas and 2 Indian Ocean antennas; also participates in INMARSAT and EUTELSAT systems
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 135, FM 28 (repeaters 1,840), shortwave 0
\par \tab 64,000,000 telephones; excellent domestic and international service
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 5 INTELSAT (4 Pacific Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean) earth stations; submarine cables to US (via Guam), Philippines, China, and Russia
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 318, FM 58, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab 95 million
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 12,350 (1 kW or greater 196)
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab 100 million{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 81,500 telephones; adequate telephone system
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA microwave, cable, and radio links
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 2 INTELSAT (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean) and 1 ARABSAT earth station; coaxial cable and microwave to Iraq, Saudi Arabia, and Syria; microwave link to Lebanon is inactive; participant in MEDARABTEL, a microwave radio relay network linking Syria, Jordan, Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 5, FM 7, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 8 and 1 TV receive-only satellite link
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 2.2 million telephones; telephone service is poor; about 17 telephones/100 persons in urban areas and 7.6 telephones/100 persons in rural areas; Almaty has 184,000 telephones
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab land line and microwave radio relay
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab international traffic with other former USSR republics and China carried by landline and microwave, and with other countries by satellite and through 8 international telecommunications circuits at the Moscow international gateway switch; INTELSAT earth station; new satellite earth station established at Almaty with Turkish financial help (December 1992) with 2500 channel band width
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM NA, FM NA, shortwave NA
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab 4.088 million (with multiple speakers for program diffusion 6,082,000)
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab Orbita (TV receive only) earth station
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab 4.75 million{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab over 260,000 telephones; in top group of African systems
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab consists primarily of microwave radio relay links
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 2 INTELSAT (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean) earth stations
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 16, FM 4, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 6
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 1,400 telephones
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 1 INTELSAT (Pacific Ocean) earth station
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 1, FM 0, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 0
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab telephone system is believed to be available only to government officials and not to private individuals
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 1 earth station near P'yongyang, uses an Indian Ocean INTELSAT satellite; other international connections through Moscow and Beijing
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 18, FM 0, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab 3.5 million
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 11
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab 350,000 (1989){\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 13.3 million telephones; excellent domestic and international services
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 3 INTELSAT (2 Pacific Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean) earth stations
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 79, FM 46, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 256 (1 kW or greater 57)
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab NA telephones; civil network suffered extensive damage as a result of the Gulf war and reconstruction is still under way with some restored international and domestic capabilities
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab earth stations destroyed during Gulf war and not rebuilt yet; temporary mobile satellite antennae provide international telecommunications; coaxial cable and microwave radio relay to Saudi Arabia; service to Iraq is nonoperational
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 3, FM 0, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 3
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 342,000 telephones (1991); 76 telephones/1,000 persons (December 1991); poorly developed; about 100,000 unsatisfied applications for household telephones
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab principally by microwave radio relay
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab connections with other CIS countries by landline or microwave and with other countries by leased connections with Moscow international gateway switch and by satellite; 1 GORIZONT and 1 INTELSAT satellite link through Ankara to 200 other countries
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM NA, FM NA, shortwave NA
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab 825,000 (radio receiver systems with multiple speakers for program diffusion 748,000)
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab NA; note - receives Turkish broadcasts
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab 875,000{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 7,390 telephones (1986); service to general public very poor; radio communications network provides generally erratic service to government users
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab 16 telephone lines per 1,000 people
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab radio communications
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 1 earth station
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 10, FM 0, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 2
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 660,000 telephones; 240 telephones/1,000 persons (1993); Latvia is better provided with telephone service than most of the other former Soviet republics; an NMT-450 analog cellular telephone network covers 75% of Latvia's population
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab international traffic carried by leased connection to the Moscow international gateway switch and through the new Ericsson AXE local/transit digital telephone exchange in Riga and through the Finnish cellular net; electronic mail capability by Sprint data network
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM NA, FM NA, shortwave NA
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 325,000 telephones; 95 telephones/1,000 persons; telecommunications system severely damaged by civil war; rebuilding still underway
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab primarily microwave radio relay and cable
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 2 INTELSAT (1 Indian Ocean and 1 Atlantic Ocean) earth stations (erratic operations); coaxial cable to Syria; microwave radio relay to Syria but inoperable beyond Syria to Jordan; 3 submarine coaxial cables
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 5, FM 3, shortwave 0; note - numerous AM and FM stations are operated sporadically by various factions
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 13
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 5,920 telephones; rudimentary system
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab consists of a few land lines, a small microwave radio relay system, and a minor radio communication system
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 1 INTELSAT (Atlantic Ocean) earth station
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 3, FM 4, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 1
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab NA telephones; telephone and telegraph service via radio relay network; main center is Monrovia; most telecommunications services inoperable due to insurgency movement
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 1 INTELSAT (Atlantic Ocean) earth station
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 3, FM 4, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 5
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 370,000 telephones; modern telecommunications system
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab microwave radio relay, coaxial cable, tropospheric scatter, and 14 domestic satellites
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 2 INTELSAT (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean) satellite earth stations; submarine cables to France and Italy; microwave radio relay to Tunisia and Egypt; tropospheric scatter to Greece; planned ARABSAT and Intersputnik satellite earth stations
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 17, FM 3, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 12
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 25,400 telephones; limited, but sufficient automatic telephone system
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab linked to Swiss networks by cable and radio relay
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM NA, FM NA, shortwave NA
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab linked to Swiss networks
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab linked to Swiss networks{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 900,000 telephones; 240 telephones/1,000 persons; telecommunications system ranks among the most modern of the former Soviet republics
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab land lines and microwave radio relay
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab international connections no longer depend on the Moscow gateway switch, but are established by satellite through Oslo from Vilnius and through Copenhagen from Kaunas; 1 EUTELSAT and 1 INTELSAT earth station; an NMT-450 analog cellular network operates in Vilnius and other cities and is linked internationally through Copenhagen by EUTELSAT; international electronic mail is available; land lines or microwave to former USSR republics
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 13, FM 26, shortwave 1, longwave 1
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 3
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 230,000 telephones; highly developed, completely automated and efficient system, mainly buried cables; nationwide mobile phone system
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab buried cable
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 3 channels leased on TAT-6 coaxial submarine cable
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 2, FM 3, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 3 and 1 direct-broadcast satellite link
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 52,000 telephones; fairly modern communication facilities maintained for domestic and international services
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab high-frequency radio communication facility; access to international communications carriers provided via Hong Kong and China; 1 INTELSAT (Indian Ocean) earth station
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 4, FM 3, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab 115,000
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 0; note - TV programs received from Hong Kong
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 125,000 telephones
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab no satellite links
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 6, FM 2, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab 370,000
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 5 (relays 2)
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab 325,000{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab NA telephones; above average system
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab open-wire lines, coaxial cables, microwave radio relay, and tropospheric scatter links
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab submarine cable to Bahrain; 1 earth station for Indian Ocean INTELSAT
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 17, FM 3, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 1 (repeaters 36)
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 42,250 telephones
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab fair system of open-wire lines, radio relay links, and radio communications stations
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 2 INTELSAT (1 Indian Ocean and 1 Atlantic Ocean ) earth stations
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 10, FM 17, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 0
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 994,860 telephones (1984); international service good
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab good intercity service provided on Peninsular Malaysia mainly by microwave radio relay; adequate intercity microwave radio relay network between Sabah and Sarawak via Brunei; 2 domestic satellite links
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab submarine cables extend to India and Sarawak; SEACOM submarine cable links to Hong Kong and Singapore; satellite earth stations - 2 INTELSAT (1 Indian Ocean and 1 Pacific Ocean)
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 28, FM 3, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 33
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 2,804 telephones; minimal domestic and international facilities
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 1 INTELSAT (Indian Ocean) earth station
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 2, FM 1, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 1
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 11,000 telephones; domestic system poor but improving; provides only minimal service
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab microwave radio relay, wire, and radio communications stations; expansion of microwave radio relay in progress
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 2 INTELSAT (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean) earth stations
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 2, FM 2, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 2
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 153,000 telephones; automatic system satisfies normal requirements
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab submarine cable and microwave radio relay between islands
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 1 submarine cable and 1 INTELSAT (Atlantic Ocean) earth station
\par \tab islands interconnected by shortwave radio (used mostly for government purposes)
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 2 INTELSAT (Pacific Ocean) earth stations; US Government satellite communications system on Kwajalein
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 1, FM 2, shortwave 1
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 1
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 68,900 telephones; domestic facilities are adequate
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab interisland microwave radio relay links to Guadeloupe, Dominica, and Saint Lucia; 2 INTELSAT (Atlantic Ocean) earth stations
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 1, FM 6, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 10
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab NA telephones; poor system of cable and open-wire lines, minor microwave radio relay links, and radio communications stations (improvements being made)
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab mostly cable and open wire lines
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 1 INTELSAT (Atlantic Ocean) and 2 ARABSAT earth stations, with six planned
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 2, FM 0, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 1
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab over 48,000 telephones; small system with good service
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab utilizes primarily microwave radio relay
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 1 INTELSAT (Indian Ocean) earth station; new microwave link to Reunion; high-frequency radio links to several countries
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 2, FM 0, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 4
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 6,410,000 telephones; highly developed system with extensive microwave radio relay links; privatized in December 1990
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab adequate phone service for business and government, but, at a density of less than 7 telephones/100 persons, the population is poorly served
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab includes 120 domestic satellite terminals and an extensive network of microwave radio relay links
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 5 INTELSAT (4 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Pacific Ocean) earth stations; connected into Central America Microwave System; launched Solidarity I satellite in November 1993
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 679, FM 0, shortwave 22
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 238
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 960 telephones on Kolonia and Truk
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab islands interconnected by shortwave radio (used mostly for government purposes
\par \tab 577,000 telephones; 134 telephones/1,000 persons; telecommunication system not well developed; 215,000 unsatisfied requests for telephone service (1991)
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab international connections to the other former Soviet republics by land line and microwave radio relay through Ukraine, and to other countries by leased connections to the Moscow international gateway switch; 1 EUTELSAT and 1 INTELSAT earth station
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM NA, FM NA, shortwave NA
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 38,200 telephones; automatic telephone system
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab no satellite links; served by cable into the French communications system
\par \tab good system composed of wire lines, cables, and microwave radio relay links; principal centers are Casablanca and Rabat; secondary centers are Fes, Marrakech, Oujda, Tangier, and Tetouan
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 5 submarine cables; 2 INTELSAT (Atlantic Ocean) and 1 ARABSAT earth station; microwave radio relay to Gibraltar, Spain, and Western Sahara; coaxial cable and microwave radio relay to Algeria; microwave radio relay network linking Syria, Jordan, Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 20, FM 7, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 26 (repeaters 26)
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab NA telephone density; fair system of troposcatter, open-wire lines, and radio relay
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab microwave radio relay and tropospheric scatter
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 5 INTELSAT (2 Atlantic Ocean and 3 Indian Ocean) earth stations
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 29, FM 4, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 1
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 62,800 telephones; telephone density - 38/1,000 persons
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab good urban services
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab fair rural service; microwave radio relay links major towns; connections to other populated places are by open wire
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab NA
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 4, FM 40, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 3
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 1,600 telephones; adequate local and international radio communications provided via Australian facilities
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 1 INTELSAT (Pacific Ocean) earth station
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 1, FM 0, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab 4,000
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 0
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 50,000 telephones (1990); poor telephone and telegraph service; fair radio communication service
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab international radio communication service is fair; 1 INTELSAT (Indian Ocean) earth station
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 88, FM 0, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 1
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 9,418,000 telephones; highly developed, well maintained, and integrated; extensive redundant system of multiconductor cables, supplemented by microwave radio relay links
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab nationwide mobile phone system
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab microwave radio relay
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 5 submarine cables; 3 INTELSAT (1 Indian Ocean and 2 Atlantic Ocean) and 1 EUTELSAT earth station
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 3 (relays 3), FM 12 (repeaters 39), shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 8 (repeaters 7)
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab NA telephones; generally adequate facilities
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab extensive interisland microwave radio relay links
\par \tab AM 46, FM 493 (350 private and 143 government), shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab 3.3 million
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 54 (repeaters 2,100)
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab 1.5 million{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 50,000 telephones; modern system consisting of open-wire, microwave, and radio communications stations; limited coaxial cable
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab open wire, microwave, radio communications, and 8 domestic satellite links
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 2 INTELSAT (Indian Ocean) and 1 ARABSAT earth station
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 2, FM 3, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 7
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab several submarine cables with network nodal points on Guam and Hawaii{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab NA telephones; about 7 telephones/1,000 persons; the domestic telephone system is poor, adequate only for government and business use; the system for international traffic is better
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab microwave radio relay
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 3 INTELSAT (1 Atlantic Ocean and 2 Indian Ocean) earth stations; microwave radio relay
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 19, FM 8, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 29
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab NA telephones
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 1 INTELSAT (Pacific Ocean) earth station
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 1, FM 1, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 2
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 220,000 telephones; domestic and international facilities well developed
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 1 coaxial submarine cable; 2 INTELSAT (Atlantic Ocean) earth stations; connected to the Central American Microwave System
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 91, FM 0, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 23
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab more than 70,000 telephones (1987); services are adequate and being improved; facilities provide radiobroadcast, radiotelephone and telegraph, coastal radio, aeronautical radio, and international radiocommunication services
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab mostly radio telephone
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab submarine cables extend to Australia and Guam; 1 INTELSAT (Pacific Ocean) earth station; international radio communication service
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 31, FM 2, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 2 (1987)
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 78,300 telephones; 16 telephones/1,000 persons; meager telephone service; principal switching center in Asuncion
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab fair microwave radio relay network
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 1 INTELSAT (Atlantic Ocean) earth station
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 40, FM 0, shortwave 7
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 5
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 544,000 telephones; fairly adequate for most requirements
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab nationwide microwave radio relay system and 12 domestic satellite links
\par \tab 872,900 telephones; good international radio and submarine cable services; domestic and interisland service adequate
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab 11 domestic satellite links
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab submarine cables extended to Hong Kong, Guam, Singapore, Taiwan, and Japan; 3 INTELSAT (1 Indian Ocean and 2 Pacific Ocean) earth stations
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 267 (including 6 US), FM 55, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 33 (including 4 US)
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 4.9 million telephones; 12.7 phones/100 residents (1994); severely underdeveloped and outmoded system; exchanges are 86% automatic (1991)
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab cable, open wire, and microwave
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab INTELSAT, EUTELSAT, INMARSAT, and Intersputnik earth stations
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 27, FM 27, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 40 (Russian repeaters 5)
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab 9.6 million{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 2,690,000 telephones
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab generally adequate integrated network of coaxial cables, open wire and microwave radio relay, domestic satellite earth stations
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 6 submarine cables; 3 INTELSAT (2 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean), EUTELSAT earth stations; tropospheric link to Azores
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 57, FM 66 (repeaters 22), shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 66 (repeaters 23)
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab NA telephones; modern system, integrated with that of the US by high capacity submarine cable and INTELSAT with high-speed data capability; digital telephone system with about 1 million lines; cellular telephone service (1990)
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 1 INTELSAT earth station and submarine cable
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 50, FM 63, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 9; note - cable television available with US programs (1990)
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 110,000 telephones; modern system centered in Doha
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab tropospheric scatter to Bahrain; microwave radio relay to Saudi Arabia and UAE; submarine cable to Bahrain and UAE; 2 INTELSAT (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean) and 1 ARABSAT earth station
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 2, FM 3, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 3
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 85,900 telephones; adequate system; principal center Saint-Denis
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab modern open-wire and microwave network
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab radiocommunication to Comoros, France, Madagascar; new microwave route to Mauritius; 1 INTELSAT (Indian Ocean) earth station
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 3, FM 13, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 1 (repeaters 18)
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab about 2.3 million telephones; 99 telephones/1,000 persons; 89% of phone network is automatic; poor service; cable and open wire
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab trunk network is microwave; roughly 3,300 villages with no service (February 1990)
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 1 INTELSAT earth station; new digital international direct dial exchanges are in Bucharest (1993)
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 12, FM 5, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 13 (1990)
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 24,400,000 telephones; 20,900,000 telephones in urban areas and 3,500,000 telephones in rural areas; of these, total installed in homes 15,400,000; total pay phones for long distant calls 34,100; about 164 telephones/1,000 persons; Russia is enlisting foreign help, by means of joint ventures, to speed up the modernization of its telecommunications system; in 1992, only 661,000 new telephones were installed compared with 855,000 in 1991, and in 1992 the number of unsatisfied applications for telephones reached 11,000,000; expanded access to international E-mail service available via Sprint network; the inadequacy of Russian telecommunications is a severe handicap to the economy, especially with respect to international connections
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NMT-450 analog cellular telephone networks are operational and growing in Moscow and St. Petersburg
\par \tab international traffic is handled by an inadequate system of satellites, land lines, microwave radio relay and outdated submarine cables; this traffic passes through the international gateway switch in Moscow which carries most of the international traffic for the other countries of the Commonwealth of Independent States; a new Russian Raduga satellite will link Moscow and St. Petersburg with Rome from whence calls will be relayed to destinations in Europe and overseas; satellite earth stations - INTELSAT, Intersputnik, Eutelsat (Moscow), INMARSAT, Orbita
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 1,050, FM 1,050, shortwave 1,050
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab 48.8 million (radio receivers with multiple speaker systems for program diffusion 74,300,000)
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 7,183
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab 54.2 million{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab NA telephones; telephone system does not provide service to the general public but is intended for business and government use
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab the capital, Kigali, is connected to the centers of the prefectures by microwave radio relay; the remainder of the network depends on wire and high frequency radio
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab international connections employ microwave radio relay to neighboring countries and satellite communications to more distant countries; 1 INTELSAT (Indian Ocean) and 1 SYMPHONIE earth station in Kigali (includes telex and telefax service)
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 1, FM 1, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 1
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 9,500 telephones
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab low density (6 telephones/100 persons) but the system is automatically switched
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab no intercity traffic
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab direct microwave link with Martinique and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines; interisland troposcatter link to Barbados
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 4, FM 1, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 1 cable
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 6,500 telephones; islandwide fully automatic telephone system
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab VHF/UHF interisland links from Saint Vincent to the other islands of the Grenadines
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab VHF/UHF interisland links from Saint Vincent to Barbados; new SHF links to Grenada and to Saint Lucia
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 2, FM 0, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 1 cable
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 11,700 telephones; automatic telephone system completely integrated into Italian system
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab microwave and cable links into Italian networks; no communication satellite facilities
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM NA, FM NA, shortwave NA
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab NA; note - receives broadcasts from Italy
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab NA; minimal system
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 1 Atlantic Ocean INTELSAT earth station
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 1, FM 2, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 0
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 1,624,000 telephones; modern system
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab extensive microwave and coaxial and fiber optic cable systems
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab microwave radio relay to Bahrain, Jordan, Kuwait, Qatar, UAE, Yemen, and Sudan; coaxial cable to Kuwait and Jordan; submarine cable to Djibouti, Egypt and Bahrain; earth stations - 5 INTELSAT (3 Atlantic Ocean and 2 Indian Ocean), 1 ARABSAT, and 1 INMARSAT
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 43, FM 13, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 80
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab NA telephones; above-average urban system
\par \tab 1 INTELSAT (Atlantic Ocean) earth station
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 26, FM 9, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab 2.015 million
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 18
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab 1 million{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 13,000 telephones; direct radio communications with adjacent islands and African coastal countries
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab radio communications
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 1 INTELSAT (Indian Ocean) earth station
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 2, FM 0, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 2
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 23,650 telephones; telephone density - 5 telephones/1,000 persons; marginal telephone and telegraph service
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab national microwave radio relay system made unserviceable by military activities
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 1 INTELSAT (Atlantic Ocean) earth station
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 1, FM 1, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 1
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 1,110,000 telephones; good domestic facilities; good international service; good radio and television broadcast coverage
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab submarine cables extend to Malaysia (Sabah and Peninsular Malaysia), Indonesia, and the Philippines; 2 INTELSAT (1 Indian Ocean and 1 Pacific Ocean) earth stations
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 13, FM 4, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 2
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab NA telephones
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab NA
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM NA, FM NA, shortwave NA
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 130,000 telephones
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab NA
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 6, FM 5, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab 370,000
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 7
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab 330,000{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 3,000 telephones
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 1 INTELSAT (Pacific Ocean) earth station
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 4, FM 0, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 0
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab NA telephones; the public telecommunications system was completely destroyed or dismantled by the civil war factions; all relief organizations depend on their own private systems (1993)
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab NA
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM NA, FM NA, shortwave NA
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab over 4,500,000 telephones; the system is the best developed, most modern, and has the highest capacity in Africa
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab consists of carrier-equipped open-wire lines, coaxial cables, microwave radio relay links, fiber optic cable, and radiocommunication stations; key centers are Bloemfontein, Cape Town, Durban, Johannesburg, Port Elizabeth, and Pretoria
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 1 submarine cable; 3 INTELSAT (1 Indian Ocean and 2 Atlantic Ocean) earth stations
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 14, FM 286, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 67
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 15,350,464 telephones; generally adequate, modern facilities
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 22 coaxial submarine cables; 2 earth stations for INTELSAT (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean); earth stations for working the EUTELSAT, INMARSAT, and MARECS satellite communications systems; microwave tropospheric scatter links to adjacent countries
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 190, FM 406 (repeaters 134), shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 100 (repeaters 1,297)
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 114,000 telephones (1982); very inadequate domestic service, good international service
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab submarine cables extend to Indonesia and Djibouti; 2 INTELSAT (Indian Ocean) earth stations
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 12, FM 5, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 5
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 2,400 telephones; good interisland VHF/UHF/SHF radio connections and international link via Antigua and Barbuda and Saint Martin
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab interisland links are handled by VHF/UHF/SHF radio; within the islands all calls are local
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab international calls are carried by radio to Antigua and Barbuda and there switched to submarine cable or to INTELSAT, or carried to Saint Martin by radio and switched to INTELSAT
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 2, FM 0, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 4
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab NA telephones; large, well-equipped system by African standards, but barely adequate and poorly maintained by modern standards
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab consists of microwave radio relay, cable, radio communications, troposcatter, and a domestic satellite system with 14 stations
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 1 INTELSAT (Atlantic Ocean) and 1 ARABSAT earth station
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 11, FM 0, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 3
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 27,500 telephones; international facilities good
\par \tab 17,000 telephones; telephone density is only 17.6 telephones/1,000 persons
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab system consists of carrier-equipped open-wire lines and low-capacity radio relay microwave links
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 1 INTELSAT (Atlantic Ocean) earth station
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 7, FM 6, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 10
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 8,200,000 telephones; excellent domestic and international facilities; automatic system
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab coaxial and multiconductor cable carry most voice traffic; parallel microwave network carries TV, radio, and some additional telephone channels
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 5 submarine coaxial cables; 1 INTELSAT (Atlantic Ocean) and 1 EUTELSAT earth station
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 5, FM 360 (mostly repeaters), shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab 7 million
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 880 (mostly repeaters)
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab 3.5 million{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 5,890,000 telephones; excellent domestic, international, and broadcast services
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab extensive cable and microwave networks
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 2 INTELSAT (Atlantic Ocean and Indian Ocean) earth stations
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 7, FM 265, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 18 (repeaters 1,322)
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 512,600 telephones; 37 telephones/1,000 persons; fair system currently undergoing significant improvement and digital upgrades, including fiber optic technology
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab coaxial cable and microwave radio relay network
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 1 INTELSAT (Indian Ocean) and 1 Intersputnik earth station; 1 submarine cable; coaxial cable and microwave radio relay to Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, and Turkey
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 9, FM 1, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 17
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 7,800,000 telephones; best developed system in Asia outside of Japan
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab extensive microwave radio relay links on east and west coasts
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 2 INTELSAT (1 Pacific Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean) earth stations; submarine cable links to Japan (Okinawa), Philippines, Guam, Singapore, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Australia, Middle East, and Western Europe
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 91, FM 23, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab 8.62 million
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 15 (repeaters 13)
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab 6.386 million (color 5,680,000, monochrome 706,000){\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 303,000 telephones (December 1991); about 55 telephones/1,000 persons (1991); poorly developed and not well maintained; many towns are not reached by the national network
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab cable and microwave radio relay
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab linked by cable and microwave to other CIS republics, and by leased connections to the Moscow international gateway switch; Dushanbe linked by INTELSAT to international gateway switch in Ankara; 1 Orbita and 2 INTELSAT earth stations
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM NA, FM NA, shortwave NA
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab 1 INTELSAT earth station provides TV receive-only service from Turkey{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 103,800 telephones; fair system operating below capacity
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab open wire, microwave radio relay, troposcatter
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 2 satellite earth stations - 1 Indian Ocean INTELSAT and 1 Atlantic Ocean INTELSAT
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 12, FM 4, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 2
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 739,500 telephones (1987); service to general public inadequate; bulk of service to government activities provided by multichannel cable and microwave radio relay network
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab microwave radio relay and multichannel cable; domestic satellite system being developed
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 2 INTELSAT (1 Indian Ocean and 1 Pacific Ocean) earth stations
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 200 (in government-controlled network), FM 100 (in government-controlled network), shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 11 (in government-controlled network)
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab NA
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM NA, FM NA, shortwave NA
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab NA telephones; fair system based on network of radio relay routes supplemented by open wire lines
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab microwave radio relay and open wire lines
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 1 Atlantic Ocean INTELSAT and 1 SYMPHONIE earth station
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 2, FM 0, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 3 (relays 2)
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 3,529 telephones
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 1 INTELSAT (Pacific Ocean) earth station
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 1, FM 0, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab 66,000
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 0
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 109,000 telephones; excellent international service via tropospheric scatter links to Barbados and Guyana; good local service
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 1 INTELSAT (Atlantic Ocean) earth station; linked to Barbados and Guyana by tropospheric scatter system
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 2, FM 4, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 5
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 233,000 telephones; 28 telephones/1,000 persons; the system is above the African average; key centers are Sfax, Sousse, Bizerte, and Tunis
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab facilities consist of open-wire lines, coaxial cable, and microwave radio relay
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 5 submarine cables; 1 INTELSAT (Atlantic Ocean) and 1 ARABSAT earth station with back-up control station; coaxial cable and microwave radio relay to Algeria and Libya
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 7, FM 8, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 19
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 3,400,000 telephones; fair domestic and international systems
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab trunk radio relay microwave network; limited open wire network
\par \tab NA telephones; only 7.5 telephones/100 persons (1991); poorly developed
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab linked by cable and microwave to other CIS republics and to other countries by leased connections to the Moscow international gateway switch; a new telephone link from Ashgabat to Iran has been established; a new exchange in Ashgabat switches international traffic through Turkey via INTELSAT; 1 Orbita and 1 INTELSAT earth station
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM NA, FM NA, shortwave NA
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 1,446 telephones; fair cable and radio services
\par \tab microwave and radio communications stations
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 1 INTELSAT (Atlantic Ocean) earth station
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 10, FM 0, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 9
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 7,886,000 telephone circuits; about 151.4 telephone circuits/1,000 persons (1991); the telephone system is inadequate both for business and for personal use; 3.56 million applications for telephones had not been satisfied as of January 1991; electronic mail services have been established in Kiev, Odesa, and Luhans'k by Sprint
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab an NMT-450 analog cellular telephone network operates in Kiev (Kyyiv) and allows direct dialing of international calls through Kiev's EWSD digital exchange
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab calls to other CIS countries are carried by land line or microwave; other international calls to 167 countries are carried by satellite or by the 150 leased lines through the Moscow gateway switch; INTELSAT, INMARSAT, and Intersputnik earth stations
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM NA, FM NA, shortwave NA
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab 15 million
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab 20 million{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 386,600 telephones; modern system consisting of microwave and coaxial cable; key centers are Abu Dhabi and Dubayy
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab microwave and coaxial cable
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 3 INTELSAT (1 Atlantic Ocean and 2 Indian Ocean) and 1 ARABSAT earth station; submarine cables to Qatar, Bahrain, India, and Pakistan; tropospheric scatter to Bahrain; microwave radio relay to Saudi Arabia
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 8, FM 3, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 12
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 30,200,000 telephones; technologically advanced domestic and international system
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab NA equal mix of buried cables, microwave and optical-fiber systems
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 40 coaxial submarine cables; 10 INTELSAT (7 Atlantic Ocean and 3 Indian Ocean), 1 INMARSAT, and 1 EUTELSAT earth satellite; at least 8 large international switching centers
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 225, FM 525 (mostly repeaters), shortwave 0
\par \tab 1,458,000 telephones; 63 telephones/1,000 persons (1995); poorly developed
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NMT-450 analog cellular network established in Tashkent
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab linked by landline or microwave with CIS member states and by leased connection via the Moscow international gateway switch to other countries; new INTELSAT links to Tokyo and Ankara give Uzbekistan international access independent of Russian facilities; Orbita and INTELSAT earth stations
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM NA, FM NA, shortwave NA
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 3,000 telephones
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 1 INTELSAT (Pacific Ocean) earth station
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 2, FM 0, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 0
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 2,000 telephones; automatic exchange
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab tied into Italian system
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab uses Italian system
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 3, FM 4, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 0
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 1,440,000 telephones; modern and expanding
\par \tab NA telephones; 2 telephones/1,000 persons; the inadequacies of the obsolete switching equipment and cable system are a serious constraint on the business sector and on economic growth, and restrict access to the international links that Vietnam has established with most major countries; the telephone system is not generally available for private use
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 3 satellite earth stations
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM NA, FM 228, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab 7 million (1991)
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 36 (repeaters 77)
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab 2.5 million (1991){\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 58,931 telephones; modern telephone system using fiber-optic cable, submarine cable, microwave radio, and satellite facilities
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab NA
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 4, FM 8, shortwave 0 (1988)
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab 98,000
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 4 (1988)
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab 63,000{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab NA telephones; note - 8% of Palestinian households have telephones (1992 est.)
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab Israeli company BEZEK is responsible for communication services in the West Bank
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 1, FM 0, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA; note - 82% of Palestinian households have radios (1992 est.)
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 0; note - 1 planned for Jericho
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA; note - 54% of Palestinian households have televisions (1992 est.){\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 2,000 telephones; sparse and limited system
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab tied into Morocco's system by microwave radio relay, troposcatter, and 2 INTELSAT (Atlantic Ocean) earth stations linked to Rabat, Morocco
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 2, FM 0, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 2
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 7,500 telephones
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 1 INTELSAT (Pacific Ocean) earth station
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 1, FM 0, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab 70,000
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 0
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 65,000 telephones; since unification in 1990, efforts are still being made to create a national domestic civil telecommunications network
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab the network consists of microwave radio relay, cable, and troposcatter
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 3 INTELSAT (2 Indian Ocean and 1 Atlantic Ocean), 1 Intersputnik, and 2 ARABSAT earth stations; microwave radio relay to Saudi Arabia and Djibouti
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 4, FM 1, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 10
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab NA telephones
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab NA barely adequate wire and microwave service in and between urban areas; 14 domestic earth stations
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 1 INTELSAT (Atlantic Ocean) earth station
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 10, FM 4, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 18
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab NA telephones; facilities are among the best in Sub-Saharan Africa
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab high capacity micrwave radio relay connects most larger towns and cities
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 2 INTELSAT earth stations (1 Indian Ocean and 1 Atlantic Ocean)
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 11, FM 5, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 9
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Telephone system}
\par \tab 247,000 telephones; system was once one of the best in Africa, but now suffers from poor maintenance
\par \tab {\b local}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b intercity}
\par \tab consists of microwave links, open-wire lines, and radio communications stations
\par \tab {\b international}
\par \tab 1 INTELSAT (Atlantic Ocean) earth station
{\b Radio}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab AM 8, FM 18, shortwave 0
\par \tab {\b radios}
\par \tab NA
{\b Television}
\par \tab {\b broadcast stations}
\par \tab 8
\par \tab {\b televisions}
\par \tab NA{\b Branches}
\par \tab the military still does not exist on a national scale; some elements of the former Army, Air and Air Defense Forces, National Guard, Border Guard Forces, National Police Force (Sarandoi), and tribal militias still exist but are factionalized among the various mujahedin and former regime leaders
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 5,646,789; males fit for military service 3,011,777; males reach military age (22) annually 200,264 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $450 million, 15% of GDP (1990 est.); the new government has not yet adopted a defense budget{\b Branches}
\par \tab Army, Navy, Air and Air Defense Forces, Interior Ministry Troops, Border Guards
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 919,085; males fit for military service 755,574; males reach military age (19) annually 33,323 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab 330 million leke, NA% of GNP (1993); note - conversion of defense expenditures into US dollars using the current exchange rate could produce misleading results{\b Branches}
\par \tab National Popular Army, Navy, Air Force, Territorial Air Defense, National Gendarmerie
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 7,124,894; males fit for military service 4,373,272; males reach military age (19) annually 313,707 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $1.3 billion, 2.7% of GDP (1994){\b Note}
\par \tab defense is the responsibility of France and Spain{\b Branches}
\par \tab Army, Navy, Air and Air Defense Forces, National Police Force
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 2,315,717; males fit for military service 1,166,082; males reach military age (18) annually 100,273 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $1.1 billion, 31% of GDP (1993){\b Note}
\par \tab defense is the responsibility of the UK{\b Note}
\par \tab the Antarctic Treaty prohibits any measures of a military nature, such as the establishment of military bases and fortifications, the carrying out of military maneuvers, or the testing of any type of weapon; it permits the use of military personnel or equipment for scientific research or for any other peaceful purposes{\b Branches}
\par \tab Royal Antigua and Barbuda Defense Force, Royal Antigua and Barbuda Police Force (includes the Coast Guard)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $1.4 million, 1% of GDP (FY90/91){\b Branches}
\par \tab Argentine Army, Navy of the Argentine Republic, Argentine Air Force, National Gendarmerie, Argentine Naval Prefecture (Coast Guard only), National Aeronautical Police Force
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 8,573,780; males fit for military service 6,954,584; males reach military age (20) annually 301,166 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab $NA, NA% of GDP{\b Branches}
\par \tab Army, Air and Air Defense Forces, National Guard, Security Forces (internal and border troops)
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 877,414; males fit for military service 699,167; males reach military age (18) annually 28,634 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab 250 million rubles, NA% of GDP (1992 est.); note - conversion of the military budget into US dollars using the current exchange rate could produce misleading results{\b Note}
\par \tab defense is the responsibility of the Netherlands{\b Branches}
\par \tab Australian Army, Royal Australian Navy, Royal Australian Air Force
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 4,934,175; males fit for military service 4,274,900; males reach military age (17) annually 131,852 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $7.2 billion, 2.2% of GDP (FY94/95){\b Branches}
\par \tab Army (includes Flying Division)
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 2,026,567; males fit for military service 1,695,879; males reach military age (19) annually 46,821 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - about $1.8 billion, 0.9% of GDP (1994){\b Branches}
\par \tab Army, Air Force, Navy, Maritime Border Guard, National Guard, Security Forces (internal and border troops)
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 1,927,955; males fit for military service 1,553,736; males reach military age (18) annually 68,407 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab 70.5 billion rubles, 10% of GDP (1993 budget allocation); note - conversion of the military budget into US dollars using the current exchange rate could produce misleading results{\b Branches}
\par \tab Royal Bahamas Defense Force (Coast Guard only), Royal Bahamas Police Force
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $65 million, 2.7% of GDP (1990){\b Branches}
\par \tab Army, Navy, Air Force, Air Defense, Coast Guard, Police Force
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 210,725; males fit for military service 117,414; males reach military age (15) annually 4,346 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $247 million, 5.5% of GDP (1994){\b Branches}
\par \tab Army, Navy, Air Force
\par \tab {\b paramilitary forces}
\par \tab Bangladesh Rifles, Bangladesh Ansars, Armed Police Reserve, Village Defense Parties, National Cadet Corps
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 33,039,035; males fit for military service 19,607,817 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $448 million, 1.7% of GDP (FY93/94){\b Branches}
\par \tab Royal Barbados Defense Force (includes the Ground Forces and Coast Guard), Royal Barbados Police Force
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 71,153; males fit for military service 49,488 (1995 est.)
\par \tab Army, Air Force, Air Defense Force, Republic Security Forces (internal and border troops)
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 2,550,500; males fit for military service 1,999,138; males reach military age (18) annually 71,808 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab 56.5 billion rubles, NA% of GDP (1993 est.); note - conversion of the military budget into US dollars using the current exchange rate could produce misleading results{\b Branches}
\par \tab Army, Navy, Air Force, National Gendarmerie
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 2,559,077; males fit for military service 2,126,875; males reach military age (19) annually 61,488 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $3.9 billion, 1.8% of GDP (1994){\b Branches}
\par \tab Belize Defense Force (includes Army, Navy, Air Force, and Volunteer Guard), Belize National Police
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 50,499; males fit for military service 30,040; males reach military age (18) annually 2,285 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $11 million, 2.2% of GDP (FY93/94){\b Branches}
\par \tab Armed Forces (includes Army, Navy, Air Force), National Gendarmerie
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 1,165,463; females age 15-49 1,249,234; males fit for military service 596,956; females fit for military service 631,780; males reach military age (18) annually 60,282 (1995 est.); females reach military age (18) annually 58,770 (1995 est.)
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab both sexes are liable for miltary service
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $33 million, 3.2% of GDP (1994){\b Branches}
\par \tab defense is the responsibility of the UK{\b Branches}
\par \tab Royal Bhutan Army, Palace Guard, Militia, Royal Bhutan Police
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 434,586; males fit for military service 232,121; males reach military age (18) annually 17,365 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab $NA, NA% of GDP{\b Branches}
\par \tab Army (Ejercito Boliviano), Navy (Fuerza Naval Boliviana, includes Marines), Air Force (Fuerza Aerea Boliviana), National Police Force (Policia Nacional de Bolivia)
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 1,885,485; males fit for military service 1,226,218; males reach military age (19) annually 81,065 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $134 million; 1.9% of GDP (1994){\b Branches}
\par \tab Army
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 815,055; males fit for military service 657,454; males reach military age (19) annually 38,201 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab $NA, NA% of GDP{\b Branches}
\par \tab Botswana Defense Force (includes Army and Air Wing), Botswana National Police
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 306,878; males fit for military service 161,376; males reach military age (18) annually 15,403 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $198 million, 5.2% of GDP (FY93/94){\b Branches}
\par \tab Brazilian Army, Brazilian Navy (includes Marines), Brazilian Air Force, Federal Police (paramilitary)
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 44,301,765; males fit for military service 29,815,576; males reach military age (18) annually 1,703,438 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $5.0 billion, 0.9% of GDP (1994){\b Note}
\par \tab defense is the responsibility of the UK{\b Branches}
\par \tab Land Forces, Navy, Air Force, Royal Brunei Police
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 81,560; males fit for military service 47,403; males reach military age (18) annually 2,835 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $312 million, 6.2% of GDP (1994){\b Branches}
\par \tab Army, Navy, Air and Air Defense Forces, Border Troops, Internal Troops
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 2,171,414; males fit for military service 1,810,989; males reach military age (19) annually 69,200 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab 13 billion leva, NA% of GDP (1994 est.); note - conversion of defense expenditures into US dollars using the current exchange rate could produce misleading results{\b Branches}
\par \tab Army, Air Force, National Gendarmerie, National Police, People's Militia
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 2,081,999; males fit for military service 1,065,605 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $104 million, 6.4% of GDP (1994){\b Branches}
\par \tab Army, Navy, Air Force
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 11,553,094; females age 15-49 11,463,189; males fit for military service 6,180,091; females fit for military service 6,116,421; males reach military age (18) annually 457,445 (1995 est.); females reach military age (18) annually 441,628 (1995 est.)
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab both sexes liable for military service
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab $NA, NA% of GDP{\b Branches}
\par \tab Army (includes naval and air units), paramilitary Gendarmerie
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 1,350,042; males fit for military service 705,864; males reach military age (16) annually 73,308 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $25 million, 2.6% of GDP (1993){\b Branches}
\par \tab {\b Khmer Royal Armed Forces (KRAF)}
\par \tab created in 1993 by the merger of the Cambodian People's Armed Forces and the two non-Communist resistance armies; note - the KRAF is also known as the Royal Cambodian Armed Forces (RCAF)
\par \tab {\b Resistance forces}
\par \tab National Army of Democratic Kampuchea (Khmer Rouge)
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 2,255,050; males fit for military service 1,256,632; males reach military age (18) annually 70,707 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $85 million, 1.4% of GDP (1995 est.){\b Branches}
\par \tab Army, Navy (includes Naval Infantry), Air Force, National Gendarmerie, Presidential Guard
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 3,038,007; males fit for military service 1,532,303; males reach military age (18) annually 147,293 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $102 million, NA% of GDP (1994){\b Branches}
\par \tab Canadian Armed Forces (includes Land Forces Command or LC, Maritime Command or MC, Air Command or AC, Communications Command or CC, Training Command or TC), Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP)
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 7,570,877; males fit for military service 6,522,092; males reach military age (17) annually 151,590 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $9.0 billion, 1.6% of GDP (FY95/96){\b Branches}
\par \tab People's Revolutionary Armed Forces (FARP; includes Army and Navy), Security Service
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 80,867; males fit for military service 47,225 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $3.4 million, NA% of GDP (1994){\b Branches}
\par \tab Royal Cayman Islands Police Force (RCIPF)
{\b Note}
\par \tab defense is the responsibility of the UK{\b Branches}
\par \tab Central African Army (includes Republican Guard), Air Force, National Gendarmerie, Police Force
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 718,487; males fit for military service 375,950 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $30 million, 2.3% of GDP (1994){\b Branches}
\par \tab Armed Forces (includes Ground Force, Air Force, and Gendarmerie), Republican Guard, Police
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 1,307,210; males fit for military service 679,640; males reach military age (20) annually 54,945 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $74 million, 11.1% of GDP (1994){\b Branches}
\par \tab Army of the Nation, National Navy (includes Naval Air, Coast Guard, and Marines), Air Force of the Nation, Carabineros of Chile (National Police), Investigations Police
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 3,758,770; males fit for military service 2,796,740; males reach military age (19) annually 121,831 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $1 billion, 3.4% of GDP (1991 est.){\b Branches}
\par \tab People's Liberation Army (PLA), which includes the Ground Forces, Navy (includes Marines and Naval Aviation), Air Force, Second Artillery Corps (the strategic missile force), People's Armed Police (internal security troops, nominally subordinate to Ministry of Public Security, but included by the Chinese as part of the "armed forces" and considered to be an adjunct to the PLA in war time)
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 351,330,411; males fit for military service 194,286,619; males reach military age (18) annually 9,841,658 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab defense budget - 63.09 billion yuan, NA% of GDP (1995 est.); note - conversion of the defense budget into US dollars using the current exchange rate could produce misleading results{\b Branches}
\par \tab Army (Ejercito Nacional), Navy (Armada Nacional, includes Marines and Coast Guard), Air Force (Fuerza Aerea Colombiana), National Police (Policia Nacional)
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 9,851,980; males fit for military service 6,640,348; males reach military age (18) annually 349,599 (1995 est.)
\par \tab males age 15-49 117,349; males fit for military service 70,178 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab $NA, NA% of GDP{\b Branches}
\par \tab Army, Navy (includes Marines), Air Force, National Police
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 568,663; males fit for military service 289,335; males reach military age (20) annually 24,749 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $110 million, 3.8% of GDP (1993){\b Branches}
\par \tab Civil Guard, Coast Guard, Air Section, Rural Assistance Guard; note - the Constitution prohibits armed forces
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 896,516; males fit for military service 602,785; males reach military age (18) annually 32,815 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $22 million, 0.5% of GDP (1989){\b Branches}
\par \tab Army, Navy, Air Force, paramilitary Gendarmerie, Presidential Guard, Military Fire Group
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 3,318,314; males fit for military service 1,724,020; males reach military age (18) annually 154,120 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $140 million, 1.4% of GDP (1993){\b Branches}
\par \tab Ground Forces, Naval Forces, Air and Air Defense Forces, Frontier Guard, Home Guard
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 1,183,184; males fit for military service 943,749; males reach military age (19) annually 32,831 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab 337 billion to 393 billion dinars, NA% of GDP (1993 est.); note - conversion of defense expenditures into US dollars using the current exchange rate could produce misleading results{\b Branches}
\par \tab Revolutionary Armed Forces (FAR) includes ground forces, Revolutionary Navy (MGR), Air and Air Defense Force (DAAFAR), Territorial Militia Troops (MTT), and Youth Labor Army (EJT); Interior Ministry Border Guards (TGF),
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 3,065,751; females age 15-49 3,023,997; males fit for military service 1,909,901; females fit for military service 1,878,768; males reach military age (17) annually 72,582; females reach military age (17) annually 69,361 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - approx. $600 million, 4% of GSP (gross social product) in 1994 was for defense
{\b Note}
\par \tab Moscow, for decades the key military supporter and supplier of Cuba, cut off military aid by 1993{\b Branches}
\par \tab {\b Greek area}
\par \tab Greek Cypriot National Guard (GCNG; includes air and naval elements), Greek Cypriot Police
\par \tab {\b Turkish area}
\par \tab Turkish Cypriot Security Force
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 188,231; males fit for military service 129,397; males reach military age (18) annually 5,467 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $457 million, 5.6% of GDP (1995){\b Branches}
\par \tab Army, Air and Air Defense Forces, Civil Defense, Railroad Units
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 2,753,301; males fit for military service 2,095,661; males reach military age (18) annually 91,177 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab 27 billion koruny, NA% of GNP (1994 est.); note - conversion of defense expenditures into US dollars using the current exchange rate could produce misleading results{\b Branches}
\par \tab Royal Danish Army, Royal Danish Navy, Royal Danish Air Force, Home Guard
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 1,347,774; males fit for military service 1,158,223; males reach military age (20) annually 36,191 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $2.7 billion, 1.9% of GDP (1994){\b Branches}
\par \tab Djibouti National Army (includes Navy and Air Force), National Security Force (Force Nationale de Securite), National Police Force
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 101,385; males fit for military service 59,337 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $26 million, NA% of GDP (1989){\b Branches}
\par \tab Commonwealth of Dominica Police Force (includes Special Service Unit, Coast Guard)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab $NA, NA% of GDP{\b Branches}
\par \tab Army, Navy, Air Force, National Police
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 2,008,597; males fit for military service 1,266,812; males reach military age (18) annually 79,769 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $116 million, 1.4% of GDP (1994){\b Branches}
\par \tab Army (Ejercito Ecuatoriano), Navy (Armada Ecuatoriana, includes Marines), Air Force (Fuerza Aerea Ecuatoriana), National Police
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 2,814,867; males fit for military service 1,903,979; males reach military age (20) annually 113,985 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab $NA, NA% of GDP{\b Branches}
\par \tab Army, Navy, Air Force, Air Defense Command
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 16,113,413; males fit for military service 10,455,955; males reach military age (20) annually 648,724 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $3.5 billion, 8.2% of total government budget (FY94/95){\b Branches}
\par \tab Army, Navy, Air Force
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 1,393,480; males fit for military service 892,958; males reach military age (18) annually 77,562 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $103 million, 0.7% of GDP (1994); $91.9 million, less than 1% of GDP (1995 est.){\b Branches}
\par \tab Army, Navy, Air Force, Rapid Intervention Force, National Police
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 89,752; males fit for military service 45,611 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $2.5 million, NA% of GDP (FY93/94){\b Branches}
\par \tab Eritrean People's Liberation Front (EPLF)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab $NA, NA% of GDP{\b Branches}
\par \tab Ground Forces, Navy, Air and Air Defense Force (not officially sanctioned), Maritime Border Guard, Volunteer Defense League (Kaitseliit), Security Forces (internal and border troops), Coast Guard
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 396,588; males fit for military service 311,838; males reach military age (18) annually 11,915 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $34.1 million, almost 5% of the overall State budget and 1.5% of GDP (1995){\b Branches}
\par \tab Transitional Government of Ethiopia Forces, Air Force, Police
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 12,658,084; males fit for military service 6,569,759; males reach military age (18) annually 565,976 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $140 million, 4.1% of GDP (FY94/95){\b Branches}
\par \tab British Forces Falkland Islands (includes Army, Royal Air Force, Royal Navy, and Royal Marines), Police Force
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab $NA, NA% of GDP
{\b Note}
\par \tab defense is the responsibility of the UK{\b Branches}
\par \tab Republic of Fiji Military Forces (RFMF; includes army, navy, and air elements)
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 201,441; males fit for military service 111,046; males reach military age (18) annually 8,466 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $22.4 million, about 2% of GDP (FY91/92){\b Branches}
\par \tab males age 15-49 3,975,767; males fit for military service 2,217,032; males reach military age (18) annually 170,723 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $108 million, 1.5% of GDP (1993){\b Branches}
\par \tab British Army, Royal Navy, Royal Air Force
{\b Note}
\par \tab defense is the responsibility of the UK{\b Branches}
\par \tab Hellenic Army, Hellenic Navy, Hellenic Air Force, National Guard, Police
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 2,676,152; males fit for military service 2,046,996; males reach military age (21) annually 75,857 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $4.1 billion, 5.4% of GDP (1994){\b Note}
\par \tab defense is responsibility of Denmark{\b Branches}
\par \tab Royal Grenada Police Force, Coast Guard
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab $NA, NA% of GDP{\b Branches}
\par \tab French Forces, Gendarmerie
{\b Note}
\par \tab defense is responsibility of France{\b Note}
\par \tab defense is the responsibility of the US{\b Branches}
\par \tab Army, Navy, Air Force
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 2,574,501; males fit for military service 1,683,028; males reach military age (18) annually 123,715 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $121 million, 1% of GDP (1993){\b Branches}
\par \tab Army, Navy (acts primarily as a coast guard), Air Force, Republican Guard, Presidential Guard, paramilitary National Gendarmerie, National Police Force (Surete National)
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 1,478,653; males fit for military service 745,990 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $50 million, 1.6% of GDP (1994){\b Branches}
\par \tab People's Revolutionary Armed Force (FARP; includes Army, Navy, and Air Force), paramilitary force
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 251,636; males fit for military service 143,694 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $9 million, 4.5% of GDP (1994){\b Branches}
\par \tab Guyana Defense Force (GDF; includes Ground Forces, Coast Guard, and Air Corps), Guyana People's Militia (GPM), Guyana National Service (GNS)
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 198,665; males fit for military service 150,573 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab $NA, NA% of GDP{\b Branches}
\par \tab Army, Navy, Air Force, Police
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab the regular Haitian Army, Navy and Air Force are currently suspended and replaced by the Interim Public Security Force (IPSF)
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 1,323,034; males fit for military service 716,233; males reach military age (18) annually 64,371 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $34 million, 1.5% of GDP (1988 est.){\b Branches}
\par \tab Army, Navy (includes Marines), Air Force, Public Security Forces (FUSEP)
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 1,275,670; males fit for military service 760,113; males reach military age (18) annually 62,405 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $41 million, about 0.4% of GDP (1994){\b Branches}
\par \tab Headquarters of British Forces, Army, Royal Navy, Royal Air Force, Royal Hong Kong Auxiliary Air Force, Royal Hong Kong Police Force
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 1,634,559; males fit for military service 1,245,905; males reach military age (18) annually 40,996 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $207 million, 0.2% of GDP (FY92/93); this represents 65% of the total cost of defending the colony, the remainder being paid by the UK
{\b Note}
\par \tab defense is the responsibility of the UK{\b Branches}
\par \tab Ground Forces, Air and Air Defense Forces, Border Guard, Territorial Defense
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 2,639,860; males fit for military service 2,105,632; males reach military age (18) annually 86,298 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab 66.5 billion forints, NA% of GDP (1994 est.); note - conversion of defense expenditures into US dollars using the prevailing exchange rate could produce misleading results{\b Branches}
\par \tab no regular armed forces; Police, Coast Guard; note - Iceland's defense is provided by the US-manned Icelandic Defense Force (IDF) headquartered at Keflavik
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 70,743; males fit for military service 62,698 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab none{\b Branches}
\par \tab Army, Navy, Air Force, various security or paramilitary forces (includes Border Security Force, Assam Rifles, and Coast Guard)
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 253,134,487; males fit for military service 148,814,104; males reach military age (17) annually 9,461,907 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $7.8 billion, 2.8% of GDP (FY94/95){\b Branches}
\par \tab Army, Navy, Air Force, National Police
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 55,883,688; males fit for military service 32,952,204; males reach military age (18) annually 2,247,586 (1995 est.)
\par \tab Islamic Republic of Iran Ground Forces, Navy, Air and Air Defense Force, Revolutionary Guards (includes Basij militia with its ground, air, and naval forces), Law Enforcement Forces
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 14,639,290; males fit for military service 8,703,732; males reach military age (21) annually 615,096 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab according to official Iranian data, Iran spent 1,785 billion rials, including $808 million in hard currency, in 1992 and budgeted 2,507 billion rials, including $850 million in hard currency, for 1993
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab conversion of rial expenditures into US dollars using the current exchange rate could produce misleading results{\b Branches}
\par \tab Army, Republican Guard and Special Republican Guard, Navy, Air Force, Air Defense Force, Border Guard Force, Internal Security Forces
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 4,626,610; males fit for military service 2,597,687; males reach military age (18) annually 229,015 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab $NA, NA% of GNP{\b Branches}
\par \tab Army (includes Naval Service and Air Corps), National Police (Garda Siochana)
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 926,831; males fit for military service 749,646; males reach military age (17) annually 34,215 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $500 million, 1.3% of GDP (1994){\b Branches}
\par \tab Israel Defense Forces (includes ground, naval, and air components), Pioneer Fighting Youth (Nahal), Frontier Guard, Chen (women); note - historically there have been no separate Israeli military services
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 1,309,502; females age 15-49 1,283,923; males fit for military service 1,072,501; females fit for military service 1,047,575; males reach military age (18) annually 47,950; females reach military age (18) annually 45,839 (1995 est.)
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab military service mandatory for men and women
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $6.5 billion, about 10% of GDP (1995){\b Branches}
\par \tab Army, Navy, Air Force, Carabinieri
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 14,934,657; males fit for military service 12,962,594; males reach military age (18) annually 382,142 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $21.5 billion, 2% of GDP (1994){\b Branches}
\par \tab Jamaica Defense Force (includes Ground Forces, Coast Guard and Air Wing), Jamaica Constabulary Force
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 670,958; males fit for military service 475,235; males reach military age (18) annually 26,244 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $19.3 million, 1% of GDP (FY91/92){\b Branches}
\par \tab Japan Ground Self-Defense Force (Army), Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force (Navy), Japan Air Self-Defense Force (Air Force)
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 31,947,532; males fit for military service 27,494,758; males reach military age (18) annually 910,970 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $47.2 billion, 1% of GDP (FY95/96){\b Branches}
\par \tab Jordanian Armed Forces (JAF; includes Royal Jordanian Land Force, Royal Naval Force, and Royal Jordanian Air Force); Ministry of the Interior's Public Security Force (falls under JAF only in wartime or crisis situations)
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 981,004; males fit for military service 699,891; males reach military age (18) annually 45,494 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $564.2 million, 9.1% of GDP (1995 est.){\b Branches}
\par \tab Army, Republic National Guard, Republic Security Forces (internal and border troops)
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 4,513,089; males fit for military service 3,605,584; males reach military age (18) annually 154,280 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab 69.3 billion rubles, NA% of GDP (forecast for 1993); note - conversion of the military budget into US dollars using the current exchange rate could produce misleading results{\b Branches}
\par \tab Army, Navy, Air Force, paramilitary General Service Unit of the Police
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 6,358,344; males fit for military service 3,932,506 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $136 million, 1.9% of GDP (FY93/94){\b Branches}
\par \tab Police Force (carries out law enforcement functions and paramilitary duties; there are small police posts on all islands); no military force is maintained
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab $NA, NA% of GDP{\b Branches}
\par \tab Korean People's Army (includes Army, Navy, Air Force), Civil Security Forces
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 6,753,400; males fit for military service 4,094,854; males reach military age (18) annually 193,480 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - about $5 billion, 20%-25% of GDP (1991 est.); note - the officially announced but suspect figure is $2.2 billion (1994), about 12% of total spending{\b Branches}
\par \tab Army, Navy, Air Force, Marine Corps, National Maritime Police (Coast Guard)
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 13,580,832; males fit for military service 8,701,742; males reach military age (18) annually 405,290 (1995 est.)
\par \tab Army, Navy, Air Force, National Police Force, National Guard
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 610,205; males fit for military service 363,735; males reach military age (18) annually 16,170 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $3.4 billion, 13.3% of GDP (1995){\b Branches}
\par \tab National Guard, Security Forces (internal and border troops), Civil Defense
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 1,154,683; males fit for military service 934,167; males reach military age (18) annually 44,526 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab $NA, NA% of GDP{\b Branches}
\par \tab Lao People's Army (LPA; includes riverine naval and militia elements), Air Force, National Police Department
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 1,051,105; males fit for military service 567,017; males reach military age (18) annually 51,437 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $105 million, 8.1% of GDP (FY92/93){\b Branches}
\par \tab Ground Forces, Navy, Air and Air Defense Forces, Security Forces (internal and border troops), Border Guard, Home Guard (Zemessardze)
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 658,193; males fit for military service 517,896; males reach military age (18) annually 18,736 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab 176 million rubles, 3% to 5% of GDP (1994); note - conversion of the military budget into US dollars using the prevailing exchange rate could produce misleading results{\b Branches}
\par \tab Lebanese Armed Forces (LAF; includes Army, Navy, and Air Force)
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 857,698; males fit for military service 533,640 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $278 million, 5.5% of GDP (1994){\b Branches}
\par \tab Lesotho Defense Force (LDF; includes Army and Air Wing), Lesotho Mounted Police
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 453,844; males fit for military service 244,767 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $25 million, NA% of GDP (1994){\b Branches}
\par \tab NA; the ultimate structure of the Liberian military force will depend on who is the victor in the ongoing civil war
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 732,063; males fit for military service 390,849 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $30 million, 2% of GDP (1994){\b Branches}
\par \tab Armed Peoples of the Libyan Arab Jamahiriyah (includes Army, Navy, and Air and Air Defense Command), Police
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 1,131,175; males fit for military service 672,571; males reach military age (17) annually 54,676 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $1.4 billion, 6.1% of GDP (1994 est.){\b Note}
\par \tab defense is responsibility of Switzerland{\b Branches}
\par \tab Ground Forces, Navy, Air and Air Defense Force, Security Forces (internal and border troops), National Guard (Skat)
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 949,663; males fit for military service 750,386; males reach military age (18) annually 27,630 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $30 million, 2% of GDP (1994); note - for 1995 defense expenditures were $54 million at exchange rate conversion{\b Branches}
\par \tab Army, National Gendarmerie
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 103,990; males fit for military service 85,912; males reach military age (19) annually 2,190 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $129 million, 1.2% of GDP (1994){\b Branches}
\par \tab NA
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 141,160; males fit for military service 78,578 (1995 est.)
{\b Note}
\par \tab defense is responsibility of Portugal{\b Branches}
\par \tab Army, Police Force
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 585,403; males fit for military service 474,467; males reach military age (19) annually 19,693 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab 7 billion denars, NA% of GNP (1993 est.); note - conversion of the military budget into US dollars using the prevailing exchange rate could produce misleading results{\b Branches}
\par \tab Popular Armed Forces (includes Intervention Forces, Development Forces, Aeronaval Forces - includes Navy and Air Force), Gendarmerie, Presidential Security Regiment
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 3,027,156; males fit for military service 1,800,127; males reach military age (20) annually 130,071 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $35 million, 1.3% of GDP (1991){\b Branches}
\par \tab Army (includes Air Wing and Naval Detachment), Police (includes paramilitary Mobile Force Unit), paramilitary Malawi Young Pioneers
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 2,069,302; males fit for military service 1,056,372 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $13 million, 0.7% of GDP (FY93/94){\b Branches}
\par \tab Malaysian Army, Royal Malaysian Navy, Royal Malaysian Air Force, Royal Malaysian Police Force, Marine Police, Sarawak Border Scouts
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 5,041,003; males fit for military service 3,058,445; males reach military age (21) annually 183,760 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $2.1 billion, 2.9% of GDP (1994){\b Branches}
\par \tab National Security Service (paramilitary police force)
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 57,172; males fit for military service 31,911 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab $NA, NA% of GDP{\b Branches}
\par \tab Army, Air Force, Gendarmerie, Republican Guard, National Guard, National Police (Surete Nationale)
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 1,861,977; males fit for military service 1,062,916 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $66 million, 2.2% of GDP (1994){\b Branches}
\par \tab Armed Forces, Maltese Police Force
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 98,525; males fit for military service 78,305 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $21.4 million, about 0.9% of GDP (FY92/93){\b Branches}
\par \tab no regular military forces; Police
{\b Note}
\par \tab defense is the responsibility of the US{\b Branches}
\par \tab French forces (Army, Navy, Air Force), Gendarmerie
{\b Note}
\par \tab defense is the responsibility of France{\b Branches}
\par \tab Army, Navy, Air Force, National Gendarmerie, National Guard, National Police, Presidential Guard
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 483,916; males fit for military service 236,323
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $36 million, 2.7% of GDP (1994){\b Branches}
\par \tab National Police Force (includes the paramilitary Special Mobile Force or SMF, Special Support Units or SSU, and National Coast Guard)
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 321,947; males fit for military service 163,904 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $11.2 million, 0.4% of GDP (FY92/93){\b Branches}
\par \tab National Defense (includes Army and Air Force), Navy (includes Marines)
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 23,354,445; males fit for military service 17,029,788; males reach military age (18) annually 1,054,513 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab $NA, NA% of GDP{\b Note}
\par \tab defense is the responsibility of the US{\b Branches}
\par \tab Ground Forces, Air and Air Defense Forces, Republic Security Forces (internal and border troops)
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 1,116,912; males fit for military service 881,642; males reach military age (18) annually 35,447 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab $NA, 2% of GDP (1994){\b Note}
\par \tab defense is the responsibility of France{\b Branches}
\par \tab Mongolian People's Army (includes Internal Security Forces and Frontier Guards), Air Force
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 605,633; males fit for military service 394,433; males reach military age (18) annually 25,862 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $22.8 million, 1% of GDP (1992){\b Branches}
\par \tab Police Force
{\b Note}
\par \tab defense is the responsibility of the UK{\b Branches}
\par \tab Royal Moroccan Army, Royal Moroccan Navy, Royal Moroccan Air Force, Royal Gendarmerie, Auxiliary Forces
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 7,307,076; males fit for military service 4,637,453; males reach military age (18) annually 323,921 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $1.3 billion, 3.8% of GDP (1994){\b Branches}
\par \tab Army, Naval Command, Air and Air Defense Forces, Militia; note - by late 1994, the army and former RENAMO rebels had demobilized; under UN supervision and training, recruits from both the army and rebel forces joined an integrated force that is still forming
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 4,061,109; males fit for military service 2,331,793 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $110 million, 7.3% of GDP (1993){\b Branches}
\par \tab National Defense Force (Army), Police
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 348,380; males fit for military service 206,684 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $54 million, 2% of GDP (FY93/94){\b Branches}
\par \tab no regular armed forces; Directorate of the Nauru Police Force
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab $NA; note - no formal defense structure{\b Branches}
\par \tab Royal Nepalese Army, Royal Nepalese Army Air Service, Nepalese Police Force
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 5,163,703; males fit for military service 2,682,284; males reach military age (17) annually 247,978 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $36 million, 1.2% of GDP (FY92/93){\b Branches}
\par \tab Royal Netherlands Army, Royal Netherlands Navy (includes Naval Air Service and Marine Corps), Royal Netherlands Air Force, Royal Constabulary
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 4,177,555; males fit for military service 3,656,529; males reach military age (20) annually 94,771 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $7.1 billion, 2.2% of GDP (1994){\b Branches}
\par \tab Royal Netherlands Navy, Marine Corps, Royal Netherlands Air Force, National Guard, Police Force
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 56,058; males fit for military service 31,558; males reach military age (20) annually 1,734 (1995 est.)
{\b Note}
\par \tab defense is responsibility of the Netherlands{\b Branches}
\par \tab French Armed Forces (Army, Navy, Air Force, Gendarmerie); Police Force
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab $NA, NA% of GDP
{\b Note}
\par \tab defense is the responsibility of France{\b Branches}
\par \tab New Zealand Army, Royal New Zealand Navy, Royal New Zealand Air Force
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 883,668; males fit for military service 742,871; males reach military age (20) annually 27,162 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $792 million, 2% of GDP (FY90/91){\b Branches}
\par \tab Ground Forces, Navy, Air Force
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab total strength of all branches - 14,500
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 982,345; males fit for military service 604,721; males reach military age (18) annually 47,064 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $32 million, 1.7% of GDP (1994), 8.1% of government budget{\b Branches}
\par \tab Army, Air Force, National Gendarmerie, Republican Guard, National Police
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 1,908,767; males fit for military service 1,029,384; males reach military age (18) annually 94,506 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $32 million, 1.3% of GDP (FY92/93){\b Branches}
\par \tab Army, Navy, Air Force, paramilitary Police Force
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 23,167,009; males fit for military service 13,246,223; males reach military age (18) annually 1,024,059 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $172 million, about 1% of GDP (1992){\b Note}
\par \tab defense is the responsibility of the US{\b Branches}
\par \tab Norwegian Army, Royal Norwegian Navy, Royal Norwegian Air Force, Home Guard
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 1,116,130; males fit for military service 928,774; males reach military age (20) annually 29,123 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $3.4 billion, 3.2% of GDP (1994){\b Branches}
\par \tab Army, Navy, Air Force, Royal Oman Police
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 520,428; males fit for military service 294,993; males reach military age (14) annually 26,065 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $1.7 billion, 14.2% of GDP (1995 est.){\b Branches}
\par \tab Army, Navy, Air Force, Civil Armed Forces, National Guard, paramilitary/security forces
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 30,219,551; males fit for military service 18,544,008; males reach military age (17) annually 1,429,719 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $3.2 billion, 5.6% of GDP (FY94/95){\b Branches}
\par \tab NA
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab $NA, NA% of GDP
{\b Note}
\par \tab defense is the responsibility of the US pursuant to Compact of Free Association which entered into force 1 October 1994{\b Branches}
\par \tab Panamanian Public Forces (PPF; includes the National Police or PNP, Maritime Service, National Air Service, and Institutional Protective Service); Judicial Branch Technical Police
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 701,691; males fit for military service 481,927 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab expenditures for the Panamanian security forces amounted to $105 million, 1.0% of GDP (1993 est.){\b Branches}
\par \tab Papua New Guinea Defense Force (includes Army, Navy, and Air Force)
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 1,111,661; males fit for military service 618,696 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $55 million, 1.8% of GDP (1993 est.){\b Branches}
\par \tab Army, Navy (includes Naval Air and Marines), Air Force
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 1,290,894; males fit for military service 937,054; males reach military age (17) annually 55,551 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $100 million, 1.6% of GDP (1994 est.){\b Branches}
\par \tab Army (Ejercito Peruano), Navy (Marina de Guerra del Peru), Air Force (Fuerza Aerea del Peru), National Police
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 6,369,157; males fit for military service 4,300,772; males reach military age (20) annually 251,798 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $810 million, about 2.7% of GDP (1994){\b Branches}
\par \tab Army, Navy (includes Coast Guard and Marine Corps), Air Force
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 18,238,568; males fit for military service 12,876,771; males reach military age (20) annually 752,622 (1995 est.)
\par \tab males age 15-49 10,181,069; males fit for military service 7,940,634; males reach military age (19) annually 323,133 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab 50.7 billion zlotych, NA% of GNP (1994 est.); note - conversion of defense expenditures into US dollars using the current exchange rate could produce misleading results{\b Branches}
\par \tab Army, Navy (includes Marines), Air Force, National Republican Guard, Fiscal Guard, Public Security Police
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 2,747,357; males fit for military service 2,223,299; males reach military age (20) annually 90,402 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $2.4 billion, 2.9% of GDP (1994){\b Branches}
\par \tab paramilitary National Guard, Police Force
{\b Note}
\par \tab defense is the responsibility of the US{\b Branches}
\par \tab Army, Navy, Air Force, Public Security
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 219,442; males fit for military service 115,103; males reach military age (18) annually 3,915 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab $NA, NA%, of GDP{\b Branches}
\par \tab French forces (Army, Navy, Air Force, and Gendarmerie)
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 173,693; males fit for military service 89,438; males reach military age (18) annually 5,781 (1995 est.)
{\b Note}
\par \tab defense is the responsibility of France{\b Branches}
\par \tab Army, Navy, Air and Air Defense Forces, Paramilitary Forces, Civil Defense
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 5,934,524; males fit for military service 5,002,287; males reach military age (20) annually 196,587 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab 1,260 billion lei, 3% of GDP (1994); note - conversion of defense expenditures into US dollars using the current exchange rate could produce misleading results{\b Branches}
\par \tab Ground Forces, Navy, Air Forces, Air Defense Forces, Strategic Rocket Forces
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 38,264,699; males fit for military service 29,951,977; males reach military age (18) annually 1,106,176 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab $NA, NA% of GDP
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab the Intelligence Community estimates that defense spending in Russia fell about 15% in real terms in 1994, reducing Russian defense outlays to about one-fourth of peak Soviet levels in the late 1980s; although Russia may still spend as much as 10% of its GDP on defense, this is significantly below the 15% to 17% burden the former USSR carried during much of the 1980s; conversion of military expenditures into US dollars using the current exchange rate could produce misleading results{\b Branches}
\par \tab Army, Gendarmerie
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 1,792,326; males fit for military service 913,711 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $112.5 million, 7% of GDP (1992){\b Branches}
\par \tab Royal Saint Lucia Police Force, Coast Guard
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab $NA, NA% of GDP{\b Branches}
\par \tab Royal Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Police Force, Coast Guard
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab $NA, NA% of GDP{\b Branches}
\par \tab public security or police force
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab $3.7 million (1992 est.), 1% of GDP{\b Branches}
\par \tab Army, Navy, National Police
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 33,789; males fit for military service 17,752 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab $NA, NA% of GDP{\b Branches}
\par \tab Land Force (Army), Navy, Air Force, Air Defense Force, National Guard, Coast Guard, Frontier Forces, Special Security Force, Public Security Force
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 5,303,679; males fit for military service 2,949,842; males reach military age (17) annually 164,220 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $17.2 billion, 13.8% of GDP (1994){\b Branches}
\par \tab Army, Navy, Air Force, National Gendarmerie, National Police (Surete Nationale)
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 2,021,019; males fit for military service 1,054,855; males reach military age (18) annually 96,589 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $134 million, 2.1% of GDP (1993){\b Branches}
\par \tab People's Army (includes Ground Forces with internal and border troops, Naval Forces, and Air and Air Defense Forces), Civil Defense
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab {\b Montenegro}
\par \tab males age 15-49 194,154; males fit for military service 157,611; males reach military age (19) annually 5,498 (1995 est.)
\par \tab {\b Serbia}
\par \tab males age 15-49 2,652,224; males fit for military service 2,131,894 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab 245 billion dinars, 4% to 6% of GDP (1992 est.); note - conversion of defense expenditures into US dollars using the current exchange rate could produce misleading results{\b Branches}
\par \tab Army, Coast Guard, Marines, National Guard, Presidential Protection Unit, Police Force
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 19,829; males fit for military service 10,099 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $12 million, 4% of GDP (1990 est.){\b Branches}
\par \tab Army, Navy, Police, Security Forces
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 1,030,332; males fit for military service 498,945 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $14 million, 2.6% of GDP (FY92/93){\b Branches}
\par \tab Army, Navy, Air Force, People's Defense Force, Police Force
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 860,437; males fit for military service 629,973 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $2.7 billion, 6% of GDP (1993 est.){\b Branches}
\par \tab Army, Air and Air Defense Forces, Civil Defense, Railroad Units
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 1,443,719; males fit for military service 1,107,453; males reach military age (18) annually 49,045 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab 9.59 billion koruny, 3.1% of GDP (1994 est.); note - conversion of defense expenditures into US dollars using the current exchange rate could produce misleading results{\b Branches}
\par \tab Slovene Defense Forces
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 542,815; males fit for military service 434,302; males reach military age (19) annually 15,350 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab 13.5 billion tolars, 4.5% of GDP (1993 est.); note - conversion of the military budget into US dollars using the current exchange rate could produce misleading results{\b Branches}
\par \tab no military forces; Royal Solomon Islands Police (RSIP)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab $NA, NA% of GDP{\b Branches}
\par \tab no functioning central government military forces; clan militias continue to battle for control of key economic or political prizes
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 1,736,673; males fit for military service 972,203 (1995 est.
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab $NA, NA% of GDP{\b Branches}
\par \tab South African National Defence Force (SANDF; includes Army, Navy, Air Force, and Medical Services), South African Police Service (SAPS)
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 10,830,079; males fit for military service 6,601,323; males reach military age (18) annually 439,793 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $3.2 billion, 2.8% of GDP (FY93/94){\b Branches}
\par \tab Army, Navy, Air Force, Marines, Civil Guard, National Police, Coastal Civil Guard
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 10,435,970; males fit for military service 8,434,460; males reach military age (20) annually 335,967 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $8 billion, 1.6% of GDP (1994){\b Branches}
\par \tab Army, Navy, Air Force, Police Force
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 4,990,661; males fit for military service 3,888,372; males reach military age (18) annually 178,926 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $412 million, 3.6% of GDP (1994){\b Branches}
\par \tab Royal Saint Kitts and Nevis Police Force, Coast Guard
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab $NA, NA% of GDP{\b Branches}
\par \tab Army, Navy, Air Force, Popular Defense Force Militia
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 6,806,588; males fit for military service 4,185,206; males reach military age (18) annually 313,958 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $600 million, 7.3% of GDP (FY93/94 est.){\b Branches}
\par \tab National Army (includes small Navy and Air Force elements), Civil Police
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 116,456; males fit for military service 69,011 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab $NA, NA% of GDP{\b Branches}
\par \tab Umbutfo Swaziland Defense Force (Army), Royal Swaziland Police Force
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 212,239; males fit for military service 122,782 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $22 million, NA% of GDP (FY93/94){\b Branches}
\par \tab Swedish Army, Royal Swedish Navy, Swedish Air Force
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 2,133,420; males fit for military service 1,864,258; males reach military age (19) annually 52,937 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $5.4 billion, 2.4% of GDP (FY94/95){\b Branches}
\par \tab Army, Air Force and Antiaircraft Command
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 1,847,639; males fit for military service 1,582,335; males reach military age (20) annually 41,831 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $4.1 billion, 1.4% of GDP (1995){\b Branches}
\par \tab Syrian Arab Army, Syrian Arab Navy, Syrian Arab Air Force, Syrian Arab Air Defense Forces, Police and Security Force
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 3,440,030; males fit for military service 1,927,930; males reach military age (19) annually 159,942 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $2.2 billion, 6% of GDP (1992){\b Branches}
\par \tab Army, Navy (includes Marines), Air Force, Coastal Patrol and Defense Command, Armed Forces Reserve Command, Military Police Command
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 6,293,884; males fit for military service 4,863,014; males reach military age (19) annually 201,191 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $9.8 billion, 3.4% of GDP (FY94/95); $9.77 billion proposed for FY95/96 budget{\b Branches}
\par \tab Army (being formed), National Guard, Security Forces (internal and border troops)
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 1,410,229; males fit for military service 1,153,638; males reach military age (18) annually 57,942 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab $NA, NA% of GDP{\b Branches}
\par \tab Tanzanian People's Defense Force (TPDF; includes Army, Navy, and Air Force), paramilitary Police Field Force Unit, Militia
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 6,188,455; males fit for military service 3,584,912 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $69 million, NA% of GDP (FY94/95){\b Branches}
\par \tab Royal Thai Army, Royal Thai Navy (includes Royal Thai Marine Corps), Royal Thai Air Force, Paramilitary Forces
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 17,297,854; males fit for military service 10,489,564; males reach military age (18) annually 585,009 (1995 est.)
\par \tab ground, maritime, and air forces at all levels of technology
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab a further decline in 1994, by perhaps 5%-10%, to roughly three-quarters of a trillion dollars, or 2.5% of gross world product (1994 est.){\b Branches}
\par \tab Army, Navy, Air Force, Gendarmerie
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 936,270; males fit for military service 491,578 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $48 million, 2.9% of GDP (1993){\b Branches}
\par \tab Tonga Defense Services, Maritime Division, Royal Tongan Marines, Tongan Royal Guards, Police
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab $NA, NA% of GDP{\b Branches}
\par \tab Trinidad and Tobago Defense Force (includes Ground Forces, Coast Guard, and Air Wing), Trinidad and Tobago Police Service
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 347,841; males fit for military service 249,904 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $83 million, 1.5% of GDP (1994){\b Branches}
\par \tab Army, Navy, Air Force, paramilitary forces, National Guard
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 2,294,912; males fit for military service 1,317,642; males reach military age (20) annually 93,601 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $549 million, 3% of GDP (1994){\b Branches}
\par \tab Land Forces, Navy (includes Naval Air and Naval Infantry), Air Force, Coast Guard, Gendarmerie
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 16,519,152; males fit for military service 10,067,089; males reach military age (20) annually 625,476 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $6.9 billion, 4.1% of GDP (1993); note - figures do not include about $7 billion for the government's counterinsurgency efforts against the separatist Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK){\b Branches}
\par \tab National Guard, Republic Security Forces (internal and border troops), Joint Command Turkmenistan/Russia (Ground, Air, and Air Defense)
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 993,321; males fit for military service 810,392; males reach military age (18) annually 40,430 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab $NA, NA% of GDP{\b Note}
\par \tab defense is the responsibility of the UK{\b Branches}
\par \tab no military forces; Police Force
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab $NA, NA% of GDP{\b Branches}
\par \tab Army, Navy, Air Wing
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 4,231,019; males fit for military service 2,298,654 (1995 est.)
\par \tab Army, Navy, Air and Air Defense Forces, Republic Security Forces (internal and border troops), National Guard
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 12,324,832; males fit for military service 9,667,642; males reach military age (18) annually 359,546 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab 544.3 billion karbovantsi, less than 4% of GDP (forecast for 1993); note - conversion of defense expenditures into US dollars using the current exchange rate could produce misleading results{\b Branches}
\par \tab Army, Navy, Air Force, paramilitary (includes Federal Police Force)
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 1,072,261; males fit for military service 583,967; males reach military age (18) annually 19,266 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $1.59 billion, 4.3% of GDP (1994){\b Branches}
\par \tab Army, Royal Navy (includes Royal Marines), Royal Air Force
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 14,429,485; males fit for military service 12,041,935 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $35.1 billion, 3.1% of GDP (FY95/96){\b Branches}
\par \tab Department of the Army, Department of the Navy (includes Marine Corps), Department of the Air Force
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab $284.4 billion, 4.2% of GDP (1994 est.){\b Branches}
\par \tab Army, Navy (includes Naval Air Arm, Coast Guard, Marines), Air Force, Grenadier Guards, Coracero Guard, Police
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 775,060; males fit for military service 629,385 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $216 million, 2.3% of GDP (1991 est.){\b Branches}
\par \tab Army, Air and Air Defense, Republic Security Forces (internal and border troops), National Guard
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 5,567,580; males fit for military service 4,537,455; males reach military age (18) annually 222,506 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab $NA, NA% of GDP{\b Branches}
\par \tab no regular military forces; Vanuatu Police Force (VPF; includes the paramilitary Vanuatu Mobile Force or VMF)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab $NA, NA% of GDP{\b Note}
\par \tab defense is the responsibility of Italy; Swiss Papal Guards are posted at entrances to the Vatican City{\b Branches}
\par \tab National Armed Forces (Fuerzas Armadas Nacionales or FAN) includes Ground Forces or Army (Fuerzas Terrestres or Ejercito), Naval Forces (Fuerzas Navales or Armada), Air Force (Fuerzas Aereas or Aviacion), Armed Forces of Cooperation or National Guard (Fuerzas Armadas de Cooperation or Guardia Nacional)
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 5,491,524; males fit for military service 3,981,190; males reach military age (18) annually 227,292 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $1.95 billion, 4% of GDP (1991){\b Branches}
\par \tab People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN; includes Ground forces, Navy (includes Naval Infantry), and Air Force
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 18,799,370; males fit for military service 11,913,116; males reach military age (17) annually 742,394 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $435 million, 2.5% of GDP (1994){\b Note}
\par \tab defense is the responsibility of the US{\b Branches}
\par \tab NA
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab $NA, NA% of GDP{\b Branches}
\par \tab NA
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab $NA, NA% of GDP{\b Branches}
\par \tab no regular armed services; Western Samoa Police Force
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab $NA, NA% of GDP{\b Branches}
\par \tab Army, Navy, Air Force, paramilitary (includes Police)
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 3,135,649; males fit for military service 1,771,226; males reach military age (14) annually 181,057 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $1.65 billion, 7.1% of GDP (1993){\b Branches}
\par \tab Army, Navy, Air Force, National Gendarmerie, paramilitary Civil Guard, Special Presidential Division
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 9,479,245; males fit for military service 4,828,367 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $46 million, 1.5% of GDP (1990){\b Branches}
\par \tab Army, Air Force, Police
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 1,953,967; males fit for military service 1,028,113 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $45 million, 1.4% of GDP (1994){\b Branches}
\par \tab Zimbabwe National Army, Air Force of Zimbabwe, Zimbabwe Republic Police (includes Police Support Unit, Paramilitary Police)
{\b Manpower availability}
\par \tab males age 15-49 2,435,931; males fit for military service 1,514,068 (1995 est.)
{\b Defense expenditures}
\par \tab exchange rate conversion - $175 million, 3.1% of GDP (FY94/95){\b Overview}
\par \tab Afghanistan is an extremely poor, landlocked country, highly dependent on farming (wheat especially) and livestock raising (sheep and goats). Economic considerations have played second fiddle to political and military upheavals during more than 15 years of war, including the nearly 10-year Soviet military occupation (which ended 15 February 1989). Over the past decade, one-third of the population fled the country, with Pakistan sheltering more than 3 million refugees and Iran about 3 million. About 1.4 million Afghan refugees remain in Pakistan and about 2 million in Iran. Another 1 million probably moved into and around urban areas within Afghanistan. Although reliable data are unavailable, gross domestic product is lower than 13 years ago because of the loss of labor and capital and the disruption of trade and transport.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP $NA
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $NA
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 56.7% (1991)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $NA
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $NA, including capital expenditures of $NA
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $188.2 million (f.o.b., 1991)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab fruits and nuts, handwoven carpets, wool, cotton, hides and pelts, precious and semi-precious gems
\par \tab an illicit cultivator of opium poppy and cannabis for the international drug trade; world's second-largest opium producer after Burma (950 metric tons in 1994) and a major source of hashish
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab $450 million US assistance provided 1985-1993; the UN provides assistance in the form of food aid, immunization, land mine removal, and a wide range of aid to refugees and displaced persons
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 afghani (AF) = 100 puls
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab afghanis (Af) per US$1 - 1,900 (January 1994), 1,019 (March 1993), 850 (1991), 700 (1989-90), 220 (1988-89); note - these rates reflect the free market exchange rates rather than the official exchange rates
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab 21 March - 20 March{\b Overview}
\par \tab An extremely poor country by European standards, Albania is making the difficult transition to a more open-market economy. The economy rebounded in 1993-94 after a severe depression accompanying the collapse of the previous centrally planned system in 1990 and 1991. Stabilization policies - including a strict monetary policy, public sector layoffs, and reduced social services - have improved the government's fiscal situation and reduced inflation. The recovery was spurred by the remittances of some 20% of the population which works abroad, mostly in Greece and Italy. These remittances supplement GDP and help offset the large foreign trade deficit. Foreign assistance and humanitarian aid also supported the recovery. Most agricultural land was privatized in 1992, substantially improving peasant incomes. Albania's limited industrial sector, now less than one-sixth of GDP, continued to decline in 1994. A sharp fall in chromium prices reduced hard currency receipts from the mining sector. Large segments of the population, especially those living in urban areas, continue to depend on humanitarian aid to meet basic food requirements. Unemployment remains a severe problem accounting for approximately one-fifth of the work force. Growth is expected to continue in 1995, but could falter if Albania becomes involved in the conflict in the former Yugoslavia, workers' remittances from Greece are reduced, or foreign assistance declines.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $3.8 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 11% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $1,110 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 16% (1994)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 18% (1994 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $1.1 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $1.4 billion, including capital expenditures of $70 million (1991 est.)
\par \tab accounts for 55% of GDP; arable land per capita among lowest in Europe; 80% of arable land now in private hands; 60% of the work force engaged in farming; produces wide range of temperate-zone crops and livestock
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab transshipment point for Southwest Asian heroin transiting the Balkan route and cocaine from South America destined for Western Europe; limited opium production
\par \tab The hydrocarbons sector is the backbone of the economy, accounting for roughly 57% of government revenues, 25% of GDP, and almost all export earnings; Algeria has the fifth largest reserves of natural gas in the world and ranks fourteenth for oil. Algiers' efforts to reform one of the most centrally planned economies in the Arab world began after the 1986 collapse of world oil prices plunged the country into a severe recession. In 1989, the government launched a comprehensive, IMF-supported program to achieve macroeconomic stabilization and to introduce market mechanisms into the economy. Despite substantial progress toward macroeconomic adjustment, in 1992 the reform drive stalled as Algiers became embroiled in political turmoil. In September 1993, a new government was formed, and one priority was the resumption and acceleration of the structural adjustment process. Buffeted by the slump in world oil prices and burdened with a heavy foreign debt, Algiers concluded a one-year standby arrangement with the IMF in April 1994.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $97.1 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 0.2% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $3,480 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 30% (1994 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 30% (1994 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $14.3 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $17.9 billion (1995 est.)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $9.1 billion (f.o.b., 1994)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab petroleum and natural gas 97%
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Italy 21%, France 16%, US 14%, Germany 13%, Spain 9%
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $9.2 billion (f.o.b., 1994 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab capital goods 39.7%, food and beverages 21.7%, consumer goods 11.8% (1990)
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab France 29%, Italy 14%, Spain 9%, US 9%, Germany 7%
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $26 billion (1994)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate NA%; accounts for 35% of GDP (including hydrocarbons)
\par \tab accounts for 12% of GDP (1993) and employs 22% of labor force; products- wheat, barley, oats, grapes, olives, citrus, fruits, sheep, cattle; net importer of food - grain, vegetable oil, sugar
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-85), $1.4 billion; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $925 million; OPEC bilateral aid (1979-89), $1.8 billion; Communist countries (1970-89), $2.7 billion; net official disbursements (1985-89), $375 million
\par \tab Tourism, the mainstay of Andorra's economy, accounts for roughly 80% of GDP. An estimated 13 million tourists visit annually, attracted by Andorra's duty-free status and by its summer and winter resorts. The banking sector, with its "tax haven" status, also contributes substantially to the economy. Agricultural production is limited by a scarcity of arable land, and most food has to be imported. The principal livestock activity is sheep raising. Manufacturing consists mainly of cigarettes, cigars, and furniture. Andorra is a member of the EU Customs Union; it is unclear what effect the European Single Market will have on the advantages Andorra obtains from its duty-free status.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $760 million (1992 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $14,000 (1992 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab NA%
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 0%
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $138 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $177 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1993)
\par \tab Subsistence agriculture provides the main livelihood for 80%-90% of the population but accounts for less than 15% of GDP. Oil production is vital to the economy, contributing about 60% to GDP. Despite the signing of a peace accord in November 1994 between the Angola government and the UNITA insurgents, sporadic fighting continues and many farmers remain reluctant to return to their fields. As a result, much of the country's food requirements must still be imported. Angola has rich natural resources - notably gold, diamonds, and arable land, in addition to large oil deposits - but will need to observe the cease-fire, implement the peace agreement, and reform government policies if it is to achieve its potential.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $6.1 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab -1% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $620 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 20% average per month (1994 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 15% with considerable underemployment (1993 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $928 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $2.5 billion, including capital expenditures of $963 million (1992 est.)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $3 billion (f.o.b., 1993 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab oil, diamonds, refined petroleum products, gas, coffee, sisal, fish and fish products, timber, cotton
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab US, France, Germany, Netherlands, Brazil
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $1.6 billion (f.o.b., 1992 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab capital equipment (machinery and electrical equipment), food, vehicles and spare parts, textiles and clothing, medicines, substantial military deliveries
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Portugal, Brazil, US, France, Spain
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $11.7 billion (1994 est.)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate NA%; accounts for about 60% of GDP, including petroleum output
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 620,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 1.9 billion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 189 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab petroleum; mining - diamonds, iron ore, phosphates, feldspar, bauxite, uranium, and gold; fish processing; food processing; brewing; tobacco; sugar; textiles; cement; basic metal products
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab cash crops - bananas, sugarcane, coffee, sisal, corn, cotton, cane, manioc, tobacco; food crops - cassava, corn, vegetables, plantains; livestock production accounts for 20%, fishing 4%, forestry 2% of total agricultural output
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab increasingly used as a transshipment point for cocaine destined for Western Europe
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-89), $265 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $1.105 billion; Communist countries (1970-89), $1.3 billion; net official disbursements (1985-89), $750 million
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 new kwanza (NKz) = 100 lwei
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab new kwanza (NKz) per US$1 - 900,000 (official rate 25 April 1995), 1,900,000 (black market rate 6 April 1995), 600,000 (official rate 10 January 1995), 90,000 (official rate 1 June 1994), 180,000 (black market rate 1 June 1994); 7,000 (official rate 16 December 1993), 50,000 (black market rate 16 December 1993); 3,884 (July 1993); 550 (April 1992); 90 (November 1991); 60 (October 1990)
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab calendar year{\b Overview}
\par \tab Anguilla has few natural resources, and the economy depends heavily on lobster fishing, offshore banking, tourism, and remittances from emigrants. In recent years the economy has benefited from a boom in tourism and construction. Development plans center around the improvement of the infrastructure, particularly transport and tourist facilities, and also light industry.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $49 million (1993 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 7.5% (1992)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $7,000 (1993 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 3% (1992 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 7% (1992 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $13.8 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $15.2 million, including capital expenditures of $2.4 million (1992 est.)
\par \tab Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $38 million
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 EC dollar (EC$) = 100 cents
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab East Caribbean dollars (EC$) per US$1 - 2.70 (fixed rate since 1976)
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab NA{\b Overview}
\par \tab No economic activity at present except for fishing off the coast and small-scale tourism, both based abroad.{\b Overview}
\par \tab The economy is primarily service oriented, with tourism the most important determinant of economic performance. In 1993, tourism made a direct contribution to GDP of about 17%, and also spurred growth in other sectors such as construction and transport. While only accounting for roughly 5% of GDP in 1993, agricultural production increased by 4%. Tourist arrivals remained strong in 1994.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $400 million (1993 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 3.4% (1993)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $6,000 (1993 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 7% (1993)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 6% (1992 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $105 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $161 million, including capital expenditures of $56 million (1992)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $54.7 million (f.o.b., 1992)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab petroleum products 48%, manufactures 23%, food and live animals 4%, machinery and transport equipment 17%
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab OECS 26%, Barbados 15%, Guyana 4%, Trinidad and Tobago 2%, US 0.3%
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $260.9 million (f.o.b., 1992)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab food and live animals, machinery and transport equipment, manufactures, chemicals, oil
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab US 27%, UK 16%, Canada 4%, OECS 3%, other 50%
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $250 million (1990 est.)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate -4.9% (1993 est.); accounts for 6.5% of GDP
\par \tab accounts for 5% of GDP; expanding output of cotton, fruits, vegetables, and livestock; other crops - bananas, coconuts, cucumbers, mangoes, sugarcane; not self-sufficient in food
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab a long-time but relatively minor transshipment point for narcotics bound for the US and Europe and recent transshipment point for heroin from Europe to the US; more significant as a drug money laundering center
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments (1985-88), $10 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $50 million
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 EC dollar (EC$) = 100 cents
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab East Caribbean dollars (EC$) per US$1 - 2.70 (fixed rate since 1976)
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab 1 April - 31 March{\b Overview}
\par \tab Economic activity is limited to the exploitation of natural resources, including petroleum, natural gas, fish, and seals.{\b Overview}
\par \tab Argentina, rich in natural resources, benefits also from a highly literate population, an export-oriented agricultural sector, and a diversified industrial base. Nevertheless, following decades of mismanagement and statist policies, the economy in the late 1980s was plagued with huge external debts and recurring bouts of hyperinflation. Elected in 1989, in the depths of recession, President MENEM has implemented a comprehensive economic restructuring program that shows signs of putting Argentina on a path of stable, sustainable growth. Argentina's currency has traded at par with the US dollar since April 1991, and inflation has fallen to its lowest level in 20 years. Argentines have responded to the relative price stability by repatriating flight capital and investing in domestic industry. The economy registered an impressive 6% advance in 1994, fueled largely by inflows of foreign capital and strong domestic consumption spending. The government's major short term objective is encouraging exports, e.g., by reducing domestic costs of production. At the start of 1995, the government had to deal with the spillover from international financial movements associated with the devaluation of the Mexican peso. In addition, unemployment had become a serious issue for the government. Despite average annual 7% growth in 1991-94, unemployment surprisingly has doubled - due mostly to layoffs in government bureaus and in privatized industrial firms and utilities and, to a lesser degree, to illegal immigration. Much remains to be done in the 1990s in dismantling the old statist barriers to growth, extending the recent economic gains, and bringing down the rate of unemployment.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $270.8 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 6% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $7,990 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 3.9% (1994 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 12% (1994 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $48.46 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $46.5 billion, including capital expenditures of $3.5 billion (1994 est.)
\par \tab US 12%, Brazil, Italy, Japan, Netherlands
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $21.4 billion (c.i.f., 1994 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab machinery and equipment, chemicals, metals, fuels and lubricants, agricultural products
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab US 22%, Brazil, Germany, Bolivia, Japan, Italy, Netherlands
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $73 billion (April 1994)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 12.5% accounts for 31% of GDP (1994 est.)
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 17,330,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 54.8 billion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 1,610 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab food processing, motor vehicles, consumer durables, textiles, chemicals and petrochemicals, printing, metallurgy, steel
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab accounts for 8% of GDP (including fishing); produces abundant food for both domestic consumption and exports; among world's top five exporters of grain and beef; principal crops - wheat, corn, sorghum, soybeans, sugar beets
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab increasing use as a transshipment country for cocaine headed for the US and Europe
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-89), $1 billion; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $4.4 billion; Communist countries (1970-89), $718 million
\par \tab Under the old Soviet central planning system, Armenia had developed a more modern industrial sector, supplying machine building equipment, textiles, and other manufactured goods to sister republics in exchange for raw materials and energy resources. Armenia is a large food importer and its mineral deposits (gold, bauxite) are small. The economic decline in recent years (1991-94) has been particularly severe due to the ongoing conflict over the ethnic Armenian-dominated region of Nagorno-Karabakh in Azerbaijan. Azerbaijan and Turkey have blockaded pipeline and railroad traffic to Armenia for its support of the Karabakh Armenians. This has left Armenia with chronic energy shortages because of a lack of capacity and frequent disruptions of natural gas deliveries through unstable Georgia, as well as difficulties in obtaining other types of fuel. In addition, bread is strictly rationed and there are shortages of other goods. In 1994, the economy seemed to bottom out. The government has managed to increase its financial and budgetary discipline, bringing inflation down from around 40% per month in first half 1994 to single digits in second half 1994 and the first quarter of 1995. A full economic recovery cannot be expected until the conflict is settled and the blockade lifted.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $8.1 billion (1994 estimate as extrapolated from World Bank estimate for 1992)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab -2% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $2,290 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 27% per month average (1994 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 6.5% of officially registered unemployed but large numbers of underemployed (1994 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $NA
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $NA, including capital expenditures of $NA
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $43 million to countries outside the FSU (f.o.b., 1994)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab gold and jewelry, aluminum, transport equipment, electrical equipment
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Iran, Russia, Turkmenistan, Georgia
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $120 million from countries outside the FSU (c.i.f., 1994)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab grain, other foods, fuel, other energy
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Iran, Russia, Turkmenistan, Georgia, US, EU
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $NA
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 7% (1994 est.); accounts for 41% of GDP
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 4,620,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 5.7 billion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 1,620 kWh (1994)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab traditionally diverse, including (as a percent of output of former USSR) metalcutting machine tools (5.5%), forging-pressing machines (1.9%), electric motors (9%), tires (1.5%), knitted wear (4.4%), hosiery (3.0%), shoes (2.2%), silk fabric (0.8%), washing machines (2.0%), chemicals, trucks, watches, instruments, and microelectronics (1990); currently, much of industry is shut down
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab only 17% of land area is arable; employs 31% of labor force as residents increasingly turn to subsistence agriculture; fruits (especially grapes) and vegetable farming, minor livestock sector; vineyards near Yerevan are famous for brandy and other liqueurs
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab illicit cultivator of cannabis mostly for domestic consumption; used as a transshipment point for illicit drugs to Western Europe
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab considerable humanitarian aid, mostly food and energy products, from US and EU; Russia granted 60 billion rubles in technical credits in late 1994 and approved a 110 billion ruble credit almost half of which was to go toward the restart of the Metsamor nuclear power plant
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 dram = 100 luma (introduced new currency in November 1993)
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab dram per US$1 - 406 (end December 1994)
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab calendar year{\b Overview}
\par \tab Tourism is the mainstay of the Aruban economy, although offshore banking and oil refining and storage are also important. The rapid growth of the tourism sector over the last decade has resulted in a substantial expansion of other activities. Construction has boomed, with hotel capacity five times the 1985 level. Additionally, the reopening of the country's oil refinery in 1993, a major source of employment and foreign exchange earnings, has further spurred growth. Aruba's small labor force and less than 1% unemployment rate have led to a large number of unfilled job vacancies despite sharp rises in wage rates in recent years.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $1.1 billion (1993 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 5% (1993 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $17,000 (1993 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 7% (1994 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 0.6% (1992)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $145 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $185 million, including capital expenditures of $42 million (1988)
\par \tab poor quality soils and low rainfall limit agricultural activity to the cultivation of aloes, some livestock, and fishing
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab drug money laundering center and transit point for narcotics bound for the US and Europe
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab Western (non-US) countries ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1980-89), $220 million
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 Aruban florin (Af.) = 100 cents
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab Aruban florins (Af.) per US$1 - 1.7900 (fixed rate since 1986)
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab calendar year{\b Overview}
\par \tab The Atlantic Ocean provides some of the world's most heavily trafficked sea routes, between and within the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. Other economic activity includes the exploitation of natural resources, e.g., fishing, the dredging of aragonite sands (The Bahamas), and production of crude oil and natural gas (Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico, and North Sea).{\b Overview}
\par \tab Australia has a prosperous Western-style capitalist economy, with a per capita GDP comparable to levels in industrialized West European countries. Rich in natural resources, Australia is a major exporter of agricultural products, minerals, metals, and fossil fuels. Primary products account for more than 60% of the value of total exports, so that, as in 1983-84, a downturn in world commodity prices can have a big impact on the economy. The government is pushing for increased exports of manufactured goods, but competition in international markets continues to be severe. Australia has suffered from the low growth and high unemployment characterizing the OECD countries in the early 1990s. In 1992-93 the economy recovered slowly from the prolonged recession of 1990-91, a major restraining factor being weak world demand for Australia's exports. Growth picked up so strongly in 1994 that the government felt the need for fiscal and monetary tightening by yearend. Australia's GDP grew 6.4% in 1994, largely due to increases in industrial output and business investment. A severe drought in 1994 is expected to reduce the value of Australia's net farm production by $825 million in the twelve months through June 1995, but rising world commodity prices are likely to boost rural exports by 7.7% to $14.5 billion in 1995/96, according to government statistics.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $374.6 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 6.4% (1994)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $20,720 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 2.5% (1994)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 8.9% (December 1994)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $83.8 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $92.3 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (FY93/94)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $50.4 billion (1994)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab coal, gold, meat, wool, alumina, wheat, machinery and transport equipment
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Japan 25%, US 11%, South Korea 6%, NZ 5.7%, UK, Taiwan, Singapore, Hong Kong (1992)
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $51.1 billion (1994)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab machinery and transport equipment, computers and office machines, crude oil and petroleum products
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab US 23%, Japan 18%, UK 6%, Germany 5.7%, NZ 4% (1992)
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $147.2 billion (1994)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 3.9% (FY93/94); accounts for 32% of GDP
\par \tab accounts for 5% of GDP and over 30% of export revenues; world's largest exporter of beef and wool, second-largest for mutton, and among top wheat exporters; major crops - wheat, barley, sugarcane, fruit; livestock - cattle, sheep, poultry
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab Tasmania is one of the world's major suppliers of licit opiate products; government maintains strict controls over areas of opium poppy cultivation and output of poppy straw concentrate
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b donor}
\par \tab ODA and OOF commitments (1970-89), $10.4 billion
\par \tab Austria boasts a prosperous and stable market economy with a sizable but falling proportion of nationalized industry and with extensive welfare benefits. Thanks to its raw material endowment, a technically skilled labor force, and strong links to German industrial firms, Austria occupies specialized niches in European industry and services (tourism, banking) and produces almost enough food to feed itself with only 8% of the labor force in agriculture. After 11 consecutive years of growth, the Austrian economy experienced a mild recession in 1993, but growth resumed in 1994. Unemployment is 4.3% and will likely stay at that level as companies adjust to the competition of EU membership beginning 1 January 1995. To prepare for EU membership, Austria's government has taken measures to open the economy by introducing a major tax reform, privatizing state-owned firms, and liberalizing cross-border capital movements. Problems for the 1990s include an aging population, the high level of industrial subsidies, and the struggle to keep welfare benefits within budgetary capabilities - the deficit climbed to over 4% of GDP in 1994.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $139.3 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 2.5% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $17,500 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 3% (1994)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 4.3% (1994 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $52.2 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $60.3 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1993 est.)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $44.1 billion (1994 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab machinery and equipment, iron and steel, lumber, textiles, paper products, chemicals
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab EC 63.5% (Germany 38.9%), EFTA 9.0%, Eastern Europe/FSU 12.3%, Japan 1.5%, US 3.4% (1993)
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $53.8 billion (1994 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab petroleum, foodstuffs, machinery and equipment, vehicles, chemicals, textiles and clothing, pharmaceuticals
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab EC 66.8% (Germany 41.3%), EFTA 6.7%, Eastern Europe/FSU 7.5%, Japan 4.4%, US 4.4% (1993)
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $21.5 billion (1994 est.)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 2.5% (1994 est.)
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 17,230,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 50.2 billion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 5,824 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab foods, iron and steel, machines, textiles, chemicals, electrical, paper and pulp, tourism, mining, motor vehicles
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab accounts for 3.2% of GDP (including forestry); principal crops and animals - grains, fruit, potatoes, sugar beets, sawn wood, cattle, pigs, poultry; 80%-90% self-sufficient in food
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab transshipment point for Southwest Asian heroin transiting the Balkan route and Eastern Europe
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b donor}
\par \tab ODA and OOF commitments (1970-89), $2.4 billion
\par \tab Azerbaijan is less developed industrially than either Armenia or Georgia, the other Transcaucasian states. It resembles the Central Asian states in its majority nominally Muslim population, high structural unemployment, and low standard of living. The economy's most prominent products are oil, cotton, and gas. Production from the Caspian oil and gas field has been in decline for several years, but the November 1994 ratification of the $7.5 billion oil deal with a consortium of Western companies should generate the funds needed to spur future industrial development. Azerbaijan accounted for 1.5% to 2% of the capital stock and output of the former Soviet Union. Azerbaijan shares all the formidable problems of the ex-Soviet republics in making the transition from a command to a market economy, but its considerable energy resources brighten its long-term prospects. Baku has only recently begun making progress on economic reform, and old economic ties and structures have yet to be replaced.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $13.8 billion (1994 estimate as extrapolated from World Bank estimate for 1992)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab -22% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $1,790 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 28% monthly average (1994)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 0.9% includes officially registered unemployed; also large numbers of other unemployed and underemployed workers (December 1994)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $167.5 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $234.6 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1994)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $366 million to non-FSU countries (f.o.b., 1994)
\par \tab illicit cultivator of cannabis and opium poppy; mostly for CIS consumption; limited government eradication program; transshipment point for illicit drugs to Western Europe
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab wheat from Turkey
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 manat = 100 gopik
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab manats per US$1 - 4500 (April 1995), 4168 (end of December 1994)
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab calendar year{\b Overview}
\par \tab The Bahamas is a stable, developing nation whose economy is based primarily on tourism and offshore banking. Tourism alone provides about 50% of GDP and directly or indirectly employs about 50,000 people or 40% of the local work force. The economy has slackened in recent years, as the annual increase in the number of tourists slowed. Nonetheless, per capita GDP is one of the highest in the region.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $4.4 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 3.5% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $15,900 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 2.7% (1994)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 13.1% (1993)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $696 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $756 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (FY94/95)
\par \tab US 55%, Japan 17%, Nigeria 12%, Denmark 7%, Norway 6%
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $455 million (December 1993)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 3% (1990); accounts for 15% of GDP
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 424,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 929 million kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 3,200 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab tourism, banking, cement, oil refining and transshipment, salt production, rum, aragonite, pharmaceuticals, spiral welded steel pipe
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab accounts for 5% of GDP; dominated by small-scale producers; principal products - citrus fruit, vegetables, poultry; large net importer of food
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab transshipment point for cocaine and marijuana bound for US and Europe; also a money-laundering center
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY85-89), $1 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $345 million
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 Bahamian dollar (B$) = 100 cents
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab Bahamian dollar (B$) per US$1 - 1.00 (fixed rate)
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab 1 July - 30 June{\b Overview}
\par \tab Tiny in area, Bahrain is well-to-do in economic resources and per capita income. Petroleum production and processing account for about 80% of export receipts, 60% of government revenues, and 30% of GDP. Economic conditions have fluctuated with the changing fortunes of oil since 1985, for example, during and following the Gulf crisis of 1990-91. With its highly developed communication and transport facilities Bahrain is home to numerous multinational firms with business in the Gulf. A large share of exports consists of petroleum products made from imported crude. Prospects for 1995 are good, with private enterprise the main driving force, e.g., in banking and construction. Unemployment, especially among the young, and the depletion of both oil and underground water resources are major long-term economic problems.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $7.1 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 2.2% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $12,100 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 2% (1994 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 15% (1991 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $1.2 billion (1989)
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $1.6 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1992)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $3.69 billion (f.o.b., 1993 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab petroleum and petroleum products 80%, aluminum 7%
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Japan 11%, UAE 5%, South Korea 4%, India 4%, Saudi Arabia 3% (1992)
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $3.83 billion (f.o.b., 1993 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab nonoil 59%, crude oil 41%
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Saudi Arabia 47%, UK 7%, Japan 7%, US 6%, Germany 5% (1992)
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $2.6 billion (1993)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 13% (1992); accounts for 38% of GDP, including petroleum
\par \tab including fishing, accounts for less than 2% of GDP; not self-sufficient in food production; heavily subsidized sector produces fruit, vegetables, poultry, dairy products, shrimp, fish
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-79), $24 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $45 million; OPEC bilateral aid (1979-89), $9.8 billion
\par \tab Despite sustained domestic and international efforts to improve economic and demographic prospects, Bangladesh remains one of the world's poorest, most densely populated, and least developed nations. Its economy is overwhelmingly agricultural, with the cultivation of rice the single most important activity in the economy. Major impediments to growth include frequent cyclones and floods, the inefficiency of state-owned enterprises, a rapidly growing labor force that cannot be absorbed by agriculture, delays in exploiting energy resources (natural gas), and inadequate power supplies. Excellent rice crops and expansion of the export garment industry led to real growth of 4% in 1992 and again in 1993. Policy measures intended to reduce government regulation of private industry, to curb population growth, and to expand employment opportunities have had only partial success given the serious nature of Bangladesh's basic problems.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $130.1 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 4.5% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $1,040 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 4.3% (1992 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $2.8 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $4.1 billion, including capital expenditures of $1.8 billion (FY92/93)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $2.38 billion (1993)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab garments, jute and jute goods, leather, shrimp
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab US 33%, Western Europe 39% (Germany 8.4%, Italy 6%) (FY91/92 est.)
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $3.99 billion (1993)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab capital goods, petroleum, food, textiles
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Hong Kong 7.5%, Singapore 7.4%, China 7.4%, Japan 7.1% (FY91/92 est.)
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $13.5 billion (June 1993)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 6.9% (FY92/93 est.); accounts for 9.4% of GDP
\par \tab accounts for 33% of GDP, 65% of employment, and one-fifth of exports; world's largest exporter of jute; commercial products - jute, rice, wheat, tea, sugarcane, potatoes, beef, milk, poultry; shortages include wheat, vegetable oils, cotton
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab transit country for illegal drugs produced in neighboring countries
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-89), $3.4 billion; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1980-89), $11.65 million; OPEC bilateral aid (1979-89), $6.52 million; Communist countries (1970-89), $1.5 billion
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 taka (Tk) = 100 poiska
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab taka (Tk) per US$1 - 40.250 (January 1995), 40.212 (1994), 39.567 (1993), 38.951 (1992), 36.596 (1991), 34.569 (1990)
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab 1 July - 30 June{\b Overview}
\par \tab A per capita income of $9,200 gives Barbados one of the highest standards of living of all the small island states of the eastern Caribbean. Historically, the economy was based on the cultivation of sugarcane and related activities. In recent years, however, the economy has diversified into manufacturing and tourism. A moderate recovery that began in late 1993 after 3 years of contraction is mainly due to increased tourism and expansion in the construction sector. Economic prospects for 1995 depend mostly on continued growth in the industrialized countries, especially in Europe, which would spur further expansion in tourism.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $2.4 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 3% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $9,200 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 2% (1994 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 20.5% (1994 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $509 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $636 million, including capital expenditures of $86 million (FY94/95 est.)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $161 million (f.o.b., 1993 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab sugar and molasses, rum, other foods and beverages, chemicals, electrical components, clothing
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab US 13%, UK 10%, Trinidad and Tobago 9%, Windward Islands 8%
\par \tab US 36%, UK 11%, Trinidad and Tobago 11%, Japan 3%
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $652 million (1991 est.)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 2% (FY93/94 est.); accounts for about 10% of GDP
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 152,100 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 510 million kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 1,841 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab tourism, sugar, light manufacturing, component assembly for export
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab accounts for 6% of GDP; major cash crop is sugarcane; other crops - vegetables, cotton; not self-sufficient in food
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab one of many Caribbean transshipment points for narcotics bound for the US and Europe
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-89), $15 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $171 million
\par \tab Belarus ranks among the most developed of the former Soviet states, with a relatively modern - by Soviet standards - and diverse machine building sector and a robust agriculture sector. It also serves as a transport link for Russian oil exports to the Baltic states and Eastern and Western Europe. The breakup of the Soviet Union and its command economy has resulted in a sharp economic contraction as traditional trade ties have collapsed. The Belarusian government has lagged behind the governments of most other former Soviet states in economic reform, with privatization almost nonexistent. The system of state orders and distribution persists. In mid-1994, the Belarusian government embarked on an austerity program with IMF support to slash state credits and consumer subsidies in order to bring down the budget deficit and reduce inflation. However, despite its promising start, the regime's drive to reinvigorate the economy has fallen short, and the IMF has criticized its failure to implement the reforms that the Fund had negotiated. As a result, the IMF has suspended talks on introducing a stand-by arrangement. Economic relations with Russia, which will have an important bearing on the future course of the economy, will be strengthened if Minsk adopts the necessary legislation to implement a customs union agreed to in January 1995.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $53.4 billion (1994 estimate as extrapolated from World Bank estimate for 1992)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab -20% (1994)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $5,130 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 29% per month (1994)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 1.4% officially registered unemployed (December 1993); large numbers of underemployed workers
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $NA
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $NA, including capital expenditures of $NA
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $968 million to outside of the FSU countries (f.o.b., 1994)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab machinery and transport equipment, chemicals, foodstuffs
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Russia, Ukraine, Poland, Bulgaria
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $534 million from outside the FSU countries (c.i.f., 1994)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab fuel, natural gas, industrial raw materials, textiles, sugar
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Russia, Ukraine, Poland
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $1.5 billion (July 1994 est.)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate -19% (1994); accounts for about 40% of GDP (1992)
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 7,010,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 31.4 billion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 3,010 kWh (1994)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab employ about 40% of labor force and produced a wide variety of products including (in percent share of total output of former Soviet Union): tractors (12%); metal-cutting machine tools (11%); off-highway dump trucks up to 110-metric-ton load capacity (100%); wheel-type earthmovers for construction and mining (100%); eight-wheel-drive, high-flotation trucks with cargo capacity of 25 metric tons for use in tundra and roadless areas (100%); equipment for animal husbandry and livestock feeding (25%); motorcycles (21.3%); television sets (11%); chemical fibers (28%); fertilizer (18%); linen fabric (11%); wool fabric (7%); radios; refrigerators; and other consumer goods
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab accounts for almost 25% of GDP and 5.7% of total agricultural output of former Soviet Union; employs 21% of the labor force; in 1988 produced the following (in percent of total Soviet production): grain (3.6%), potatoes (12.2%), vegetables (3.0%), meat (6.0%), milk (7.0%); net exporter of meat, milk, eggs, flour, potatoes
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab illicit cultivator of opium poppy and cannabis; mostly for the domestic market; transshipment point for illicit drugs to Western Europe
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab $NA
{\b Currency}
\par \tab Belarusian rubel (BR)
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab Belarusian rubels per US$1 - 10,600 (end December 1994)
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab calendar year{\b Overview}
\par \tab This small private enterprise economy has capitalized on its central geographic location, highly developed transport network, and diversified industrial and commercial base. Industry is concentrated mainly in the populous Flemish area in the north, although the government is encouraging reinvestment in the southern region of Walloon. With few natural resources Belgium must import substantial quantities of raw materials and export a large volume of manufactures, making its economy unusually dependent on the state of world markets. Three-fourths of its trade is with other EU countries. The economy grew at a strong 4% pace during the period 1988-90, slowed to 1% in 1991-92, dropped by 1.5% in 1993, and recovered with 2.3% growth in 1994. Belgium's public debt has risen to 140% of GDP, and the government is trying to control its expenditures to bring the figure more into line with other industrialized countries.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $181.5 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 2.3% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $18,040 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 2.5% (1994)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 14.1% (December 1994)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $97.8 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $109.3 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1989)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $117 billion (f.o.b., 1992) Belgium-Luxembourg Economic Union
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab iron and steel, transportation equipment, tractors, diamonds, petroleum products
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab EC 75.5%, US 3.7%, former Communist countries 1.4% (1991)
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $120 billion (c.i.f., 1992) Belgium-Luxembourg Economic Union
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab fuels, grains, chemicals, foodstuffs
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab EC 73%, US 4.8%, oil-exporting less developed countries 4%, former Communist countries 1.8% (1991)
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $31.3 billion (1992 est.)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate -0.1% (1993 est.); accounts for 25% of GDP
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 14,040,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 66 billion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 6,334 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab engineering and metal products, motor vehicle assembly, processed food and beverages, chemicals, basic metals, textiles, glass, petroleum, coal
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab accounts for 2.0% of GDP; emphasis on livestock production - beef, veal, pork, milk; major crops are sugar beets, fresh vegetables, fruits, grain, tobacco; net importer of farm products
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab source of precursor chemicals for South American cocaine processors; transshipment point for cocaine entering the European market
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b donor}
\par \tab ODA and OOF commitments (1970-89), $5.8 billion
\par \tab The small, essentially private enterprise economy is based primarily on agriculture, agro-based industry, and merchandising, with tourism and construction assuming increasing importance. Agriculture accounts for about 30% of GDP and provides 75% of export earnings, while sugar, the chief crop, accounts for almost 40% of hard currency earnings. The US, Belize's main trading partner, is assisting in efforts to reduce dependency on sugar with an agricultural diversification program.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $575 million (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 2% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $2,750 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 5.5% (1991)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 10% (1993 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $126.8 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $123.1 million, including capital expenditures of $44.8 million (FY90/91 est.)
\par \tab transshipment point for cocaine; an illicit producer of cannabis for the international drug trade; minor money-laundering center
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-89), $104 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $215 million
\par \tab The economy of Benin remains underdeveloped and dependent on subsistence agriculture, cotton production, and regional trade. Growth in real output has averaged a sound 4% in 1991-94 but this rate barely exceeds the rapid population growth of 3.3%. Inflation jumped to 35% in 1994 (compared to 3% in 1993) following the 50% currency devaluation in January. Commercial and transport activities, which make up almost 36% of GDP, are extremely vulnerable to developments in Nigeria as evidenced by decreased reexport trade in 1994 due to a severe contraction in Nigerian demand. The industrial sector accounts for less than 10% of GDP and mainly produces foods, beverages, cement, and textiles. Support by the Paris Club and official bilateral creditors has eased the external debt situation in recent years. The government, still burdened with money-losing state enterprises and a bloated civil service, is gradually implementing a World Bank supported structural adjustment program.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $6.7 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 4% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $1,260 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 35% (1994 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $272 million (1993 est.)
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $375 million, including capital expenditures of $84 million (1993 est.)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $332 million (f.o.b., 1993 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab cotton, crude oil, palm products, cocoa
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab FRG 36%, France 16%, Spain 14%, Italy 8%, UK 4%
\par \tab France 20%, Thailand 8%, Netherlands 7%, US 5%
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $1 billion (December 1990 est.)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate -0.7% (1988); accounts for 10% of GDP
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 30,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 10 million kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 25 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab textiles, cigarettes, construction materials, beverages, food, petroleum
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab accounts for 35% of GDP; small farms produce 90% of agricultural output; production is dominated by food crops - corn, sorghum, cassava, yams, beans, rice; cash crops include cotton, palm oil, peanuts; poultry and livestock output has not kept up with consumption
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab transshipment point for narcotics associated with Nigerian trafficking organizations and most commonly destined for Western Europe and the US
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-89), $46 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $1.3 billion; OPEC bilateral aid (1979-89), $19 million; Communist countries (1970-89), $101 million
\par \tab beginning 12 January 1994 the CFA franc was devalued to CFAF 100 per French franc from CFAF 50 at which it had been fixed since 1948
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab calendar year{\b Overview}
\par \tab Bermuda enjoys one of the highest per capita incomes in the world, having successfully exploited its location by providing luxury tourist facilities and financial services. The tourist industry attracts more than 90% of its business from North America. The industrial sector is small, and agriculture is severely limited by a lack of suitable land. About 80% of food needs are imported.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $1.7 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 2.5% (1994)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $28,000 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 2.5% (1993)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 6% (1991)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $327.5 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $308.9 million, including capital expenditures of $35.4 million (FY90/91 est.)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $60 million (f.o.b., 1991)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab semitropical produce, light manufactures, re-exports of pharmaceuticals
\par \tab accounts for less than 1% of GDP; most basic foods must be imported; produces bananas, vegetables, citrus fruits, flowers, dairy products
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-81), $34 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $277 million
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 Bermudian dollar (Bd$) = 100 cents
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab Bermudian dollar (Bd$) per US$1 - 1.0000 (fixed rate)
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab 1 April - 31 March{\b Overview}
\par \tab The economy, one of the world's least developed, is based on agriculture and forestry, which provide the main livelihood for 90% of the population and account for about half of GDP. Agriculture consists largely of subsistence farming and animal husbandry. Rugged mountains dominate the terrain and make the building of roads and other infrastructure difficult and expensive. The economy is closely aligned with India's through strong trade and monetary links. The industrial sector is small and technologically backward, with most production of the cottage industry type. Most development projects, such as road construction, rely on Indian migrant labor. Bhutan's hydropower potential and its attraction for tourists are key resources; however, the government limits the number of tourists to 4,000 per year to minimize foreign influence. Much of the impetus for growth has come from large public-sector companies. Nevertheless, in recent years, Bhutan has shifted toward decentralized development planning and greater private initiative. The government privatized several large public-sector firms, is revamping its trade regime and liberalizing administerial procedures over industrial licensing. The government's industrial contribution to GDP decreased from 13% in 1988 to about 11% in 1993.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $1.2 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 5% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $700 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 10% (October 1994)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $52 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $150 million, including capital expenditures of $95 million (FY93/94 est.)
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab the government of India finances nearly three-fifths of Bhutan's budget expenditures
\par \tab Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $115 million; OPEC bilateral aid (1979-89), $11 million
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 ngultrum (Nu) = 100 chetrum; note - Indian currency is also legal tender
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab ngultrum (Nu) per US$1 - 31.374 (January 1995), 31.374 (1994), 30.493 (1993), 25.918 (1992), 22.742 (1991), 17.504 (1990); note - the Bhutanese ngultrum is at par with the Indian rupee
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab 1 July - 30 June{\b Overview}
\par \tab With its long history of semifeudal social controls, dependence on volatile prices for its mineral exports, and bouts of hyperinflation, Bolivia has remained one of the poorest and least developed Latin American countries. However, Bolivia has experienced generally improving economic conditions since the PAZ Estenssoro administration (1985-89) introduced market-oriented policies which reduced inflation from 11,700% in 1985 to about 20% in 1988. PAZ Estenssoro was followed as President by Jaime PAZ Zamora (1989-93) who continued the free-market policies of his predecessor, despite opposition from his own party and from Bolivia's once powerful labor movement. By maintaining fiscal discipline, PAZ Zamora helped reduce inflation to 9.3% in 1993, while GDP grew by an annual average of 3.25% during his tenure. Inaugurated in August 1993, President SANCHEZ DE LOZADA has vowed to advance the market-oriented economic reforms he helped launch as PAZ Estenssoro's planning minister. His successes so far have included an inflation rate that continues to decrease - the 1994 rate of 8.5% was the lowest in ten years - the signing of a free trade agreement with Mexico, and progress on his unique privatization plan. The main privatization bill was passed by the Bolivian legislature in late March 1994. Related laws - one that establishes SIRESE, the regulatory agency that will oversee the privatizations, and another that outlines the rules for privatization in the electricity sector - were approved later in the year.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $18.3 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 4.2% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $2,370 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 8.5% (1994 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 6.2% (1994 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $3.75 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $3.75 billion, including capital expenditures of $556.2 million (1995 est.)
\par \tab US 24%, Argentina 13%, Brazil 11%, Japan 11% (1993 est.)
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $4.2 billion (January 1995)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 5% (1994 est.)
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 756,200 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 2.116 billion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 367 kWh (1994)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab mining, smelting, petroleum, food and beverage, tobacco, handicrafts, clothing; illicit drug industry reportedly produces 15% of its revenues
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab accounts for about 21% of GDP (including forestry and fisheries); principal commodities - coffee, coca, cotton, corn, sugarcane, rice, potatoes, timber; self-sufficient in food
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab world's second-largest producer of coca (after Peru) with an estimated 48,100 hectares under cultivation in 1994; voluntary and forced eradication programs unable to prevent production from rising to 89,800 metric tons in 1994 from 84,400 tons in 1993; government considers all but 12,000 hectares illicit; intermediate coca products and cocaine exported to or through Colombia and Brazil to the US and other international drug markets; alternative crop program aims to reduce illicit coca cultivation
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-89), $990 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $2.025 billion; Communist countries (1970-89), $340 million
\par \tab Bosnia and Herzegovina ranked next to The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia as the poorest republic in the old Yugoslav federation. Although agriculture has been almost all in private hands, farms have been small and inefficient, and the republic traditionally has been a net importer of food. Industry has been greatly overstaffed, one reflection of the rigidities of Communist central planning and management. TITO had pushed the development of military industries in the republic with the result that Bosnia hosted a large share of Yugoslavia's defense plants. As of February 1995, Bosnia and Herzegovina was being torn apart by the continued bitter interethnic warfare that has caused production to plummet, unemployment and inflation to soar, and human misery to multiply. No economic statistics for 1992-94 are available, although output clearly has fallen substantially below the levels of earlier years and almost certainly is well below $1,000 per head. The country receives substantial amounts of humanitarian aid from the international community.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $NA
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $NA
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab NA%
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $NA
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $NA, including capital expenditures of $NA
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $NA
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab NA
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $NA
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab NA
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $NA
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate NA%; production is sharply down because of interethnic and interrepublic warfare (1991-94)
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 3,800,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab NA kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab NA kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab steel production, mining (coal, iron ore, lead, zinc, manganese, and bauxite), manufacturing (vehicle assembly, textiles, tobacco products, wooden furniture, 40% of former Yugoslavia's armaments including tank and aircraft assembly, domestic appliances), oil refining (1991)
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab accounted for 9.0% of GDP in 1989; regularly produces less than 50% of food needs; the foothills of northern Bosnia support orchards, vineyards, livestock, and some wheat and corn; long winters and heavy precipitation leach soil fertility reducing agricultural output in the mountains; farms are mostly privately held, small, and not very productive (1991)
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab NA
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab $NA
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 dinar = 100 para; Croatian dinar used in Croat-held area, presumably to be replaced by new Croatian kuna; old and new Serbian dinars used in Serb-held area; hard currencies probably supplanting local currencies in areas held by Bosnian government
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab NA
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab calendar year{\b Overview}
\par \tab The economy has historically been based on cattle raising and crops. Agriculture today provides a livelihood for more than 80% of the population but supplies only about 50% of food needs and accounts for only 5% of GDP. Subsistence farming and cattle raising predominate. The driving force behind the rapid economic growth of the 1970s and 1980s has been the mining industry. This sector, mostly on the strength of diamonds, has gone from generating 25% of GDP in 1980 to 39% in 1994. No other sector has experienced such growth, especially not agriculture, which is plagued by erratic rainfall and poor soils. The unemployment rate remains a problem at 25%. Hampered by a still sluggish diamond market in 1994, GDP grew by only 1%.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $4.3 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 1% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $3,130 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 10% (1994 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 25% (1994 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $1.7 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $1.99 billion, including capital expenditures of $652 million (FY93/94)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $1.8 billion (f.o.b. 1994)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab diamonds 78%, copper and nickel 6%, meat 5%
\par \tab US aid (1992), $13 million; Norway (1992), $16 million; Sweden (1992), $15.5 million; Germany (1992), $3.6 million; EC/Lome-IV (1992), $3 million-$6 million in grants; $28.7 million in long-term projects (1992)
\par \tab The economy, with large agrarian, mining, and manufacturing sectors, entered the 1990s with declining real growth, runaway inflation, an unserviceable foreign debt of $122 billion, and a lack of policy direction. In addition, the economy remained highly regulated, inward-looking, and protected by substantial trade and investment barriers. Ownership of major industrial and mining facilities is divided among private interests - including several multinationals - and the government. Most large agricultural holdings are private, with the government channeling financing to this sector. Conflicts between large landholders and landless peasants have produced intermittent violence. The COLLOR government, which assumed office in March 1990, launched an ambitious reform program that sought to modernize and reinvigorate the economy by stabilizing prices, deregulating the economy, and opening it to increased foreign competition. Itamar FRANCO, who assumed the presidency following President COLLOR's resignation in December 1992, was out of step with COLLOR's reform agenda; initiatives to redress fiscal problems, privatize state enterprises, and liberalize trade and investment policies lost momentum. Galloping inflation - by June 1994 the monthly rate had risen to nearly 50% - had undermined economic stability. In response, the then finance minister, Fernando Henrique CARDOSO, launched the third phase of his stabilization plan, known as Plano Real, that called for a new currency, the real, which was introduced on 1 July 1994. Inflation subsequently dropped to under 3% per month through the end of 1994. The newly elected President CARDOSO has called for the implementation of sweeping market-oriented reform, including public sector and fiscal reform, privatization, deregulation, and elimination of barriers to increased foreign investment. Brazil's natural resources remain a major, long-term economic strength.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $886.3 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 5.3% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $5,580 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 1,094% (1994 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 4.9% (1993)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $113 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $109 billion, including capital expenditures of $23 billion (1992)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $43.6 billion (f.o.b., 1994 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab iron ore, soybean bran, orange juice, footwear, coffee, motor vehicle parts
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab EC 27.6%, Latin America 21.8%, US 17.4%, Japan 6.3% (1993)
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $33.2 billion (f.o.b., 1994 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab crude oil, capital goods, chemical products, foodstuffs, coal
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab US 23.3%, EC 22.5%, Middle East 13.0%, Latin America 11.8%, Japan 6.5% (1993)
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $134 billion (1994)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 9.5% (1993); accounts for 39% of GDP
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 55,130,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 241.4 billion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 1,589 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab textiles, shoes, chemicals, cement, lumber, mining (iron ore, tin), steel making, machine building - including aircraft, motor vehicles, motor vehicle parts and assemblies, and other machinery and equipment
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab accounts for 11% of GDP; world's largest producer and exporter of coffee and orange juice concentrate and second-largest exporter of soybeans; other products - rice, corn, sugarcane, cocoa, beef; self-sufficient in food, except for wheat
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab illicit producer of cannabis and coca, mostly for domestic consumption; government has a small-scale eradication program to control cannabis and coca cultivation; important transshipment country for Bolivian and Colombian cocaine headed for the US and Europe
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-89), $2.5 billion; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $10.2 million; OPEC bilateral aid (1979-89), $284 million; former Communist countries (1970-89), $1.3 billion
\par \tab on 1 August 1993 the cruzeiro real (CR$), equal to 1,000 cruzeiros, was introduced; another new currency, the real, was introduced on 1 July 1994, equal to 2,750 cruzeiro reals
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab calendar year{\b Overview}
\par \tab The economy, one of the most prosperous in the Caribbean area, is highly dependent on the tourist industry, which generates about 21% of the national income. In 1985 the government offered offshore registration to companies wishing to incorporate in the islands, and, in consequence, incorporation fees generated about $2 million in 1987. The economy slowed in 1991 because of the poor performances of the tourist sector and tight commercial bank credit. Livestock raising is the most significant agricultural activity. The islands' crops, limited by poor soils, are unable to meet food requirements.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $133 million (1991)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 2% (1991)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $10,600 (1991)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 2.5% (1990 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab NEGL% (1992)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $51 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $88 million, including capital expenditures of $38 million (1991)
\par \tab 1 United States dollar (US$) = 100 cents
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab US currency is used
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab 1 April - 31 March{\b Overview}
\par \tab The economy is a mixture of foreign and domestic entrepreneurship, government regulation and welfare measures, and village tradition. It is almost totally supported by exports of crude oil and natural gas, with revenues from the petroleum sector accounting for more than 40% of GDP. Per capita GDP is among the highest in the Third World, and substantial income from overseas investment supplements domestic production. The government provides for all medical services and subsidizes food and housing.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $4.43 billion (1993 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab -4% (1993 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $16,000 (1993 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 2.5% (1993 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 5% (1993 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $1.5 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $1.5 billion, including capital expenditures of $255 million (1990 est.)
\par \tab Japan 52%, South Korea 10%, UK 9%, Thailand 7%, Singapore 6% (1991)
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $1.2 billion (c.i.f., 1993 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab machinery and transport equipment, manufactured goods, food, chemicals
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Singapore 34%, UK 23%, US 10%, Japan 8%, Malaysia 7%, Switzerland 4% (1991)
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $0
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 12.9% (1987); accounts for 41.6% of GDP (1990), includes mining, quarrying, and manufacturing
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 380,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 1.2 billion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 3,971 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab petroleum, petroleum refining, liquefied natural gas, construction
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab imports about 80% of its food needs; principal crops and livestock include rice, cassava, bananas, buffaloes, and pigs
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-87), $20.6 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $153 million
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 Bruneian dollar (B$) = 100 cents
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab Bruneian dollars (B$) per US$1 - 1.4524 (January 1995), 1.5274 (1994), 1.6158 (1993), 1.6290 (1992), 1.7276 (1991), 1.8125 (1990); note - the Bruneian dollar is at par with the Singapore dollar
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab calendar year{\b Overview}
\par \tab The Bulgarian economy continued its painful adjustment in 1994 from the misdirected development undertaken during four decades of Communist rule. Many aspects of a market economy have been put in place and have begun to function, but much of the economy, especially the industrial sector, has yet to re-establish market links lost with the collapse of the other centrally planned Soviet Bloc economies. The prices of many imported industrial inputs, especially energy products, have risen markedly, and falling real wages have not sufficed to restore competitiveness. The government plans more extensive privatization in 1995 to improve the management of enterprises and to encourage foreign investment. Bulgaria resumed payments on its $10 billion in commercial debt in 1993 following the negotiation of a 50% write-off.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $33.7 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 0.2% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $3,830 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 122% (1994)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 16% (1994)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $14 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $17.4 billion, including capital expenditures of $610 million (1993 est.)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $3.6 billion (f.o.b., 1993)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab machinery and equipment 30.6%; agricultural products 24%; manufactured consumer goods 22.2%; fuels, minerals, raw materials, and metals 10.5%; other 12.7% (1991)
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab former CEMA countries 57.7% (FSU 48.6%, Poland 2.1%, Czechoslovakia 0.9%); developed countries 26.3% (Germany 4.8%, Greece 2.2%); less developed countries 15.9% (Libya 2.1%, Iran 0.7%) (1991)
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $4.3 billion (c.i.f., 1993)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab fuels, minerals, and raw materials 58.7%; machinery and equipment 15.8%; manufactured consumer goods 4.4%; agricultural products 15.2%; other 5.9%
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab former CEMA countries 51.0% (FSU 43.2%, Poland 3.7%); developed countries 32.8% (Germany 7.0%, Austria 4.7%); less developed countries 16.2% (Iran 2.8%, Libya 2.5%)
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $12 billion (1994)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 4% (1994); accounts for about 37% of GDP (1990)
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 11,500,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 35.9 billion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 3,827 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab machine building and metal working, food processing, chemicals, textiles, building materials, ferrous and nonferrous metals
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab climate and soil conditions support livestock raising and the growing of various grain crops, oilseeds, vegetables, fruits, and tobacco; more than one-third of the arable land devoted to grain; world's fourth-largest tobacco exporter; surplus food producer
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab transshipment point for southwest Asian heroin and South American cocaine transiting the Balkan route; limited producer of precursor chemicals
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab $700 million in balance of payments support (1994)
\par \tab One of the poorest countries in the world, Burkina has a high population density and a high population growth rate, few natural resources, and a fragile soil. Economic development is hindered by a poor communications network within a landlocked country. Agriculture provides about 40% of GDP and is mainly of a subsistence nature. Industry, dominated by unprofitable government-controlled corporations, accounts for about 15% of GDP. Following the 50% currency devaluation in January 1994, the government updated its development program in conjunction with international agencies. Even with the best of plans, however, the government faces formidable problems on all sides.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $6.5 billion (1993 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 0.4% (1993 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $660 (1993 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab -0.6% (1993 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $483 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $548 million, including capital expenditures of $189 million (1992)
\par \tab accounts for about 40% of GDP; cash crops - peanuts, shea nuts, sesame, cotton; food crops - sorghum, millet, corn, rice; livestock; not self-sufficient in food grains
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-89), $294 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $2.9 billion; Communist countries (1970-89), $113 million
\par \tab beginning 12 January 1994 the CFA franc was devalued to CFAF 100 per French franc from CFAF 50 at which it had been fixed since 1948
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab calendar year{\b Overview}
\par \tab Burma has a mixed economy with about 75% private activity, mainly in agriculture, light industry, and transport, and with about 25% state-controlled activity, mainly in energy, heavy industry, and foreign trade. Government policy in the last six years, 1989-94, has aimed at revitalizing the economy after four decades of tight central planning. Thus, private activity has markedly increased; foreign investment has been encouraged, so far with moderate success; and efforts continue to increase the efficiency of state enterprises. Published estimates of Burma's foreign trade are greatly understated because of the volume of black market trade. A major ongoing problem is the failure to achieve monetary and fiscal stability. Although Burma remains a poor Asian country, its rich resources furnish the potential for substantial long-term increases in income, exports, and living standards.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $41.4 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 6.4% (1994)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $930 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 38% (1994 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $4.4 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $6.7 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (FY93/94 est.)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $674 million (FY93/94 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab pulses and beans, teak, rice, hardwood
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Singapore, China, Thailand, India, Hong Kong
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $1.2 billion (FY93/94 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab machinery, transport equipment, chemicals, food products
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Japan, China, Thailand, Singapore, Malaysia
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $5.4 billion (FY93/94 est.)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 4.9% (FY92/93 est.); accounts for 10% of GDP
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 1,100,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 2.6 billion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 55 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab agricultural processing; textiles and footwear; wood and wood products; petroleum refining; mining of copper, tin, tungsten, iron; construction materials; pharmaceuticals; fertilizer
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab accounts for 65% of GDP and 65% of employment (including fishing, animal husbandry, and forestry); self-sufficient in food; principal crops - paddy rice, corn, oilseed, sugarcane, pulses; world's largest stand of hardwood trees; rice and timber account for 55% of export revenues
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab world's largest illicit producer of opium (2,030 metric tons in 1994 - dropped 21% due to regional drought in 1994) and minor producer of cannabis for the international drug trade; opium production continues to be almost double since the collapse of Rangoon's antinarcotic programs; growing role in amphetamine production for regional consumption
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-89), $158 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $3.9 billion; Communist countries (1970-89), $424 million
\par \tab A landlocked, resource-poor country in an early stage of economic development, Burundi since October 1993 has suffered from massive ethnic-based violence that has displaced an estimated million people, disrupted production, and set back needed reform programs. Burundi is predominately agricultural with roughly 90% of the population dependent on subsistence agriculture. Its economic health depends on the coffee crop, which accounts for 80% of foreign exchange earnings. The ability to pay for imports therefore continues to rest largely on the vagaries of the climate and the international coffee market. As part of its economic reform agenda, launched in February 1991 with IMF and World Bank support, Burundi is trying to diversify its agricultural exports, attract foreign investment in industry, and modernize government budgetary practices. Although the government remains committed to reforms, it fears new austerity measures would add to ethnic tensions.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $3.7 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab -13.5% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $600 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 10% (1993 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $318 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $326 million, including capital expenditures of $150 million (1991 est.)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $68 million (f.o.b., 1993)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab coffee 81%, tea, cotton, hides, and skins
\par \tab growth rate 11% (1991 est.); accounts for about 15% of GDP
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 55,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 100 million kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 20 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab light consumer goods such as blankets, shoes, soap; assembly of imported components; public works construction; food processing
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab accounts for 50% of GDP; cash crops - coffee, cotton, tea; food crops - corn, sorghum, sweet potatoes, bananas, manioc; livestock - meat, milk, hides and skins
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-89), $71 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $10.2 billion; OPEC bilateral aid (1979-89), $32 million; Communist countries (1970-89), $175 million
\par \tab The Cambodian economy - virtually destroyed by decades of war - is slowly recovering. Government leaders are moving toward restoring fiscal and monetary discipline and have established good working relations with international financial institutions. Growth, starting from a low base, has been strong in 1991-94. Despite such positive developments, the reconstruction effort faces many tough challenges because of the persistence of internal political divisions and the related lack of confidence of foreign investors. Rural Cambodia, where 90% of about 9.5 million Khmer live, remains mired in poverty. The almost total lack of basic infrastructure in the countryside will hinder development and will contribute to a growing imbalance in growth between urban and rural areas over the near term. Moreover, the government's lack of experience in administering economic and technical assistance programs and rampant corruption among officials will slow the growth of critical public sector investment. Inflation for 1994 as a whole was less than a quarter of the 1992 rate and was declining during the year.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $6.4 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 5% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $630 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 26%-30% (1994 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $190 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $365 million, including capital expenditures of $120 million (1994 est.)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $283.6 million (f.o.b., 1993)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab timber, rubber, soybeans, sesame
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Singapore, Japan, Thailand, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Malaysia
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $479.3 million (c.i.f., 1993)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab cigarettes, construction materials, petroleum products, machinery
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Singapore, Vietnam, Japan, Australia, Hong Kong, Indonesia
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $383 million to OECD members (1993)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 7.9% (1993 est.); accounts for 8% of GDP
\par \tab increasingly used as a transshipment country for heroin produced in the Golden Triangle; growing money-laundering center; high-level narcotics-related corruption in government; possible small-scale heroin production; large producer of cannibis
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-89), $725 million; Western (non-US countries) (1970-89), $300 million; Communist countries (1970-89), $1.8 billion; donor countries and multilateral institutions pledged $880 million in assistance in 1992; IMF pledged $120 million in aid for 1995-98
\par \tab Because of its offshore oil resources and favorable agricultural conditions, Cameroon has one of the best-endowed, most diversified primary commodity economies in sub-Saharan Africa. Still, it faces many of the serious problems facing other underdeveloped countries, such as political instability, a top-heavy civil service, and a generally unfavorable climate for business enterprise. The development of the oil sector led rapid economic growth between 1970 and 1985. Growth came to an abrupt halt in 1986, precipitated by steep declines in the prices of major exports: coffee, cocoa, and petroleum. Export earnings were cut by almost one-third, and inefficiencies in fiscal management were exposed. In 1990-93, with support from the IMF and World Bank, the government began to introduce reforms designed to spur business investment, increase efficiency in agriculture, and recapitalize the nation's banks. Political instability, following suspect elections in 1992, brought IMF/WB structural adjustment to a halt. Although the 50% devaluation of the currency in January 1994 improved the potential for export growth, mismanagement remains and is the main barrier to economic improvement.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $15.7 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab -2.9% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $1,200 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab -0.8% (FY91/92)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 25% (1990 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $1.6 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $2.3 billion, including capital expenditures of $226 million (FY92/93 est.)
\par \tab EC (particularly France) about 40%, African countries, US
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $1.96 billion (c.i.f., 1993)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab machines and electrical equipment, food, consumer goods, transport equipment
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab EC about 60% (France 38%, Germany 9%), African countries, Japan, US 5%
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $6 billion (1991)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate -2.1% (FY90/91); accounts for about 20% of GDP
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 630,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 2.7 billion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 196 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab petroleum production and refining, food processing, light consumer goods, textiles, lumber
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab the agriculture and forestry sectors provide employment for the majority of the population, contributing about 25% to GDP and providing a high degree of self-sufficiency in staple foods; commercial and food crops include coffee, cocoa, timber, cotton, rubber, bananas, oilseed, grains, livestock, root starches
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-90), $479 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-90), $4.75 billion; OPEC bilateral aid (1979-89), $29 million; Communist countries (1970-89), $125 million
\par \tab beginning 12 January 1994, the CFA franc was devalued to CFAF 100 per French franc from CFAF 50 at which it had been fixed since 1948
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab 1 July - 30 June{\b Overview}
\par \tab As an affluent, high-tech industrial society, Canada today closely resembles the US in per capita output, market-oriented economic system, and pattern of production. Since World War II the impressive growth of the manufacturing, mining, and service sectors has transformed the nation from a largely rural economy into one primarily industrial and urban. In the 1980s, Canada registered one of the highest rates of real growth among the OECD nations, averaging about 3.2%. With its great natural resources, skilled labor force, and modern capital plant, Canada has excellent economic prospects, although the country still faces high unemployment and a growing debt. Moreover, the continuing constitutional impasse between English- and French-speaking areas has observers discussing a possible split in the confederation; foreign investors have become edgy.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $639.8 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 4.5% (1994)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $22,760 (1994)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 0.2% (1994)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 9.6% (December 1994)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $85 billion (Federal)
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $115.3 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (FY93/94 est.)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $164.3 billion (f.o.b., 1994 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab newsprint, wood pulp, timber, crude petroleum, machinery, natural gas, aluminum, motor vehicles and parts; telecommunications equipment
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab US, Japan, UK, Germany, South Korea, Netherlands, China
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $151.5 billion (c.i.f., 1994 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab crude oil, chemicals, motor vehicles and parts, durable consumer goods, electronic computers; telecommunications equipment and parts
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab US, Japan, UK, Germany, France, Mexico, Taiwan, South Korea
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $243 billion (1993)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 4.8% (1993)
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 108,090,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 511 billion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 16,133 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab processed and unprocessed minerals, food products, wood and paper products, transportation equipment, chemicals, fish products, petroleum and natural gas
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab accounts for about 3% of GDP; one of the world's major producers and exporters of grain (wheat and barley); key source of US agricultural imports; large forest resources cover 35% of total land area; commercial fisheries provide annual catch of 1.5 million metric tons, of which 75% is exported
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab illicit producer of cannabis for the domestic drug market; use of hydroponics technology permits growers to plant large quantities of high-quality marijuana indoors; growing role as a transit point for heroin and cocaine entering the US market
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b donor}
\par \tab ODA and OOF commitments (1970-89), $7.2 billion
\par \tab Cape Verde's low per capita GDP reflects a poor natural resource base, serious water shortages exacerbated by cycles of long-term drought, and a high birthrate. The economy is service oriented, with commerce, transport, and public services accounting for 60% of GDP. Although nearly 70% of the population lives in rural areas, agriculture's share of GDP is only 20%; the fishing sector accounts for 4%. About 90% of food must be imported. The fishing potential, mostly lobster and tuna, is not fully exploited. Cape Verde annually runs a high trade deficit, financed by remittances from emigrants and foreign aid, which form important supplements to GDP. Economic reforms, launched by the new democratic government in 1991, are aimed at developing the private sector and attracting foreign investment to diversify the economy. Prospects for 1995 depend heavily on the maintenance of aid flows, remittances, and the momentum of the government's development program.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $410 million (1993 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 3.5% (1992 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $1,000 (1993 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 7% (1992)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 26% (1990 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $174 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $235 million, including capital expenditures of $165 million (1993 est.)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $4.4 million (f.o.b., 1992 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab fish, bananas, hides and skins
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Netherlands, Portugal, Angola
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $173 million (c.i.f., 1992 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab foodstuffs, consumer goods, industrial products, transport equipment
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Portugal, Netherlands, Germany, Spain
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $156 million (1991)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 3.6% (1990 est.); accounts for 8% of GDP
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 15,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 40 million kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 73 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab fish processing, salt mining, garment industry, ship repair, construction materials, food and beverage production
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab accounts for 20% of GDP (including fishing); largely subsistence farming; bananas are the only export crop; other crops - corn, beans, sweet potatoes, coffee; growth potential of agricultural sector limited by poor soils and scanty rainfall; annual food imports required; fish catch provides for both domestic consumption and small exports
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab increasingly used as a transshipment point for illicit drugs moving from Latin America and Africa destined for Western Europe
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY75-90), $93 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-90), $586 million; OPEC bilateral aid (1979-89), $12 million; Communist countries (1970-89), $36 million
\par \tab The economy depends heavily on tourism (70% of GDP and 75% of foreign currency earnings) and offshore financial services, with the tourist industry aimed at the luxury market and catering mainly to visitors from North America. About 90% of the islands' food and consumer goods must be imported. The Caymanians enjoy one of the highest outputs per capita and one of the highest standards of living in the world.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $700 million (1993 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 1.4% (1991)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $23,000 (1993 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 2.5% (1993 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 7% (1992)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $141.5 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $160.7 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1991)
\par \tab US, Trinidad and Tobago, UK, Netherlands Antilles, Japan
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $15 million (1986)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate NA%
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 80,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 230 million kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 6,899 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab tourism, banking, insurance and finance, construction, building materials, furniture making
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab minor production of vegetables, fruit, livestock; turtle farming
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab a major money-laundering center for illicit drug profits; transshipment point for narcotics bound for the US and Europe
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-89), $26.7 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $35 million
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 Caymanian dollar (CI$) = 100 cents
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab Caymanian dollars (CI$) per US$1 - 0.83 (18 November 1993), 0.85 (22 November 1993)
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab 1 April - 31 March{\b Overview}
\par \tab Subsistence agriculture, together with forestry, remains the backbone of the CAR economy, with more than 70% of the population living in outlying areas. The agricultural sector generates about half of GDP. Timber has accounted for about 26% of export earnings and the diamond industry for 54%. Important constraints to economic development include the CAR's landlocked position, a poor transportation system, a largely unskilled work force, and a legacy of misdirected macroeconomic policies. A major plus is the large forest reserves, which the government is moving to protect from overexploitation. The 50% devaluation of the currencies of 14 Francophone African nations on 12 January 1994 had mixed effects on CAR's economy. While diamond, timber, coffee, and cotton exports increased - leading GDP to increase by 5.5% - inflation rose to 40%, fueled by the rising prices of imports on which the economy depends. CAR's poor resource base and primitive infrastructure will keep it dependent on multilateral donors and France for the foreseeable future.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $2.2 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 5.5% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $700 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 40% (1994 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 30% (1988 est.) in Bangui
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $175 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $312 million, including capital expenditures of $122 million (1991 est.)
\par \tab France, other EC countries, Japan, Algeria
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $859 million (1991)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 4% (1990 est.); accounts for 14% of GDP
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 40,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 100 million kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 29 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab diamond mining, sawmills, breweries, textiles, footwear, assembly of bicycles and motorcycles
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab self-sufficient in food production except for grain; commercial crops - cotton, coffee, tobacco, timber; food crops - manioc, yams, millet, corn, bananas
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-90), $52 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-90), $1.6 billion; OPEC bilateral aid (1979-89), $6 million; Communist countries (1970-89), $38 million
\par \tab beginning 12 January 1994, the CFA franc was devalued to CFAF 100 per French franc from CFAF 50 at which it had been fixed since 1948
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab calendar year{\b Overview}
\par \tab Climate, geographic remoteness, poor resource endowment, and lack of infrastructure make Chad one of the most underdeveloped countries in the world. Its economy is hobbled by political turmoil, conflict with Libya, drought, and food shortages. Consequently the economy has shown little progress in recent years in overcoming a severe setback brought on by civil war in the late 1980s. More than 80% of the work force is involved in subsistence farming and fishing. Cotton is the major cash crop, accounting for at least half of exports. Chad is highly dependent on foreign aid, especially food credits, given chronic shortages in several regions. Of all the Francophone countries in Africa, Chad has benefited the least from the 50% devaluation of their currencies on 12 January 1994. Despite an increase in external financial aid and favorable price increases for cotton - the primary source of foreign exchange - the corrupt and enfeebled government bureaucracy continues to dampen economic enterprise by neglecting payments to domestic suppliers and public sector salaries. Oil production in the Lake Chad area remains a distant prospect and the subsistence-driven economy probably will continue to limp along in the near term.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $2.8 billion (1993 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 3.5% (1993 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $530 (1993 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab -4.1% (1992)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $120 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $363 million, including capital expenditures of $104 million (1992 est.)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $190 million (f.o.b., 1992)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab cotton 48%, cattle 35%, textiles 5%, fish
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab France, Nigeria, Cameroon
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $261 million (f.o.b., 1992)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab machinery and transportation equipment 39%, industrial goods 20%, petroleum products 13%, foodstuffs 9%; note - excludes military equipment
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab US, France, Nigeria, Cameroon
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $492 million (December 1990 est.)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 2.7% (1992 est.); accounts for nearly 15% of GDP
\par \tab accounts for about 45% of GDP; largely subsistence farming; cotton most important cash crop; food crops include sorghum, millet, peanuts, rice, potatoes, manioc; livestock - cattle, sheep, goats, camels; self-sufficient in food in years of adequate rainfall
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-89), $198 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $1.5 billion; OPEC bilateral aid (1979-89), $28 million; Communist countries (1970-89), $80 million
\par \tab beginning 12 January 1994 the CFA franc was devalued to CFAF 100 per French franc from CFAF 50 at which it had been fixed since 1948
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab calendar year{\b Overview}
\par \tab Chile has a prosperous, essentially free market economy, with the degree of government intervention varying according to the philosophy of the different regimes. Under the center-left government of President AYLWIN, which took power in March 1990, spending on social welfare rose steadily. At the same time business investment, exports, and consumer spending also grew substantially. The new president, FREI, who took office in March 1994, has emphasized social spending even more. Growth in 1991-94 has averaged 6.5% annually, with an estimated one million Chileans having moved out of poverty in the last four years. Copper remains vital to the health of the economy; Chile is the world's largest producer and exporter of copper. Success in meeting the government's goal of sustained annual growth of 5% depends on world copper prices, the level of confidence of foreign investors and creditors, and the government's own ability to maintain a conservative fiscal stance.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $97.7 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 4.3% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $7,010 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 8.7% (1994 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 6% (1994 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $10.9 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $10.9 billion, including capital expenditures of $1.2 billion (1993)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $11.5 billion (f.o.b., 1994)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab copper 41%, other metals and minerals 8.7%, wood products 7.1%, fish and fishmeal 9.8%, fruits 8.4% (1991)
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab EC 29%, Japan 17%, US 16%, Argentina 5%, Brazil 5% (1992)
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $10.9 billion (f.o.b., 1994)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab capital goods 25.2%, spare parts 24.8%, raw materials 15.4%, petroleum 10%, foodstuffs 5.7%
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab EC 24%, US 21%, Brazil 10%, Japan 10% (1992)
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $20 billion (1994 est.)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 4.3% (1993 est.); accounts for 34% of GDP
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 4,810,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 22 billion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 1,499 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab copper, other minerals, foodstuffs, fish processing, iron and steel, wood and wood products, transport equipment, cement, textiles
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab accounts for about 7% of GDP (including fishing and forestry); major exporter of fruit, fish, and timber products; major crops - wheat, corn, grapes, beans, sugar beets, potatoes, deciduous fruit; livestock products - beef, poultry, wool; self-sufficient in most foods; 1991 fish catch of 6.6 million metric tons; net agricultural importer
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab a minor transshipment country for cocaine destined for the US and Europe; booming economy has made it more attractive to traffickers seeking to launder drug profits
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-89), $521 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $1.6 billion; Communist countries (1970-89), $386 million
\par \tab Beginning in late 1978 the Chinese leadership has been trying to move the economy from the sluggish Soviet-style centrally planned economy to a more productive and flexible economy with market elements, but still within the framework of monolithic Communist control. To this end the authorities switched to a system of household responsibility in agriculture in place of the old collectivization, increased the authority of local officials and plant managers in industry, permitted a wide variety of small-scale enterprise in services and light manufacturing, and opened the economy to increased foreign trade and investment. The result has been a strong surge in production, particularly in agriculture in the early 1980s. Industry also has posted major gains, especially in coastal areas near Hong Kong and opposite Taiwan, where foreign investment and modern production methods have helped spur production of both domestic and export goods. Aggregate output has more than doubled since 1978. On the darker side, the leadership has often experienced in its hybrid system the worst results of socialism (bureaucracy, lassitude, corruption) and of capitalism (windfall gains and stepped-up inflation). Beijing thus has periodically backtracked, retightening central controls at intervals. In 1992-94 annual growth of GDP accelerated, particularly in the coastal areas - to more than 10% annually according to official claims. In late 1993 China's leadership approved additional long-term reforms aimed at giving more play to market-oriented institutions and at strengthening the center's control over the financial system. In 1994 strong growth continued in the widening market-oriented areas of the economy. At the same time, the government struggled to (a) collect revenues due from provinces, businesses, and individuals; (b) keep inflation within bounds; (c) reduce extortion and other economic crimes; and (d) keep afloat the large state-owned enterprises, most of which had not participated in the vigorous expansion of the economy. From 60 to 100 million surplus rural workers are adrift between the villages and the cities, many barely subsisting through part-time low-pay jobs. Popular resistance, changes in central policy, and loss of authority by rural cadres have weakened China's population control program, which is essential to the nation's long-term economic viability. One of the most dangerous long-term threats to continued rapid economic growth is the deterioration in the environment, notably air pollution, soil erosion, and the steady fall of the water table especially in the north.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $2.9788 trillion (1994 estimate as extrapolated from World Bank estimate for 1992 by use of official Chinese growth statistics for 1993-94; because of the difficulties with official statistics in this time of rapid change, the result may overstate China's GDP by as much as 25%)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 11.8% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $2,500 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 25.5% (December 1994 over December 1993)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 2.7% in urban areas (1994); substantial underemployment
{\b Budget}
\par \tab deficit $13.7 billion (1994)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $121 billion (f.o.b., 1994)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab textiles, garments, footwear, toys, machinery and equipment, weapon systems
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Hong Kong, Japan, US, Germany, South Korea, Russia (1993)
\par \tab Japan, Taiwan, US, Hong Kong, Germany, South Korea (1993)
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $100 billion (1994 est.)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 17.5% (1994 est.)
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 162,000,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 746 billion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 593 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab iron and steel, coal, machine building, armaments, textiles and apparel, petroleum, cement, chemical fertilizers, consumer durables, food processing, autos, consumer electronics, telecommunications
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab accounts for almost 30% of GDP; among the world's largest producers of rice, potatoes, sorghum, peanuts, tea, millet, barley, and pork; commercial crops include cotton, other fibers, and oilseeds; produces variety of livestock products; basically self-sufficient in food; fish catch of 13.35 million metric tons (including fresh water and pond raised) (1991)
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab illicit producer of opium; bulk of production is in Yunnan Province (which produced 25 metric tons in 1994); transshipment point for heroin produced in the Golden Triangle
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b donor}
\par \tab to less developed countries (1970-89) $7 billion
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-87), $220.7 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-87), $13.5 billion
\par \tab beginning 1 January 1994, the People's Bank of China quotes the midpoint rate against the US dollar based on the previous day's prevailing rate in the interbank foreign exchange market
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab calendar year{\b Overview}
\par \tab Colombia's economy has grown steadily since 1991, when the government implemented sweeping economic reform measures. President SAMPER, who took office in August 1994, has pledged to maintain those reforms while expanding government assistance for poor Colombians, who continue to make up about 40% of the population. In an effort to bring down inflation, SAMPER has arranged a "social pact" with business and labor to curtail price hikes and trim inflation to 18%. The rapid development of oil, coal, and other nontraditional industries, along with copious inflows of capital and strengthening of prices for coffee, have helped keep growth at 5%-6%. Development of the massive Cusiana oilfield provides the means to sustain this level over the next several years. Exporters say, however, that their sales have been hampered by the appreciation of the Colombian peso, and farmers have sought government help in adjusting to greater foreign competition. Moreover, increased foreign investment and even greater domestic growth have been hindered by an inadequate energy and transportation infrastructure and by violence stemming from drug trafficking and persistent rural insurgency.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $172.4 billion (1994 est.)
\par \tab US 36%, EC 18%, Brazil 4%, Venezuela 6.5%, Japan 8.7% (1992)
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $12.6 billion (1994 est.)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 5% (1994 est.); accounts for about 20% of GDP
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 10,220,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 33 billion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 890 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab textiles, food processing, oil, clothing and footwear, beverages, chemicals, metal products, cement; mining - gold, coal, emeralds, iron, nickel, silver, salt
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab growth rate 3.8% (1994 est.); accounts for about 15% of GDP; crops make up two-thirds and livestock one-third of agricultural output; climate and soils permit a wide variety of crops, such as coffee, rice, tobacco, corn, sugarcane, cocoa beans, oilseeds, vegetables; forest products and shrimp farming are becoming more important
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab illicit producer of coca, opium poppies, and cannabis; about 45,000 hectares of coca under cultivation; the world's largest processor of coca derivatives into cocaine; supplier of cocaine to the US and other international drug markets; active eradication program against narcotics crop
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-89), $1.6 billion; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $3.3 billion; Communist countries (1970-89), $399 million
\par \tab One of the world's poorest countries, Comoros is made up of several islands that have poor transportation links, a young and rapidly increasing population, and few natural resources. The low educational level of the labor force contributes to a subsistence level of economic activity, high unemployment, and a heavy dependence on foreign grants and technical assistance. Agriculture, including fishing, hunting, and forestry, is the leading sector of the economy. It contributes 40% to GDP, employs 80% of the labor force, and provides most of the exports. The country is not self-sufficient in food production; rice, the main staple, accounts for 90% of imports. The government is struggling to upgrade education and technical training, to privatize commercial and industrial enterprises, to improve health services, to diversify exports, and to reduce the high population growth rate. Continued foreign support is essential if the goal of 4% annual GDP growth is to be reached in the late 1990s.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $370 million (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 0.9% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $700 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 15% (1993 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 15.8% (1989)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $83 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $92 million, including capital expenditures of $32 million (1992)
\par \tab accounts for 40% of GDP; most of population works in subsistence agriculture and fishing; plantations produce cash crops for export - vanilla, cloves, perfume essences, copra; principal food crops - coconuts, bananas, cassava; world's leading producer of essence of ylang-ylang (for perfumes) and second-largest producer of vanilla; large net food importer
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY80-89), $10 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $435 million; OPEC bilateral aid (1979-89), $22 million; Communist countries (1970-89), $18 million
\par \tab beginning 12 January 1994, the Comoran franc was devalued to 75 per French franc from 50 per French franc at which it had been fixed since 1948
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab calendar year{\b Overview}
\par \tab Congo's economy is a mixture of village agriculture and handicrafts, an industrial sector based largely on oil, support services, and a government characterized by budget problems and overstaffing. A reform program, supported by the IMF and World Bank, ran into difficulties in 1990-91 because of problems in changing to a democratic political regime and a heavy debt-servicing burden. Oil has supplanted forestry as the mainstay of the economy, providing about two-thirds of government revenues and exports. In the early 1980s rapidly rising oil revenues enabled Congo to finance large-scale development projects with growth averaging 5% annually, one of the highest rates in Africa. Subsequently, growth has slowed to an average of roughly 1.5% annually, only two-thirds of the population growth rate. Political turmoil and misguided government investment have derailed economic reform programs sponsored by the IMF and World Bank. Even with these difficulties Congo enjoys one of the highest incomes per capita in sub-Saharan Africa
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $6.7 billion (1993 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab -2.1% (1993 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $2,820 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 2.2% (1992 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $765 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $952 million, including capital expenditures of $65 million (1990)
\par \tab accounts for 12% of GDP (including fishing and forestry); cassava accounts for 90% of food output; other crops - rice, corn, peanuts, vegetables; cash crops include coffee and cocoa; forest products important export earner; imports over 90% of food needs
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-90), $63 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-90), $2.5 billion; OPEC bilateral aid (1979-89), $15 million; Communist countries (1970-89), $338 million
\par \tab beginning 12 January 1994, the CFA franc was devalued to CFAF 100 per French franc from CFAF 50 at which it had been fixed since 1948
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab calendar year{\b Overview}
\par \tab Costa Rica's basically stable and progressive economy depends especially on tourism and export of bananas, coffee, and other agricultural products. In 1994 the economy grew at an estimated 4.3%, compared with 6.5% in 1993, 7.7% in 1992, and 2.1% in 1991. Inflation in 1993 dropped to 9% from 17% in 1992 and 25% in 1991, an indication of basic financial stability. Unemployment is officially reported at only 4.0%, but there is much underemployment. Costa Rica signed a free trade agreement with Mexico in 1994.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $16.9 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 4.3% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $5,050 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 9% (1993 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 4% (1993); much underemployment
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $1.1 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $1.34 billion, including capital expenditures of $110 million (1991 est.)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $2.1 billion (f.o.b., 1993)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab coffee, bananas, textiles, sugar
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab US, Germany, Italy, Guatemala, El Salvador, Netherlands, UK, France
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $2.9 billion (c.i.f., 1993)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab raw materials, consumer goods, capital equipment, petroleum
\par \tab growth rate 10.5% (1992); accounts for 22% of GDP
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 1,040,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 4.1 billion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 1,164 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab food processing, textiles and clothing, construction materials, fertilizer, plastic products
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab accounts for 19% of GDP and 70% of exports; cash commodities - coffee, beef, bananas, sugar; other food crops include corn, rice, beans, potatoes; normally self-sufficient in food except for grain; depletion of forest resources resulting in lower timber output
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab transshipment country for cocaine and heroin from South America; illicit production of cannabis on small, scattered plots
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-89), $1.4 billion; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $935 million; Communist countries (1971-89), $27 million
\par \tab Cote d'Ivoire is among the world's largest producers and exporters of coffee, cocoa beans, and palm-kernel oil. Consequently, the economy is highly sensitive to fluctuations in international prices for coffee and cocoa and to weather conditions. Despite attempts by the government to diversify, the economy is still largely dependent on agriculture and related industries. After several years of lagging performance, the Ivorian economy began a comeback in 1994, due to improved prices for cocoa and coffee, growth in non-traditional primary exports such as pineapples and rubber, trade and banking liberalization, offshore oil and gas discoveries, and generous external financing and debt rescheduling by multilateral lenders and France. The 50% devaluation in January 1994 caused a one time jump in the inflation rate. Government adherence to a renewed structural adjustment program has led to a budget surplus for the first time in several years, a smaller personnel budget, and an increase in public investment. While real growth in 1994 was only 1.5%, the IMF and World Bank expect it will surpass 6% in 1995.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $20.5 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 1.5% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $1,430 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab NA%
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 14% (1985)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $1.9 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $3.4 billion, including capital expenditures of $408 million (1993)
\par \tab most important sector, contributing one-third to GDP and 80% to exports; cash crops include coffee, cocoa beans, timber, bananas, palm kernels, rubber; food crops - corn, rice, manioc, sweet potatoes; not self-sufficient in bread grain and dairy products
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab illicit producer of cannabis; mostly for local consumption; some international drug trade; transshipment point for Southwest and Southeast Asian heroin to Europe and occasionally to the US
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-89), $356 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-88), $5.2 billion
\par \tab beginning 12 January 1994, the CFA franc was devalued to CFAF 100 per French franc from CFAF 50 at which it had been fixed since 1948
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab calendar year{\b Overview}
\par \tab Before the dissolution of Yugoslavia, the republic of Croatia, after Slovenia, was the most prosperous and industrialized area, with a per capita output perhaps one-third above the Yugoslav average. At present, Croatian Serb Separatists control approximately one-third of the Croatian territory, and one of the overriding determinants of Croatia's long-term political and economic prospects will be the resolution of this territorial dispute. Croatia faces serious economic problems stemming from: the legacy of longtime Communist mismanagement of the economy; large foreign debt; damage during the fighting to bridges, factories, power lines, buildings, and houses; the large refugee population, both Croatian and Bosnian; and the disruption of economic ties to Serbia and the other former Yugoslav republics, as well as within its own territory. At the minimum, extensive Western aid and investment, especially in the tourist and oil industries, would seem necessary to revive the moribund economy. However, peace and political stability must come first; only then will recent government moves toward a "market-friendly" economy restore old levels of output. As of February 1995, fighting continues among Croats, Serbs, and Muslims, and national boundaries and final political arrangements are still in doubt.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $12.4 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 3.4% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $2,640 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 3% (1994 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 17% (December 1994)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $NA
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $NA, including capital expenditures of $NA
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $3.9 billion (f.o.b., 1993)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab machinery and transport equipment 30%, other manufacturers 37%, chemicals 11%, food and live animals 9%, raw materials 6.5%, fuels and lubricants 5% (1990)
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab EC countries, Slovenia
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $4.7 billion (c.i.f., 1993)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab machinery and transport equipment 21%, fuels and lubricants 19%, food and live animals 16%, chemicals 14%, manufactured goods 13%, miscellaneous manufactured articles 9%, raw materials 6.5%, beverages and tobacco 1% (1990)
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab EC countries, Slovenia, FSU countries
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $2.9 billion (September 1994)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate -4% (1994 est.)
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 3,570,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab NA kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab NA kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab chemicals and plastics, machine tools, fabricated metal, electronics, pig iron and rolled steel products, aluminum reduction, paper, wood products (including furniture), building materials (including cement), textiles, shipbuilding, petroleum and petroleum refining, food processing and beverages
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab Croatia normally produces a food surplus; most agricultural land in private hands and concentrated in Croat-majority districts in Slavonia and Istria; much of Slavonia's land has been put out of production by fighting; wheat, corn, sugar beets, sunflowers, alfalfa, and clover are main crops in Slavonia; central Croatian highlands are less fertile but support cereal production, orchards, vineyards, livestock breeding, and dairy farming; coastal areas and offshore islands grow olives, citrus fruits, and vegetables
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab IMF, $192 million
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 Croatian kuna (HRK) = 100 paras
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab Croatian kuna per US $1 - 5.6144 (November 1994)
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab calendar year{\b Overview}
\par \tab Cuba's heavily statist economy remains severely depressed as the result of its own inefficiencies and the loss of massive amounts of economic aid from the former Soviet Bloc. Total output in 1994 was only about half the output of 1989. The fall in output and in imports is reflected in the deterioration of food supplies, shortages of electricity, inability to get spare parts, and the replacement of motor-driven vehicles by bicycles and draft animals. Higher world market prices for sugar and nickel in 1994, however, resulted in a slight increase in export earnings for the first time in six years, despite lower production of both commodities. The growth of tourism slowed in late 1994 as a result of negative publicity surrounding the exodus of Cubans from the island and other international factors. The government continued its aggressive search for foreign investment and announced preliminary agreements to form large joint ventures with Mexican investors in telecommunications and oil refining. In mid-1994, the National Assembly began introducing several new taxes and price increases to stem growing excess liquidity and restore some of the peso's value as a monetary instrument. In October the government attempted to stimulate food production by permitting the sale of any surplus production (over state quotas) at unrestricted prices at designated markets. Similar but much smaller markets were also introduced for the sale of manufactured goods in December. The various government measures have influenced a remarkable appreciation of the black market value of the peso, from more than 100 pesos to the dollar in September 1994 to 40 pesos to the dollar in early 1995. Policy discussions continue in the bureaucracy over the proper pace and scope of economic reform.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $14 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 0.4% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $1,260 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab NA%
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $9.3 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $12.5 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1994 est.)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $1.6 billion (f.o.b., 1994 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab sugar, nickel, shellfish, tobacco, medical products, citrus, coffee
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Russia 15%, Canada 9%, China 8%, Egypt 6%, Spain 5%, Japan 4%, Morocco 4% (1994 est.)
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $1.7 billion (c.i.f., 1994 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab petroleum, food, machinery, chemicals
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Spain 17%, Mexico 10%, France 8%, China 8%, Venezuela 7%, Italy 4%, Canada 3%, (1994 est.)
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $10.8 billion (convertible currency, December 1993)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate NA%
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 3,990,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 12 billion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 1,022 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab sugar milling and refining, petroleum refining, food and tobacco processing, textiles, chemicals, paper and wood products, metals (particularly nickel), cement, fertilizers, consumer goods, agricultural machinery
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab key commercial crops - sugarcane, tobacco, and citrus fruits; other products - coffee, rice, potatoes, meat, beans; world's largest sugar exporter; not self-sufficient in food (excluding sugar); sector hurt by persistent shortages of fuels and parts
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $710 million; Communist countries (1970-89), $18.5 billion
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 Cuban peso (Cu$) = 100 centavos
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab Cuban pesos (Cu$) per US$1 - 1.0000 (non-convertible, official rate, linked to the US dollar)
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab calendar year{\b Overview}
\par \tab The Greek Cypriot economy is small, diversified, and prosperous. Industry contributes 14% to GDP and employs 29% of the labor force, while the service sector contributes 53% to GDP and employs 57% of the labor force. An average 6.8% rise in real GDP between 1986 and 1990 was temporarily checked in 1991, because of the adverse effects of the Gulf war on tourism. After surging 8.5% in 1992, growth slowed to 2.0% in 1993 - its lowest level in two decades - because of the decline in tourist arrivals associated with the recession in Western Europe, Cyprus' main trading partner, and the loss in export competitiveness due to a sharp rise in unit labor costs. Real GDP is likely to have picked up in 1994, and inflation is estimated to have risen to between 5% and 6%. The Turkish Cypriot economy has less than one-third the per capita GDP of the south. Because it is recognized only by Turkey, it has had much difficulty arranging foreign financing, and foreign firms have hesitated to invest there. The economy remains heavily dependent on agriculture, which employs one-quarter of the work force. Moreover, because the Turkish lira is legal tender, the Turkish Cypriot economy has suffered the same high inflation as mainland Turkey. The small, vulnerable economy is estimated to have experienced a sharp drop in growth during 1994 because of the severe economic crisis affecting the mainland. To compensate for the economy's weakness, Turkey provides direct and indirect aid to nearly every sector; financial support has risen in value to about one-third of Turkish Cypriot GDP.
{\b National product}
\par \tab {\b Greek area}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $7.3 billion (1994 est.)
\par \tab {\b Turkish area}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $510 million (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab {\b Greek area}
\par \tab 5% (1994 est.)
\par \tab {\b Turkish area}
\par \tab -4% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab {\b Greek area}
\par \tab $12,500 (1994 est.)
\par \tab {\b Turkish area}
\par \tab $3,500 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab {\b Greek area}
\par \tab 4.8% (1993)
\par \tab {\b Turkish area}
\par \tab 63.4% (1992)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab {\b Greek area}
\par \tab 2.3% (1993)
\par \tab {\b Turkish area}
\par \tab 1.2% (1992)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab Greek area - $1.8 billion
\par \tab Turkish area - $285 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab Greek area - $2.4 billion, including capital expenditures of $400 million
\par \tab Turkish area - $377 million, including capital expenditures of $80 million (1995 est.)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $868 million (f.o.b., 1993)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab citrus, potatoes, grapes, wine, cement, clothing and shoes
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab UK 18%, Greece 9%, Lebanon 14%, Germany 6%
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $2.6 billion (f.o.b., 1993)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab consumer goods, petroleum and lubricants, food and feed grains, machinery
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab UK 13%, Japan 9%, Italy 10%, Germany 8%, US 8%
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $2.4 billion (1993)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 0.1% (1993); accounts for 14% of GDP
\par \tab contributes 6% to GDP and employs 25% of labor force in the south; major crops - potatoes, vegetables, barley, grapes, olives, citrus fruits; vegetables and fruit provide 25% of export revenues
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab transit point for heroin via air routes and container traffic to Europe, especially from Lebanon and Turkey
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-89), $292 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $250 million; OPEC bilateral aid (1979-89), $62 million; Communist countries (1970-89), $24 million
\par \tab The government of the Czech Republic, using successful stabilization policies to bolster its claims to full membership in the western economic community, has reduced inflation to 10%, kept unemployment at 3%, balanced the budget, run trade surpluses, and reoriented exports to the EU since the breakup of the Czechoslovak federation on 1 January 1993. GDP grew 2% in 1994 after stagnating in 1993 and contracting nearly 20% since 1990. Prague's mass privatization program, including its innovative distribution of ownership shares to Czech citizens via 'coupon vouchers,' has made the most rapid progress in Eastern Europe. When coupon shares are distributed in early 1995, 75%-80% of the economy will be in private hands or partially privatized, according to the Czech government. Privatized companies still face major problems in restructuring; the number of annual bankruptcies quadrupled in 1994. In September 1994, Prague repaid $471 million in IMF loans five years ahead of schedule, making the Czech Republic the first East European country to pay off all IMF debts. Despite these outlays, hard-currency reserves in the banking system totaled more than $8.5 billion in October. Standard & Poor's boosted the Republic's credit rating to BBB+ in mid-1994 - up from a BBB rating that was already two steps higher than Hungary's and one step above Greece's rating. Prague forecasts a balanced budget, at least 3% GDP growth, 5% unemployment, and single-digit inflation for 1995. Inflationary pressures - primarily as a result of foreign bank lending to Czech enterprises but perhaps also due to eased currency convertibility controls - are likely to be the most troublesome issues in 1995. Continuing economic recovery in Western Europe should boost Czech exports and production but a substantial increase in prices could erode the Republic's comparative advantage in low wages and exchange rates. Prague already took steps in 1994 to increase control over banking policies to neutralize the impact of foreign inflows on the money supply. Although Czech unemployment is currently the lowest in Central Europe, it will probably increase 1-2 percentage points in 1995 as large state firms go bankrupt or are restructured and service sector growth slows.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $76.5 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 2.2% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $7,350 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 10.2% (1994 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 3.2% (1994 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $14 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $13.6 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1994 est.)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $13.4 billion (f.o.b., 1994 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab manufactured goods, machinery and transport equipment, chemicals, fuels, minerals, metals, agricultural products (January-November 1994)
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Germany 28.7%, Slovakia 15.5%, Austria 7.9%, Italy 6.4%, France 3.2%, Russia 3.2%, Poland 3.1%, UK 2.9%, Netherlands 2.4%, Hungary 2.2%, US 2.1%, Belgium 1.3% (January-June 1994)
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $13.3 billion (f.o.b., 1994 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab machinery and transport equipment, manufactured goods, chemicals, fuels and lubricants, raw materials, agricultural products (January-November 1994)
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Germany 24.1%, Slovakia 15.6%, Russia 9.8%, Austria 7.6%, Italy 4.9%, France 3.6%, US 3.2%, Netherlands 2.9%, UK 2.8%, Poland 2.7%, Switzerland 2.2%, Belgium 2.0% (January-June 1994)
\par \tab values before 1993 reflect Czechoslovak exchange rates
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab calendar year{\b Overview}
\par \tab This thoroughly modern economy features high-tech agriculture, up-to-date small-scale and corporate industry, extensive government welfare measures, comfortable living standards, and high dependence on foreign trade. Denmark is self-sufficient in food production. The new center-left coalition government will concentrate on reducing the persistent high unemployment rate and the budget deficit as well as following the previous government's policies of maintaining low inflation and a current account surplus. In the face of recent international market pressure on the Danish krone, the coalition has also vowed to maintain a stable currency. The coalition hopes to lower marginal income taxes while maintaining overall tax revenues; boost industrial competitiveness through labor market and tax reforms and increased research and development funds; and improve welfare services for the neediest while cutting paperwork and delays. Prime Minister RASMUSSEN's reforms will focus on adapting Denmark to the criteria for European integration by 1999; although Copenhagen has won from the European Union (EU) the right to opt out of the European Monetary Union (EMU) if a national referendum rejects it. Denmark is, in fact, one of the few EU countries likely to fit into the EMU on time. Denmark is weathering the current worldwide slump better than many West European countries. After posting 4.5% real GDP growth in 1994, Copenhagen is predicting a continued strong showing in 1995, with real GDP up by 3.2%. The government expects an upswing in business investment in 1995 to drive economic growth. Although unemployment is high, it remains stable compared to most European countries.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $103 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 4.5% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $19,860 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 2% (1994 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 12.3% (1994 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $56.5 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $64.4 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1994 est.)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $42.9 billion (f.o.b., 1994)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab meat and meat products, dairy products, transport equipment (shipbuilding), fish, chemicals, industrial machinery
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab EC 54.3% (Germany 23.6%, UK 10.1%, France 5.7%), Sweden 10.5%, Norway 5.8%, US 4.9%, Japan 3.6% (1992)
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $37.1 billion (c.i.f., 1994 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab petroleum, machinery and equipment, chemicals, grain and foodstuffs, textiles, paper
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab EC 53.4% (Germany 23.1%, UK 8.2%, France 5.6%), Sweden 10.8%, Norway 5.4%, US 5.7%, Japan 4.1% (1992)
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $40.9 billion (1994 est.)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate -2.5% (1993 est.)
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 10,030,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 32 billion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 5,835 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab food processing, machinery and equipment, textiles and clothing, chemical products, electronics, construction, furniture, and other wood products, shipbuilding
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab accounts for 4% of GDP; principal products - meat, dairy, grain, potatoes, rape, sugar beets, fish
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b donor}
\par \tab ODA and OOF commitments (1970-89), $5.9 billion
\par \tab The economy is based on service activities connected with the country's strategic location and status as a free trade zone in northeast Africa. Two-thirds of the inhabitants live in the capital city, the remainder being mostly nomadic herders. Scanty rainfall limits crop production to fruits and vegetables, and most food must be imported. Djibouti provides services as both a transit port for the region and an international transshipment and refueling center. It has few natural resources and little industry. The nation is, therefore, heavily dependent on foreign assistance (an important supplement to GDP) to help support its balance of payments and to finance development projects. An unemployment rate of over 30% continues to be a major problem. Per capita consumption dropped an estimated 35% over the last six years because of recession, civil war, and a high population growth rate (including immigrants and refugees).
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $500 million (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab -3% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $1,200 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 6% (1993 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab over 30% (1994 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $164 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $201 million, including capital expenditures of $16 million (1993 est.)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $184 million (f.o.b., 1994 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab hides and skins, coffee (in transit)
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Somalia 48%, Yemen 42%
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $384 million (f.o.b., 1994 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab foods, beverages, transport equipment, chemicals, petroleum products
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab France, UK, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, South Korea
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $227 million (1993 est.)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 3% (1991 est.); accounts for 14% of GDP
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 90,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 170 million kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 398 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab limited to a few small-scale enterprises, such as dairy products and mineral-water bottling
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab mostly fruit and vegetables; herding of goats, sheep, and camels
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY78-89), $39 million; Western (non-US) countries, including ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $1.1 billion; OPEC bilateral aid (1979-89), $149 million; Communist countries (1970-89), $35 million
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 Djiboutian franc (DF) = 100 centimes
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab Djiboutian francs (DF) per US$1 - 177.721 (fixed rate since 1973)
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab calendar year{\b Overview}
\par \tab The economy is dependent on agriculture and thus is highly vulnerable to climatic conditions. Agriculture accounts for about 30% of GDP and employs 40% of the labor force. Principal products include bananas, citrus, mangoes, root crops, and coconuts. Development of the tourist industry remains difficult because of the rugged coastline and the lack of an international airport. In 1994 a tropical storm devastated the banana industry.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $200 million (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 1.6% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $2,260 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 1.6% (1993 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 15% (1992 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $70 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $84 million, including capital expenditures of $26 million (FY90/91 est.)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $48.3 million (f.o.b., 1993)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab bananas, soap, bay oil, vegetables, grapefruit, oranges
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab UK 55%, CARICOM countries, Italy, US
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $98.8 million (f.o.b., 1993)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab manufactured goods, machinery and equipment, food, chemicals
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab US 25%, CARICOM, UK, Japan, Canada
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $92.8 million (1992)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate -10% (1994 est.); accounts for 7% of GDP
\par \tab accounts for 30% of GDP; principal crops - bananas, citrus, mangoes, root crops, coconuts; bananas provide the bulk of export earnings; forestry and fisheries potential not exploited
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab transshipment point for narcotics bound for the US and Europe; minor cannabis producer
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $120 million
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 EC dollar (EC$) = 100 cents
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab East Caribbean dollars (EC$) per US$1 - 2.70 (fixed rate since 1976)
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab 1 July - 30 June{\b Overview}
\par \tab The Dominican economy showed some signs of slippage in 1994, although its overall performance in recent years has been relatively strong. After posting an increase of nearly 8% in 1992, GDP growth fell to 3% in 1993 and 1994 as mining output decreased and erosion of real wages caused private consumption to decline. A pre-election boost in government spending in early 1994 led to the first government deficit in four years and bumped inflation up to 14% for the year. Continued dynamism in construction and the services sector, especially tourism, should keep the economy growing in 1995. Tourism, agriculture, and manufacturing for export remain key sectors of the economy. Domestic industry is based on the processing of agricultural products, oil refining, and chemicals.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $24 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 2.9% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $3,070 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 14% (1994)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 30% (1994 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $1.8 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $2.2 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1994 est.)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $585 million (f.o.b., 1994)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab ferronickel, sugar, gold, coffee, cocoa
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab US 52%, EC 23%, Puerto Rico 9%, Asia 7% (1992)
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $2.5 billion (c.i.f., 1994 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab foodstuffs, petroleum, cotton and fabrics, chemicals and pharmaceuticals
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab US 60% (1993)
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $4.3 billion (1994 est.)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 3.4% (1994); accounts for 14% of GDP
\par \tab accounts for 15% of GDP and employs 49% of labor force; commercial crops - sugarcane, coffee, cotton, cocoa, and tobacco; food crops - rice, beans, potatoes, corn, bananas; animal output - cattle, hogs, dairy products, meat, eggs; not self-sufficient in food
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab transshipment point for South American drugs destined for the US and Europe
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY85-89), $575 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $655 million
\par \tab Ecuador has substantial oil resources and rich agricultural areas. Growth has been uneven in recent years because of fluctuations in prices for Ecuador's primary exports - oil and bananas - as well as because of government policies designed to curb inflation. President Sixto DURAN-BALLEN launched a series of macroeconomic reforms when he came into office in August 1992 which included raising domestic fuel prices and utility rates, eliminating most subsidies, and bringing the government budget into balance. These measures helped to reduce inflation from 55% in 1992 to 25% in 1994. DURAN-BALLEN has a much more favorable attitude toward foreign investment than his predecessor and has supported several laws designed to encourage foreign investment. Ecuador has implemented free or complementary trade agreements with Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Peru, and Venezuela, as well as applied for World Trade Organization membership. Ecuador signed a standby agreement with the IMF and rescheduled its $7.6 billion commercial debt in 1994 thereby regaining access to multilateral lending. Growth in 1994 speeded up to 3.9%, based on increased exports of bananas and non-traditional products, while international reserves increased to a record $1.6 billion.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $41.1 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 3.9% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $3,840 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 25% (1994)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 7.1% (1994)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $2.76 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $2.76 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1994)
\par \tab US 42%, Latin America 29%, Caribbean, EU countries 17%
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $3 billion (f.o.b., 1994 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab transport equipment, consumer goods, vehicles, machinery, chemicals
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab US 28%, EU 17%, Latin America 31%, Caribbean, Japan
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $13.2 billion (yearend 1993 est.)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 6.4% (1993); accounts for almost 35% of GDP, including petroleum
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 2,230,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 6.9 billion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 612 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab petroleum, food processing, textiles, metal work, paper products, wood products, chemicals, plastics, fishing, lumber
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab accounts for 14% of GDP (including fishing and forestry); leading producer and exporter of bananas and balsawood; other agricultural exports - coffee, cocoa, fish, shrimp; other crops - rice, potatoes, manioc, plantains, sugarcane; livestock products - cattle, sheep, hogs, beef, pork, dairy products; net importer of foodgrains, dairy products, and sugar
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab significant transit country for derivatives of coca originating in Colombia, Bolivia, and Peru; minor illicit producer of coca; importer of precursor chemicals used in production of illicit narcotics; important money-laundering hub
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-89), $498 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-91), $2.39 billion; Communist countries (1970-89), $64 million
\par \tab Half of Egypt's GDP originates in the public sector, most industrial plants being owned by the government. Overregulation holds back technical modernization and foreign investment. Even so, the economy grew rapidly during the late 1970s and early 1980s, but in 1986 the collapse of world oil prices and an increasingly heavy burden of debt servicing led Egypt to begin negotiations with the IMF for balance-of-payments support. Egypt's first IMF standby arrangement concluded in mid-1987 was suspended in early 1988 because of the government's failure to adopt promised reforms. Egypt signed a follow-on program with the IMF and also negotiated a structural adjustment loan with the World Bank in 1991. In 1991-93 the government made solid progress on administrative reforms such as liberalizing exchange and interest rates but resisted implementing major structural reforms like streamlining the public sector. As a result, the economy has not gained momentum and unemployment has become a growing problem. Egypt probably will continue making uneven progress in implementing the successor programs with the IMF and World Bank it signed onto in late 1993. Tourism has plunged since 1992 because of sporadic attacks by Islamic extremists on tourist groups. President MUBARAK has cited population growth as the main cause of the country's economic troubles. The addition of about 1.2 million people a year to the already huge population of 62 million exerts enormous pressure on the 5% of the land area available for agriculture along the Nile.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $151.5 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 1.5% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $2,490 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 8% (1994 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 20% (1994 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $18 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $19.4 billion, including capital expenditures of $3.8 billion (FY94/95 est.)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $3.1 billion (f.o.b., FY93/94 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab crude oil and petroleum products, cotton yarn, raw cotton, textiles, metal products, chemicals
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab EU, US, Japan
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $11.2 billion (c.i.f., FY93/94 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab machinery and equipment, foods, fertilizers, wood products, durable consumer goods, capital goods
\par \tab cotton, rice, corn, wheat, beans, fruit, vegetables; cattle, water buffalo, sheep, goats; annual fish catch about 140,000 metric tons
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab a transit point for Southwest Asian and Southeast Asian heroin and opium moving to Europe and the US; popular transit stop for Nigerian couriers; large domestic consumption of hashish from Lebanon and Syria
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-89), $15.7 billion; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-88), $10.1 billion; OPEC bilateral aid (1979-89), $2.9 billion; Communist countries (1970-89), $2.4 billion
\par \tab The agricultural sector accounts for 24% of GDP, employs about 40% of the labor force, and contributes about 66% to total exports. Coffee is the major commercial crop, accounting for 45% of export earnings. The manufacturing sector, based largely on food and beverage processing, accounts for 19% of GDP and 15% of employment. In 1992-94 the government made substantial progress toward privatization and deregulation of the economy. Growth in national output in 1991-94 nearly averaged 5%, exceeding growth in population for the first time since 1987; and inflation in 1994 of 10% was down from 19% in 1993.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $9.8 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 5% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $1,710 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 10% (1994 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 6.7% (1993)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $846 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $890 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1992 est.)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $823 million (f.o.b., 1994 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab coffee, sugarcane, shrimp
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab US, Guatemala, Costa Rica, Germany
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $2.1 billion (c.i.f., 1994 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab raw materials, consumer goods, capital goods
\par \tab accounts for 24% of GDP and 40% of labor force (including fishing and forestry); coffee most important commercial crop; other products - sugarcane, corn, rice, beans, oilseeds, beef, dairy products, shrimp; not self-sufficient in food
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab transshipment point for cocaine; marijuana produced for local consumption
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-90), $2.95 billion (plus $250 million for 1992-96); Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $525 million
\par \tab Agriculture, forestry, and fishing account for about half of GDP and nearly all exports. Subsistence farming predominates. Although pre-independence Equatorial Guinea counted on cocoa production for hard currency earnings, the deterioration of the rural economy under successive brutal regimes has diminished potential for agriculture-led growth. A number of aid programs sponsored by the World Bank and the international donor community have failed to revitalize export agriculture. Businesses for the most part are owned by government officials and their family members. Commerce accounts for about 8% of GDP and the construction, public works, and service sectors for about 38%. Undeveloped natural resources include titanium, iron ore, manganese, uranium, and alluvial gold. Oil exploration, taking place under concessions offered to US, French, and Spanish firms, has been moderately successful. Increased production from recently discovered natural gas fields will provide a greater share of exports in 1995.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $280 million (1993 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 7.3% (1993 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $700 (1993 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 1.6% (1992 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $32.5 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $35.9 million, including capital expenditures of $3 million (1992 est.)
\par \tab Cameroon 23.1%, Spain 21.8%, France 14.1%, US 4.3% (1992)
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $260 million (1992 est)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 11.3% (1993 est.)
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 23,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 20 million kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 50 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab fishing, sawmilling
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab accounts for almost 50% of GDP, cash crops - timber and coffee from Rio Muni, cocoa from Bioko; food crops - rice, yams, cassava, bananas, oil palm nuts, manioc, livestock
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY81-89), $14 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $130 million; Communist countries (1970-89), $55 million
\par \tab beginning 12 January 1994, the CFA franc was devalued to CFAF 100 per French franc from CFAF 50 at which it had been fixed since 1948
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab 1 April - 31 March{\b Overview}
\par \tab With independence from Ethiopia on 27 April 1993, Eritrea faces the bitter economic problems of a small, desperately poor African country. Most of the population will continue to depend on subsistence farming. Domestic output is substantially augmented by worker remittances from abroad. Government revenues come from custom duties and income and sales taxes. Eritrea has inherited the entire coastline of Ethiopia and has long-term prospects for revenues from the development of offshore oil, offshore fishing, and tourism. For the time being, Ethiopia will be largely dependent on Eritrean ports for its foreign trade.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $1.8 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 2% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $500 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab NA%
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $NA
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $NA, including capital expenditures of $NA
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $NA
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab NA
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $NA
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab NA
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $NA
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate NA%
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab NA kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab NA kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab NA kWh
{\b Industries}
\par \tab food processing, beverages, clothing and textiles
\par \tab 1 birr (Br) = 100 cents; at present, Ethiopian currency used
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab 1 birr (Br) per US$1 - 5.9500 (January 1995), 5.9500 (1994), 5.000 (fixed rate 1992-93); note - official rate pegged to US$
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab NA{\b Overview}
\par \tab Bolstered by a widespread national desire to reintegrate into Western Europe, the Estonian government has pursued an ambitious program of market reforms and stabilization measures, which is rapidly transforming the economy. Three years after independence - and two years after the introduction of the kroon - Estonians are beginning to reap tangible benefits; inflation, though still high, was brought down to about 2% per month in second half 1994; production declines have bottomed out with estimated growth of 4% in 1994; and living standards are rising. Economic restructuring has been dramatic. By 1994 the service sector accounted for over 55% of GDP, while the once-dominant heavy industrial sector continues to shrink. The private sector is growing rapidly; the share of the state enterprises in the economy has steadily declined and by late 1994 accounted for only about 40% of GDP. Estonia's foreign trade has shifted rapidly from East to West; the Western industrialized countries now account for two-thirds of foreign trade.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $10.4 billion (1994 estimate as extrapolated from World Bank estimate for 1992)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 4% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $6,460 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 3.3% per month (1994 average)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab about 2% in 1994 (official estimate but large number of underemployed workers)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $643 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $639 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1993 est.)
\par \tab accounts for 10% of GDP; employs 20% of work force; very efficient by Soviet standards; net exports of meat, fish, dairy products, and potatoes; imports of feedgrains for livestock; fruits and vegetables
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab transshipment point for illicit drugs from Central and Southwest Asia and Latin America to Western Europe; very limited illicit opium producer; mostly for domestic consumption
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (1992), $10 million
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 Estonian kroon (EEK) = 100 cents (introduced in August 1992)
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab kroons (EEK) per US$1 - 12.25 (January 1995); note - kroons are tied to the German Deutschmark at a fixed rate of 8 to 1
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab calendar year{\b Overview}
\par \tab With the independence of Eritrea on 27 April 1993, Ethiopia continues to face difficult economic problems as one of the poorest and least developed countries in Africa. Its economy is based on agriculture, which accounts for about 45% of GDP, 90% of exports, and 80% of total employment; coffee generates 60% of export earnings. The agricultural sector suffers from frequent periods of drought, poor cultivation practices, and deterioration of internal security conditions. The manufacturing sector is heavily dependent on inputs from the agricultural sector. Over 90% of large-scale industry, but less than 10% of agriculture, is state run. The government is considering selling off a portion of state-owned plants, and is implementing reform measures that are gradually liberalizing the economy. A major medium-term problem is the improvement of roads, water supply, and other parts of an infrastructure badly neglected during years of civil strife.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $20.3 billion (1993 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 3% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $380 (1993 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 10% (FY93/94)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $1.2 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $1.7 billion, including capital expenditures of $707 million (FY93/94)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $219.8 million (f.o.b., 1993 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab coffee, leather products, gold
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Germany, Japan, Saudi Arabia, France, Italy
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $1.04 billion (c.i.f., 1993 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab capital goods, consumer goods, fuel
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab US, Germany, Italy, Saudi Arabia, Japan
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $3.7 billion (1993 est.)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate -3.3% (FY91/92); accounts for 12% of GDP
\par \tab accounts for 45% of GDP; export crops of coffee and oilseeds are grown partly on state farms; estimated 50% of agricultural production is at subsistence level; principal crops and livestock - cereals, pulses, coffee, oilseeds, sugarcane, potatoes and other vegetables, hides and skins, cattle, sheep, goats
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab transit hub for heroin originating in Southwest and Southeast Asia and destined for Europe and North America as well as cocaine destined for southern African markets; cultivates qat (chat) for local use and regional export
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-89), $504 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $3.4 billion; OPEC bilateral aid (1979-89), $8 million; Communist countries (1970-89), $2 billion
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 birr (Br) = 100 cents
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab birr (Br) per US$1 - 5.9500 (January 1995), 5.9500 (1994), 5.0000 (fixed rate 1992-93); fixed at 2.070 before 1992; note - official rate pegged to the US$
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab 8 July - 7 July{\b Overview}
\par \tab The economy was formerly based on agriculture, mainly sheep farming, which directly or indirectly employs most of the work force. Dairy farming supports domestic consumption; crops furnish winter fodder. Exports feature shipments of high-grade wool to the UK and the sale of postage stamps and coins. Rich stocks of fish in the surrounding waters are not presently exploited by the islanders. So far, efforts to establish a domestic fishing industry have been unsuccessful. The economy has diversified since 1987 when the government began selling fishing licenses to foreign trawlers operating within the Falklands exclusive fishing zone. These license fees total more than $40 million per year and support the island's health, education, and welfare system. To encourage tourism, the Falkland Islands Development Corporation has built three lodges for visitors attracted by the abundant wildlife and trout fishing. The islands are now self-financing except for defense. The British Geological Survey announced a 200-mile oil exploration zone around the islands in 1993 and early seismic surveys suggest substantial reserves capable of producing 500,000 barrels per day.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP $NA
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $NA
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 7.4% (1980-87 average)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab NA%; labor shortage
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $65 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $55.2 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1992-93)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab at least $14.7 million
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab wool, hides and skins, and meat
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab UK, Netherlands, Japan (1987 est.)
{\b Imports}
\par \tab at least $13.9 million
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab food, clothing, timber, and machinery
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab UK, Netherlands Antilles (Curacao), Japan (1987 est.)
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $NA
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate NA%
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 9,200 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 17 million kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 7,253 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab wool and fish processing
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab predominantly sheep farming; small dairy herds; some fodder and vegetable crops
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1992-93), $87 million
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 Falkland pound = 100 pence
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab Falkland pound per US$1 - 0.6350 (January 1995), 0.6529 (1994), 0.6658 (1993), 0.5664 (1992), 0.5652 (1991), 0.5604 (1990); note - the Falkland pound is at par with the British pound
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab 1 April - 31 March{\b Overview}
\par \tab Fiji's economy is primarily agricultural, with a large subsistence sector. Sugar exports and tourism are the major sources of foreign exchange. Industry contributes 13% to GDP, with sugar processing accounting for one-third of industrial activity. Roughly 250,000 tourists visit each year. Political uncertainty and drought, however, contribute to substantial fluctuations in earnings from tourism and sugar and to the emigration of skilled workers. In 1992, growth was approximately 3%, based on growth in tourism and a lessening of labor-management disputes in the sugar and gold-mining sectors. In 1993, the government's budgeted growth rate of 3% was not achieved because of a decline in non-sugar agricultural output and damage from Cyclone Kina. Growth in 1994 is estimated to be 5%, largely attributed to increased tourism and expansion in domestic production, particularly in the manufacturing sector.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $4.3 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 5% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $5,650 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 1.5% (1994)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 5.4% (1992)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $485 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $579 million, including capital expenditures of $58 million (1994)
\par \tab accounts for 23% of GDP; principal cash crop is sugarcane; coconuts, cassava, rice, sweet potatoes, bananas; small livestock sector includes cattle, pigs, horses, and goats; fish catch nearly 33,000 tons (1989)
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1980-89), $815 million
\par \tab Finland has a highly industrialized, largely free market economy, with per capita output two-thirds of the US figure. Its key economic sector is manufacturing - principally the wood, metals, and engineering industries. Trade is important, with the export of goods representing about 30% of GDP. Except for timber and several minerals, Finland depends on imports of raw materials, energy, and some components for manufactured goods. Because of the climate, agricultural development is limited to maintaining self-sufficiency in basic products. Forestry, an important export earner, provides a secondary occupation for the rural population. The economy, which experienced an average of 4.9% annual growth between 1987 and 1989, sank into deep recession in 1991 as GDP contracted by 6.5%. The recession - which continued in 1992 with GDP contracting by 4.1% - has been caused by economic overheating, depressed foreign markets, and the dismantling of the barter system between Finland and the former Soviet Union under which Soviet oil and gas had been exchanged for Finnish manufactured goods. The Finnish Government has proposed efforts to increase industrial competitiveness and efficiency by an increase in exports to Western markets, cuts in public expenditures, partial privatization of state enterprises, and changes in monetary policy. In June 1991 Helsinki had tied the markka to the European Union's (EU) European Currency Unit (ECU) to promote stability. Ongoing speculation resulting from a lack of confidence in the government's policies forced Helsinki to devalue the markka by about 12% in November 1991 and to indefinitely break the link in September 1992. The devaluations have boosted the competitiveness of Finnish exports. The recession bottomed out in 1993, and Finland participated in the general European upturn of 1994. Unemployment probably will remain a serious problem during the next few years; the majority of Finnish firms face a weak domestic market and the troubled German and Swedish export markets. The Finns voted in an October 1994 referendum to enter the EU, and Finland officially joined the Union on 1 January 1995. Increasing integration with Western Europe will dominate the economic picture over the next few years.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $81.8 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 3.5% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $16,140 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 2.1% (1992)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 22% (1993)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $21.7 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $31.7 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1993 est.)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $23.4 billion (f.o.b., 1993)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab paper and pulp, machinery, chemicals, metals, timber
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab EC 53.2% (Germany 15.6%, UK 10.7%), EFTA 19.5% (Sweden 12.8%), US 5.9%, Japan 1.3%, Russia 2.8% (1992)
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $18 billion (c.i.f., 1993)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab foodstuffs, petroleum and petroleum products, chemicals, transport equipment, iron and steel, machinery, textile yarn and fabrics, fodder grains
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab EC 47.2% (Germany 16.9%, UK 8.7%), EFTA 19.0% (Sweden 11.7%), US 6.1%, Japan 5.5%, Russia 7.1% (1992)
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $30 billion (December 1993)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 5% (1993 est.); accounts for 28% of GDP
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 13,360,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 58 billion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 12,196 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab metal products, shipbuilding, forestry and wood processing (pulp, paper), copper refining, foodstuffs, chemicals, textiles, clothing
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab accounts for 7% of GDP (including forestry); livestock production, especially dairy cattle, predominates; main crops - cereals, sugar beets, potatoes; 85% self-sufficient, but short of foodgrains and fodder grains; annual fish catch about 160,000 metric tons
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab transshipment point for Latin American cocaine for the West European market
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b donor}
\par \tab ODA and OOF commitments (1970-89), $2.7 billion
\par \tab One of the world's most highly developed economies, France has substantial agricultural resources and a diversified modern industrial sector. Large tracts of fertile land, the application of modern technology, and subsidies have combined to make it the leading agricultural producer in Western Europe. Largely self-sufficient in agricultural products, France is a major exporter of wheat and dairy products. The industrial sector generates about one-quarter of GDP, and the growing services sector has become crucial to the economy. Following stagnation and recession in 1991-93, French GDP in 1994 expanded 2.4%. Growth in 1995 is expected to be in the 3.0% to 3.5% range. Persistently high unemployment will still pose a major problem for the government. Paris remains committed to maintaining the franc-deutsche mark parity, which has kept French interest rates high despite France's low inflation. Although the pace of economic and financial integration within the European Union has slowed down, integration presumably will remain a major force shaping the fortunes of the various economic sectors over the next few years.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $1.0801 trillion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 2.4% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $18,670 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 1.6% (1994)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 12.6% (yearend 1994)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $220.5 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $249.1 billion, including capital expenditures of $47 billion (1993 budget)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $249.2 billion (f.o.b., 1994 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab machinery and transportation equipment, chemicals, foodstuffs, agricultural products, iron and steel products, textiles and clothing
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Germany 18.6%, Italy 11.0%, Spain 11.0%, Belgium-Luxembourg 9.1%, UK 8.8%, Netherlands 7.9%, US 6.4%, Japan 2.0%, FSU 0.7% (1991 est.)
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $238.1 billion (c.i.f., 1994 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab crude oil, machinery and equipment, agricultural products, chemicals, iron and steel products
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Germany 17.8%, Italy 10.9%, US 9.5%, Netherlands 8.9%, Spain 8.8%, Belgium-Luxembourg 8.5%, UK 7.5%, Japan 4.1%, FSU 1.3% (1991 est.)
\par \tab accounts for 4% of GDP (including fishing and forestry); one of the world's top five wheat producers; other principal products - beef, dairy products, cereals, sugar beets, potatoes, wine grapes; self-sufficient for most temperate-zone foods; shortages include fats and oils and tropical produce, but overall net exporter of farm products; fish catch of 850,000 metric tons ranks among world's top 20 countries and is all used domestically
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b donor}
\par \tab ODA and OOF commitments (1970-89), $75.1 billion
\par \tab The economy is tied closely to that of France through subsidies and imports. Besides the French space center at Kourou, fishing and forestry are the most important economic activities, with exports of fish and fish products (mostly shrimp) accounting for more than 60% of total revenue in 1992. The large reserves of tropical hardwoods, not fully exploited, support an expanding sawmill industry that provides sawn logs for export. Cultivation of crops - rice, cassava, bananas, and sugarcane - is limited to the coastal area, where the population is largely concentrated. French Guiana is heavily dependent on imports of food and energy. Unemployment is a serious problem, particularly among younger workers.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $800 million (1993 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $6,000 (1993 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 2.5% (1992)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 13% (1990)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $735 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $735 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1987)
\par \tab Since 1962, when France stationed military personnel in the region, French Polynesia has changed from a subsistence economy to one in which a high proportion of the work force is either employed by the military or supports the tourist industry. Tourism accounts for about 20% of GDP and is a primary source of hard currency earnings.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $1.5 billion (1993 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $7,000 (1993 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 1.7% (1991)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 10% (1990 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $614 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $957 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1988)
\par \tab coconut and vanilla plantations; vegetables and fruit; poultry, beef, dairy products
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-88), $3.95 billion
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 CFP franc (CFPF) = 100 centimes
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab Comptoirs Francais du Pacifique francs (CFPF) per US$1 - 96.25 (January 1995), 100.94 (1994), 102.96 (1993), 96.24 (1992), 102.57 (1991), 99.00 (1990); note - linked at the rate of 18.18 to the French franc
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab calendar year{\b Overview}
\par \tab Notwithstanding its serious ongoing economic problems, Gabon enjoys a per capita income more than twice that of most nations of sub-Saharan Africa. Gabon depended on timber and manganese until oil was discovered offshore in the early 1970s. The oil sector now accounts for 50% of GDP. Real growth was feeble in 1992 and Gabon continues to face the problem of fluctuating prices for its oil, timber, manganese, and uranium exports. Despite an abundance of natural wealth, and a manageable rate of population growth, the economy is hobbled by poor fiscal management. In 1992, the fiscal deficit widened to 2.4% of GDP, and Gabon failed to settle arrears on its bilateral debt, leading to a cancellation of rescheduling agreements with official and private creditors. Devaluation of its Francophone currency by 50% in January 1994 did not set off an expected inflationary spiral but the government must continue to keep a tight reign on spending and wage increases.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $5.6 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 1.9% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $4,900 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 35% (1994 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $1.3 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $1.6 billion, including capital expenditures of $311 million (1993 est.)
\par \tab foodstuffs, chemical products, petroleum products, construction materials, manufactures, machinery
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab France 42%, African countries 23%, US, Japan
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $3.3 billion (1993 est.)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate -3% (1991)
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 315,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 910 million kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 757 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab food and beverages, lumbering and plywood, textiles, cement, petroleum refining, mining - manganese, uranium, gold, petroleum
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab cash crops - cocoa, coffee, palm oil; livestock raising not developed; importer of food; small fishing operations provide a catch of about 20,000 metric tons; okoume (a tropical softwood) is the most important timber product
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-90), $68 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-90), $2.342 billion; Communist countries (1970-89), $27 million
\par \tab beginning 12 January 1994, the CFA franc was devalued to CFAF 100 per French franc from CFAF 50 at which it had been fixed since 1948
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab calendar year{\b Overview}
\par \tab The Gambia has no important mineral or other natural resources and has a limited agricultural base. About 75% of the population is engaged in crop production and livestock raising, which contribute 30% to GDP. Small-scale manufacturing activity - processing peanuts, fish, and hides - accounts for less than 10% of GDP. A sustained structural adjustment program, including a liberalized trade policy, had fostered a respectable 4% rate of growth in recent years. Reexport trade constitutes one-third of economic activity; however, border closures associated with Senegal's monetary crisis in late 1993 led to a halving of reexport trade, reducing government revenues in turn. The 50% devaluation of the CFA franc in January 1994 has made Senegalese goods more competitive and apparently prompted a relaxation of Senegalese controls, paving the way for a comeback in reexports. But overwhelming these developments were the devastating effects of the military's takeover in July 1994. By October, traffic at the Port of Banjul had fallen precipitously as importers nervously scaled back their activities with the commencement of the anticorruption drive by the new regime. Concerned with the growing potential for serious unrest after a countercoup attempt was bloodily put down by the regime, the United Kingdom and the EU in November issued a travelers advisory for The Gambia, which brought a halt to tourism almost immediately. The Gambia faces additional problems in 1995 if, as is likely, economic sanctions by Western governments remain in effect in response to indications that the military regime intends to stay in power far longer than expected by the donors.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $1 billion (1993 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $1,050 (1993 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 6.5% (1993)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $94 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $89 million, including capital expenditures of $24 million (FY92/93 est.)
\par \tab accounts for 30% of GDP; one-third of food requirements is imported; major export crop is peanuts; other principal crops - millet, sorghum, rice, corn, cassava, palm kernels; livestock - cattle, sheep, goats; forestry and fishing resources not fully exploited
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-89), $93 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $535 million; Communist countries (1970-89), $39 million
\par \tab In 1991 roughly 40% of Gaza Strip workers were employed across the border by Israeli industrial, construction, and agricultural enterprises, with worker remittances supplementing GDP by roughly 50%. Gaza depends upon Israel for nearly 90% of its external trade. Aggravating the impact of Israeli military administration, unrest in the territory since 1988 (intifadah) has raised unemployment and lowered the standard of living of Gazans. The Persian Gulf crisis and its aftershocks also have dealt blows to Gaza since August 1990. Worker remittances from the Gulf states have dropped, unemployment has increased, and exports have fallen. The withdrawal of Israel from the Gaza Strip in May 1994 brings a new set of adjustment problems.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $1.7 billion (1993 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $2,400 (1993 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 5.7% (1993)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 45% (1994 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $33.6 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $34.5 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (FY89/90)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $83 million (f.o.b., 1992)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab citrus
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Israel, Egypt
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $365 million (c.i.f., 1992)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab food, consumer goods, construction materials
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Israel, Egypt
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $NA
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 11% (1991 est.)
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab power supplied by Israel
{\b Industries}
\par \tab generally small family businesses that produce textiles, soap, olive-wood carvings, and mother-of-pearl souvenirs; the Israelis have established some small-scale modern industries in an industrial center
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab olives, citrus and other fruits; vegetables; beef and dairy products
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab $240 million disbursed from international aid pledges in 1994
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 new Israeli shekel (NIS) = 100 new agorot
\par \tab calendar year (since 1 January 1992){\b Overview}
\par \tab Georgia's economy has traditionally revolved around Black Sea tourism; cultivation of citrus fruits, tea, and grapes; mining of manganese and copper; and a small industrial sector producing wine, metals, machinery, chemicals, and textiles. The country imports the bulk of its energy needs, including natural gas and oil products. Its only sizable domestic energy resource is hydropower. Since 1990, widespread conflicts, e.g., in Abkhazia, South Ossetia, and Mingreliya, have severely aggravated the economic crisis resulting from the disintegration of the Soviet command economy in December 1991. Throughout 1993 and 1994, much of industry was functioning at only 20% of capacity; heavy disruptions in agricultural cultivation were reported; and tourism was shut down. The country is precariously dependent on US and EU humanitarian grain shipments, as most other foods are priced beyond reach of the average citizen. Georgia is also suffering from an acute energy crisis, as it is having problems paying for even minimal imports. Georgia is pinning its hopes for recovery on reestablishing trade ties with Russia and on developing international transportation through the key Black Sea ports of P'ot'i and Bat'umi. The government began a tenuous program in 1994 aiming to stabilize prices and reduce large consumer subsidies.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $6 billion (1994 estimate as extrapolated from World Bank estimate for 1992)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab -30% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $1,060 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 40.5% per month (2nd half 1993 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab officially less than 5% but real unemployment may be more than 20%, with even larger numbers of underemployed workers
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $NA
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $NA, including capital expenditures of $NA
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $NA
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab citrus fruits, tea, wine, other agricultural products; diverse types of machinery; ferrous and nonferrous metals; textiles; chemicals; fuel re-exports
\par \tab fuel, grain and other foods, machinery and parts, transport equipment
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Russia, Azerbaijan, Turkey (1993); note - EU and US sent humanitarian food shipments
{\b External debt}
\par \tab NA (T'bilisi owes about $400 million to Turkmenistan for natural gas as of January 1995)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate -27% (1993); accounts for 36% of GDP
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 4,410,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 9.1 billion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 1,526 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab heavy industrial products include raw steel, rolled steel, airplanes; machine tools, foundry equipment, electric locomotives, tower cranes, electric welding equipment, machinery for food preparation and meat packing, electric motors, process control equipment, instruments; trucks, tractors, and other farm machinery; light industrial products, including cloth, hosiery, and shoes; chemicals; wood-working industries; the most important food industry is wine
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab accounted for 97% of former USSR citrus fruits and 93% of former USSR tea; important producer of grapes; also cultivates vegetables and potatoes; dependent on imports for grain, dairy products, sugar; small livestock sector
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab illicit cultivator of cannabis and opium poppy; mostly for domestic consumption; used as transshipment point for illicit drugs to Western Europe
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab heavily dependent on US and EU for humanitarian grain shipments; EC granted around $70 million in trade credits in 1992 and another $40 million in 1993; Turkey granted $50 million in 1993; smaller scale credits granted by Russia and China
{\b Currency}
\par \tab coupons introduced in April 1993 to be followed by introduction of the lari at undetermined future date; in July 1993 use of the Russian ruble was banned
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab coupons per $US1 - 1,280,000 (end December 1994)
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab calendar year{\b Overview}
\par \tab Five years after the fall of the Berlin Wall, progress towards economic integration between eastern and western Germany is clearly visible, yet the eastern region almost certainly will remain dependent on subsidies funded by western Germany until well into the next century. The staggering $390 billion in western German assistance that the eastern states have received since 1990 - 40 times the amount in real terms of US Marshall Fund aid sent to West Germany after World War II - is just beginning to have an impact on the eastern German standard of living, which plummeted after unification. Assistance to the east continues to run at roughly $100 billion annually. Although the growth rate in the east was much greater than in the west in 1993-94, eastern GDP per capita nonetheless remains well below preunification levels; it will take 10-15 years for the eastern states to match western Germany's living standards. The economic recovery in the east is led by the construction industries which account for one-third of industrial output, with growth increasingly supported by the service sectors and light manufacturing industries. Eastern Germany's economy is changing from one anchored on manufacturing to a more service-oriented economy. Western Germany, with three times the per capita output of the eastern states, has an advanced market economy and is a world leader in exports. The strong recovery in 1994 from recession began in the export sector and spread to the investment and consumption sectors in response to falling interest rates. Western Germany has a highly urbanized and skilled population that enjoys excellent living standards, abundant leisure time, and comprehensive social welfare benefits. It is relatively poor in natural resources, coal being the most important mineral. Western Germany's world-class companies manufacture technologically advanced goods. The region's economy is mature: services and manufacturing account for the dominant share of economic activities, and raw materials and semimanufactured goods constitute a large portion of imports.
{\b National product}
\par \tab {\b Germany}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $1.3446 trillion (1994 est.)
\par \tab {\b western}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $1.2363 trillion (1994 est.)
\par \tab {\b eastern}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $108.3 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab {\b Germany}
\par \tab 2.9% (1994 est.)
\par \tab {\b western}
\par \tab 2.3% (1994 est.)
\par \tab {\b eastern}
\par \tab 9.2% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab {\b Germany}
\par \tab $16,580 (1994 est.)
\par \tab {\b western}
\par \tab $19,660 (1994 est.)
\par \tab {\b eastern}
\par \tab $5,950 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab {\b western}
\par \tab 3% (1994)
\par \tab {\b eastern}
\par \tab 3.2% (1994 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab {\b western}
\par \tab 8.2% (December 1994)
\par \tab {\b eastern}
\par \tab 13.5% (December 1994)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $690 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $780 billion, including capital expenditures of $96.5 billion (1994)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $437 billion (f.o.b., 1994)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab manufactures 89.3% (including machines and machine tools, chemicals, motor vehicles, iron and steel products), agricultural products 5.5%, raw materials 2.7%, fuels 1.3% (1993)
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab EC 47.9% (France 11.7%, Netherlands 7.4%, Italy 7.5%, UK 7.7%, Belgium-Luxembourg 6.6%), EFTA 15.5%, US 7.7%, Eastern Europe 5.2%, OPEC 3.0% (1993)
\par \tab EC 46.4% (France 11.3%, Netherlands 8.4%, Italy 8.1%, UK 6.0%, Belgium-Luxembourg 5.7%), EFTA 14.3%, US 7.3%, Japan 6.3%, Eastern Europe 5.1%, OPEC 2.6% (1993)
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $NA
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab {\b western}
\par \tab growth rate 2.8% (1994)
\par \tab {\b eastern}
\par \tab growth rate $NA
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 115,430,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 493 billion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 5,683 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab {\b western}
\par \tab among world's largest and technologically advanced producers of iron, steel, coal, cement, chemicals, machinery, vehicles, machine tools, electronics; food and beverages
\par \tab {\b eastern}
\par \tab metal fabrication, chemicals, brown coal, shipbuilding, machine building, food and beverages, textiles, petroleum refining
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab {\b western}
\par \tab accounts for about 1% of GDP (including fishing and forestry); diversified crop and livestock farming; principal crops and livestock include potatoes, wheat, barley, sugar beets, fruit, cabbage, cattle, pigs, poultry; net importer of food
\par \tab {\b eastern}
\par \tab accounts for about 10% of GDP (including fishing and forestry); principal crops - wheat, rye, barley, potatoes, sugar beets, fruit; livestock products include pork, beef, chicken, milk, hides and skins; net importer of food
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab source of precursor chemicals for South American cocaine processors; transshipment point for Southwest Asian heroin and Latin American cocaine for West European markets
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b western-donor}
\par \tab ODA and OOF commitments (1970-89), $75.5 billion
\par \tab {\b eastern-donor}
\par \tab bilateral to non-Communist less developed countries (1956-89) $4 billion
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 deutsche mark (DM) = 100 pfennige
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab deutsche marks (DM) per US$1 - 1.5313 (January 1995), 1.6228 (1994), 1.6533 (1993), 1.5617 (1992), 1.6595 (1991), 1.6157 (1990)
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab calendar year{\b Overview}
\par \tab Well endowed with natural resources, Ghana is relatively well off, having twice the per capita output of the poorer countries in West Africa. Heavily reliant on international assistance, Ghana has made steady progress in liberalizing its economy since 1983. Overall growth continued at a rate of approximately 5% in 1994, due largely to increased gold, timber, and cocoa production - major sources of foreign exchange. The economy, however, continues to revolve around subsistence agriculture, which accounts for 45% of GDP and employs 55% of the work force, mainly small landholders. Public sector wage increases, regional peacekeeping commitments, and the containment of internal unrest in the underdeveloped north have placed substantial demands on the government's budget and have led to inflationary deficit financing and a 27% depreciation of the cedi in 1994.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $22.6 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 5% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $1,310 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 25% (1993 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 10% (1991)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $1.05 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $1.2 billion, including capital expenditures of $178 million (1993)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $1 billion (f.o.b., 1993 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab cocoa 40%, gold, timber, tuna, bauxite, and aluminum
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Germany 31%, US 12%, UK 11%, Netherlands 6%, Japan 5% (1991)
\par \tab accounts for almost 50% of GDP (including fishing and forestry); the major cash crop is cocoa; other principal crops - rice, coffee, cassava, peanuts, corn, shea nuts, timber; normally self-sufficient in food
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab illicit producer of cannabis for the international drug trade; transit hub for Southwest and Southeast Asian heroin destined for Europe and the US
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-89), $455 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $2.6 billion; OPEC bilateral aid (1979-89), $78 million; Communist countries (1970-89) $106 million
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 new cedi (C) = 100 pesewas
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab new cedis per US$1 - 1,046.74 (December 1994), 936.71 (1994), 649.06 (1993), 437.09 (1992), 367.83 (1991), 326.33 (1990)
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab calendar year{\b Overview}
\par \tab Gibraltar benefits from an extensive shipping trade and offshore banking. The British military presence has been severely reduced and now only contributes about 11% to the local economy. The financial sector accounts for 15% of GDP; tourism, shipping services fees, and duties on consumer goods also generate revenue. Because more than 70% of the economy is in the public sector, changes in government spending have a major impact on the level of employment.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $205 million (1993 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $6,600 (1993 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 3.6% (1988)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $116 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $124 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1992-93)
\par \tab fuels, manufactured goods, and foodstuffs
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab UK, Spain, Japan, Netherlands
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $318 million (1987)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate NA%
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 47,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 90 million kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 2,539 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab tourism, banking and finance, construction, commerce; support to large UK naval and air bases; transit trade and supply depot in the port; light manufacturing of tobacco, roasted coffee, ice, mineral waters, candy, beer, and canned fish
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab none
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-88), $800,000; Western (non-US) countries and ODA bilateral commitments (1992-93), $2.5 million
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 Gibraltar pound = 100 pence
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab Gibraltar pounds per US$1 - 0.6350 (January 1995), 0.6529 (1994), 0.6658 (1993), 0.5664 (1992), 0.5652 (1991), 0.5603 (1990); note - the Gibraltar pound is at par with the British pound
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab 1 July - 30 June{\b Overview}
\par \tab Greece has a mixed capitalist economy with the basic entrepreneurial system overlaid in 1981-89 by a socialist system that enlarged the public sector from 55% of GDP in 1981 to about 70% in 1989. Since then, the public sector has been reduced to about 60% of GDP. Tourism continues as a major source of foreign exchange, and agriculture is self-sufficient except for meat, dairy products, and animal feedstuffs. Over the last decade, real GDP growth has averaged 1.6% a year, compared with the European Union average of 2.2%. Inflation continues to be well above the EU average, and the national debt has reached 140% of GDP, the highest in the EU. Prime Minister PAPANDREOU will probably make only limited progress correcting the economy's problems of high inflation, large budget deficit, and decaying infrastructure. His economic program suggests that although he will shun his expansionary policies of the 1980s, he will avoid tough measures needed to slow inflation or reduce the state's role in the economy. He has limited the previous government's privatization plans, for example, and has called for generous welfare spending and real wage increases. Athens continues to rely heavily on EU aid, which recently has amounted to about 6% of GDP. Greece almost certainly will not meet the EU's Maastricht Treaty convergence targets of public deficit held to 3% of GDP and national debt to 60% of GDP by 1999. Per capita GDP has fallen below Portugal's level, the lowest among EU members.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $93.7 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 0.4% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $8,870 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 10.9% (1994 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 10.1% (1994 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $28.3 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $37.6 billion, including capital expenditures of $5.2 billion (1994)
\par \tab Germany 16%, Italy 14%, France 7%, Japan 7%, UK 6% (1993)
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $26.9 billion (1993)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 3.2% (1993 est.); accounts for 18% of GDP
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 8,970,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 35.8 billion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 3,257 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab tourism, food and tobacco processing, textiles, chemicals, metal products, mining, petroleum
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab including fishing and forestry, accounts for 12% of GDP; principal products - wheat, corn, barley, sugar beets, olives, tomatoes, wine, tobacco, potatoes; self-sufficient in food except meat, dairy products, and animal feedstuffs
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab illicit producer of cannabis and limited opium; mostly for domestic production; serves as a gateway to Europe for traffickers smuggling cannabis and heroin from the Middle East and Southwest Asia to the West and precursor chemicals to the East; transshipment point for Southwest Asian heroin transiting the Balkan route
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-81), $525 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $1.39 billion
\par \tab Greenland's economic situation at present is difficult. Unemployment is increasing, and prospects for economic growth in the immediate future are dim. Following the closing of the Black Angel lead and zinc mine in 1989, Greenland became almost completely dependent on fishing and fish processing, the sector accounting for 95% of exports. Prospects for fisheries are not bright, as the important shrimp catches will at best stabilize and cod catches have dropped. Resumption of mining and hydrocarbon activities is not around the corner, thus leaving only tourism with some potential for the near future. The public sector in Greenland, i.e., the central government and its commercial entities and the municipalities, plays a dominant role in Greenland accounting for about two-thirds of total employment. About half the government's revenues come from grants from the Danish Government.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $NA
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $NA
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 1.3% (1993 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 6.6% (1993 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $667 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $635 million, including capital expenditures of $103.8 million (1993 est.)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $330.5 million (f.o.b., 1993 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab fish and fish products 95%
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Denmark 79%, Benelux 9%, Germany 5%
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $369.6 million (c.i.f., 1993 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab manufactured goods 28%, machinery and transport equipment 24%, food and live animals 12.4%, petroleum products 12%
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Denmark 65%, Norway 8.8%, US 4.6%, Germany 3.8%, Japan 3.8%, Sweden 2.4%
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $297.1 million (1993)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate NA%
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 84,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 210 million kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 3,361 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab fish processing (mainly shrimp), lead and zinc mining, handicrafts, some small shipyards, potential for platinum and gold mining
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab sector dominated by fishing and sheep raising; crops limited to forage and small garden vegetables; 1988 fish catch of 133,500 metric tons
\par \tab The economy is essentially agricultural and centers on the traditional production of spices and tropical plants. Agriculture accounts for about 15% of GDP and 80% of exports and employs 24% of the labor force. Tourism is the leading foreign exchange earner, followed by agricultural exports. Manufacturing remains relatively undeveloped, but is expected to grow, given a more favorable private investment climate since 1983. The economy achieved an impressive average annual growth rate of 5.5% in 1986-91 but has stalled since 1992. Unemployment remains high at about 25%.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $258 million (1993 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 0.5% (1993 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $2,750 (1993 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 2.6% (1993 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 25% (1994 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $82.2 million (1993 est.)
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $74.3 million, including capital expenditures of $11.8 million (1993 est.)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $18.6 million (f.o.b., 1993 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab bananas, cocoa, nutmeg, fruit and vegetables, clothing, mace
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Netherlands, UK, Trinidad and Tobago, United States
\par \tab US 29%, UK, Trinidad and Tobago, Japan, Canada (1989)
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $89.9 million (1993)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 1.8% (1992 est.); accounts for 9% of GDP
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 12,500 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 60 million kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 639 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab food and beverage, textile, light assembly operations, tourism, construction
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab accounts for 14% of GDP and 80% of exports; bananas, cocoa, nutmeg, and mace account for two-thirds of total crop production; world's second-largest producer and fourth-largest exporter of nutmeg and mace; small-sized farms predominate, growing a variety of citrus fruits, avocados, root crops, sugarcane, corn, and vegetables
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY84-89), $60 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $70 million; Communist countries (1970-89), $32 million
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 EC dollar (EC$) = 100 cents
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab East Caribbean dollars (EC$) per US$1 - 2.70 (fixed rate since 1976)
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab calendar year{\b Overview}
\par \tab The economy depends on agriculture, tourism, light industry, and services. It is also dependent upon France for large subsidies and imports. Tourism is a key industry, with most tourists from the US. In addition, an increasingly large number of cruise ships visit the islands. The traditionally important sugarcane crop is slowly being replaced by other crops, such as bananas (which now supply about 50% of export earnings), eggplant, and flowers. Other vegetables and root crops are cultivated for local consumption, although Guadeloupe is still dependent on imported food, which comes mainly from France. Light industry consists mostly of sugar and rum production. Most manufactured goods and fuel are imported. Unemployment is especially high among the young.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $3.8 billion (1993 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $9,000 (1993 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 3.7% (1990)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 31.3% (1990)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $400 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $671 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1989)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $130 million (f.o.b., 1992)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab bananas, sugar, rum
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab France 70%, Martinique 17% (1991)
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $1.5 billion (c.i.f., 1992)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab foodstuffs, fuels, vehicles, clothing and other consumer goods, construction materials
\par \tab cash crops - bananas, sugarcane; other products include tropical fruits and vegetables; livestock - cattle, pigs, goats; not self-sufficient in food
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-88), $4 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $8.235 billion
\par \tab The economy depends mainly on US military spending and on revenues from tourism. Over the past 20 years the tourist industry has grown rapidly, creating a construction boom for new hotels and the expansion of older ones. Visitors numbered about 900,000 in 1992. The slowdown in Japanese economic growth has been reflected in less vigorous growth in the tourism sector. About 60% of the labor force works for the private sector and the rest for government. Most food and industrial goods are imported, with about 75% from the US. Guam faces the problem of building up the civilian economic sector to offset the impact of military downsizing.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $2 billion (1991 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $14,000 (1991 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 4% (1992 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 2% (1992 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $525 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $395 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1991)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $34 million (f.o.b., 1984)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab mostly transshipments of refined petroleum products, construction materials, fish, food and beverage products
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab US 25%, Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands 63%, other 12%
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $493 million (c.i.f., 1984)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab petroleum and petroleum products, food, manufactured goods
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab US 23%, Japan 19%, other 58%
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $NA
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate NA%
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 300,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 750 million kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 4,797 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab US military, tourism, construction, transshipment services, concrete products, printing and publishing, food processing, textiles
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab relatively undeveloped with most food imported; fruits, vegetables, eggs, pork, poultry, beef, copra
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab although Guam receives no foreign aid, it does receive large transfer payments from the general revenues of the US Federal Treasury into which Guamanians pay no income or excise taxes; under the provisions of a special law of Congress, the Guamanian Treasury, rather than the US Treasury, receives federal income taxes paid by military and civilian Federal employees stationed in Guam
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 United States dollar (US$) = 100 cents
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab US currency is used
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab 1 October - 30 September{\b Overview}
\par \tab The economy is based on family and corporate agriculture, which accounts for 25% of GDP, employs about 60% of the labor force, and supplies two-thirds of exports. Manufacturing, predominantly in private hands, accounts for about 15% of GDP and 12% of the labor force. In both 1990 and 1991, the economy grew by 3%, the fourth and fifth consecutive years of mild growth. In 1992 growth picked up to almost 5% as government policies favoring competition and foreign trade and investment took stronger hold. In 1993-94, despite political unrest, this momentum continued, foreign investment held up, and annual growth was 4%.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $33 billion (1994 est.)
\par \tab accounts for 25% of GDP; most important sector of economy; contributes two-thirds of export earnings; principal crops - sugarcane, corn, bananas, coffee, beans, cardamom; livestock - cattle, sheep, pigs, chickens; food importer
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab transit country for cocaine shipments; illicit producer of opium poppy and cannabis for the international drug trade; the government has an active eradication program for cannabis and opium poppy
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-90), $1.1 billion; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $7.92 billion
\par \tab Although possessing major mineral and hydropower resources and considerable potential for agricultural development, Guinea remains one of the poorest countries in the world. The agricultural sector contributes about 40% to GDP and employs 80% of the work force, while industry accounts for 27% of GDP. Guinea possesses over 25% of the world's bauxite reserves. The mining sector accounted for 85% of exports in 1991. Long-run improvements in literacy, financial institutions, and the legal framework are needed if the country is to move out of poverty. Except in the bauxite industry, foreign investment remains minimal.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $6.3 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 0.8% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $980 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 16.6% (1992 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $449 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $708 million, including capital expenditures of $361 million (1990 est.)
\par \tab accounts for 40% of GDP (includes fishing and forestry); mostly subsistence farming; principal products - rice, coffee, pineapples, palm kernels, cassava, bananas, sweet potatoes, timber; livestock - cattle, sheep and goats; not self-sufficient in food grains
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-89), $227 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $1.465 billion; OPEC bilateral aid (1979-89), $120 million; Communist countries (1970-89), $446 million
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 Guinean franc (FG) = 100 centimes
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab Guinean francs (FG) per US$1 - 810.94 (1 July 1993), 922.9 (30 September 1992), 675 (1990), 618 (1989), 515 (1988), 440 (1987), 383 (1986)
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab calendar year{\b Overview}
\par \tab Guinea-Bissau ranks among the poorest countries in the world. Agriculture and fishing are the main economic activities. Cashew nuts, peanuts, and palm kernels are the primary exports. Exploitation of known mineral deposits is unlikely at present because of a weak infrastructure and the high cost of development. With IMF support the country is committed to an economic reform program emphasizing monetary stability and private sector growth. This process will continue at a slow pace because of a heavy foreign debt burden and internal constraints.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $900 million (1993 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 2.9% (1993 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $840 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 55% (1991 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $33.6 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $44.8 million, including capital expenditures of $570,000 (1991 est.)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $19 million (f.o.b., 1993)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab cashews, fish, peanuts, palm kernels
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Portugal, Spain, Senegal, India, Nigeria
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $56 million (f.o.b., 1993)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab foodstuffs, transport equipment, petroleum products, machinery and equipment
\par \tab accounts for over 45% of GDP, nearly 100% of exports, and 90% of employment; rice is the staple food; other crops include corn, beans, cassava, cashew nuts, peanuts, palm kernels, and cotton; not self-sufficient in food; fishing and forestry potential not fully exploited
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-89), $49 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $615 million; OPEC bilateral aid (1979-89), $41 million; Communist countries (1970-89), $68 million
\par \tab Guyana, one of the poorest countries in the Western Hemisphere, has pushed ahead strongly in 1992-94, with an 8% average annual economic growth rate, led by gold mining, and rice, sugar, and forestry products for export. Favorable factors include recovery in the key agricultural and mining sectors, a more favorable atmosphere for business initiative, a more realistic exchange rate, a sharp drop in the inflation rate, and the continued support of international organizations. Serious underlying economic problems will continue. Electric power has been in short supply and constitutes a major barrier to future gains in national output. The government will have to persist in efforts to manage its large $2.2 billion external debt, control inflation, and to extend the privatization program.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $1.4 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 8.5% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $1,950 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 15.5% (1994 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 12% (1992 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $23.7 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $19.6 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1994 est.)
\par \tab most important sector, accounting for 25% of GDP and about half of exports; sugar and rice are key crops; development potential exists for fishing and forestry; not self-sufficient in food, especially wheat, vegetable oils, and animal products
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab transshipment point for narcotics from South America - primarily Venezuela - to the US and Europe; producer of cannabis
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-89), $116 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $325 million; Communist countries 1970-89, $242 million
\par \tab About 75% of the population live in abject poverty. Agriculture is mainly small-scale subsistence farming and employs two-thirds of the work force. The majority of the population does not have ready access to safe drinking water, adequate medical care, or sufficient food. The lack of employment opportunities remains one of the most critical problems facing the economy, along with soil erosion and political instability. International trade sanctions in response to the September 1991 coup against President ARISTIDE further damaged the economy. The restoration of President ARISTIDE, the lifting of sanctions in late 1994, and foreign aid will alleviate some economic problems. Haiti will continue to depend heavily on foreign aid.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $5.6 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab -15% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $870 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 52% (FY93/94 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 50% (1994 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $56 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $131 million, including capital expenditures of $6 million (1994 est.)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $173.3 million (f.o.b., 1993 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab light manufactures 65%, coffee 19%, other agriculture 8%, other 8%
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab US 81%, Europe 12% (1993)
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $476.8 million (f.o.b., 1993 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab machines and manufactures 34%, food and beverages 22%, petroleum products 14%, chemicals 10%, fats and oils 9%
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab US 51%, Europe 16%, Latin America 18% (1993)
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $871 million (September 1994)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate -2% (1991 est.); accounts for 15% of GDP
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 150,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 590 million kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 86 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab sugar refining, textiles, flour milling, cement manufacturing, tourism, light assembly industries based on imported parts
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab accounts for 28% of GDP and employs two-thirds of work force; mostly small-scale subsistence farms; commercial crops - coffee, mangoes, sugarcane, wood; staple crops - rice, corn, sorghum; shortage of wheat flour
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab transshipment point for cocaine and marijuana en route to the US and Europe
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (1970-89), $700 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $770 million
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 gourde (G) = 100 centimes
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab gourdes (G) per US$1 - 14.10 (1 December 1994), 12.00 (1 July 1993), 8.4 (December 1991), fixed rate of 5.000 through second quarter of 1991
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab 1 October - 30 September{\b Overview}
\par \tab Honduras is one of the poorest countries in the Western Hemisphere. Agriculture, the most important sector of the economy, accounts for 28% of GDP, employs 62% of the labor force, and produces two-thirds of exports. Productivity remains low. Manufacturing, still in its early stages, employs 9% of the labor force, accounts for 15% of GDP, and generates 20% of exports. The service sectors, including public administration, account for 50% of GDP and employ 20% of the labor force. Many basic problems face the economy, including rapid population growth, high unemployment, inflation, a lack of basic services, a large and inefficient public sector, and the dependence of the export sector mostly on coffee and bananas, which are subject to sharp price fluctuations. A far-reaching reform program, initiated by former President CALLEJAS in 1990 and scaled back by President REINA, is beginning to take hold.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $9.7 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab -1.9% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $1,820 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 30% (1994 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 10%; underemployed 30%-40% (1992)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $527 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $668 million, including capital expenditures of $166 million (1993 est.)
\par \tab most important sector, accounting for 28% of GDP, more than 60% of the labor force, and two-thirds of exports; principal products include bananas, coffee, timber, beef, citrus fruit, shrimp; importer of wheat
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab transshipment point for narcotics; illicit producer of cannabis, cultivated on small plots and used principally for local consumption
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-89), $1.4 billion; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $1.1 billion
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 lempira (L) = 100 centavos
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab lempiras (L) per US$1 - 9.1283 (October 1994), 7.2600 (1993), 5.8300 (1992), 5.4000 (1991); 2.0000 (fixed rate until 1991) 5.70 parallel black-market rate (November 1990); the lempira was allowed to float in 1992
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab calendar year{\b Overview}
\par \tab Hong Kong has a bustling free market economy with few tariffs or nontariff barriers. Natural resources are limited, and food and raw materials must be imported. Manufacturing accounts for about 17% of GDP. Goods and services exports account for about 50% of GDP. Real GDP growth averaged a remarkable 8% in 1987-88, slowed to 3.0% in 1989-90, and picked up to 4.2% in 1991, 5.0% in 1992, 5.2% in 1993, and 5.5% in 1994. Unemployment, which has been declining since the mid-1980s, is now about 2%. A shortage of labor continues to put upward pressure on prices and the cost of living. Prospects for 1995-96 remain bright so long as major trading partners continue to be reasonably prosperous and so long as investors feel China will support free market practices after the takeover in 1997.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $136.1 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 5.5% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $24,530 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 8.5% (1994)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 1.9% (1994 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $19.2 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $19.7 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (FY93/94)
\par \tab minor role in the economy; local farmers produce 26% fresh vegetables, 27% live poultry; 8% of land area suitable for farming
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab a hub for Southeast Asian heroin trade; transshipment and major financial and money-laundering center; increasing indigenous amphetamine and cocaine abuse
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-87), $152 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $923 million
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 Hong Kong dollar (HK$) = 100 cents
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab Hong Kong dollars (HK$) per US$ - 7.800 (1994), 7.800 (1993), 7.741 (1992), 7.771 (1991), 7.790 (1990); note - linked to the US dollar at the rate of about 7.8 HK$ per 1 US$ since 1985
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab 1 April - 31 March{\b Overview}
\par \tab Since 1989 Hungary has been a leader in the transition from a socialist command economy to a market economy - thanks in large part to its initial economic reforms during the Communist era. The private sector now accounts for about 55% of GDP. Nonetheless, the transformation is proving difficult, and many citizens say life was better under the old system. On the bright side, the four-year decline in output finally ended in 1994, as real GDP increased an estimated 3%. This growth helped reduce unemployment to just over 10% by yearend, down from a peak of 13%. However, no progress was made against inflation, which remained stuck at about 20%, and the already-large current account deficit in the balance of payments actually got worse, reaching almost $4 billion. Underlying Hungary's other economic problems is the large budget deficit, which probably exceeded 7% of GDP in 1994, despite some late-year budget cutting by the new leftist government. In 1995 the government has pledged to accelerate privatization and lower the budget deficit to 5.5% of GDP. It believes this fiscal tightening will reduce the current account deficit to $2.5 billion but at the cost of holding economic growth to only 1%.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $58.8 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 3% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $5,700 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 21% (1994)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 10.4% (yearend 1994)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $11.3 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $14.2 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1994)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $10.3 billion (f.o.b., 1994 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab raw materials and semi-finished goods 30.0%, machinery and transport equipment 20.1%, consumer goods 25.2%, food and agriculture 21.4%, fuels and energy 3.4% (1993)
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Germany 25.3%, Italy 8.3%, Austria 10.5%, the FSU 14.0%, US 4.3% (1993)
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $14.2 billion (f.o.b., 1994 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab fuels and energy 12.6%, raw materials and semi-finished goods 27.3%, machinery and transport equipment 33.0%, consumer goods 21.2%, food and agriculture 5.9% (1993)
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Germany 21.5%, Italy 6.1%, Austria 11.8%, the FSU 20.9%, US 4.3% (1993); note - about one-fourth of the imports from the FSU were MiGs delivered as a debt payment
\par \tab including forestry, accounts for 15% of GDP and 16% of employment; highly diversified crop and livestock farming; principal crops - wheat, corn, sunflowers, potatoes, sugar beets; livestock - hogs, cattle, poultry, dairy products; self-sufficient in food output
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab transshipment point for Southeast Asia heroin and South American cocaine destined for Western Europe; limited producer of precursor chemicals
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab assistance pledged by OECD countries since 1989 about $9 billion
\par \tab Iceland's Scandinavian-type economy is basically capitalistic, but with an extensive welfare system, relatively low unemployment, and comparatively even distribution of income. The economy is heavily dependent on the fishing industry, which provides nearly 75% of export earnings and employs 12% of the work force. In the absence of other natural resources - except energy - Iceland's economy is vulnerable to changing world fish prices. The economy, in recession since 1988, began to recover in 1993, posting 0.4% growth, but was still hampered by cutbacks in fish quotas as well as falling world prices for its main exports: fish and fish products, aluminum, and ferrosilicon. Real GDP grew by perhaps 2.4% in 1994. The center-right government plans to continue its policies of reducing the budget and current account deficits, limiting foreign borrowing, containing inflation, revising agricultural and fishing policies, diversifying the economy, and privatizing state-owned industries. The government, however, remains divided on the issue of EU membership, primarily because of Icelanders' concern about losing control over their fishing resources.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $4.5 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 2.4% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $17,250 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 1.3% (1994 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 7% (1994 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $1.9 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $2.1 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1994 est.)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $1.4 billion (f.o.b., 1993)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab fish and fish products, animal products, aluminum, ferrosilicon, diatomite
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab EC 68% (UK 25%, Germany 12%), US 11%, Japan 8% (1992)
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $1.3 billion (c.i.f., 1993)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab machinery and transportation equipment, petroleum products, foodstuffs, textiles
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab EC 53% (Germany 14%, Denmark 10%, UK 9%), Norway 14%, US 9% (1992)
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $2.5 billion (1993 est.)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 1.75% (1991 est.)
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 1,070,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 4.7 billion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 16,458 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab fish processing, aluminum smelting, ferro-silicon production, geothermal power
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab accounts for about 15% of GDP; fishing is most important economic activity, contributing nearly 75% to export earnings; principal crops - potatoes, turnips; livestock - cattle, sheep; fish catch of about 1.1 million metric tons in 1992
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-81), $19.1 million
\par \tab India's economy is a mixture of traditional village farming, modern agriculture, handicrafts, a wide range of modern industries, and a multitude of support services. Faster economic growth in the 1980s permitted a significant increase in real per capita private consumption. A large share of the population, perhaps as much as 40%, remains too poor to afford an adequate diet. Financial strains in 1990 and 1991 prompted government austerity measures that slowed industrial growth but permitted India to meet its international payment obligations without rescheduling its debt. Production, trade, and investment reforms since 1991 have provided new opportunities for Indian businessmen and an estimated 100 million to 200 million middle class consumers. New Delhi has always paid its foreign debts on schedule and has stimulated exports, attracted foreign investment, and revived confidence in India's economic prospects. Foreign exchange reserves, precariously low three years ago, now total more than $19 billion. Positive factors for the remainder of the 1990s are India's strong entrepreneurial class and the central government's recognition of the continuing need for market-oriented approaches to economic development, for example in upgrading the wholly inadequate communications facilities. Negative factors include the desperate poverty of hundreds of millions of Indians and the impact of the huge and expanding population on an already overloaded environment.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $1.2539 trillion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 5% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $1,360 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 10% (1994 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $30.85 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $48.35 billion, including capital expenditures of $10.5 billion (FY93/94)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $24.4 billion (f.o.b., 1994 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab clothing, gems and jewelry, engineering goods, chemicals, leather manufactures, cotton yarn, and fabric
\par \tab accounts for 34% of GDP; principal crops - rice, wheat, oilseeds, cotton, jute, tea, sugarcane, potatoes; livestock - cattle, buffaloes, sheep, goats, poultry; fish catch of about 3 million metric tons ranks India among the world's top 10 fishing nations
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab licit producer of opium poppy for the pharmaceutical trade, but an undetermined quantity of opium is diverted to illicit international drug markets; major transit country for illicit narcotics produced in neighboring countries; illicit producer of hashish and methaqualone; produced 82 metric tons of illicit opium in 1994
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-89), $4.4 billion; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1980-89), $31.7 billion; OPEC bilateral aid (1979-89), $315 million; USSR (1970-89), $11.6 billion; Eastern Europe (1970-89), $105 million
\par \tab The Indian Ocean provides major sea routes connecting the Middle East, Africa, and East Asia with Europe and the Americas. It carries a particularly heavy traffic of petroleum and petroleum products from the oilfields of the Persian Gulf and Indonesia. Its fish are of great and growing importance to the bordering countries for domestic consumption and export. Fishing fleets from Russia, Japan, Korea, and Taiwan also exploit the Indian Ocean, mainly for shrimp and tuna. Large reserves of hydrocarbons are being tapped in the offshore areas of Saudi Arabia, Iran, India, and western Australia. An estimated 40% of the world's offshore oil production comes from the Indian Ocean. Beach sands rich in heavy minerals and offshore placer deposits are actively exploited by bordering countries, particularly India, South Africa, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and Thailand.
{\b Industries}
\par \tab based on exploitation of natural resources, particularly fish, minerals, oil and gas, fishing, sand and gravel{\b Overview}
\par \tab Indonesia is a mixed economy with some socialist institutions and central planning but with a recent emphasis on deregulation and private enterprise. Indonesia has extensive natural wealth, yet, with a large and rapidly increasing population, it remains a rather poor country. Real GDP growth in 1985-94 averaged about 6%, quite impressive, but not sufficient to both slash underemployment and absorb the 2.3 million workers annually entering the labor force. Agriculture, including forestry and fishing, is an important sector, accounting for 21% of GDP and over 50% of the labor force. The staple crop is rice. Once the world's largest rice importer, Indonesia is now nearly self-sufficient. Plantation crops - rubber and palm oil - and textiles and plywood are being encouraged for both export and job generation. Industrial output now accounts for almost 40% of GDP and is based on a supply of diverse natural resources, including crude oil, natural gas, timber, metals, and coal. Foreign investment has also boosted manufacturing output and exports in recent years. Indeed, the economy's growth is highly dependent on the continuing expansion of nonoil exports. Japan remains Indonesia's most important customer and supplier of aid. Rapid growth in the money supply in 1989-90 prompted Jakarta to implement a tight monetary policy in 1991, forcing the private sector to go to foreign banks for investment financing. Real interest rates remained above 10% and off-shore commercial debt grew. The growth in off-shore debt prompted Jakarta to limit foreign borrowing beginning in late 1991. Despite the continued problems in moving toward a more open financial system and the persistence of a fairly tight credit situation, GDP growth in 1992-94 has matched the government target of 6%-7% annual growth.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $619.4 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 6.7% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $3,090 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 9.3% (1994 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 3% official rate; underemployment 40% (1994 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $32.8 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $32.8 billion, including capital expenditures of $12.9 billion (FY94/95)
\par \tab Japan 30%, US 14%, Singapore 9%, South Korea 6%, Taiwan 4% (1993)
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $31.4 billion (f.o.b., 1994 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab capital equipment 44.2%, intermed and raw materials 37.0%, consumer goods 11.5%, fuels 7.2% (1994 est.)
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Japan 22%, US 11%, South Korea 7%, Germany 7%, Singapore 6%, Australia 5%, Taiwan 5% (1993)
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $87 billion (1994)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 8.4% (1993 est.); accounts for 40% of GDP
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 12,100,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 44 billion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 207 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab petroleum and natural gas, textiles, mining, cement, chemical fertilizers, plywood, food, rubber
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab accounts for 21% of GDP; subsistence food production; small-holder and plantation production for export; main products are rice, cassava, peanuts, rubber, cocoa, coffee, palm oil, copra, other tropical products, poultry, beef, pork, eggs
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab illicit producer of cannabis for the international drug trade, but not a major player; government actively eradicating plantings and prosecuting traffickers; growing role as transshipment point for Golden Triangle heroin; increasing indigenous methamphetamine abuse
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-89), $4.4 billion; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $25.9 billion; OPEC bilateral aid (1979-89), $213 million; Communist countries (1970-89), $175 million
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 Indonesian rupiah (Rp) = 100 sen (sen no longer used)
\par \tab Iran's economy is a mixture of central planning, state ownership of oil and other large enterprises, village agriculture, and small-scale private trading and service ventures. Over the past several years, the government has introduced several measures to liberalize the economy and reduce government intervention, but most of these changes have moved slowly because of political opposition. Iran has faced increasingly severe financial difficulties since mid-1992 due to an import surge that began in 1989 and general financial mismanagement. At yearend 1993 the Iranian Government estimated that it owed foreign creditors about $30 billion; an estimated $8 billion of this debt was in arrears. At yearend 1994, Iran rescheduled $12 billion in debt. Earnings from oil exports - which provide 90% of Iran's export revenues - are providing less relief to Iran than usual because of reduced oil prices.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $310 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab -2% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $4,720 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 35% (1994)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab over 30% (1994 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $NA
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $NA, including capital expenditures of $NA
\par \tab Japan, Italy, France, Netherlands, Belgium/Luxembourg, Spain, and Germany
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $18 billion (c.i.f., FY92/93 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab machinery, military supplies, metal works, foodstuffs, pharmaceuticals, technical services, refined oil products
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Germany, Japan, Italy, UK, UAE
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $30 billion (December 1993)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 4.6% (1993 est.); accounts for almost 30% of GDP, including petroleum
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 19,080,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 50.8 billion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 745 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab petroleum, petrochemicals, textiles, cement and other building materials, food processing (particularly sugar refining and vegetable oil production), metal fabricating, armaments and military equipment
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab accounts for about 20% of GDP; principal products - wheat, rice, other grains, sugar beets, fruits, nuts, cotton, dairy products, wool, caviar; not self-sufficient in food
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab illicit producer of opium poppy for the domestic and international drug trade; produced 35-70 metric tons in 1993; net opiate importer but also a key transshipment point for Southwest Asian heroin to Europe
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-80), $1 billion; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $1.675 billion; Communist countries (1970-89), $976 million
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab aid fell sharply following the 1979 revolution
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 10 Iranian rials (IR) = 1 toman; note - domestic figures are generally referred to in terms of the toman
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab Iranian rials (IR) per US$1 - 1,749.04 (January 1995), 1,748.75 (1994), 1,267.77 (1993), 65.552 (1992), 67.505 (1991); black market rate: 3,000 rials per US$1 (December 1994)
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab 21 March - 20 March{\b Overview}
\par \tab The Ba'thist regime engages in extensive central planning and management of industrial production and foreign trade while leaving some small-scale industry and services and most agriculture to private enterprise. The economy has been dominated by the oil sector, which has traditionally provided about 95% of foreign exchange earnings. In the 1980s, financial problems caused by massive expenditures in the eight-year war with Iran and damage to oil export facilities by Iran, led the government to implement austerity measures and to borrow heavily and later reschedule foreign debt payments. After the end of hostilities in 1988, oil exports gradually increased with the construction of new pipelines and restoration of damaged facilities. Agricultural development remained hampered by labor shortages, salinization, and dislocations caused by previous land reform and collectivization programs. The industrial sector, although accorded high priority by the government, also was under financial constraints. Iraq's seizure of Kuwait in August 1990, subsequent international economic embargoes, and military action by an international coalition beginning in January 1991 drastically changed the economic picture. Industrial and transportation facilities, which suffered severe damage, have been partially restored. Oil exports remain at less than 5% of the previous level. Shortages of spare parts continue. Living standards deteriorated even further in 1993 and 1994; consumer prices have more than doubled in both 1993 and 1994. The UN-sponsored economic embargo has reduced exports and imports and has contributed to the sharp rise in prices. The Iraqi government has been unwilling to abide by UN resolutions so that the economic embargo can be removed. The government's policies of supporting large military and internal security forces and of allocating resources to key supporters of the regime have exacerbated shortages. In brief, per capita output in 1993-94 is far below the 1989-90 level, but no precise estimate is available.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $NA
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $NA
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab NA%
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $NA
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $NA, including capital expenditures of $NA
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $10.4 billion (f.o.b., 1990)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab crude oil and refined products, fertilizer, sulfur
\par \tab $50 billion (1989 est.), excluding debt of about $35 billion owed to Gulf Arab states
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate NA%; manufacturing accounts for 10% of GNP (1989)
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 7,170,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 25.7 billion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 1,247 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab petroleum production and refining, chemicals, textiles, construction materials, food processing
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab accounted for 11% of GNP and 30% of labor force before the Gulf war; principal products - wheat, barley, rice, vegetables, dates, other fruit, cotton, wool; livestock - cattle, sheep; not self-sufficient in food output
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-80), $3 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $647 million; Communist countries (1970-89), $3.9 billion
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 Iraqi dinar (ID) = 1,000 fils
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab Iraqi dinars (ID) per US$1 - 3.2 (fixed official rate since 1982); black-market rate (March 1995) US$1 = 1200 Iraqi dinars; semi-official rate US$1 = 650 Iraqi dinars
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab calendar year{\b Overview}
\par \tab The economy is small and trade dependent. Agriculture, once the most important sector, is now dwarfed by industry, which accounts for 37% of GDP, about 80% of exports, and employs 28% of the labor force. Although exports remain the primary engine for Ireland's robust growth, the economy is also benefiting from a rise in consumer spending and recovery in both construction and business investment. Ireland has substantially reduced its external debt since 1987, to 40% of GDP in 1994. Over the same period, inflation has fallen sharply and chronic trade deficits have been transformed into annual surpluses. Unemployment remains a serious problem, however, and job creation is the main focus of government policy. To ease unemployment, Dublin aggressively courts foreign investors and recently created a new industrial development agency to aid small indigenous firms. Government assistance is constrained by Dublin's continuing deficit reduction measures.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $49.8 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 5.5% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $14,060 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 2.7% (1994 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 16% (1994 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $16 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $16.6 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1994)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $28 billion (f.o.b., 1994 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab chemicals, data processing equipment, industrial machinery, live animals, animal products
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab EU 75% (UK 32%, Germany 13%, France 10%), US 9%
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $26 billion (c.i.f., 1994 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab food, animal feed, data processing equipment, petroleum and petroleum products, machinery, textiles, clothing
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab EU 66% (UK 41%, Germany 8%, France 4%), US 15%
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $20 billion (1994 est.)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 8.5% (1994 est.); accounts for 37% of GDP
\par \tab Israel has a market economy with substantial government participation. It depends on imports of crude oil, grains, raw materials, and military equipment. Despite limited natural resources, Israel has intensively developed its agricultural and industrial sectors over the past 20 years. Industry employs about 22% of Israeli workers, construction 6.5%, agriculture, forestry, and fishing 3.5%, and services most of the rest. Israel is largely self-sufficient in food production except for grains. Diamonds, high-technology equipment, and agricultural products (fruits and vegetables) are leading exports. Israel usually posts current account deficits, which are covered by large transfer payments from abroad and by foreign loans. Roughly half of the government's external debt is owed to the United States, which is its major source of economic and military aid. To earn needed foreign exchange, Israel has been targeting high-technology niches in international markets, such as medical scanning equipment. The influx of Jewish immigrants from the former USSR, which topped 450,000 during the period 1990-94, increased unemployment, intensified housing problems, and strained the government budget. At the same time, the immigrants bring to the economy valuable scientific and professional expertise.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $70.1 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 6.8% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $13,880 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 14.5% (1994)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 7.5% (1994 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $42.3 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $45.4 billion, including capital expenditures of $11.1 billion (FY92/93)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $16.2 billion (f.o.b., 1994 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab machinery and equipment, cut diamonds, chemicals, textiles and apparel, agricultural products, metals
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab US, EU, Japan
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $22.5 billion (c.i.f., 1994 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab military equipment, investment goods, rough diamonds, oil, other productive inputs, consumer goods
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab EU, US, Japan
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $25.9 billion (November 1994 est.)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 8% (1994 est.); accounts for about 30% of GDP
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 4,140,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 23 billion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 4,290 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab food processing, diamond cutting and polishing, textiles and apparel, chemicals, metal products, military equipment, transport equipment, electrical equipment, miscellaneous machinery, potash mining, high-technology electronics, tourism
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab citrus and other fruits, vegetables, cotton; beef, poultry, dairy products
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab increasingly concerned about cocaine and heroin abuse and trafficking
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-90), $18.2 billion; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $2.8 billion
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 new Israeli shekel (NIS) = 100 new agorot
\par \tab calendar year (since 1 January 1992){\b Overview}
\par \tab Since World War II the Italian economy has changed from one based on agriculture into a ranking industrial economy, with approximately the same total and per capita output as France and the UK. The country is still divided into a developed industrial north, dominated by private companies, and an undeveloped agricultural south, dominated by large public enterprises. Services account for 48% of GDP, industry 35%, agriculture 4%, and public administration 13%. Most raw materials needed by industry and over 75% of energy requirements must be imported. After growing at an average annual rate of 3% in 1983-90, growth slowed to about 1% in 1991 and 1992, fell by 0.7% in 1993, and recovered to 2% in 1994. In the second half of 1992, Rome became unsettled by the prospect of not qualifying to participate in EU plans for economic and monetary union later in the decade; thus it finally began to address its huge fiscal imbalances. Subsequently, the government has adopted fairly stringent budgets, abandoned its highly inflationary wage indexation system, and started to scale back its extremely generous social welfare programs, including pension and health care benefits. Monetary officials were forced to withdraw the lira from the European monetary system in September 1992 when it came under extreme pressure in currency markets. For the 1990s, Italy faces the problems of pushing ahead with fiscal reform, refurbishing a tottering communications system, curbing pollution in major industrial centers, and adjusting to the new competitive forces accompanying the ongoing expansion and economic integration of the European Union.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $998.9 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 2.2% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $17,180 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 3.9% (1994)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 12.2% (January 1995)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $339 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $431 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1994 est.)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $190.8 billion (f.o.b., 1994)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab metals, textiles and clothing, production machinery, motor vehicles, transportation equipment, chemicals, other
\par \tab growth rate 4.3% (1994 est.); accounts for 35% of GDP
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 61,630,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 209 billion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 4,033 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab machinery, iron and steel, chemicals, food processing, textiles, motor vehicles, clothing, footwear, ceramics
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab accounts for about 4% of GDP; self-sufficient in foods other than meat, dairy products, and cereals; principal crops - fruits, vegetables, grapes, potatoes, sugar beets, soybeans, grain, olives; fish catch of 525,000 metric tons in 1990
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab important gateway country for Latin American cocaine and Southwest Asian heroin entering the European market
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b donor}
\par \tab ODA and OOF commitments (1970-89), $25.9 billion
\par \tab Key sectors in this island economy are bauxite (alumina and bauxite account for more than half of exports) and tourism. The government's tight fiscal and monetary policies, which have been partially successful in curbing inflation, have held growth to 1.2% in 1993 and 2.0% in 1994.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $7.8 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 2% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $3,050 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 26.7% (1994)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 15.7% (1992)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $600 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $736 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (FY90/91 est.)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $1.2 billion (f.o.b., 1994 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab alumina, bauxite, sugar, bananas, rum
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab US 47%, UK 11%, Canada 9%, Norway 7%; France 4% (1993)
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $2.2 billion (f.o.b., 1994 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab machinery and transport equipment, construction materials, fuel, food, chemicals
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab US 54%, Japan 4.0%, Mexico 6%, UK 4%, Venezuela 3% (1993)
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $3.6 billion (1994 est.)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 0.4% (1992); accounts for almost 30% of GDP
\par \tab accounts for about 7% of GDP, 22% of work force, and 17% of exports; commercial crops - sugarcane, bananas, coffee, citrus, potatoes, vegetables; livestock and livestock products include poultry, goats, milk; not self-sufficient in grain, meat, and dairy products
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab transshipment point for cocaine from Central and South America to North America and Europe; illicit cultivation of cannabis; government has an active cannabis eradication program
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-89), $1.2 billion; other countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $1.6 billion
\par \tab Government-industry cooperation, a strong work ethic, mastery of high technology, and a comparatively small defense allocation (roughly 1% of GDP) have helped Japan advance with extraordinary rapidity to the rank of second most powerful economy in the world. Industry, the most important sector of the economy, is heavily dependent on imported raw materials and fuels. Usually self-sufficient in rice, Japan must import about 50% of its requirements of other grain and fodder crops. Japan maintains one of the world's largest fishing fleets and accounts for nearly 15% of the global catch. Overall economic growth has been spectacular: a 10% average in the 1960s, a 5% average in the 1970s and 1980s. Economic growth came to a halt in 1992-93 largely because of contractionary domestic policies intended to wring speculative excesses from the stock and real estate markets. Growth resumed at a 0.6% pace in 1994 largely because of consumer demand. As for foreign trade, the stronger yen and slower global growth are containing export growth. Unemployment and inflation remain remarkably low in comparison with the other industrialized nations. Japan continues to run a huge trade surplus - $121 billion in 1994, roughly the same size as in 1993 - which supports extensive investment in foreign assets. Prime Minister MURAYAMA has yet to formalize his government's plans for administrative and economic reform, including reduction in the trade surplus. As leader of a coalition government, he has softened his own socialist positions. The crowding of the habitable land area and the aging of the population are two major long-run problems.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $2.5274 trillion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 0.6% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $20,200 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 0.7% (1994)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 2.9% (1994)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $569 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $671 billion, including capital expenditures (public works only) of about $126 billion (1994 est.)
\par \tab Southeast Asia 33%, US 29%, Western Europe 18%, China 5%
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $274.3 billion (c.i.f., 1994)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab manufactures 52%, fossil fuels 20%, foodstuffs and raw materials 28%
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Southeast Asia 25%, US 23%, Western Europe 15%, China 9%
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $NA
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 1% (1994); accounts for 30% of GDP
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 205,140,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 840 billion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 6,262 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab steel and non-ferrous metallurgy, heavy electrical equipment, construction and mining equipment, motor vehicles and parts, electronic and telecommunication equipment and components, machine tools and automated production systems, locomotives and railroad rolling stock, shipbuilding, chemicals, textiles, food processing
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab accounts for only 2% of GDP; highly subsidized and protected sector, with crop yields among highest in world; principal crops - rice, sugar beets, vegetables, fruit; animal products include pork, poultry, dairy and eggs; about 50% self-sufficient in food production; shortages of wheat, corn, soybeans; world's largest fish catch of 10 million metric tons in 1991
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b donor}
\par \tab ODA and OOF commitments (1970-94), $132 billion
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab ODA outlay of $9.9 billion in 1994 (est.)
{\b Currency}
\par \tab yen
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab yen per US$1 - 99.75 (January 1995), 102.21 (1994), 111.20 (1993), 126.65 (1992), 134.71 (1991), 144.79 (1990)
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab 1 April - 31 March{\b Overview}
\par \tab Jordan benefited from increased Arab aid during the oil boom of the late 1970s and early 1980s, when its annual real GNP growth averaged more than 10%. In the remainder of the 1980s, however, reductions in both Arab aid and worker remittances slowed real economic growth to an average of roughly 2% per year. Imports - mainly oil, capital goods, consumer durables, and food - outstripped exports, with the difference covered by aid, remittances, and borrowing. In mid-1989, the Jordanian Government began debt-rescheduling negotiations and agreed to implement an IMF-supported program designed to gradually reduce the budget deficit and implement badly needed structural reforms. The Persian Gulf crisis that began in August 1990, however, aggravated Jordan's already serious economic problems, forcing the government to shelve the IMF program, stop most debt payments, and suspend rescheduling negotiations. Aid from Gulf Arab states, worker remittances, and trade contracted; and refugees flooded the country, producing serious balance-of-payments problems, stunting GDP growth, and straining government resources. The economy rebounded in 1992, largely due to the influx of capital repatriated by workers returning from the Gulf, but the recovery was uneven throughout 1994. The government is implementing the reform program adopted in 1992 and continues to secure rescheduling and write-offs of its heavy foreign debt. Debt, poverty, and unemployment remain Jordan's biggest on-going problems.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $17 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 5.5% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $4,280 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 6% (1994 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 16% (1994 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $2 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $2.4 billion, including capital expenditures of $630 million (1995 est.)
\par \tab accounts for about 8% of GDP; wheat, barley, citrus fruit, tomatoes, melons, olives; sheep, goats, poultry; large net importer of food
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-89), $1.7 billion; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $1.5 billion; OPEC bilateral aid (1979-89), $9.5 billion; Communist countries (1970-89), $44 million
\par \tab Kazakhstan, the second largest of the former Soviet states in territory, possesses enormous untapped fossil-fuel reserves as well as plentiful supplies of other minerals and metals. It also has considerable agricultural potential with its vast steppe lands accommodating both livestock and grain production. Kazakhstan's industrial sector rests on the extraction and processing of these natural resources and also on a relatively large machine building sector specializing in construction equipment, tractors, agricultural machinery, and some defense items. The breakup of the USSR and the collapse of demand for Kazakhstan's traditional heavy industry products have resulted in a sharp contraction of the economy since 1991, with the steepest annual decline occurring in 1994. The government has pursued a moderate program of economic reform and privatization which is gradually lifting state controls over economic activity and shifting assets into the private sector. Nevertheless, government control over key sectors of the economy remains strong. Sustained economic hardships and continued pressures from industrial elites will make it difficult for the government to sustain its policies of monetary and fiscal discipline which had brought down inflation by the end of 1994. Continued lack of pipeline transportation for expanded oil exports has closed off a likely source of economic recovery.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $55.2 billion (1994 estimate as extrapolated from World Bank estimate for 1992)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab -25% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $3,200 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 24% per month (1994 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 1.1% includes only officially registered unemployed; also large numbers of underemployed workers (1994)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $NA
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $NA, including capital expenditures of $NA
\par \tab machinery and parts, industrial materials, oil and gas
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Russia and other former Soviet republics, China
{\b External debt}
\par \tab less than $1 billion debt to Russia
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate -28% (1994)
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 17,380,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 65.1 billion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 3,750 kWh (1994)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab accounts for 26% of net national product; extractive industries (oil, coal, iron ore, manganese, chromite, lead, zinc, copper, titanium, bauxite, gold, silver, phosphates, sulfur), iron and steel, nonferrous metal, tractors and other agricultural machinery, electric motors, construction materials
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab accounts for 20% of GDP; employs about 26% of the labor force; grain, mostly spring wheat; meat, cotton, wool
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab illicit cultivation of cannabis and opium poppy; mostly for CIS consumption; limited government eradication program; used as transshipment point for illicit drugs to Western Europe and North America from Southwest Asia
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab approximately $1 billion in foreign loans and credits allocated in 1994; disbursements projected at $700 billion through 1995
{\b Currency}
\par \tab national currency the tenge introduced on 15 November 1993
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab tenges per US$1 - 54 (yearend 1994)
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab calendar year{\b Overview}
\par \tab Kenya in recent years has had one of the highest natural rates of growth in population, but the statistics have been complicated by the large-scale movement of nomadic groups and of Somalis back and forth across the border. Population growth has been accompanied by deforestation, deterioration in the road system, the water supply, and other parts of the infrastructure. In industry and services, Nairobi's reluctance to embrace IMF-supported reforms had held back investment and growth in 1991-93. Nairobi's push on economic reform in 1994, however, helped support a 3.3% increase in output.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $33.1 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 3.3% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $1,170 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 30% (1994 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 35% urban (1994 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $2.4 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $2.8 billion, including capital expenditures of $740 million (1990 est.)
\par \tab EC 47%, Africa 23%, Asia 11%, US 4%, Middle East 3% (1991)
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $1.85 billion (f.o.b., 1994 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab machinery and transportation equipment 29%, petroleum and petroleum products 15%, iron and steel 7%, raw materials, food and consumer goods (1989)
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab EC 46%, Asia 23%, Middle East 20%, US 5% (1991)
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $7 billion (1994 est.)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 3.9% (1991 est.); accounts for 14% of GDP
\par \tab most important sector, accounting for 27% of GDP and 65% of exports; cash crops - coffee, tea; food products - corn, wheat, sugarcane, fruit, vegetables, dairy products, beef, pork, poultry, eggs
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab widespread harvesting of small, wild plots of marijuana and qat; most locally consumed; transit country for Southwest Asian heroin moving to West Africa and onward to Europe and North America; Indian methaqualone also transits on way to South Africa
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-89), $839 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $7.49 billion; OPEC bilateral aid (1979-89), $74 million; Communist countries (1970-89), $83 million
\par \tab A remote country of 33 scattered coral atolls, Kiribati has few national resources. Commercially viable phosphate deposits were exhausted at the time of independence in 1979. Copra and fish now represent the bulk of production and exports. The economy has fluctuated widely in recent years. Real GDP declined about 5% in 1987, as the fish catch fell sharply to only one-fourth the level of 1986 and copra production was hampered by repeated rains. Output rebounded strongly in 1988, with real GDP growing by 10%. The upturn in economic growth came from an increase in copra production and a good fish catch. GDP then fell by 2.2% in 1989 and by 2.9% in 1990, but has risen by about 3% annually in 1991-93. Foreign financial aid, largely from the UK and Japan, is a critical supplement to GDP, amounting to 25%-50% of GDP in recent years.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $62 million (1993 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 2.9% (1993 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $800 (1993 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 6.5% (1993 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 2%; underemployment 70% (1992 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $29.6 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $32.8 million, including capital expenditures of $14 million (1993 est.)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $4.2 million (f.o.b., 1992 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab copra 50%, seaweed 16%, fish 15%
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Denmark, Fiji, US
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $33.1 million (c.i.f., 1992 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab foodstuffs, machinery and equipment, miscellaneous manufactured goods, fuel
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Australia 40%, Japan 18%, Fiji 17%, NZ 6%, US 4% (1991)
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $2 million (December 1989 est.)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 0.7% (1992 est.); accounts for less than 4% of GDP
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 5,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 13 million kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 131 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab fishing, handicrafts
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab accounts for 23% of GDP (including fishing); copra and fish contribute about 65% to exports; subsistence farming predominates; food crops - taro, breadfruit, sweet potatoes, vegetables; not self-sufficient in food
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $273 million
\par \tab More than 90% of this command economy is socialized; agricultural land is collectivized; and state-owned industry produces 95% of manufactured goods. State control of economic affairs is unusually tight even for a Communist country because of the small size and homogeneity of the society and the strict rule of KIM Il-song in the past and now his son, KIM Chong-il. Economic growth during the period 1984-88 averaged 2%-3%, but output declined by 3%-5% annually during 1989-92 because of systemic problems and disruptions in socialist-style economic relations with the former USSR and China. In 1992, output dropped sharply, by perhaps 7%-9%, as the economy felt the cumulative effect of the reduction in outside support. The leadership insisted on maintaining its high level of military outlays from a shrinking economic pie. Moreover, a serious drawdown in inventories and critical shortages in the energy sector have led to increasing interruptions in industrial production. Abundant mineral resources and hydropower have formed the basis of industrial development since World War II. Output of the extractive industries includes coal, iron ore, magnesite, graphite, copper, zinc, lead, and precious metals. Manufacturing is centered on heavy industry, including military industry, with light industry lagging far behind. Despite the use of improved seed varieties, expansion of irrigation, and the heavy use of fertilizers, North Korea has not yet become self-sufficient in food production. Indeed, a shortage of arable lands, several years of poor harvests, and a cumbersome distribution system have resulted in chronic food shortages. The collapse of Communism in the former Soviet Union and Eastern Europe in 1989-91 has disrupted important technological links. North Korea remains far behind South Korea in economic development and living standards. GDP is stagnant.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $21.3 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 0% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $920 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab NA%
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $19.3 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $19.3 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1992 est.)
\par \tab China, Russia, Japan, Hong Kong, Germany, Singapore
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $8 billion (1992 est.)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate -7% to -9% (1992 est.)
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 9,500,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 50 billion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 2,053 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab machine building, military products, electric power, chemicals, mining, metallurgy, textiles, food processing
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab accounts for about 25% of GDP and 36% of work force; principal crops - rice, corn, potatoes, soybeans, pulses; livestock and livestock products - cattle, hogs, pork, eggs; not self-sufficient in grain
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab Communist countries, $1.4 billion a year in the 1980s, but very little now
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 North Korean won (Wn) = 100 chon
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab North Korean won (Wn) per US$1 - 2.15 (May 1994), 2.13 (May 1992), 2.14 (September 1991), 2.1 (January 1990), 2.3 (December 1989)
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab calendar year{\b Overview}
\par \tab The driving force behind the economy's dynamic growth has been the planned development of an export-oriented economy in a vigorously entrepreneurial society. Real GDP increased more than 10% annually between 1986 and 1991. This growth ultimately led to an overheated situation characterized by a tight labor market, strong inflationary pressures, and a rapidly rising current account deficit. As a result, in 1992, economic policy focused on slowing the growth rate of inflation and reducing the deficit. Annual growth slowed to 5%, still above the rate in most other countries of the world, and recovered to 6.3% in 1993. The economy expanded by 8.3% in 1994, driven by booming exports.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $508.3 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 8.3% (1994)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $11,270 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 5.6% (1994)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 2% (November 1994)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $63 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $63 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1995 est.)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $96.2 billion (f.o.b., 1994)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab electronic and electrical equipment, machinery, steel, automobiles, ships, textiles, clothing, footwear, fish
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab US 26%, Japan 17%, EU 14%
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $102.3 billion (c.i.f., 1994)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab machinery, electronics and electronic equipment, oil, steel, transport equipment, textiles, organic chemicals, grains
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Japan 26%, US 24%, EU 15%
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $44.1 billion (1993)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 12.1% (1994 est.); accounts for about 45% of GNP
\par \tab accounts for 8% of GDP and employs 21% of work force (including fishing and forestry); principal crops - rice, root crops, barley, vegetables, fruit; livestock and livestock products - cattle, hogs, chickens, milk, eggs; self-sufficient in food, except for wheat; fish catch of 2.9 million metric tons, seventh-largest in world
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-89), $3.9 billion; non-US countries (1970-89), $3 billion
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 South Korean won (W) = 100 chun (theoretical)
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab South Korean won (W) per US$1 - 790.48 (January 1995), 803.44 (1994), 802.67 (1993), 780.65 (1992), 733.35 (1991), 707.76 (1990)
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab calendar year{\b Overview}
\par \tab Kuwait is a small and relatively open economy with proved crude oil reserves of about 94 billion barrels - 10% of world reserves. Kuwait has rebuilt its war-ravaged petroleum sector; its crude oil production reached at least 2.0 million barrels per day by the end of 1993. The government ran a sizable fiscal deficit in 1993. Petroleum accounts for nearly half of GDP and 90% of export and government revenues. Kuwait lacks water and has practically no arable land, thus preventing development of agriculture. With the exception of fish, it depends almost wholly on food imports. About 75% of potable water must be distilled or imported. Because of its high per capita income, comparable with Western European incomes, Kuwait provides its citizens with extensive health, educational, and retirement benefits. Per capita military expenditures are among the highest in the world. The economy improved moderately in 1994, with the growth in industry and finance, and should see further gains in 1995, especially if oil prices go up. The World Bank has urged Kuwait to push ahead with privatization, including in the oil industry, but the government will move slowly on this front.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $30.7 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 9.3% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $16,900 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 3% (1993)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab NEGL% (1992 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $9 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $13 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (FY92/93)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $10.5 billion (f.o.b., 1993)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab oil
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab France 16%, Italy 15%, Japan 12%, UK 11%
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $6.6 billion (f.o.b., 1993)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab food, construction materials, vehicles and parts, clothing
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab US 35%, Japan 12%, UK 9%, Canada 9%
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $7.2 billion (December 1989 est.)
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab external debt has grown substantially in 1991 and 1992 to pay for restoration of war damage
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate NA%; accounts for NA% of GDP
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 7,070,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 11 billion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 6,007 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab petroleum, petrochemicals, desalination, food processing, building materials, salt, construction
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab practically none; extensive fishing in territorial waters and Indian Ocean
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b donor}
\par \tab pledged bilateral aid to less developed countries (1979-89), $18.3 billion
\par \tab Kyrgyzstan is one of the smallest and poorest states of the former Soviet Union. Its economy is heavily agricultural, growing cotton and tobacco on irrigated land in the south and grain in the foothills of the north and raising sheep and goats on mountain pastures. Its small and obsolescent industrial sector, concentrated around Bishkek, has traditionally relied on Russia and other CIS countries for customers and industrial inputs, including most of its fuel. Since 1990, the economy has contracted by almost 50% as subsidies from Moscow vanished and trade links with other former Soviet republics eroded. At the same time, the Kyrgyz government stuck to tight monetary and fiscal policies in 1994 that succeeded in reducing inflation from 23% per month in 1993 to 5.4% per month in 1994. Moreover, Kyrgyzstan has been the most successful of the Central Asian states in reducing state controls over the economy and privatizing state industries. Nevertheless, restructuring proved to be a slow and painful process in 1994 despite relatively large flows of foreign aid and continued progress on economic reform. The decline in output in 1995 may be much smaller, perhaps 5%, compared with an estimated 24% in 1994.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $8.4 billion (1994 estimate as extrapolated from World Bank estimate for 1992)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab -24% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $1,790 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 5.4% per month (1994 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 0.7% includes officially registered unemployed; also large numbers of unregistered unemployed and underemployed workers (1994)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $NA
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $NA, including capital expenditures of $NA
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $116 million to countries outside the FSU (1994)
\par \tab illicit cultivator of cannabis and opium poppy; mostly for CIS consumption; limited government eradication program; used as transshipment point for illicit drugs to Western Europe and North America from Southwest Asia
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab IMF aid commitments were $80 million in 1993 and $400 million in 1994
{\b Currency}
\par \tab introduced national currency, the som (10 May 1993)
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab soms per US$1 - 10.6 (yearend 1994)
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab calendar year{\b Overview}
\par \tab The government of Laos - one of the few remaining official Communist states - has been decentralizing control and encouraging private enterprise since 1986. The results, starting from an extremely low base, have been striking - growth has averaged 7.5% annually since 1988. Even so, Laos is a landlocked country with a primitive infrastructure. It has no railroads, a rudimentary road system, and limited external and internal telecommunications. Electricity is available in only a few urban areas. Subsistence agriculture accounts for half of GDP and provides 80% of total employment. The predominant crop is rice. In non-drought years, Laos is self-sufficient overall in food, but each year flood, pests, and localized drought cause shortages in various parts of the country. For the foreseeable future the economy will continue to depend on aid from the IMF and other international sources; aid from the former USSR and Eastern Europe has been cut sharply. As in many developing countries, deforestation and soil erosion will hamper efforts to maintain the high rate of GDP growth.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $4 billion (1994 est.)
\par \tab illicit producer of cannabis, opium poppy for the international drug trade, fourth largest opium producer (85 metric tons in 1994); heroin producer; increasingly used as transshipment point for heroin produced in Burma
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-79), $276 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $605 million; Communist countries (1970-89), $995 million; international assistance in loans and grant aid (1993/94) $217.7 million
\par \tab Latvia is rapidly becoming a dynamic market economy, rivaled only by Estonia among the former Soviet states in the speed of its transformation. However, the transition has been painful; in 1994 the IMF reported a 2% growth in GDP, following steep declines in 1992-93. The government's tough monetary policies and reform program have kept inflation at less than 2% a month, supported a dynamic private sector now accounting for more than half of GDP, and spurred the growth of trade ties with the West. Much of agriculture is already privatized and the government plans to step up the pace of privatization of state enterprises. Latvia thus is in the midst of recovery, helped by the country's strategic location on the Baltic Sea, its well-educated population, and its diverse - albeit largely obsolete - industrial structure.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $12.3 billion (1994 estimate as extrapolated from World Bank estimate for 1992)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 2% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $4,480 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 1.9% (monthly average 1994)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 6.5% (December 1994)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $NA
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $NA, including capital expenditures of $NA
\par \tab growth rate -9.5% (1994 est.); accounts for 27% of GDP
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 2,080,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 5.5 billion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 1,864 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab highly diversified; dependent on imports for energy, raw materials, and intermediate products; produces buses, vans, street and railroad cars, synthetic fibers, agricultural machinery, fertilizers, washing machines, radios, electronics, pharmaceuticals, processed foods, textiles
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab principally dairy farming and livestock feeding; products - meat, milk, eggs, grain, sugar beets, potatoes, vegetables; fishing and fish packing
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab transshipment point for illicit drugs from Central and Southwest Asia and Latin America to Western Europe; limited producer of illicit opium; mostly for domestic consumption; also produces illicit amphetamines for export
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab $NA
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 lat = 100 cents; introduced NA March 1993
\par \tab The 1975-1991 civil war seriously damaged Lebanon's economic infrastructure, cut national output by half, and all but ended Lebanon's position as a Middle Eastern entrepot and banking hub. A tentative peace has enabled the central government to begin restoring control in Beirut, collect taxes, and regain access to key port and government facilities. The battered economy has also been propped up by a financially sound banking system and resilient small- and medium-scale manufacturers. Family remittances, banking transactions, manufactured and farm exports, the narcotics trade, and international emergency aid are the main sources of foreign exchange. In the relatively settled year of 1991, industrial production, agricultural output, and exports showed substantial gains. The further rebuilding of the war-ravaged country was delayed in 1992 because of an upturn in political wrangling. In October 1992, Rafiq HARIRI was appointed Prime Minister. HARIRI, a wealthy entrepreneur, announced ambitious plans for Lebanon's reconstruction which involve a substantial influx of foreign aid and investment. Progress on restoring basic services is limited. Since Prime Minister HARIRI's appointment, the most significant improvement lies in the stabilization of the Lebanese pound, which had gained over 30% in value by yearend 1993. The years 1993 and 1994 were marked by efforts of the new administration to encourage domestic and foreign investment and to obtain additional international assistance. The construction sector led the 8.5% advance in real GDP in 1994.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $15.8 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 8.5% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $4,360 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 12% (1994 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 35% (1993 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $1.4 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $3.2 billion (1994 est.)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $925 million (f.o.b., 1993 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab agricultural products, chemicals, textiles, precious and semiprecious metals and jewelry, metals and metal products
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Saudi Arabia 21%, Switzerland 9.5%, Jordan 6%, Kuwait 12%, US 5%
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $4.1 billion (c.i.f., 1993 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab consumer goods, machinery and transport equipment, petroleum products
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Italy 14%, France 12%, US 6%, Turkey 5%, Saudi Arabia 3%
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $765 million (1994 est.)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 25% (1993 est.)
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 1,220,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 2.5 billion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 676 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab banking, food processing, textiles, cement, oil refining, chemicals, jewelry, some metal fabricating
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab principal products - citrus fruits, vegetables, potatoes, olives, tobacco, hemp (hashish), sheep, goats; not self-sufficient in grain
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab illicit producer of hashish and heroin for the international drug trade; hashish production is shipped to Western Europe, the Middle East, and North and South America; increasingly a key locus of cocaine processing and trafficking; a Lebanese/Syrian 1994 eradication campaign eliminated the opium crop and caused a 50% decrease in the cannabis crop
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab the government estimates that it has received $1.7 billion in aid and has an additional $725 million in commitments to support its $3 billion National Emergency Recovery Program
\par \tab Small, landlocked, and mountainous, Lesotho has no important natural resources other than water. Its economy is based on agriculture, light manufacturing, and remittances from laborers employed in South Africa (these remittances supplement domestic income by as much as 45%). The great majority of households gain their livelihoods from subsistence farming and migrant labor; a large portion of the adult male work force is employed in South African mines. Manufacturing depends largely on farm products to support the milling, canning, leather, and jute industries; other industries include textile, clothing, and construction. Although drought has decreased agricultural activity over the past few years, improvement of a major hydropower facility will permit the sale of water to South Africa and allow Lesotho's economy to continue its moderate growth.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $2.6 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 6% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $1,340 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 13.9% (1993)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab substantial unemployment and underemployment
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $438 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $430 million, including capital expenditures of $155 million (FY93/94 est.)
\par \tab accounts for 50% of GDP (1993 est.); exceedingly primitive, mostly subsistence farming and livestock; principal crops corn, wheat, pulses, sorghum, barley
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-89), $268 million; US (1992), $10.3 million; US (1993 est.), $10.1 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $819 million; OPEC bilateral aid (1979-89), $4 million; Communist countries (1970-89), $14 million
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 loti (L) = 100 lisente
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab maloti (M) per US$1 - 3.5389 (January 1995), 3.5490 (1994), 3.2636 (1993), 2.8497 (1992), 2.7563 (1991), 2.5863 (1990); note - the Basotho loti is at par with the South African rand
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab 1 April - 31 March{\b Overview}
\par \tab Civil war since 1990 has destroyed much of Liberia's economy, especially the infrastructure in and around Monrovia. Businessmen have fled the country, taking capital and expertise with them. Many will not return. Richly endowed with water, mineral resources, forests, and a climate favorable to agriculture, Liberia had been a producer and exporter of basic products, while local manufacturing, mainly foreign owned, had been small in scope. Political instability threatens prospects for economic reconstruction and repatriation of some 750,000 Liberian refugees who have fled to neighboring countries. The political impasse between the interim government and rebel leader Charles TAYLOR has prevented restoration of normal economic life, including the re-establishment of a strong central government with effective economic development programs. The economy deteriorated further in 1994.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $2.3 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $770 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab NA%
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $242.1 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $435.4 million, including capital expenditures of $29.5 million (1989 est.)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $505 million (f.o.b., 1989 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab iron ore 61%, rubber 20%, timber 11%, coffee
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab US, EC, Netherlands
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $394 million (c.i.f., 1989 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab mineral fuels, chemicals, machinery, transportation equipment, rice and other foodstuffs
\par \tab accounts for about 40% of GDP (including fishing and forestry); principal products - rubber, timber, coffee, cocoa, rice, cassava, palm oil, sugarcane, bananas, sheep, goats; not self-sufficient in food, imports 25% of rice consumption
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab increasingly a transshipment point for heroin and cocaine
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-89), $665 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $870 million; OPEC bilateral aid (1979-89), $25 million; Communist countries (1970-89), $77 million
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 Liberian dollar (L$) = 100 cents
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab Liberian dollars (L$) per US$1 - 1.00 (officially fixed rate since 1940); unofficial parallel exchange rate of US$1 - L$7 (January 1992), unofficial rate floats against the US dollar
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab calendar year{\b Overview}
\par \tab The socialist-oriented economy depends primarily upon revenues from the oil sector, which contributes practically all export earnings and about one-third of GDP. In 1990 per capita GDP was the highest in Africa at $5,410, but GDP growth rates have slowed and fluctuated sharply in response to changes in the world oil market. Import restrictions and inefficient resource allocations have led to periodic shortages of basic goods and foodstuffs. Windfall revenues from the hike in world oil prices in late 1990 improved the foreign payments position and resulted in a current account surplus through 1992. The nonoil manufacturing and construction sectors, which account for about 20% of GDP, have expanded from processing mostly agricultural products to include petrochemicals, iron, steel, and aluminum. Although agriculture accounts for only 5% of GDP, it employs 18% of the labor force. Climatic conditions and poor soils severely limit farm output, and Libya imports about 75% of its food requirements. The UN sanctions imposed in April 1992 have not yet had a major impact on the economy because Libya's oil revenues generate sufficient foreign exchange which sustains imports of food, consumer goods, and equipment for the oil industry and ongoing development projects.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $32.9 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab -0.9% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $6,510 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 25% (1993 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $8.1 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $9.8 billion, including capital expenditures of $3.1 billion (1989 est.)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $7.2 billion (f.o.b., 1994 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab crude oil, refined petroleum products, natural gas
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Italy, Germany, Spain, France, UK, Turkey, Greece, Egypt
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $6.9 billion (f.o.b., 1994 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab machinery, transport equipment, food, manufactured goods
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Italy, Germany, UK, France, Spain, Turkey, Tunisia, Eastern Europe
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $3.5 billion excluding military debt (1991 est.)
\par \tab Despite its small size and limited natural resources, Liechtenstein has developed into a prosperous, highly industrialized, free-enterprise economy with a vital service sector and living standards on par with its large European neighbors. Low business taxes - the maximum tax rate is 20% - and easy incorporation rules have induced about 25,000 holding or so-called letter box companies to establish nominal offices in Liechtenstein, providing 30% of state revenues. The country participates in a customs union with Switzerland and uses the Swiss franc as its national currency. Liechtenstein plans to join the European Economic Area (an organization serving as a bridge between EFTA and EU) in 1995.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $630 million (1990 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $22,300 (1990 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 5.4% (1990)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 1.5% (1994)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $259 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $292 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1990 est.)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $NA
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab small specialty machinery, dental products, stamps, hardware, pottery
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab EC countries 42.7%, EFTA countries 20.9% (Switzerland 15.4%), other 36.4% (1990)
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $NA
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab machinery, metal goods, textiles, foodstuffs, motor vehicles
\par \tab Since independence in September 1991, Lithuania has made steady progress in developing a market economy. Almost 50% of state property has been privatized and trade is diversifying with a gradual shift away from the former Soviet Union to Western markets. In addition, the Lithuanian government has adhered to a disciplined budgetary and financial policy which has brought inflation down from a monthly average of around 14% in first half 1993 to an average of 3.1% in 1994. Nevertheless, the process has been painful with industrial output in 1993 less than half the 1991 level. The economy appeared to have bottomed out in 1994, and Vilnius's policies have laid the groundwork for vigorous recovery over the next few years. Recovery will build on Lithuanian's strategic location with its ice-free port at Klaipeda and its rail and highway hub in Vilnius connecting it with Eastern Europe, Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine, and on its agriculture potential, highly skilled labor force, and diversified industrial sector. Lacking important natural resources, it will remain dependent on imports of fuels and raw materials.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $13.5 billion (1994 estimate as extrapolated from World Bank estimate for 1992)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab -0.5% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $3,500 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 3.1% (monthly average 1994)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 4.5% (January 1995)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $258.5 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $270.2 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1992 est.)
\par \tab growth rate -52% (1992); accounts for 35% of GDP
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 6,190,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 18.9 billion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 4,608 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab industry's share in the economy has been declining substantially over the past year, due to the economic crisis and the growth of services in the economy; among branches which are still important: metal-cutting machine tools 6.6%, electric motors 4.6%, television sets 6.2%, refrigerators and freezers 5.4%; other branches: petroleum refining, shipbuilding (small ships), furniture making, textiles, food processing, fertilizers, agricultural machinery, optical equipment, electronic components, computers, and amber
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab employs around 18% of labor force; accounts for 25% of GDP; sugar, grain, potatoes, sugar beets, vegetables, meat, milk, dairy products, eggs, fish; most developed are the livestock and dairy branches, which depend on imported grain; net exporter of meat, milk, and eggs
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab transshipment point for illicit drugs from Central and Southwest Asia and Latin America to Western Europe; limited producer of illicit opium; mostly for domestic consumption
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (1992), $10 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-86), $NA million; Communist countries (1971-86), $NA million
{\b Currency}
\par \tab introduced the convertible litas in June 1993
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab litai per US$1 - 4 (fixed rate 1 May 1994)
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab calendar year{\b Overview}
\par \tab The stable, prosperous economy features moderate growth, low inflation, and negligible unemployment. Agriculture is based on small but highly productive family-owned farms. The industrial sector, until recently dominated by steel, has become increasingly more diversified, particularly toward high-technology firms. During the past decade, growth in the financial sector has more than compensated for the decline in steel. Services, especially banking, account for a growing proportion of the economy. Luxembourg participates in an economic union with Belgium on trade and most financial matters, is also closely connected economically to the Netherlands, and as a member of the 15-member European Union enjoys the advantages of the open European market.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $9.2 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 2.6% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $22,830 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 3.6% (1992)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 2.4% (1994)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $4 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $4.05 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1994 est.)
\par \tab Belgium 37%, Germany 31%, France 12%, US 2%
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $800 million (1994 est.)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate -0.5% (1990); accounts for 25% of GDP
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 1,238,750 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 1.374 billion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 3,395 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab banking, iron and steel, food processing, chemicals, metal products, engineering, tires, glass, aluminum
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab accounts for less than 3% of GDP (including forestry); principal products - barley, oats, potatoes, wheat, fruits, wine grapes; cattle raising widespread
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab none
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 Luxembourg franc (LuxF) = 100 centimes
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab Luxembourg francs (LuxF) per US$1 - 31.549 (January 1995), 33,456 (1994), 34.597 (1993), 32.150 (1992), 34.148 (1991), 33.418 (1990); note - the Luxembourg franc is at par with the Belgian franc, which circulates freely in Luxembourg
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab calendar year{\b Overview}
\par \tab The economy is based largely on tourism (including gambling) and textile and fireworks manufacturing. Efforts to diversify have spawned other small industries - toys, artificial flowers, and electronics. The tourist sector has accounted for roughly 25% of GDP, and the clothing industry has provided about two-thirds of export earnings; the gambling industry represented well over 40% of GDP in 1992. Macau depends on China for most of its food, fresh water, and energy imports. Japan and Hong Kong are the main suppliers of raw materials and capital goods.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $4.8 billion (1993 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $10,000 (1993 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 7.7% (1992 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 2% (1992 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $305 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $298 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1989 est.)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $1.8 billion (1992 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab textiles, clothing, toys
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab US 35%, Hong Kong 12.5%, Germany 12%, China 9.9%, France 8% (1992 est.)
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $2 billion (1992 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab raw materials, foodstuffs, capital goods
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Hong Kong 33%, China 20%, Japan 18% (1992 est.)
\par \tab rice, vegetables; food shortages - rice, vegetables, meat; depends mostly on imports for food requirements
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab none
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 pataca (P) = 100 avos
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab patacas (P) per US$1 - 8.034 (1991-94), 8.024 (1990), 8.030 (1989); note - linked to the Hong Kong dollar at the rate of 1.03 patacas per Hong Kong dollar
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab calendar year{\b Overview}
\par \tab The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, although the poorest republic in the former Yugoslav federation, can meet basic food and energy needs through its own agricultural and coal resources. Its economic decline will continue unless ties are reforged or enlarged with its neighbors Serbia and Montenegro, Albania, Greece, and Bulgaria. The economy depends on outside sources for all of its oil and gas and most of its modern machinery and parts. An important supplement of GDP is the remittances from thousands of Macedonians working in Germany and other West European nations. Continued political turmoil, both internally and in the region as a whole, prevents any swift readjustments of trade patterns and economic programs. The country's industrial output and GDP are expected to decline further in 1995. The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia's geographical isolation, technological backwardness, and potential political instability place it far down the list of countries of interest to Western investors. Resolution of the dispute with Greece and an internal commitment to economic reform would encourage foreign investment over the long run. In the immediate future, the worst scenario for the economy would be the spread of fighting across its borders.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $1.9 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab -15% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $900 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 54% (1994)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 30% (1993 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $NA
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $NA, including capital expenditures of $NA
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $1.06 billion (1993)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab manufactured goods 40%, machinery and transport equipment 14%, miscellaneous manufactured articles 23%, raw materials 7.6%, food (rice) and live animals 5.7%, beverages and tobacco 4.5%, chemicals 4.7% (1990)
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab principally Serbia and Montenegro and the other former Yugoslav republics, Germany, Greece, Albania
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $1.2 billion (1993)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab fuels and lubricants 19%, manufactured goods 18%, machinery and transport equipment 15%, food and live animals 14%, chemicals 11.4%, raw materials 10%, miscellaneous manufactured articles 8.0%, beverages and tobacco 3.5% (1990)
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab other former Yugoslav republics, Greece, Albania, Germany, Bulgaria
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $840 million (1992)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate -14% (1993)
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 1,600,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab NA kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab NA kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab low levels of technology predominate, such as, oil refining by distillation only; produces basic liquid fuels, coal, metallic chromium, lead, zinc, and ferronickel; light industry produces basic textiles, wood products, and tobacco
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab meets the basic needs for food; principal crops are rice, tobacco, wheat, corn, and millet; also grown are cotton, sesame, mulberry leaves, citrus fruit, and vegetables; agricultural production is highly labor intensive
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab limited illicit opium cultivation; transshipment point for Southwest Asian heroin
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US $10 million (for humanitarian and technical assistance)
\par \tab EC promised a 100 ECU million economic aid package (1993)
{\b Currency}
\par \tab the denar, which was adopted by the Macedonian legislature 26 April 1992, was initially issued in the form of a coupon pegged to the German mark; subsequently repegged to a basket of seven currencies
\par \tab Madagascar is one of the poorest countries in the world, suffering from chronic malnutrition, underfunded health and education facilities, a 3% annual population growth rate, and severe loss of forest cover, accompanied by erosion. Agriculture, including fishing and forestry, is the mainstay of the economy, accounting for over 30% of GDP and contributing more than 70% of total export earnings. Industry is largely confined to the processing of agricultural products and textile manufacturing; in 1991 it accounted for only 13% of GDP. In 1986 the government introduced a five-year development plan that stressed self-sufficiency in food (mainly rice) by 1990, increased production for exports, and reduced energy imports. Subsequently, growth in output has been held back because of protracted antigovernment strikes and demonstrations for political reform. Since 1993, corruption and political instability have caused the economy and infrastructure to decay further. Since April 1994, the government commitment to economic reforms has been erratic. Enormous obstacles stand in the way of Madagascar's realizing its considerable growth potential.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $10.6 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 2.8% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $790 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 35% (1994 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $250 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $265 million, including capital expenditures of $180 million (1991 est.)
\par \tab accounts for 31% of GDP; cash crops - coffee, vanilla, sugarcane, cloves, cocoa; food crops - rice, cassava, beans, bananas, peanuts; cattle raising widespread; almost self-sufficient in rice
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab illicit producer of cannabis (cultivated and wild varieties) used mostly for domestic consumption
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-89), $136 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $3.125 billion; Communist countries (1970-89), $491 million
\par \tab Landlocked Malawi ranks among the world's least developed countries. The economy is predominately agricultural, with about 90% of the population living in rural areas. Agriculture accounts for 40% of GDP and 90% of export revenues. After two years of weak performance, economic growth improved significantly in 1988-91 as a result of good weather and a broadly based economic adjustment effort by the government. Drought cut overall output sharply in 1992, but the lost ground was recovered in 1993. The economy depends on substantial inflows of economic assistance from the IMF, the World Bank, and individual donor nations. The new government faces strong challenges, e.g., to spur exports, to improve educational and health facilities, and to deal with environmental problems of deforestation and erosion.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $7.3 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 9.3% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $750 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 30% (1994 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $416 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $498 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1992 est.)
\par \tab accounts for 40% of GDP; cash crops - tobacco, sugarcane, cotton, tea, and corn; subsistence crops - potatoes, cassava, sorghum, pulses; livestock - cattle, goats
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-89), $215 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $2.15 billion
\par \tab The Malaysian economy, a mixture of private enterprise and a soundly managed public sector, has posted a remarkable record of 9% average annual growth in 1988-94. The official growth target for 1995 is 8.5%. This growth has resulted in a substantial reduction in poverty and a marked rise in real wages. Manufactured goods exports expanded rapidly, and foreign investors continued to commit large sums in the economy. The government is aware of the inflationary potential of this rapid development and is closely monitoring fiscal and monetary policies.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $166.8 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 8.7% (1994)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $8,650 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 3.7% (1994)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 2.9% (1994)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $18.7 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $19.1 billion, including capital expenditures of $4.8 billion (1994)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $56.6 billion (f.o.b., 1994)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab electronic equipment, petroleum and petroleum products, palm oil, wood and wood products, rubber, textiles
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Singapore 22%, US 20%, Japan 13%, UK 4%, Germany 4%, Thailand 4% (1993)
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $55.2 billion (c.i.f., 1994)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab machinery and equipment, chemicals, food, petroleum products
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Japan 27%, US 17%, Singapore 15%, Taiwan 5%, Germany 4%, UK 3%, South Korea 3% (1993)
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $35.5 billion (1994 est.)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 12% (1994); accounts for 38% of GDP (1993 est.)
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 6,700,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 31 billion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 1,528 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab {\b Peninsular Malaysia}
\par \tab rubber and oil palm processing and manufacturing, light manufacturing industry, electronics, tin mining and smelting, logging and processing timber
\par \tab {\b Sabah}
\par \tab logging, petroleum production
\par \tab {\b Sarawak}
\par \tab agriculture processing, petroleum production and refining, logging
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab accounts for 16% of GDP (1993 est.)
\par \tab {\b Peninsular Malaysia}
\par \tab natural rubber, palm oil, rice
\par \tab {\b Sabah}
\par \tab mainly subsistence, but also rubber, timber, coconut, rice
\par \tab {\b Sarawak}
\par \tab rubber, timber, pepper; deficit of rice in all areas
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab transit point for Golden Triangle heroin going to the US, Western Europe, and the Third World despite severe penalties for drug trafficking; increasing indigenous abuse of methamphetamine
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-84), $170 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $4.7 million; OPEC bilateral aid (1979-89), $42 million
\par \tab Fishing is the largest industry, employing 25% of the work force and accounting for over 60% of exports. Over 90% of government tax revenue comes from import duties and tourism-related taxes. During the 1980s tourism became one of the most important and highest growth sectors of the economy. In 1993, tourism accounted for 17% of GDP and more than 60% of the Maldives' foreign exchange receipts. The Maldivian government initiated an economic reform program in 1989 initially by lifting import quotas and opening some exports to the private sector. Subsequently, it has liberalized regulations to allow more foreign investment. Agriculture and manufacturing continue to play a minor role in the economy, constrained by the limited availability of cultivatable land and the shortage of domestic labor. Most staple foods must be imported. In 1993, industry which consisted mainly of garment production, boat building, and handicrafts accounted for about 6% of GDP.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $360 million (1993 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 5.4% (1993 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $1,500 (1993 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 20% (1993)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab NEGL%
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $95 million (excluding foreign transfers)
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $143 million, including capital expenditures of $71 million (1993 est.)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $38.5 million (f.o.b., 1993 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab fish, clothing
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab US, UK, Sri Lanka, Singapore, Germany
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $177.8 million (c.i.f., 1993)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab consumer goods, intermediate and capital goods, petroleum products
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Singapore, Germany, Sri Lanka, India, Japan
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $130 million (1993 est.)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 24% (1990); accounts for 6% of GDP
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 5,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 30 million kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 123 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab fishing and fish processing, tourism, shipping, boat building, some coconut processing, garments, woven mats, coir (rope), handicrafts
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab fishing, coconuts, corn, sweet potatoes
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-88), $28 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $125 million; OPEC bilateral aid (1979-89), $14 million
\par \tab Mali is among the poorest countries in the world, with 65% of its land area desert or semidesert. Economic activity is largely confined to the riverine area irrigated by the Niger. About 10% of the population is nomadic and some 80% of the labor force is engaged in agriculture and fishing. Industrial activity is concentrated on processing farm commodities. The economy is beginning to turn around after contracting through 1992-93, largely because of enhanced exports and import substitute production in the wake of the 50% devaluation of January 1994. Post-devaluation inflation appears to have peaked at 35% in 1994 and the government appears to be keeping on track with its IMF structural adjustment program.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $5.4 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 2.4% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $600 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 35% (1994 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $376 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $697 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1992 est.)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $415 million (f.o.b., 1993)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab cotton, livestock, gold
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab mostly franc zone and Western Europe
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $842 million (f.o.b., 1993)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab machinery and equipment, foodstuffs, construction materials, petroleum, textiles
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab mostly franc zone and Western Europe
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $2.6 billion (1991 est.)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate -1.4% (1992 est.); accounts for 13.0% of GDP
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 90,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 310 million kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 33 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab minor local consumer goods production and food processing, construction, phosphate and gold mining
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab accounts for 50% of GDP; mostly subsistence farming; cotton and livestock products account for over 70% of exports; other crops - millet, rice, corn, vegetables, peanuts; livestock - cattle, sheep, goats
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-89), $349 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $3.02 billion; OPEC bilateral aid (1979-89), $92 million; Communist countries (1970-89), $190 million
\par \tab beginning 12 January 1994, the CFA franc was devalued to CFAF 100 per French franc from CFAF 50 at which it had been fixed since 1948
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab calendar year{\b Overview}
\par \tab Significant resources are limestone, a favorable geographic location, and a productive labor force. Malta produces only about 20% of its food needs, has limited freshwater supplies, and has no domestic energy sources. Consequently, the economy is highly dependent on foreign trade and services. Manufacturing and tourism are the largest contributors to the economy. Manufacturing accounts for about 24% of GDP, with the electronics and textile industries major contributors and with the state-owned Malta drydocks employing about 4,300 people. In 1994, over 1,000,000 tourists visited the island. Per capita GDP of $10,760 places Malta in the range of the less affluent EU countries.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $3.9 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 4.4% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $10,760 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 5% (1994 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 4.5% (March 1994)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $1.4 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $1.4 billion, including capital expenditures of $215 million (FY94/95 est.)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $1.3 billion (f.o.b., 1993)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab machinery and transport equipment, clothing and footware, printed matter
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Italy 32%, Germany 16%, UK 8%
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $2.1 billion (c.i.f., 1993)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab food, petroleum, machinery and semimanufactured goods
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Italy 27%, Germany 14%, UK 13%, US 9%
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $603 million (1992)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 5.4% (1992); accounts for 27% of GDP
\par \tab accounts for 3% of GDP and 2% of the work force (1992); overall, 20% self-sufficient; main products - potatoes, cauliflower, grapes, wheat, barley, tomatoes, citrus, cut flowers, green peppers, hogs, poultry, eggs; generally adequate supplies of vegetables, poultry, milk, pork products; seasonal or periodic shortages in grain, animal fodder, fruits, other basic foodstuffs
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab transshipment point for hashish from North Africa to Western Europe
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-81), $172 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $336 million; OPEC bilateral aid (1979-89), $76 million; Communist countries (1970-88), $48 million
\par \tab Agriculture and tourism are the mainstays of the economy. Agricultural production is concentrated on small farms, and the most important commercial crops are coconuts, tomatoes, melons, and breadfruit. A few cattle ranches supply the domestic meat market. Small-scale industry is limited to handicrafts, fish processing, and copra. The tourist industry is the primary source of foreign exchange and employs about 10% of the labor force. The islands have few natural resources, and imports far exceed exports. The US Government provides about 70% of the budget.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $75 million (1992 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 6% (1992)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $1,500 (1992 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 7% (1992 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 16% (1991 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $106 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $128.7 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1993)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $3.9 million (f.o.b., 1992 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab coconut oil, fish, live animals, trichus shells
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab US, Japan, Australia
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $62.9 million (c.i.f., 1992 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab foodstuffs, machinery and equipment, beverages and tobacco, fuels
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab US, Japan, Australia
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $NA
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate NA%
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 42,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 80 million kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 1,840 kWh (1990)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab copra, fish, tourism; craft items from shell, wood, and pearls; offshore banking (embryonic)
\par \tab under the terms of the Compact of Free Association, the US is to provide approximately $40 million in aid annually
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 United States dollar (US$) = 100 cents
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab US currency is used
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab 1 October - 30 September{\b Overview}
\par \tab The economy is based on sugarcane, bananas, tourism, and light industry. Agriculture accounts for about 10% of GDP and the small industrial sector for 10%. Sugar production has declined, with most of the sugarcane now used for the production of rum. Banana exports are increasing, going mostly to France. The bulk of meat, vegetable, and grain requirements must be imported, contributing to a chronic trade deficit that requires large annual transfers of aid from France. Tourism has become more important than agricultural exports as a source of foreign exchange. The majority of the work force is employed in the service sector and in administration. Banana workers launched protests late in 1992 because of falling banana prices and fears of greater competition in the European market from other producers.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $3.9 billion (1993 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $10,000 (1993 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 3.9% (1990)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 32.1% (1990)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $610 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $1.3 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1991)
\par \tab including fishing and forestry, accounts for about 10% of GDP; principal crops - pineapples, avocados, bananas, flowers, vegetables, sugarcane for rum; dependent on imported food, particularly meat and vegetables
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab transshipment point for cocaine and marijuana bound for the US and Europe
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $10.1 billion
\par \tab A majority of the population still depends on agriculture and livestock for a livelihood, even though most of the nomads and many subsistence farmers were forced into the cities by recurrent droughts in the 1970s and 1980s. Mauritania has extensive deposits of iron ore, which account for almost 50% of total exports. The decline in world demand for this ore, however, has led to cutbacks in production. The nation's coastal waters are among the richest fishing areas in the world, but overexploitation by foreigners threatens this key source of revenue. The country's first deepwater port opened near Nouakchott in 1986. In recent years, drought and economic mismanagement have resulted in a substantial buildup of foreign debt. The government has begun the second stage of an economic reform program in consultation with the World Bank, the IMF, and major donor countries. Short-term growth prospects are gloomy because of the heavy debt service burden, rapid population growth, and vulnerability to climatic conditions.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $2.4 billion (1993 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 5% (1993 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $1,110 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 10% (1993)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 20% (1991 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $280 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $346 million, including capital expenditures of $61 million (1989 est.)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $401 million (f.o.b., 1993 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab iron ore, fish and fish products
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Japan 27%, Italy, Belgium, Luxembourg
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $378 million (c.i.f., 1993 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab foodstuffs, consumer goods, petroleum products, capital goods
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Algeria 15%, China 6%, US 3%, France, Germany, Spain, Italy
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $1.9 billion (1992 est.)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate NA%; accounts for almost 30% of GDP
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 110,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 135 million kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 61 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab fish processing, mining of iron ore and gypsum
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab accounts for 25% of GDP (including fishing); largely subsistence farming and nomadic cattle and sheep herding except in Senegal river valley; crops - dates, millet, sorghum, root crops; fish products number-one export; large food deficit in years of drought
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-89), $168 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $1.3 billion; OPEC bilateral aid (1979-89), $490 million; Communist countries (1970-89), $277 million; Arab Development Bank (1991), $20 million
\par \tab Since independence in 1968, Mauritius has developed from a low income, agriculturally based economy to middle income diversified economy with growing industrial and tourist sectors. For most of the period annual growth has been of the order of 5% to 6%. This remarkable achievement has been reflected in increased life expectancy, lowered infant mortality, and a much improved infrastructure. Sugarcane is grown on about 90% of the cultivated land area and accounts for 40% of export earnings. The government's development strategy centers on industrialization (with a view to modernization and to exports), agricultural diversification, and tourism. Economic performance in 1991-93 continued strong with solid real growth and low unemployment.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $9.3 billion (1993 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 4.7% (1993 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $8,600 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 9.4% (1993 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 2.4% (1991 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $653 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $567 million, including capital expenditures of $143 million (FY92/93 est.)
\par \tab growth rate 5.8% (1992); accounts for 25% of GDP
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 340,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 920 million kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 777 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab food processing (largely sugar milling), textiles, wearing apparel, chemicals, metal products, transport equipment, nonelectrical machinery, tourism
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab accounts for 10% of GDP; about 90% of cultivated land in sugarcane; other products - tea, corn, potatoes, bananas, pulses, cattle, goats, fish; net food importer, especially rice and fish
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab illicit producer of cannabis for the international drug trade; heroin consumption and transshipment are growing problems
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-89), $76 million; Western (non-US) countries (1970-89), $709 million; Communist countries (1970-89), $54 million
\par \tab Mexico, under the guidance of new President Ernesto ZEDILLO, entered 1995 in the midst of a severe financial crisis. Mexico's membership in the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) with the United States and Canada, its solid record of economic reforms, and its strong growth in the second and third quarters of 1994 - at an annual rate of 3.8% and 4.5% respectively - seemed to augur bright prospects for 1995. However, an overvalued exchange rate and widening current account deficits created an imbalance that ultimately proved unsustainable. To finance the trade gap, Mexico City had become increasingly reliant on volatile portfolio investment. A series of political shocks in 1994 - an uprising in the southern state of Chiapas, the assassination of a presidential candidate, several high profile kidnappings, the killing of a second high-level political figure, and renewed threats from the Chiapas rebels - combined with rising international interest rates and concerns of a devaluation to undermine investor confidence and prompt massive outflows of capital. The dwindling of foreign exchange reserves, which the central bank had been using to defend the currency, forced the new administration to change the exchange rate policy and allow the currency to float freely in the last days of 1994. The adjustment roiled Mexican financial markets, leading to a 30% to 40% weakening of the peso relative to the dollar. ZEDILLO announced an emergency economic program that included federal budget cuts and plans for more privatizations, but it failed to restore investor confidence quickly. While the devaluation is likely to help Mexican exporters, whose products are now cheaper, it also raises the specter of an inflationary spiral if domestic producers increase their prices and workers demand wage hikes. Although strong economic fundamentals bode well for Mexico's longer-term outlook, prospects for solid growth and low inflation have deteriorated considerably, at least through 1995.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $728.7 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 3.5% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $7,900 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 7.1% (1994 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 9.8% (1994 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $96.99 billion (1994 est.)
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $96.51 billion (1994 est.), including capital expenditures of $NA (1994 est.)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $60.8 billion (f.o.b., 1994 est.), includes in-bond industries
\par \tab $79.4 billion (f.o.b., 1994 est.), includes in-bond industries
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab metal-working machines, steel mill products, agricultural machinery, electrical equipment, car parts for assembly, repair parts for motor vehicles, aircraft, and aircraft parts
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab US 74%, Japan 4.7%, EC 11% (1993 est.)
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $128 billion (1994 est.)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 4.5% (1994 est.)
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 28,780,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 122 billion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 1,239 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab food and beverages, tobacco, chemicals, iron and steel, petroleum, mining, textiles, clothing, motor vehicles, consumer durables, tourism
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab accounts for 7% of GDP; large number of small farms at subsistence level; major food crops - corn, wheat, rice, beans; cash crops - cotton, coffee, fruit, tomatoes
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab illicit cultivation of opium poppy and cannabis continues in spite of government eradication program; major supplier of heroin and marijuana to the US market; continues as the primary transshipment country for US-bound cocaine and marijuana from South America; increasingly involved in the production and distribution of methamphetamine
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-89), $3.1 billion; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $7.7 billion; Communist countries (1970-89), $110 million
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 New Mexican peso (Mex$) = 100 centavos
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab market rate of Mexican pesos (Mex$) per US$1 - 6.736 (average in March 1995), 5.5133 (January 1995), 3.3751 (1994), 3.1156 (1993), 3,094.9 (1992), 3,018.4 (1991), 2,812.6 (1990)
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab the new peso replaced the old peso on 1 January 1993; 1 new peso = 1,000 old pesos
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab calendar year{\b Overview}
\par \tab Economic activity consists primarily of subsistence farming and fishing. The islands have few mineral deposits worth exploiting, except for high-grade phosphate. The potential for a tourist industry exists, but the remoteness of the location and a lack of adequate facilities hinder development. Financial assistance from the US is the primary source of revenue, with the US pledged to spend $1 billion in the islands in the 1990s. Geographical isolation and a poorly developed infrastructure are major impediments to long-term growth.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $160 million (1990 est.)
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab GDP was supplemented by approximately $100 million in grant aid in 1990
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 4% (1994)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $1,500 (1990 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab NA%
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 27% (1989)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $45 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $31 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (FY94/95 est.)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $3.2 million (f.o.b., 1990)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab fish, copra, bananas, black pepper
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Japan, US
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $91.2 million (c.i.f., 1990)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab food, manufactured goods, machinery and equipment, beverages
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab US, Japan, Australia
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $NA
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate NA%
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 18,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 40 million kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 380 kWh (1990)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab tourism, construction, fish processing, craft items from shell, wood, and pearls
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab mainly a subsistence economy; black pepper; tropical fruits and vegetables, coconuts, cassava, sweet potatoes, pigs, chickens
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab under terms of the Compact of Free Association, the US will provide $1.3 billion in grant aid during the period 1986-2001
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 United States dollar (US$) = 100 cents
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab US currency is used
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab 1 October - 30 September{\b Overview}
\par \tab Moldova enjoys a favorable climate and good farmland but has no major mineral deposits. As a result, Moldova's economy is primarily based on agriculture, featuring fruits, vegetables, wine, and tobacco. Moldova must import all of its supplies of oil, coal, and natural gas, and energy shortages have contributed to sharp production declines since the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991. The Moldovan government is making steady progress on an ambitious economic reform agenda, and the IMF has called Moldova a model for the region. As part of its reform efforts, Chisinau has introduced a stable currency, freed all prices, stopped issuing preferential credits to state enterprises and backed their steady privatization, removed export controls, and freed interest rates. Chisinau appears strongly committed to continuing these reforms in 1995. Meanwhile, privatization of medium and large enterprises got underway in mid-1994 and is expected to pick up speed in 1995. To improve its precarious energy situation, Chisinau reached an agreement with Moscow in December 1994 on gas deliveries for 1995. Gazprom, Russia's national gas company, has agreed to reduce prices for natural gas deliveries to Moldova from the world market price of $80/thousand cubic meters (tcm) to $58/tcm in return for part ownership of the Moldovan pipeline system.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $11.9 billion (1994 estimate as extrapolated from World Bank estimate for 1992)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab -30% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $2,670 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 7.6% per month (1994)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 1% (includes only officially registered unemployed; large numbers of underemployed workers)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $NA
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $NA, including capital expenditures of $NA
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab budget deficit for 1993 approximately 6% of GDP
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $144 million to outside the FSU countries (1994); over 70% of exports go to FSU countries
\par \tab accounts for about 40% of GDP; Moldova's principal economic activity; products are vegetables, fruits, wine, grain, sugar beets, sunflower seed, meat, milk, tobacco
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab illicit cultivator of opium poppy and cannabis; mostly for CIS consumption; transshipment point for illicit drugs to Western Europe
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab joint EC-US loan (1993), $127 million; IMF STF credit (1993), $64 million; IMF stand-by loan (1993), $72 million; US commitments (1992-93), $61 million in humanitarian aid, $11 million in technical assistance; World Bank loan (1993), $60 million; Russia (1993), 50 billion ruble credit; Romania (1993), 20 billion lei credit
{\b Currency}
\par \tab the leu (plural lei) was introduced in late 1993
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab lei per US$1 - 4.277 (22 December 1994)
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab calendar year{\b Overview}
\par \tab Monaco, situated on the French Mediterranean coast, is a popular resort, attracting tourists to its casino and pleasant climate. The Principality has successfully sought to diversify into services and small, high-value-added, nonpolluting industries. The state has no income tax and low business taxes and thrives as a tax haven both for individuals who have established residence and for foreign companies that have set up businesses and offices. About 50% of Monaco's annual revenue comes from value-added taxes on hotels, banks, and the industrial sector; about 25% of revenue comes from tourism. Living standards are high, that is, roughly comparable to those in prosperous French metropolitan suburbs.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $558 million (1993 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $18,000 (1993 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab NA%
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab NEGL%
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $424 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $376 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1991 est.)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $NA; full customs integration with France, which collects and rebates Monacan trade duties; also participates in EU market system through customs union with France
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $NA; full customs integration with France, which collects and rebates Monacan trade duties; also participates in EU market system through customs union with France
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $NA
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate NA%
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 10,000 kW standby; power imported from France
\par \tab Mongolia's severe climate, scattered population, and wide expanses of unproductive land have constrained economic development. Economic activity traditionally has been based on agriculture and the breeding of livestock. In past years extensive mineral resources had been developed with Soviet support; total Soviet assistance at its height amounted to 30% of GDP. The mining and processing of coal, copper, molybdenum, tin, tungsten, and gold account for a large part of industrial production. Timber and fishing are also important sectors. The Mongolian leadership has been gradually making the transition from Soviet-style central planning to a market economy through privatization and price reform, and is soliciting support from international financial agencies and foreign investors. The economy, however, has still not recovered from the loss of Soviet aid, and the country continues to suffer substantial economic hardships, with one-fourth of the population below the poverty line.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $4.4 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 2.5% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $1,800 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 70% (1994 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 15% (1991 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $NA
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $NA, including capital expenditures of $NA (1991 est.)
\par \tab former CMEA countries 62%, China 17%, EC 8% (1992)
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $361 million (f.o.b., 1993 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab machinery and equipment, fuels, food products, industrial consumer goods, chemicals, building materials, sugar, tea
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab USSR 75%, Austria 5%, China 5% (1991)
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $NA
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate -15% (1992 est.); accounts for about 42% of GDP
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 900,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 3.1 billion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 1,267 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab copper, processing of animal products, building materials, food and beverage, mining (particularly coal)
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab accounts for about 35% of GDP and provides livelihood for about 50% of the population; livestock raising predominates (primarily sheep and goats, but also cattle, camels, and horses); crops - wheat, barley, potatoes, forage
\par \tab the exchange rate 40 tughriks = 1US$ was introduced June 1991 and was in force to the end of 1992; beginning 27 May 1993 the exchange rate is the midpoint of the average buying and selling rates that are freely determined on the basis of market transactions between commercial banks and the nonbank public
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab calendar year{\b Overview}
\par \tab The economy is small and open with economic activity centered on tourism and construction. Tourism is the most important sector and accounts for roughly one-fifth of GDP. Agriculture accounts for about 4% of GDP and industry 10%. The economy is heavily dependent on imports, making it vulnerable to fluctuations in world prices. Exports consist mainly of electronic parts sold to the US.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $55.6 million (1993 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 1% (1993 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $4,380 (1993 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 2.8% (1992)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab NA
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $12.1 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $14.3 million, including capital expenditures of $3.2 million (1988 est.)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $2.8 million (f.o.b., 1992)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab electronic parts, plastic bags, apparel, hot peppers, live plants, cattle
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab NA
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $80.6 million (f.o.b., 1992)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab machinery and transportation equipment, foodstuffs, manufactured goods, fuels, lubricants, and related materials
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab NA
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $2.05 million (1987)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 8.1% (1986); accounts for 10% of GDP
\par \tab accounts for 4% of GDP; small-scale farming; food crops - tomatoes, onions, peppers; not self-sufficient in food, especially livestock products
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $90 million
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 EC dollar (EC$) = 100 cents
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab East Caribbean dollars (EC$) per US$1 - 2.70 (fixed rate since 1976)
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab 1 April - 31 March{\b Overview}
\par \tab Morocco faces the typical problems of developing countries - restraining government spending, reducing constraints on private activity and foreign trade, and keeping inflation within bounds. Since the early 1980s the government has pursued an economic program toward these objectives with the support of the IMF, the World Bank, and the Paris Club of creditors. The economy has substantial assets to draw on: the world's largest phosphate reserves, diverse agricultural and fishing resources, a sizable tourist industry, a growing manufacturing sector, and remittances from Moroccans working abroad. A severe drought in 1992-93 depressed economic activity and held down exports. Real GDP contracted by 4.4% in 1992 and 1.1% in 1993. Despite these setbacks, initiatives to relax capital controls, strengthen the banking sector, and privatize state enterprises went forward in 1993-94. Favorable rainfall in 1994 boosted agricultural production by 40%. Servicing the large debt, high unemployment, and vulnerability to external economic forces remain long-term problems for Morocco.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $87.5 billion (1994 est.)
\par \tab EU 70%, Japan 5%, US 4%, Libya 3%, India 2% (1993)
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $7.5 billion (c.i.f., 1994 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab capital goods 24%, semiprocessed goods 22%, raw materials 16%, fuel and lubricants 16%, food and beverages 13%, consumer goods 9%
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab EC 59%, US 8%, Saudi Arabia 5%, UAE 3%, Russia 2% (1993)
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $20.5 billion (1994 est.)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 0.1% accounts for 28% of GDP
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 2,620,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 9.9 billion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 361 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab phosphate rock mining and processing, food processing, leather goods, textiles, construction, tourism
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab accounts for 15% of GDP, 50% of employment, and 30% of export value; not self-sufficient in food; cereal farming and livestock raising predominate; barley, wheat, citrus fruit, wine, vegetables, olives
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab illicit producer of hashish; trafficking on the increase for both domestic and international drug markets; shipments of hashish mostly directed to Western Europe; transit point for cocaine from South America destined for Western Europe
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-89), $1.3 billion; US commitments, including Ex-Im (1992), $123.6 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $7.5 billion; OPEC bilateral aid (1979-89), $4.8 billion; Communist countries (1970-89), $2.5 billion
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab $2.8 billion debt canceled by Saudi Arabia (1991); IMF standby agreement worth $13 million; World Bank, $450 million (1991)
\par \tab One of Africa's poorest countries, Mozambique has failed to exploit the economic potential of its sizable agricultural, hydropower, and transportation resources. Indeed, national output, consumption, and investment declined throughout the first half of the 1980s because of internal disorders, lack of government administrative control, and a growing foreign debt. A sharp increase in foreign aid, attracted by an economic reform policy, resulted in successive years of economic growth in the late 1980s, but aid has declined steadily since 1989. Agricultural output is at only 75% of its 1981 level, and grain has to be imported. Industry operates at only 20%-40% of capacity. The economy depends heavily on foreign assistance to keep afloat. Peace accords signed in October 1992 improved chances of foreign investment, aided IMF-supported economic reforms, and supported continued economic recovery. Elections held in 1994 diverted government attention from the economy, resulting in slippage and delays in the economic reform program. Nonetheless, growth in 1994 was solid and can continue into the late 1990s given continued foreign help in meeting debt obligations.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $10.6 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 5.8% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $610 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 50% (1994 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 50% (1989 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $252 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $607 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1992 est.)
\par \tab accounts for 50% of GDP and about 90% of exports; cash crops - cotton, cashew nuts, sugarcane, tea, shrimp; other crops - cassava, corn, rice, tropical fruits; not self-sufficient in food
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-89), $350 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $4.4 billion; OPEC bilateral aid (1979-89), $37 million; Communist countries (1970-89), $890 million
\par \tab The economy is heavily dependent on the mining industry to extract and process minerals for export. Mining accounts for almost 25% of GDP. Namibia is the fourth-largest exporter of nonfuel minerals in Africa and the world's fifth-largest producer of uranium. Alluvial diamond deposits are among the richest in the world, making Namibia a primary source for gem-quality diamonds. Namibia also produces large quantities of lead, zinc, tin, silver, and tungsten. More than half the population depends on agriculture (largely subsistence agriculture) for its livelihood. Namibia must import some of its food.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $5.8 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 5.8% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $3,600 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 11% (1994)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 35% in urban areas (1993 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $941 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $1.05 billion, including capital expenditures of $157 million (FY93/94)
\par \tab accounts for 10% of GDP; livestock raising major source of cash income; crops - millet, sorghum, peanuts; fish catch potential of over 1 million metric tons not being fulfilled
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-87), $47.2 million
\par \tab Revenues come from the export of phosphates, the reserves of which are expected to be exhausted by the year 2000. Phosphates have given Nauruans one of the highest per capita incomes in the Third World. Few other resources exist, so most necessities must be imported, including fresh water from Australia. The rehabilitation of mined land and the replacement of income from phosphates are serious long-term problems. Substantial amounts of phosphate income are invested in trust funds to help cushion the transition.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $100 million (1993 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $10,000 (1993 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab NA%
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 0%
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $69.7 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $51.5 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1986 est.)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $93 million (f.o.b., 1984)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab phosphates
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Australia, NZ
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $73 million (c.i.f., 1984)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab food, fuel, manufactures, building materials, machinery
\par \tab Nepal is among the poorest and least developed countries in the world. Agriculture is the mainstay of the economy, providing a livelihood for over 90% of the population and accounting for half of GDP. Industrial activity is limited, mainly involving the processing of agricultural produce (jute, sugarcane, tobacco, and grain). Production of textiles and carpets has expanded recently and accounted for 85% of foreign exchange earnings in FY93/94. Apart from agricultural land and forests, exploitable natural resources are mica, hydropower, and tourism. Agricultural production in the late 1980s grew by about 5%, as compared with annual population growth of 2.6%. More than 40% of the population is undernourished. Since May 1991, the government has been encouraging trade and foreign investment, e.g., by eliminating business licenses and registration requirements in order to simplify domestic and foreign investment. The government also has been cutting public expenditures by reducing subsidies, privatizing state industries, and laying off civil servants. Prospects for foreign trade and investment in the 1990s remain poor, however, because of the small size of the economy, its technological backwardness, its remoteness, and susceptibility to natural disaster. The international community provides funding for 70% of Nepal's developmental budget and for 30% of total budgetary expenditures. The government, realizing that attempts to reverse three years of liberalization would jeopardize this vital support, almost certainly will move ahead with its reform program in 1995-96.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $22.4 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 5% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $1,060 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 9.6% (June 1994)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab NA%; note - there is substantial underemployment (1994)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $455 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $854 million, including capital expenditures of $427 million (FY93/94 est.)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $593 million (f.o.b., 1993) but does not include unrecorded border trade with India
\par \tab small rice, jute, sugar, and oilseed mills; cigarette, textile, carpet, cement, and brick production; tourism
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab rice, corn, wheat, sugarcane, root crops, milk, buffalo meat; not self-sufficient in food, particularly in drought years
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab illicit producer of cannabis for the domestic and international drug markets; transit point for heroin from Southeast Asia to the West
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-89), $304 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1980-89), $2.23 billion; OPEC bilateral aid (1979-89), $30 million; Communist countries (1970-89), $286 million
\par \tab This highly developed and affluent economy is based on private enterprise. The government makes its presence felt, however, through many regulations, permit requirements, and welfare programs affecting most aspects of economic activity. The trade and financial services sector contributes over 50% of GDP. Industrial activity provides about 25% of GDP and is led by the food-processing, oil-refining, and metalworking industries. The highly mechanized agricultural sector employs only 4% of the labor force, but provides large surpluses for export and the domestic food-processing industry. Indeed the Netherlands ranks third worldwide in value of agricultural exports, behind the US and France. High unemployment and a sizable budget deficit are currently the most serious economic problems. Many of the economic issues of the 1990s will reflect the course of European economic integration.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $275.8 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 2% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $17,940 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 2.5% (December 1994)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 8.8% (December 1994)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $109.9 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $122.1 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1992 est.)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $153 billion (f.o.b., 1994 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab metal products, chemicals, processed food and tobacco, agricultural products
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab EC 77% (Germany 27%, Belgium-Luxembourg 15%, UK 10%), Central and Eastern Europe 10%, US 4% (1991)
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $137 billion (f.o.b., 1994 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab raw materials and semifinished products, consumer goods, transportation equipment, crude oil, food products
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab EC 64% (Germany 26%, Belgium-Luxembourg 14%, UK 8%), US 8% (1991)
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $0
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate -1.5% (1993 est.); accounts for 25% of GDP
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 17,520,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 72.4 billion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 5,100 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab agroindustries, metal and engineering products, electrical machinery and equipment, chemicals, petroleum, fishing, construction, microelectronics
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab accounts for 4.6% of GDP; animal production predominates; crops - grains, potatoes, sugar beets, fruits, vegetables; shortages of grain, fats, and oils
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab important gateway for cocaine, heroin, and hashish entering Europe; European producer of illicit amphetamines and other synthetic drugs
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b donor}
\par \tab ODA and OOF commitments (1970-89), $19.4 billion
\par \tab Tourism and offshore finance are the mainstays of the economy. The islands enjoy a high per capita income and a well-developed infrastructure as compared with other countries in the region. Almost all consumer and capital goods are imported, with Venezuela and the US being the major suppliers. Poor soils and inadequate water supplies hamper the development of agriculture.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $1.85 billion (1993 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 1.8% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $10,000 (1993 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 1.5% (1994 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 13.4% (1993 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $209 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $232 million, including capital expenditures of $8 million (1992 est.)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $240 million (f.o.b., 1993)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab petroleum products 98%
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab US 39%, Brazil 9%, Colombia 6%
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $1.2 billion (f.o.b., 1993)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab crude petroleum 64%, food, manufactures
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Venezuela 26%, US 18%, Colombia 6%, Netherlands 6%, Japan 5%
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $672 million (December 1991)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate NA%
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 200,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 810 million kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 4,054 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab tourism (Curacao and Sint Maarten), petroleum refining (Curacao), petroleum transshipment facilities (Curacao and Bonaire), light manufacturing (Curacao)
\par \tab Netherlands Antillean guilders, gulden, or florins (NAf.) per US$1 - 1.79 (fixed rate since 1989; 1.80 fixed rate 1971-88)
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab calendar year{\b Overview}
\par \tab New Caledonia has more than 25% of the world's known nickel resources. In recent years the economy has suffered because of depressed international demand for nickel, the principal source of export earnings. Only a negligible amount of the land is suitable for cultivation, and food accounts for about 25% of imports.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $1 billion (1991 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 2.4% (1988)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $6,000 (1991 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 1.4% (1990)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 16% (1989)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $224 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $211 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1985 est.)
\par \tab large areas devoted to cattle grazing; coffee, corn, wheat, vegetables; 60% self-sufficient in beef
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab illicit cannabis cultivation is becoming a principal source of income for some families
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $4.185 billion
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 CFP franc (CFPF) = 100 centimes
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab Comptoirs Francais du Pacifique francs (CFPF) per US$1 - 96.25 (January 1995), 100.93 (1994), 102.96 (1993), 96.24 (1992), 102.57 (1991), 99.00 (1990); note - linked at the rate of 18.18 to the French franc
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab calendar year{\b Overview}
\par \tab Since 1984 the government has been reorienting an agrarian economy dependent on a guaranteed British market to a more industrialized, open free market economy that can compete on the global scene. The government has hoped that dynamic growth would boost real incomes, broaden and deepen the technological capabilities of the industrial sector, reduce inflationary pressures, and permit the expansion of welfare benefits. The initial results were mixed: inflation is down from double-digit levels, but growth was sluggish in 1988-91. In 1992-93, growth picked up to 3% annually, a sign that the new economic approach was beginning to pay off. Business confidence strengthened in 1994, and export demand picked up in the Asia-Pacific region, resulting in 6.2% growth. Inflation remains among the lowest in the industrial world.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $56.4 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 6.2% (1994)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $16,640 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 1.6% (FY93/94)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 7.5% (December 1994)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $18.94 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $18.82 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (FY94/95)
\par \tab machinery and equipment, vehicles and aircraft, petroleum, consumer goods
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Australia 21%, US 18%, Japan 16%, UK 6%
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $38.5 billion (September 1994)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 1.9% (1990); accounts for about 20% of GDP
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 7,520,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 30.5 billion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 8,401 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab food processing, wood and paper products, textiles, machinery, transportation equipment, banking and insurance, tourism, mining
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab accounts for about 9% of GDP and about 11% of the work force; livestock predominates - wool, meat, dairy products all export earners; crops - wheat, barley, potatoes, pulses, fruits, vegetables; surplus producer of farm products; fish catch reached a record 503,000 metric tons in 1988
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b donor}
\par \tab ODA and OOF commitments (1970-89), $526 million
\par \tab Since March 1991, when President CHAMORRO began an ambitious economic stabilization program, Nicaragua has had considerable success in reducing inflation and obtaining substantial economic aid from abroad. Annual inflation fell from more than 750% in 1991 to less than 5% in 1992. Inflation rose again to an estimated 20% in 1993, although this increase was due almost entirely to a large currency devaluation in January. As of early 1994, the government was close to finalizing an enhanced structural adjustment facility with the IMF, after the previous standby facility expired in early 1993. Despite these successes, achieving overall economic growth in an economy scarred by misguided economic values and civil war during the 1980s has proved elusive. Economic growth was flat in 1992 and slightly negative in 1993. Nicaragua's per capita foreign debt is one of the highest in the world; nonetheless, as of late 1993, Nicaragua was current on its post-1988 debt as well as on payments to the international financial institutions. Definition of property rights remains a problem; ownership disputes over large tracts of land, businesses, and homes confiscated by the previous government have yet to be resolved. A rise in exports of coffee and other products led growth in 1994.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $6.4 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 3.2% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $1,570 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 19.5% (1994 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 21.8%; underemployment 50% (1993)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $375 million (1992)
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $410 million (1992), including capital expenditures of $115 million (1991 est.)
\par \tab consumer goods, machinery and equipment, petroleum products
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Central America, US, Venezuela, Japan
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $11 billion (1993)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate -0.8% (1993 est.); accounts for 26% of GDP
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 460,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 1.6 billion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 376 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab food processing, chemicals, metal products, textiles, clothing, petroleum refining and distribution, beverages, footwear
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab crops account for about 15% of GDP; export crops - coffee, bananas, sugarcane, cotton; food crops - rice, corn, cassava, citrus fruit, beans; also produces a variety of animal products - beef, veal, pork, poultry, dairy products; normally self-sufficient in food
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab transshipment point for cocaine destined for the US
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-92), $620 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $1.381 billion
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 gold cordoba (C$) = 100 centavos
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab gold cordobas (C$) per US$1 - 7.08 (December 1994), 6.72 (1994), 5.62 (1993), 5.00 (1992); note - gold cordoba replaced cordoba as Nicaragua's currency in 1991 (exchange rate of old cordoba had reached per US$1 - 25,000,000 by March 1992)
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab calendar year{\b Overview}
\par \tab Niger is one of the world's poorest countries, with GDP growth lagging behind the rapid growth of population. The economy is centered on subsistence agriculture, animal husbandry, and reexport trade, and increasingly less on uranium, its major export throughout the 1970s and 1980s. Uranium revenues dropped by almost 50% between 1983 and 1990 with the end of the uranium boom. Terms of trade with Nigeria, Niger's largest regional trade partner, have improved dramatically since the 50% devaluation of the African franc in January 1994; this devaluation boosted exports of livestock, peas, onions, and the products of Niger's small cotton industry. The government relies on bilateral and multilateral aid for operating expenses and public investment and is strongly induced to adhere to structural adjustment programs designed by the IMF and the World Bank.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $4.6 billion (1993 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 1.4% (1993 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $550 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab NA%
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $188 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $400 million, including capital expenditures of $125 million (1993 est.)
\par \tab France 23%, Cote d'Ivoire, Germany, Italy, Japan
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $1.2 billion (December 1991 est.)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate -2.7% (1992 est.); accounts for 15% of GDP
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 60,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 200 million kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 42 kWh (1992)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab cement, brick, textiles, food processing, chemicals, slaughterhouses, and a few other small light industries; uranium mining began in 1971
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab accounts for roughly 40% of GDP and 90% of labor force; cash crops - cowpeas, cotton, peanuts; food crops - millet, sorghum, cassava, rice; livestock - cattle, sheep, goats; self-sufficient in food except in drought years
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-89), $380 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $3.165 billion; OPEC bilateral aid (1979-89), $504 million; Communist countries (1970-89), $61 million
\par \tab the official rate is pegged to the French franc, and beginning 12 January 1994, the CFA franc was devalued to CFAF 100 per French franc from CFAF 50 at which it had been fixed since 1948
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab 1 October - 30 September{\b Overview}
\par \tab The oil-rich Nigerian economy continues to be hobbled by political instability and poor macroeconomic management. Nigeria's unpopular military rulers show no sign of wanting to restore democratic civilian rule in the near future and appear divided on how to redress fundamental economic imbalances that cause troublesome inflation and the steady depreciation of the naira. The government's domestic and international arrears continue to limit economic growth - even in the oil sector - and prevent an agreement with the IMF and bilateral creditors on debt relief. The inefficient (largely subsistence) agricultural sector has failed to keep up with rapid population growth, and Nigeria, once a large net exporter of food, now must import food.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $122.6 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab -0.8% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $1,250 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 53% (1993 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 28% (1992 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $9 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $10.8 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1992 est.)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $11.9 billion (f.o.b., 1992)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab oil 95%, cocoa, rubber
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab US 54%, EC 23%
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $8.3 billion (c.i.f., 1992)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab machinery and equipment, manufactured goods, food and animals
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab EC 64%, US 10%, Japan 7%
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $29.5 billion (1992)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 7.7% (1991); accounts for 43% of GDP, including petroleum
\par \tab accounts for 35% of GDP and half of labor force; cash crops - cocoa, peanuts, palm oil, rubber; food crops - corn, rice, sorghum, millet, cassava, yams; livestock - cattle, sheep, goats, pigs; fishing and forestry resources extensively exploited
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab passenger and cargo air hub for West Africa; facilitates movement of heroin en route from Southeast and Southwest Asia to Western Europe and North America; increasingly a transit route for cocaine from South America intended for West European, East Asian, and North American markets
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-89), $705 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $3 billion; Communist countries (1970-89), $2.2 billion
\par \tab The economy benefits substantially from financial assistance from the US. The rate of funding has declined as locally generated government revenues have grown. An agreement for the years 1986 to 1992 entitled the islands to $228 million for capital development, government operations, and special programs. A rapidly growing major source of income is the tourist industry, which now employs about 50% of the work force. Japanese tourists predominate. The agricultural sector is of minor importance and is made up of cattle ranches and small farms producing coconuts, breadfruit, tomatoes, and melons. Industry is small scale, mostly handicrafts, light manufacturing, and garment production.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $524 million (1994 est.)
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab GDP numbers reflect US spending
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $10,500 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 6.5% (1994 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $190.4 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $190.4 million, including capital expenditures of $19.1 million (FY94/95)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $263.4 million (f.o.b. 1991 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab garments
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab NA
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $392.4 million (c.i.f. 1991 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab food, construction equipment and materials, petroleum products
\par \tab coconuts, fruits, cattle, vegetables; food is a major import
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab none
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 United States dollar (US$) = 100 cents
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab US currency is used
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab 1 October - 30 September{\b Overview}
\par \tab Norway has a mixed economy involving a combination of free market activity and government intervention. The government controls key areas, such as the vital petroleum sector (through large-scale state enterprises) and extensively subsidizes agriculture, fishing, and areas with sparse resources. Norway also maintains an extensive welfare system that helps propel public sector expenditures to slightly more than 50% of the GDP and results in one of the highest average tax burdens in the world (54%). A small country with a high dependence on international trade, Norway is basically an exporter of raw materials and semiprocessed goods, with an abundance of small- and medium-sized firms, and is ranked among the major shipping nations. The country is richly endowed with natural resources - petroleum, hydropower, fish, forests, and minerals - and is highly dependent on its oil sector to keep its economy afloat. Norway imports more than half its food needs. Although one of the government's main priorities is to reduce this dependency, this situation is not likely to improve for years to come. The government also hopes to reduce unemployment and strengthen and diversify the economy through tax reform and a series of expansionary budgets. The budget deficit is expected to hit a record 8% of GDP because of welfare spending and bail-outs of the banking system. Unemployment is currently running at 8.4% - including those in job programs - because of the weakness of the economy outside the oil sector. Economic growth, only 1.6% in 1993, moved up to 5.5% in 1994. Oslo opted to stay out of the EU during a referendum in November 1994.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $95.7 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 5.5% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $22,170 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 1.3% (1994 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 8.4% (including people in job-training programs; 1994 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $50.9 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $55.5 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1994 est.)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $36.6 billion (f.o.b., 1994)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab petroleum and petroleum products 40%, metals and products 10.6%, fish and fish products 6.9%, chemicals 6.4%, natural gas 6.0%, ships 5.4%
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab EC 66.3%, Nordic countries 16.3%, developing countries 8.4%, US 6.0%, Japan 1.8% (1993)
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $29.3 billion (c.i.f., 1994)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab machinery and equipment 38.9%, chemicals and other industrial inputs 26.6%, manufactured consumer goods 17.8%, foodstuffs 6.4%
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab EC 48.6%, Nordic countries 25.1%, developing countries 9.6%, US 8.1%, Japan 8.0% (1993)
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $NA
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 4.6% (1994); accounts for 14% of GDP
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 27,280,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 118 billion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 23,735 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab petroleum and gas, food processing, shipbuilding, pulp and paper products, metals, chemicals, timber, mining, textiles, fishing
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab accounts for 3% of GDP and about 6% of labor force; among world's top 10 fishing nations; livestock output exceeds value of crops; fish catch of 1.76 million metric tons in 1989
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab transshipment point for drugs shipped via the CIS and Baltic states for the European market
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b donor}
\par \tab ODA and OOF commitments (1970-89), $4.4 billion
\par \tab Economic performance is closely tied to the fortunes of the oil industry, including trends in international oil prices and the ability of OPEC producers to agree on output quotas. Petroleum accounts for more than 85% of export earnings, about 80% of government revenues, and roughly 40% of GDP. Oman has proved oil reserves of 4 billion barrels, equivalent to about 20 years' supply at the current rate of extraction. Agriculture is carried on at a subsistence level and the general population depends on imported food. The government is encouraging private investment, both domestic and foreign, as a prime force for further economic development.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $17 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 0.5% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $10,020 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 1.2% (1994 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $4.4 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $5.2 billion, including capital expenditures of $1 billion (1994 est.)
\par \tab UAE 24% (largely re-exports), Japan 21%, UK 12%, US 7%, France 6% (1993)
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $3 billion (1993)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 8.6% (1991); accounts for almost 60% of GDP, including petroleum
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 1,540,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 6 billion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 3,407 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab crude oil production and refining, natural gas production, construction, cement, copper
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab accounts for 4% of GDP and 40% of the labor force (including fishing); less than 2% of land cultivated; largely subsistence farming (dates, limes, bananas, alfalfa, vegetables, camels, cattle); not self-sufficient in food; annual fish catch averages 100,000 metric tons
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-89), $137 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $148 million; OPEC bilateral aid (1979-89), $797 million
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 Omani rial (RO) = 1,000 baiza
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab Omani rials (RO) per US$1 - 0.3845 (fixed rate since 1986)
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab calendar year{\b Overview}
\par \tab The Pacific Ocean is a major contributor to the world economy and particularly to those nations its waters directly touch. It provides low-cost sea transportation between East and West, extensive fishing grounds, offshore oil and gas fields, minerals, and sand and gravel for the construction industry. In 1985 over half (54%) of the world's fish catch came from the Pacific Ocean, which is the only ocean where the fish catch has increased every year since 1978. Exploitation of offshore oil and gas reserves is playing an ever-increasing role in the energy supplies of Australia, NZ, China, US, and Peru. The high cost of recovering offshore oil and gas, combined with the wide swings in world prices for oil since 1985, has slowed but not stopped new drillings.
{\b Industries}
\par \tab fishing, oil and gas production{\b Overview}
\par \tab The Pakistani economy has made progress in several key areas since Benazir BHUTTO became Prime Minister in October 1993. She has been under pressure from international donors and the IMF - which gave Pakistan a $1.3 billion structural adjustment credit in February 1994 - to continue the economic reforms and austerity measures begun by her predecessor, caretaker Prime Minister Moeen QURESHI (July-October 1993). Foreign exchange reserves climbed to more than $3 billion in 1994, and the budget deficit was substantially reduced. Real GDP growth was 4% in FY93/94, up from 2.3% in FY92/93. Foreign direct and portfolio investment also have increased. Privatization of large public sector utilities began in 1994 with the sale of 12% of the Pakistan Telecommunications Corporation (PTC) and the Water and Power Development Authority (WAPDA); the sale of state-owned banks and other large units are planned for 1995. Still, the government must cope with long-standing economic vulnerabilities - high levels of debt service and defense spending, a small tax base, a huge population, and dependence on cotton-based exports - which hamper its ability to create a stable economic environment. In addition, Pakistan's infrastructure is inadequate and deteriorating, low levels of literacy constrain industrial growth, and increasing sectarian, ethnic, and tribal violence disrupt production.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $248.5 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 4% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $1,930 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 12% (FY93/94)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 10% (FY90/91 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $10.5 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $11.2 billion, including capital expenditures of $3.1 billion (FY93/94)
\par \tab Japan, US, Germany, UK, Saudi Arabia, Malaysia, South Korea
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $24 billion (1993 est.)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 5.6% (FY93/94); accounts for 18% of GDP
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 10,800,000 kW (1994)
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 52.4 billion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 389 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab textiles, food processing, beverages, construction materials, clothing, paper products, shrimp
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab 24% of GDP; world's largest contiguous irrigation system; major crops - cotton, wheat, rice, sugarcane, fruits, vegetables; livestock products - milk, beef, mutton, eggs
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab major illicit producer of opium and hashish for the international drug trade; remains world's third largest opium producer (160 metric tons in 1994); major center for processing Afghan heroin and key transit area for Southwest Asian heroin moving to Western market
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab $2.5 billion (FY91/92); $2.5 billion (FY92/93); $2.5 billion (FY93/94); no US commitments, includes bi- and multilateral aid
\par \tab The economy consists primarily of subsistence agriculture and fishing. The government is the major employer of the work force, relying heavily on financial assistance from the US. The compact of "free association" with the United States, entered into after the end of the UN trusteeship on 1 October 1994, provides Palau with $500 million in US aid over 15 years in return for furnishing some military facilities. The population, in effect, enjoys a per capita income of $5,000, twice that of the Philippines and much of Micronesia. Long-run prospects for the tourist sector have been greatly bolstered by the expansion of air travel in the Pacific and the rapidly rising prosperity of leading East Asian countries.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $81.8 million (1994 est.)
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab GDP numbers reflect US spending
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $5,000 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab NA%
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 20% (1986)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $6 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $NA, including capital expenditures of $NA (1986 est.)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $600,000 (f.o.b., 1989)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab trochus (type of shellfish), tuna, copra, handicrafts
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab US, Japan
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $24.6 million (c.i.f., 1989)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab US
{\b External debt}
\par \tab about $100 million (1989)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate NA%
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 16,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 22 million kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 1,540 kWh (1990)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab tourism, craft items (shell, wood, pearl), some commercial fishing and agriculture
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab subsistence-level production of coconut, copra, cassava, sweet potatoes
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-89), $2.56 billion; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $92 million
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 United States dollar (US$) = 100 cents
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab US currency is used
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab 1 October - 30 September{\b Overview}
\par \tab Because of its key geographic location, Panama's economy is service-based, heavily weighted toward banking, commerce, and tourism. Trade and financial ties with the US are especially close. GDP grew at 3.6% in 1994, a respectable rate, yet below the 7.1% average of the early 1990s. Banking and financial services and trade through the Colon Free Zone continued to expand rapidly, with the industrial and agricultural sectors experiencing little growth. The new administration, inaugurated 1 September 1994, has launched an economic plan designed to reverse rising unemployment, attract foreign investment, cut back the size of government, and modernize the economy. The success of the plan in meeting its goals for 1995 and beyond depends largely on the success of the administration in reforming the labor code and instituting the reforms necessary to join the GATT.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $12.3 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 3.6% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $4,670 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 1.8% (1994 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 12.9% (1994 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $1.93 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $1.93 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1994)
\par \tab US 40%, EU, Central America and Caribbean, Japan
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $6.7 billion (yearend 1993 est.)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 1.8% (1994 est.); accounts for about 9% of GDP
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 960,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 2.8 billion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 1,047 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab manufacturing and construction, petroleum refining, brewing, cement and other construction materials, sugar milling
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab accounts for 10% of GDP (1992 est.); crops - bananas, rice, corn, coffee, sugarcane; livestock; fishing; importer of food grain, vegetables
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab major cocaine transshipment point and drug money laundering center
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-89), $516 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $582 million; Communist countries (1970-89), $4 million
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 balboa (B) = 100 centesimos
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab balboas (B) per US$1 - 1.000 (fixed rate)
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab calendar year{\b Overview}
\par \tab Papua New Guinea is richly endowed with natural resources, but exploitation has been hampered by the rugged terrain and the high cost of developing an infrastructure. Agriculture provides a subsistence livelihood for 85% of the population. Mining of numerous deposits, including copper and gold, accounts for about 60% of export earnings. Budgetary support from Australia and development aid under World Bank auspices have helped sustain the economy. Robust growth in 1991-92 was led by the mining sector; the opening of a large new gold mine helped the advance. At the start of 1995, Port Moresby is looking primarily to the exploitation of mineral and petroleum resources to drive economic development but new prospecting in Papua New Guinea has slumped as other mineral-rich countries have stepped up their competition for international investment. Output from current projects will probably begin to taper off in 1996, but no new large ventures are being developed to succeed them.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $9.2 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 6.1% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $2,200 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 1.6% (1994)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $1.33 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $1.36 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1995 est.)
\par \tab Australia, Japan, US, Singapore, New Zealand
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $1.2 billion (c.i.f., 1993 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab machinery and transport equipment, manufactured goods, food, fuels, chemicals
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Australia, Japan, UK, New Zealand, Netherlands
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $3.2 billion (1992)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab accounts for 32% of GDP
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 490,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 1.8 billion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 390 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab copra crushing, palm oil processing, plywood production, wood chip production, mining of gold, silver, and copper, construction, tourism
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab Accounts for 25% of GDP; livelihood for 85% of population; fertile soils and favorable climate permits cultivating a wide variety of crops; cash crops - coffee, cocoa, coconuts, palm kernels; other products - tea, rubber, sweet potatoes, fruit, vegetables, poultry, pork; net importer of food for urban centers
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-89), $40.6 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $6.5 billion; OPEC bilateral aid (1979-89), $17 million
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 kina (K) = 100 toea
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab kina (K) per US$1 - 0.8565 (December 1994), 0.9950 (1994), 1.0221 (1993), 1.0367 (1992), 1.0504 (1991), 1.0467 (1990); note - the government floated the kina on 10 October 1994
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab calendar year{\b Overview}
\par \tab Agriculture, including forestry, accounts for about 25% of GDP, employs about 45% of the labor force, and provides the bulk of exports, in which soybeans and cotton are the most important. Paraguay lacks substantial mineral or petroleum resources but possesses a large hydropower potential. In a major step to increase its economic activity in the region, Paraguay in March 1991 joined the Southern Cone Common Market (MERCOSUR), which includes Brazil, Argentina, and Uruguay. In 1992, the government, through an unorthodox approach, reduced external debt with both commercial and official creditors by purchasing a sizable amount of the delinquent commercial debt in the secondary market at a substantial discount. The government had paid 100% of remaining official debt arrears to the US, Germany, France, and Spain. All commercial debt arrears have been rescheduled. For the long run, the government must press forward with general, market-oriented economic reforms. Growth of 3.5% in 1993 was spurred by higher-than-expected agricultural output and rising international commodity prices. Inflation picked up steam in fourth quarter 1993 because of rises in public sector salaries and utility rates. GDP growth continued in 1994 at 3.5%. Although inflation declined a bit over 1993, increases in food prices, and crop and infrastructure damage from heavy rains at the end of the year, forced inflation to 18%, above the government's target of 15%. Paraguay reaffirmed its commitment to MERCOSUR on 1 January 1995 by implementing the organization's common external tariff.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $15.4 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 3.5% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $2,950 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 18% (1994 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 11.2% (1994 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $1.2 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $1.4 billion, including capital expenditures of $487 million (1992 est.)
\par \tab EC 37%, Brazil 25%, Argentina 10%, Chile 6%, US 6%
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $1.38 billion (c.i.f., 1993 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab capital goods, foodstuffs, consumer goods, raw materials, fuels
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Brazil 30%, EC 20%, US 18%, Argentina 8%, Japan 7%
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $1.4 billion (yearend 1993 est.)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 3.6% (1993 est.); accounts for 20% of GDP
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 6,530,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 26.5 billion kWh (1992)
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab much of the electricity produced in Paraguay is exported to Brazil and domestic consumption cannot be determined
{\b Industries}
\par \tab meat packing, oilseed crushing, milling, brewing, textiles, other light consumer goods, cement, construction
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab accounts for 26% of GDP; cash crops - cotton, sugarcane, soybeans; other crops - corn, wheat, tobacco, cassava, fruits, vegetables; animal products - beef, pork, eggs, milk; surplus producer of timber; self-sufficient in most foods
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab illicit producer of cannabis for the international drug trade; important transshipment point for Bolivian cocaine headed for the US and Europe
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-89), $172 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $1.1 billion
\par \tab The Peruvian economy has become increasingly market-oriented, with major privatizations completed in 1994 in the mining and telecommunications industries. In the 1980s the economy suffered from hyperinflation, declining per capita output, and mounting external debt. Peru was shut off from IMF and World Bank support in the mid-1980s because of its huge debt arrears. An austerity program implemented shortly after the FUJIMORI government took office in July 1990 contributed to a third consecutive yearly contraction of economic activity, but the slide came to a halt late that year, and in 1991 output rose 2.4%. After a burst of inflation as the austerity program eliminated government price subsidies, monthly price increases eased to the single-digit level and by December 1991 dropped to the lowest increase since mid-1987. Lima obtained a financial rescue package from multilateral lenders in September 1991, although it faced $14 billion in arrears on its external debt. By working with the IMF and World Bank on new financial conditions and arrangements, the government succeeded in ending its arrears by March 1993. In 1992, GDP had fallen by 2.8%, in part because a warmer-than-usual El Nino current resulted in a 30% drop in the fish catch, but the economy rebounded as strong foreign investment helped push growth to 6% in 1993 and 8.6% in 1994.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $73.6 billion (1994 est.)
\par \tab machinery, transport equipment, foodstuffs, petroleum, iron and steel, chemicals, pharmaceuticals
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab US 21%, Colombia, Argentina, Japan, Germany, Brazil
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $22.4 billion (1994 est.)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab NA
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 4,190,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 11.2 billion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 448 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab mining of metals, petroleum, fishing, textiles, clothing, food processing, cement, auto assembly, steel, shipbuilding, metal fabrication
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab accounts for 12% of GDP, about 35% of labor force; commercial crops - coffee, cotton, sugarcane; other crops - rice, wheat, potatoes, plantains, coca; animal products - poultry, red meats, dairy, wool; not self-sufficient in grain or vegetable oil; fish catch of 6.9 million metric tons (1990)
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab world's largest coca leaf producer with about 108,600 hectares under cultivation in 1994; source of supply for most of the world's coca paste and cocaine base; at least 85% of coca cultivation is for illicit production; most of cocaine base is shipped to Colombian drug dealers for processing into cocaine for the international drug market, but exports of finished cocaine are increasing
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-89), $1.7 billion; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $4.3 billion; Communist countries (1970-89), $577 million
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 nuevo sol (S/.) = 100 centimos
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab nuevo sol (S/.) per US$1 - 2.20 (February 1995), 2.195 (1994),1.988 (1993), 1.245 (1992), 0.772 (1991), 0.187 (1990)
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab calendar year{\b Overview}
\par \tab Domestic output in this primarily agricultural economy failed to grow in 1992 and rose only slightly in 1993. Drought and power supply problems hampered production, while inadequate revenues prevented government pump priming. Worker remittances helped to supplement GDP. A marked increase in capital goods imports, particularly power generating equipment, telecommunications equipment, and electronic data processors, contributed to 20% annual import growth in 1992-94. Provided the government can cope with the substantial trade deficit and meet the fiscal targets agreed to with the IMF, the Philippines should duplicate the strong growth performance of 1994 in 1995-96.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $161.4 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 4.3% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $2,310 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 7.1% (1994 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 9% (1994)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $14 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $15.4 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (FY94/95 est.)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $13.4 billion (f.o.b., 1994)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab electronics, textiles, coconut products, copper, fish
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab US 39%, Japan 16%, Germany 5%, Hong Kong 5%, UK 4% (1993)
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $21.3 billion (f.o.b., 1994)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab raw materials 40%, capital goods 25%, petroleum products 10%
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Japan 23%, US 20%, Taiwan 6%, Singapore 5%, South Korea 5% (1993)
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $40 billion (1994 est.)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 1.4% (1993); accounts for 28% of GDP
\par \tab accounts for 22% of GDP and about 45% of labor force; major crops - rice, coconuts, corn, sugarcane, bananas, pineapples, mangos; animal products - pork, eggs, beef; net exporter of farm products; fish catch of 2 million metric tons annually
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab illicit producer of cannabis for the international drug trade; growers are producing more and better quality cannabis despite government eradication efforts; transit point for Southwest Asian heroin bound for the US
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-89), $3.6 billion; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-88), $7.9 billion; OPEC bilateral aid (1979-89), $5 million; Communist countries (1975-89), $123 million
\par \tab Poland continues to make good progress in the difficult transition to a market economy that began on 1 January 1990, when the new democratic government instituted "shock therapy" by decontrolling prices, slashing subsidies, and drastically reducing import barriers. Real GDP fell sharply in 1990 and 1991, but in 1992 Poland became the first country in the region to resume economic growth with a 2.6% increase. Growth increased to 3.8% in 1993 and 5.5% in 1994 - the highest rate in Europe except for Albania. All of the growth since 1991 has come from the booming private sector, which now accounts for at least 55% of GDP, even though privatization of the state-owned enterprises is proceeding slowly and most industry remains in state hands. Industrial production increased 12% in 1994 - led by 50% jumps in the output of motor vehicles, radios and televisions, and pulp and paper - and is now well above the 1990 level. Inflation, which had approached 1,200% annually in early 1990, was down to about 30% in 1994, as the government held the budget deficit to 1.5% of GDP. After five years of steady increases, unemployment has leveled off at about 16% nationwide, although it approaches 30% in some regions. The trade deficit was sharply reduced in 1994, due mainly to increased exports to Western Europe, Poland's main customer. The leftist government elected in September 1993 gets generally good marks from foreign observers for its management of the budget but is often criticized for not moving faster on privatization.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $191.1 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 5.5% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $4,920 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 30% (1994)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 16.1% (November 1994)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $27.1 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $30 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1994 est.)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $16.3 billion (f.o.b., 1994 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab intermediate goods 26.5%, machinery and transport equipment 18.1%, miscellaneous manufactures 16.7%, foodstuffs 9.4%, fuels 8.4% (1993)
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Germany 33.4%, Russia 10.2%, Italy 5.3%, UK 4.3% (1993)
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $18.1 billion (f.o.b., 1994 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab machinery and transport equipment 29.6%, intermediate goods 18.5%, chemicals 13.3%, fuels 12.5%, miscellaneous manufactures 10.1%
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Germany 35.8%, Italy 9.2%, Russia 8.5%, UK 6.6% (1993)
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $47 billion (1993); note - Poland's Western government creditors promised in 1991 to forgive 30% of Warsaw's $35 billion official debt immediately and to forgive another 20% in 1994; foreign banks agreed in early 1994 to forgive 45% of their $12 billion debt claim
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 12% (1994 est.)
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 31,120,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 124 billion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 2,908 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab machine building, iron and steel, extractive industries, chemicals, shipbuilding, food processing, glass, beverages, textiles
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab accounts for 7% of GDP; 75% of output from private farms, 25% from state farms; productivity remains low by European standards; leading European producer of rye, rapeseed, and potatoes; wide variety of other crops and livestock; major exporter of pork products; normally self-sufficient in food
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab illicit producer of opium for domestic consumption and amphetamines for the international market; transshipment point for Asian and Latin American illicit drugs to Western Europe; producer of precursor chemicals
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b donor}
\par \tab bilateral aid to non-Communist less developed countries (1954-89), $2.2 billion
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab Western governments and institutions have pledged $8 billion in grants and loans since 1989, but most of the money has not been disbursed
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 zloty (Zl) = 100 groszy
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab zlotych (Zl) per US$1 - 2.45 (January 1995; a currency reform on 1 January 1995 replaced 10,000 old zlotys with 1 new zloty), 22,723 (1994), 18,115 (1993), 13,626 (1992), 10,576 (1991), 9,500 (1990)
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab calendar year{\b Overview}
\par \tab Portugal's economy contracted 0.4% in 1993 but registered a 1.4% growth in 1994, with 3% growth expected in 1995 and 1996. This comeback rests on high levels of public investment, continuing strong export growth, and a gradual recovery in consumer spending. The government's long-run economic goal is the modernization of Portuguese markets, industry, infrastructure, and work force in order to catch up with productivity and income levels of the more advanced EU countries. Per capita income now equals only 55% of the EU average. Economic policy in 1994 focused on reducing inflationary pressures by lowering the fiscal deficit, maintaining a stable escudo, moderating wage increases, and encouraging increased competition. The government's medium-term objective is to be in the first tier of the EU countries eligible to join the economic and monetary union (EMU) as early as 1997. To this end, the 1995 budget posits a cut in total deficit to 5.8% of GDP.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $107.3 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 1.4% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $10,190 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 6.1% (May 1994)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 6.7% (May 1994)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $31 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $41 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1994)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $15.4 billion (f.o.b., 1993)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab clothing and footwear, machinery, cork and paper products, hides and skins
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab EU 75.5%, other developed countries 12.4%, US 4.3% (1994)
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $24.3 billion (c.i.f., 1993)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab machinery and transport equipment, agricultural products, chemicals, petroleum, textiles
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab EC 72%, other developed countries 10.9%, less developed countries 12.9%, US 3.4%
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $20 billion (1993 est.)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 1.5% (1994 est.); accounts for 30.6% of GDP
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 8,220,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 29.5 billion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 2,642 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab textiles and footwear; wood pulp, paper, and cork; metalworking; oil refining; chemicals; fish canning; wine; tourism
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab accounts for 5% of GDP; small, inefficient farms; imports more than half of food needs; major crops - grain, potatoes, olives, grapes; livestock sector - sheep, cattle, goats, poultry, meat, dairy products
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab increasingly important gateway country for Latin American cocaine entering the European market; transshipment point for hashish from North Africa to Europe
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-89), $1.8 billion; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $1.2 billion
\par \tab Puerto Rico has one of the most dynamic economies in the Caribbean region. Industry has surpassed agriculture as the primary sector of economic activity and income. Encouraged by duty free access to the US and by tax incentives, US firms have invested heavily in Puerto Rico since the 1950s. US minimum wage laws apply. Important industries include pharmaceuticals, electronics, textiles, petrochemicals, and processed foods. Sugar production has lost out to dairy production and other livestock products as the main source of income in the agricultural sector. Tourism has traditionally been an important source of income for the island, with estimated arrivals of nearly 3.9 million tourists in 1993.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $26.8 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 2.6% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $7,050 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 2.9% (1994)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 16% (1994)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $5.1 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $5.1 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (FY94/95)
\par \tab manufacturing accounts for 39.4% of GDP; manufacturing of pharmaceuticals, electronics, apparel, food products, instruments; tourism
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab accounts for only 3% of labor force and just over 1% of GDP; crops - sugarcane, coffee, pineapples, plantains, bananas; livestock - cattle, chickens; imports a large share of food needs (1993)
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab none
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 United States dollar (US$) = 100 cents
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab US currency is used
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab 1 July - 30 June{\b Overview}
\par \tab Oil is the backbone of the economy and accounts for more than 30% of GDP, roughly 75% of export earnings, and 70% of government revenues. Proved oil reserves of 3.3 billion barrels should ensure continued output at current levels for about 25 years. Oil has given Qatar a per capita GDP comparable to the leading West European industrial countries. Production and export of natural gas are becoming increasingly important. Long-term goals feature the development of off-shore oil and the diversification of the economy.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $10.7 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab -1% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $20,820 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 3% (1993 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $2.5 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $3 billion, including capital expenditures of $440 million (1992 est.)
\par \tab Japan 57%, South Korea 9%, Brazil 4%, UAE 4%, Singapore 3% (1992)
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $1.75 billion (f.o.b., 1993 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab machinery and equipment, consumer goods, food, chemicals
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Japan 16%, UK 11%, US 11%, Germany 7%, France 5% (1992)
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $1.5 billion (1993 est.)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab accounts for 50% of GDP, including oil
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 1,520,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 4.5 billion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 8,415 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab crude oil production and refining, fertilizers, petrochemicals, steel (rolls reinforcing bars for concrete construction), cement
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab farming and grazing on small scale, less than 2% of GDP; agricultural area is small and government-owned; commercial fishing increasing in importance; most food imported
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b donor}
\par \tab pledged in ODA to less developed countries (1979-88), $2.7 billion
\par \tab The economy has traditionally been based on agriculture. Sugarcane has been the primary crop for more than a century, and in some years it accounts for 85% of exports. The government has been pushing the development of a tourist industry to relieve high unemployment, which recently amounted to one-third of the labor force. The gap in Reunion between the well-off and the poor is extraordinary and accounts for the persistent social tensions. The white and Indian communities are substantially better off than other segments of the population, often approaching European standards, whereas indigenous groups suffer the poverty and unemployment typical of the poorer nations of the African continent. The outbreak of severe rioting in February 1991 illustrates the seriousness of socioeconomic tensions. The economic well-being of Reunion depends heavily on continued financial assistance from France.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $2.5 billion (1993 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $3,900 (1993 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab NA%
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 35% (February 1991)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $358 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $914 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1986 est.)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $166 million (f.o.b., 1988)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab sugar 75%, rum and molasses 4%, perfume essences 4%, lobster 3%, vanilla and tea 1%
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab France, Mauritius, Bahrain, South Africa, Italy
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $1.7 billion (c.i.f., 1988)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab manufactured goods, food, beverages, tobacco, machinery and transportation equipment, raw materials, and petroleum products
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab France, Mauritius, Bahrain, South Africa, Italy
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $NA
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate NA%; about 25% of GDP
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 180,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 1 billion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 1,454 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab sugar, rum, cigarettes, several small shops producing handicraft items
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab accounts for 30% of labor force; dominant sector of economy; cash crops - sugarcane, vanilla, tobacco; food crops - tropical fruits, vegetables, corn; imports large share of food needs
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $14.8 billion
\par \tab Despite the continuing difficulties in moving away from the former command system, the Romanian economy seems to have bottomed out in 1993-94. Market oriented reforms have been introduced fitfully since the downfall of CEAUSESCU in December 1989, with the result a growing private sector, especially in services. The slow pace of structural reform, however, has exacerbated Romania's high inflation rate and eroded real wages. Agricultural production rebounded in 1993 from the drought-reduced harvest of 1992. The economy continued its recovery in 1994, further gains being realized in agriculture, construction, services, and trade. Food supplies are adequate but expensive. Romania's infrastructure had deteriorated over the last five years due to reduced levels of public investment. Residents of the capital reported frequent disruptions of heating and water services. The slow and painful process of conversion to a more open economy will continue in 1995.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $64.7 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 3.4% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $2,790 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 62% (1994)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 10.9% (December 1994)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $8.3 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $9.4 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1995 est.)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $6 billion (f.o.b., 1994)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab metals and metal products 17.6%, mineral products 11.9%, textiles 18.5%, electric machines and equipment 8.4%, transport materials 6.5% (1994)
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab EC 36.1%, developing countries 27.4%, East and Central Europe 14.9%, EFTA 5.1%, Russia 5%, Japan 1.4%, US 1.3% (1993)
\par \tab EC 45.8%, East and Central Europe 8.6%, developing countries 22.6%, Russia 11%, EFTA 6.2%, US 5.0%, Japan 0.8% (1993)
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $4.4 billion (1994)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate -1% (1993 est.); accounts for 45% of GDP
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 22,180,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 50.8 billion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 2,076 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab mining, timber, construction materials, metallurgy, chemicals, machine building, food processing, petroleum production and refining
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab accounts for 18% of GDP and 28% of labor force; major wheat and corn producer; other products - sugar beets, sunflower seed, potatoes, milk, eggs, meat, grapes
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab transshipment point for southwest Asian heroin and Latin American cocaine transiting the Balkan route
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab $NA
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 leu (L) = 100 bani
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab lei (L) per US$1 - 1,776.00 (January 1995), 1,655.09 (1994), 760.05 (1993), 307.95 (1992), 76.39 (1991), 22.432 (1990)
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab calendar year{\b Overview}
\par \tab Russia, a vast country with a wealth of natural resources, a well-educated population, and a diverse industrial base, continues to experience formidable difficulties in moving from its old centrally planned economy to a modern market economy. President YEL'TSIN's government has made substantial strides in converting to a market economy since launching its economic reform program in January 1992 by freeing nearly all prices, slashing defense spending, eliminating the old centralized distribution system, completing an ambitious voucher privatization program, establishing private financial institutions, and decentralizing foreign trade. Russia, however, has made little progress in a number of key areas that are needed to provide a solid foundation for the transition to a market economy. Financial stabilization has remained elusive, with wide swings in monthly inflation rates. Only limited restructuring of industry has occurred so far because of a scarcity of investment funds and the failure of enterprise managers to make hard cost-cutting decisions. In addition, Moscow has yet to develop a social safety net that would allow faster restructuring by relieving enterprises of the burden of providing social benefits for their workers and has been slow to develop the legal framework necessary to fully support a market economy and to encourage foreign investment. As a result, output has continued to fall. According to Russian official data, which probably overstate the fall, GDP declined by 15% in 1994 compared with a 12% decline in 1993. Industrial output in 1994 fell 21% with all major sectors taking a hit. Agricultural production in 1994 was down 9%. The grain harvest totaled 81 million tons, some 15 million tons less than in 1993. Unemployment climbed to an estimated 6.6 million or about 7% of the work force by yearend 1994. Floundering Russian firms have already had to put another 4.8 million workers on involuntary, unpaid leave or shortened workweeks. Government fears of large-scale unemployment continued to hamper industrial restructuring efforts. According to official Russian data, real per capita income was up nearly 18% in 1994 compared with 1993, in part because many Russians are working second jobs. Most Russians perceive that they are worse off now because of growing crime and health problems and mounting wage arrears. Russia has made significant headway in privatizing state assets, completing its voucher privatization program at midyear 1994. At least a portion of about 110,000 state enterprises were transferred to private hands by the end of 1994. Including partially privatized firms, the private sector accounted for roughly half of GDP in 1994. Financial stabilization continued to remain a challenge for the government. Moscow tightened financial policies in late 1993 and early 1994, including postponing planned budget spending, and succeeded in reducing monthly inflation from 18% in January to about 5% in July and August. At midyear, however, the government relaxed austerity measures in the face of mounting pressure from industry and agriculture, sparking a new round of inflation; the monthly inflation rate jumped to roughly 15% per month during the fourth quarter. In response, Moscow announced a fairly tight government budget for 1995 designed to bring monthly inflation down to around 1% by the end of 1995. According to official statistics, Russia's 1994 trade with nations outside the former Soviet Union produced a $12.3 billion surplus, up from $11.3 billion in 1993. Foreign sales - comprised largely of oil, natural gas, and other raw materials - grew more than 8%. Imports also were up 8% as demand for food and other consumer goods surged. Russian trade with other former Soviet republics continued to decline. At the same time, Russia paid only a fraction of the roughly $20 billion in debt that came due in 1994, and by the end of the year, Russia's hard currency foreign debt had risen to nearly $100 billion. Moscow reached agreement to restructure debts with Paris Club official creditors in mid-1994 and concluded a preliminary deal with its commercial bank creditors late in the year to reschedule debts owed them in early 1995. Capital flight continued to be a serious problem in 1994, with billions of additional dollars in assets being moved abroad, primarily to bank accounts in Europe. Russia's physical plant continues to deteriorate because of insufficient maintenance and new construction. Plant and equipment on average are twice the age of the West's. Many years will pass before Russia can take full advantage of its natural resources and its human assets.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $721.2 billion (1994 estimate as extrapolated from World Bank estimate for 1992)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab -15% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $4,820 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 10% per month (average 1994)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 7.1% (December 1994) with considerable additional underemployment
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $NA
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $NA, including capital expenditures of $NA
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $48 billion (f.o.b., 1994)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab petroleum and petroleum products, natural gas, wood and wood products, metals, chemicals, and a wide variety of civilian and military manufactures
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Europe, North America, Japan, Third World countries, Cuba
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $35.7 billion (f.o.b., 1994)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab machinery and equipment, consumer goods, medicines, meat, grain, sugar, semifinished metal products
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Europe, North America, Japan, Third World countries, Cuba
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $95 billion-$100 billion (yearend 1994)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate -21% (1994)
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 213,100,000 KW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 876 billion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 5,800 kWh (1994)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab complete range of mining and extractive industries producing coal, oil, gas, chemicals, and metals; all forms of machine building from rolling mills to high-performance aircraft and space vehicles; ship- building; road and rail transportation equipment; communications equipment; agricultural machinery, tractors, and construction equipment; electric power generating and transmitting equipment; medical and scientific instruments; consumer durables
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab grain, sugar beets, sunflower seeds, meat, milk, vegetables, fruits; because of its northern location does not grow citrus, cotton, tea, and other warm climate products
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab illicit cultivator of cannabis and opium poppy; mostly for domestic consumption; government has active eradication program; used as transshipment point for Asian and Latin American illicit drugs to Western Europe and Latin America
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (1990-94), $15 billion; other countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1990-93), $120 billion
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 ruble (R) = 100 kopeks
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab rubles per US$1 - 3,550 (29 December 1994), 1,247 (27 December 1993); nominal exchange rate still deteriorating but real exchange rate holding steady
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab calendar year{\b Overview}
\par \tab Rwanda is a poor African nation suffering bitterly from ethnic-based civil war. Almost 50% of GDP comes from the agricultural sector; coffee and tea make up 80%-90% of total exports. The amount of fertile land is limited, however, and deforestation and soil erosion continue to create problems. The industrial sector in Rwanda is small, contributing only 17% to GDP. Manufacturing focuses mainly on the processing of agricultural products. The Rwandan economy remains dependent on coffee/tea exports and foreign aid. Weak international prices since 1986 have caused the economy to contract and per capita GDP to decline. A structural adjustment program with the World Bank began in October 1990. Ethnic-based insurgency since 1990 has devastated wide areas, especially in the north, and displaced hundreds of thousands of people. A peace accord in mid-1993 temporarily ended most of the fighting, but massive resumption of civil warfare in April 1994 in the capital city Kigali and elsewhere has been taking thousands of lives and severely affecting short-term economic prospects. The economy suffers massively from failure to maintain the infrastructure, looting, neglect of important cash crops, and lack of health care facilities.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $7.9 billion (1993 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab -8% (1993 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $950 (1993 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab NA%
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $350 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $NA, including capital expenditures of $NA (1992 est.)
\par \tab cash crops - coffee, tea, pyrethrum (insecticide made from chrysanthemums); main food crops - bananas, beans, sorghum, potatoes; stock raising
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-89), $128 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $2 billion; OPEC bilateral aid (1979-89), $45 million; Communist countries (1970-89), $58 million
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab in October 1990 Rwanda launched a Structural Adjustment Program with the IMF; since September 1991, the EC has given $46 million and the US $25 million in support of this program (1993)
\par \tab Though foreign investment in manufacturing and information processing in recent years has increased Saint Lucia's industrial base, the economy remains vulnerable due to its heavy dependence on banana production, which is subject to periodic droughts and tropical storms. Indeed, the destructive effect of Tropical Storm Debbie in mid-1994 caused the loss of 60% of the year's banana crop. Increased competition from Latin American bananas will probably further reduce market prices, exacerbating Saint Lucia's need to diversify its economy in coming years, e.g., by expanding tourism, manufacturing, and construction
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $610 million (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 2% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $4,200 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 0.8% (1993)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 25% (1993 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $121 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $127 million, including capital expenditures of $104 million (1992 est.)
\par \tab accounts for 14% of GDP and 43% of labor force; crops - bananas, coconuts, vegetables, citrus fruit, root crops, cocoa; imports food for the tourist industry
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab transit country for South American drugs destined for the US and Europe
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $120 million
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 EC dollar (EC$) = 100 cents
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab East Caribbean dollars (EC$) per US$1 - 2.70 (fixed rate since 1976)
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab 1 April - 31 March{\b Overview}
\par \tab Agriculture, dominated by banana production, is the most important sector of the economy. The services sector, based mostly on a growing tourist industry, is also important. In 1993, economic growth slowed to 1.4%, reflecting a sharp decline in agricultural production caused by drought. The government has been relatively unsuccessful at introducing new industries, and high unemployment rates of 35%-40% continue.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $235 million (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 2% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $2,000 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 4% (1993 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 35%-40% (1994 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $66.2
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $77.3 million, including capital expenditures of $23 million (1993 est.)
\par \tab accounts for 14% of GDP and 60% of labor force; provides bulk of exports; products - bananas, coconuts, sweet potatoes, spices; small numbers of cattle, sheep, hogs, goats; small fish catch used locally
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab transshipment point for South American drugs destined for the US and Europe
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-87), $11 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $81 million
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 EC dollar (EC$) = 100 cents
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab East Caribbean dollars (EC$) per US$1 - 2.70 (fixed rate since 1976)
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab calendar year{\b Overview}
\par \tab The tourist sector contributes over 50% of GDP. In 1993 more than 3 million tourists visited San Marino. The key industries are banking, wearing apparel, electronics, and ceramics. Main agricultural products are wine and cheeses. The per capita level of output and standard of living are comparable to those of Italy, which supplies much of its food.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $380 million (1993 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 2.4% (1993 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $15,800 (1993 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 5.5% (1993)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 4.9% (December 1993)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $275 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $275 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1992 est.)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab trade data are included with the statistics for Italy; commodities: building stone, lime, wood, chestnuts, wheat, wine, baked goods, hides, and ceramics
{\b Imports}
\par \tab wide variety of consumer manufactures, food
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $NA
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate NA%; accounts for 42% of labor force
\par \tab This small poor island economy has remained dependent on cocoa since independence 20 years ago. Since then, however, cocoa production has gradually declined because of drought and mismanagement, so that by 1987 annual output had fallen from 10,000 tons to 3,900 tons. As a result, a shortage of cocoa for export has created a serious balance-of-payments problem. Production of less important crops, such as coffee, copra, and palm kernels, has also declined. The value of imports generally exceeds that of exports by a ratio of 4:1 or more. The emphasis on cocoa production at the expense of other food crops has meant that Sao Tome has to import 90% of food needs. It also has to import all fuels and most manufactured goods. Over the years, Sao Tome has been unable to service its external debt and has had to depend on concessional aid and debt rescheduling. Considerable potential exists for development of a tourist industry, and the government has taken steps to expand facilities in recent years. The government also has attempted to reduce price controls and subsidies and to encourage market-based mechanisms, e. g., to facilitate the distribution of imported food. Annual GDP growth is estimated in the 3%-4% range for 1994-96.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $133 million (1993 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $1,000 (1993 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 27% (1992 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $10.2 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $36.8 million, including capital expenditures of $22.5 million (1989 est.)
\par \tab This is a well-to-do oil-based economy with strong government controls over major economic activities. About 46% of GDP comes from the private sector. Economic (as well as political) ties with the US are especially strong. The petroleum sector accounts for roughly 75% of budget revenues, 35% of GDP, and almost all export earnings. Saudi Arabia has the largest reserves of petroleum in the world (26% of the proved total), ranks as the largest exporter of petroleum, and plays a leading role in OPEC. For the 1990s the government intends to bring its budget, which has been in deficit since 1983, back into balance, and to encourage private economic activity. Roughly four million foreign workers play an important role in the Saudi economy, for example, in the oil and banking sectors. For about a decade, Saudi Arabia's domestic and international outlays have outstripped its income, and the government has cut its foreign assistance and is beginning to rein in domestic programs. For 1995, the country looks for improvement in oil prices and will continue its policies of restraining public spending and encouraging non-oil exports.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $173.1 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab -3% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $9,510 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 1% (1993 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 6.5% (1992 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $39 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $50 billion, including capital expenditures of $7.5 billion (1993 est.)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $39.4 billion (f.o.b., 1993 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab petroleum and petroleum products 92%
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab US 20%, Japan 18%, Singapore 5%, France 5%, South Korea 5% (1992)
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $28.9 billion (f.o.b., 1993 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab machinery and equipment, chemicals, foodstuffs, motor vehicles, textiles
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab US 21%, Japan 14%, UK 11%, Germany 8%, Italy 6%, France 5% (1992)
\par \tab growth rate 20% (1991 est.); accounts for 35% of GDP, including petroleum
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 17,550,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 46 billion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 2,430 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab crude oil production, petroleum refining, basic petrochemicals, cement, two small steel-rolling mills, construction, fertilizer, plastics
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab accounts for about 10% of GDP, 16% of labor force; subsidized by government; products - wheat, barley, tomatoes, melons, dates, citrus fruit, mutton, chickens, eggs, milk; approaching self-sufficiency in food
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab death penalty for traffickers; increasing consumption of heroin and cocaine
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b donor}
\par \tab pledged bilateral aid (1979-89), $64.7 billion; pledged $100 million in 1993 to fund reconstruction of Lebanon
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 Saudi riyal (SR) = 100 halalah
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab Saudi riyals (SR) per US$1 - 3.7450 (fixed rate since late 1986), 3.7033 (1986)
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab calendar year{\b Overview}
\par \tab In 1994 Senegal embarked on its most concerted structural adjustment effort yet to exploit the 50% devaluation of the currencies of the 14 Francophone African nations on 12 January. After years of foot-dragging, the government finally passed a liberalized labor code which should significantly help lower the cost of labor and improve the manufacturing sector's competitiveness. Inroads also have been made in closing tax loopholes and eliminating monopoly power in several sectors. At the same time the government is holding the line on current fiscal expenditure under the watchful eyes of international organizations on which it depends for substantial support. A bumper peanut crop - Senegal's main source of foreign exchange - coincided with an improvement of international prices and probably resulted in a doubling of earnings in 1994 over 1993. The country's narrow resource base, environmental degradation, and untamed population growth will continue to hold back growth in living standards over the medium term.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $12.3 billion (1993 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab -2% (1993 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $1,450 (1993 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab -1.8% (1991 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $1.2 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $1.2 billion, including capital expenditures of $269 million (1992 est.)
\par \tab France, other EC countries, Cote d'Ivoire, Mali
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $1.2 billion (c.i.f., 1991 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab foods and beverages, consumer goods, capital goods, petroleum
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab France, other EC countries, Nigeria, Cote d'Ivoire, Algeria, China, Japan
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $2.9 billion (1990)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 1.9% (1991); accounts for 15% of GDP
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 230,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 720 million kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 79 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab agricultural and fish processing, phosphate mining, petroleum refining, building materials
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab accounts for 20% of GDP; major products - peanuts (cash crop), millet, corn, sorghum, rice, cotton, tomatoes, green vegetables; estimated two-thirds self-sufficient in food; fish catch of 354,000 metric tons in 1990
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab transshipment point for Southwest and Southeast Asian heroin moving to Europe and North America
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-89), $551 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $5.23 billion; OPEC bilateral aid (1979-89), $589 million; Communist countries (1970-89), $295 million
\par \tab the official rate is pegged to the French franc, and beginning 12 January 1994, the CFA franc was devalued to CFAF 100 per French franc from CFAF 50 at which it had been fixed since 1948
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab calendar year{\b Overview}
\par \tab The swift collapse of the Yugoslav federation in 1991 has been followed by bloody ethnic warfare, the destabilization of republic boundaries, and the breakup of important interrepublic trade flows. Serbia and Montenegro faces major economic problems; output has dropped sharply, particularly in 1993. First, like the other former Yugoslav republics, it depended on its sister republics for large amounts of foodstuffs, energy supplies, and manufactures. Wide differences in climate, mineral resources, and levels of technology among the republics accentuated this interdependence, as did the communist practice of concentrating much industrial output in a small number of giant plants. The breakup of many of the trade links, the sharp drop in output as industrial plants lost suppliers and markets, and the destruction of physical assets in the fighting all have contributed to the economic difficulties of the republics. One singular factor in the economic situation of Serbia and Montenegro is the continuation in office of a communist government that is primarily interested in political and military mastery, not economic reform. A further complication is the imposition of economic sanctions by the UN in 1992. Hyperinflation ended with the establishment of a new currency unit in June 1993; prices were relatively stable in 1994. Reliable statistics are hard to come by; the GDP estimate of $1,000 per capita in 1994 is extremely rough. Output in 1994 seems to have leveled off after the plunge in 1993.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $10 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $1,000 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 20% (January-November 1994 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab more than 40% (1994 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $NA
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $NA, including capital expenditures of $NA
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $NA
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab prior to the breakup of the federation, Yugoslavia exported machinery and transport equipment, manufactured goods, chemicals, food and live animals, raw materials
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab prior to the imposition of UN sanctions trade partners were the other former Yugoslav republics, Italy, Germany, other EC, the FSU countries, East European countries, US
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $NA
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab prior to the breakup of the federation, Yugoslavia imported machinery and transport equipment, fuels and lubricants, manufactured goods, chemicals, food and live animals, raw materials including coking coal for the steel industry
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab prior to the imposition of UN sanctions trade partners were the other former Yugoslav republics, the FSU countries, EC countries (mainly Italy and Germany), East European countries, US
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $4.2 billion (1993 est.)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate NA%
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 10,400,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 34 billion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 2,400 kWh (1994 est.)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab machine building (aircraft, trucks, and automobiles; armored vehicles and weapons; electrical equipment; agricultural machinery), metallurgy (steel, aluminum, copper, lead, zinc, chromium, antimony, bismuth, cadmium), mining (coal, bauxite, nonferrous ore, iron ore, limestone), consumer goods (textiles, footwear, foodstuffs, appliances), electronics, petroleum products, chemicals, and pharmaceuticals
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab the fertile plains of Vojvodina produce 80% of the cereal production of the former Yugoslavia and most of the cotton, oilseeds, and chicory; Vojvodina also produces fodder crops to support intensive beef and dairy production; Serbia proper, although hilly, has a well-distributed rainfall and a long growing season; produces fruit, grapes, and cereals; in this area, livestock production (sheep and cattle) and dairy farming prosper; Kosovo produces fruits, vegetables, tobacco, and a small amount of cereals; the mountainous pastures of Kosovo and Montenegro support sheep and goat husbandry; Montenegro has only a small agriculture sector, mostly near the coast where a Mediterranean climate permits the culture of olives, citrus, grapes, and rice
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab NA
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab $NA
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 Yugoslav New Dinar (YD) = 100 paras
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab Yugoslav New Dinars (YD) per US $1 - 102.6 (February 1995 black market rate)
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab calendar year{\b Overview}
\par \tab Since independence in 1976, per capita output has grown to roughly seven times the old near-subsistence level, led by the tourist sector, which employs about 30% of the labor force and provides more than 70% of hard currency earnings. In recent years the government has encouraged foreign investment in order to upgrade hotels and other services. At the same time, the government has moved to reduce the high dependence on tourism by promoting the development of farming, fishing, and small-scale manufacturing. The vulnerability of the tourist sector was illustrated by the sharp drop in 1991-92 due largely to the Gulf war. Although the industry has rebounded, the government recognizes the continuing need for upgrading the sector in the face of stiff international competition.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $430 million (1993 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab -2% (1993 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $6,000 (1993 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 3.9% (1993 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 9% (1987)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $227.4 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $263 million, including capital expenditures of $54 million (1993 est.)
\par \tab Singapore 16%, Bahrain 16%, South Africa, 14%, UK 13% (1992)
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $181 million (1993 est.)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 4% (1992); accounts for 12% of GDP
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 30,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 110 million kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 1,399 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab tourism, processing of coconut and vanilla, fishing, coir rope factory, boat building, printing, furniture, beverage
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab accounts for 5% of GDP, mostly subsistence farming; cash crops - coconuts, cinnamon, vanilla; other products - sweet potatoes, cassava, bananas; broiler chickens; large share of food needs imported; expansion of tuna fishing under way
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY78-89), $26 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1978-89), $315 million; OPEC bilateral aid (1979-89), $5 million; Communist countries (1970-89), $60 million
\par \tab Sierra Leone has substantial mineral, agricultural, and fishery resources, but the economic and social infrastructure is not well developed. Agriculture generates about 40% of GDP and employs about two-thirds of the working population, with subsistence agriculture dominating the sector. Manufacturing, which accounts for roughly 10% of GDP, consists mainly of the processing of raw materials and of light manufacturing for the domestic market. Diamond mining provides an important source of hard currency. Since 1990, the government has been able to meet its IMF- and World Bank-mandated stabilization targets, holding down fiscal deficits, increasing foreign exchange reserves, and retiring much of its domestic debt - but at a steep cost in terms of capital investments and social spending. Moreover, the economic infrastructure has nearly collapsed due to neglect and war-related disruptions in the mining and agricultural export sectors. The continuing civil war in Liberia has led to a large influx of refugees, who place additional burdens on Sierra Leon's fragile economy.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $4.5 billion (1993 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 0.7% (1993 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $1,000 (1993 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 22% (1993 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $68 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $118 million, including capital expenditures of $28 million (1992 est.)
\par \tab largely subsistence farming; cash crops - coffee, cocoa, palm kernels; harvests of food staple rice meets 80% of domestic needs; annual fish catch averages 53,000 metric tons
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-89), $161 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $848 million; OPEC bilateral aid (1979-89), $18 million; Communist countries (1970-89), $101 million
\par \tab Singapore has an open entrepreneurial economy with strong service and manufacturing sectors and excellent international trading links derived from its entrepot history. The economy registered 10.1% growth in 1994, with prospects for 7.5%-8.5% growth in 1995. In 1994, the manufacturing and financial and business services sectors have led economic growth. Exports boomed, led by the electronics sector, particularly US demand for disk drives. Rising labor costs continue to be a threat to Singapore's competitiveness, but there are indications that productivity is keeping up. In applied technology, per capita output, investment, and labor discipline, Singapore has key attributes of a developed country.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $57 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 10.1% (1994)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $19,940 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 3.6% (1994)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 2.6% (1994)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $11.9 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $10.5 billion, including capital expenditures of $3.9 billion (FY93/94 est.)
\par \tab minor importance in the economy; self-sufficient in poultry and eggs; must import much of other food; major crops - rubber, copra, fruit, vegetables
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab transit point for Golden Triangle heroin going to the US, Western Europe, and the Third World; also a major money-laundering center
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-83), $590 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $1 billion
\par \tab In 1994 macroeconomic performance improved steadily but privatization progressed only in fits and starts. Most of Slovakia's IMF-approved targets were met by an interim government that lasted 9 months. Annual inflation fell from 23% in 1993 to 12%; unemployment at 14.6% was still well below forecasts of 17%; and the budget deficit was around half that in 1993. Slovakia's nearly $200 million trade surplus also compares favorably with a more than $800 million deficit in 1993. Furthermore, after contracting almost 25% in the three years following 1990, GDP grew 4.3% in 1994, according to official statistics. Bratislava in June qualified for a $254 million IMF stand-by loan and the second $90 million tranche of its Systemic Transformation Facility and, in December, received approval for a European Union loan worth about $160 million. By the end of September 1994, the Central Bank's foreign currency reserves had tripled since the end of 1993. Slovakia continued to have difficulty attracting foreign investment, however, because of perceived political instability and halting progress in privatization. The interim government prepared property worth nearly $2 billion for the second wave of coupon privatization and sold participation in the program to over 80% of Slovakia's eligible citizens. Parties controlling the new Parliament in November 1994, however, put the second wave of coupon privatization on hold and suspended sales of 38 firms until the new government could evaluate the interim government's decisions in early 1995. The new government's targets for 1995 include GDP growth of 3%, inflation of 8%-10%, unemployment of 15%, and a budget deficit under 3% of GDP. Continuing economic recovery in western Europe should boost Slovak exports and production, but Slovakia's image with foreign creditors and investors could suffer setbacks in 1995 if progress on privatization stalls or budget deficits mount beyond IMF-recommended levels.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $32.8 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 4.3% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $6,070 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 12% (1994 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 14.6% (1994 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $4.4 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $4.8 billion, including capital expenditures of $350 million (1994 est.)
\par \tab machinery and transport equipment; fuels and lubricants; manufactured goods; raw materials; chemicals; agricultural products
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Czech Republic 29.9%, Russia 19.0%, Germany 13.2%, Austria 5.8%, Italy 4.3%, US 2.6%, Poland 2.4%, Ukraine 1.9%, Hungary 1.6% (January-September 1994)
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $4.2 billion hard currency indebtedness (1994 est.)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate NA%
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 6,300,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 20.9 billion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 3,609 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab metal and metal products; food and beverages; electricity, gas, and water; coking, oil production, and nuclear fuel production; chemicals and manmade fibers; machinery; paper and printing; earthenware and ceramics; transport vehicles; textiles; electrical and optical apparatus; rubber products
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab largely self-sufficient in food production; diversified crop and livestock production, including grains, potatoes, sugar beets, hops, fruit, hogs, cattle, and poultry; exporter of forest products
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab transshipment point for Southwest Asian heroin bound for Western Europe
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b donor}
\par \tab the former Czechoslovakia was a donor - $4.2 billion in bilateral aid to non-Communist less developed countries (1954-89)
\par \tab Slovenia appears to be making a solid economic recovery, fulfilling the promise it showed at the time of Yugoslavia's breakup. It was by far the most prosperous of the former Yugoslav republics, with a per capita income more than twice the national average. It also benefited from strong ties to Western Europe and suffered comparatively small physical damage in the dismemberment process. The beginning was difficult, however. Real GDP fell 15% during 1991-92, while inflation jumped to 247% in 1991 and unemployment topped 8% - nearly three times the 1989 level. The turning point came in 1993 when real GDP grew 1%, unemployment leveled off at about 9%, and inflation slowed dramatically to 23%. In 1994, the rate of growth of GDP rose to 4%, unemployment remained stable, and inflation dropped to 20%. This was accomplished, moreover, without balance-of-payments problems. The government gets generally good economic marks from foreign observers, particularly with regard to fiscal policy - the budget deficit in 1994 was only about 1% of GDP, following several years of small surpluses. Prospects for 1995 appear good, with economic growth expected to remain strong while unemployment and inflation may decline slightly. Privatization, sluggish to date, is expected to pick up in 1995.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $16 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 4% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $8,110 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 20% (1994)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 9% (1994 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $9.9 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $9.8 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1993)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $6.5 billion (f.o.b., 1994 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab machinery and transport equipment 27%, intermediate manufactured goods 26%, chemicals 9%, food 4.8%, raw materials 3%, consumer goods 26% (1993)
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Germany 29.5%, former Yugoslavia 15.8%, Italy 12.4%, France 8.7%, Austria 5.0% (1993)
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $6.5 billion (f.o.b., 1994 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab machinery and transport equipment 30%, intermediate manufactured goods 17.6%, chemicals 11.5%, raw materials 5.3%, fuels and lubricants 10.8%, food 8.4% (1993)
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Germany 25.0%, Italy 16.1%, former Yugoslavia 10.7%, France 8.0%, Austria 8.5% (1993)
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $2.1 billion (1994)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 6% (1994 est.); accounts for 37% of GDP (1993)
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 2,700,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 8.9 billion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 4,470 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab ferrous metallurgy and rolling mill products, aluminum reduction and rolled products, lead and zinc smelting, electronics (including military electronics), trucks, electric power equipment, wood products, textiles, chemicals, machine tools
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab accounts for 4.8% of GDP (1993); dominated by stock breeding (sheep and cattle) and dairy farming; main crops - potatoes, hops, hemp, flax; an export surplus in these commodities; Slovenia must import many other agricultural products and has a negative overall trade balance in this sector
\par \tab The bulk of the population depend on subsistence agriculture, fishing, and forestry for at least part of their livelihood. Most manufactured goods and petroleum products must be imported. The islands are rich in undeveloped mineral resources such as lead, zinc, nickel, and gold. The economy suffered from a severe cyclone in mid-1986 that caused widespread damage to the infrastructure. In 1993, the government was working with the IMF to develop a structural adjustment program to address the country's fiscal deficit.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $1 billion (1992 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 8% (1992)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $2,590 (1992 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 13% (1992 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $48 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $107 million, including capital expenditures of $45 million (1991 est.)
\par \tab Japan 39%, UK 23%, Thailand 9%, Australia 5%, US 2% (1991)
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $110 million (c.i.f., 1991)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab plant and machinery, manufactured goods, food and live animals, fuel
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Australia 34%, Japan 16%, Singapore 14%, NZ 9%
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $128 million (1988 est.)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate -3.8% (1991 est.); accounts for 5% of GDP
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 21,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 30 million kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 80 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab copra, fish (tuna)
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab including fishing and forestry, accounts for 31% of GDP; mostly subsistence farming; cash crops - cocoa, beans, coconuts, palm kernels, timber; other products - rice, potatoes, vegetables, fruit, cattle, pigs; not self-sufficient in food grains; 90% of the total fish catch of 44,500 metric tons was exported (1988)
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1980-89), $250 million
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 Solomon Islands dollar (SI$) = 100 cents
\par \tab One of the world's poorest and least developed countries, Somalia has few resources. Moreover, much of the economy has been devastated by the civil war. Agriculture is the most important sector, with livestock accounting for about 40% of GDP and about 65% of export earnings. Nomads and seminomads who are dependent upon livestock for their livelihood make up about 70% of the population. Crop production generates only 10% of GDP and employs about 20% of the work force. The main export crop is bananas; sugar, sorghum, and corn are grown for the domestic market. The small industrial sector is based on the processing of agricultural products and accounts for less than 10% of GDP; most facilities have been shut down because of the civil strife. The greatly increased political turmoil of 1991-93 has resulted in a substantial drop in agricultural output, with widespread famine. In 1994 economic conditions stabilized in the countryside but may turn worse in 1995 if civil strife intensifies after the UN withdrawal.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $3.3 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $500 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab NA% (1994)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $NA
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $NA, including capital expenditures of $NA
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $58 million (1990 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab bananas, live animals, fish, hides
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Saudi Arabia, Italy, FRG (1986)
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $249 million (1990 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab petroleum products, foodstuffs, construction materials
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab US 13%, Italy, FRG, Kenya, UK, Saudi Arabia (1986)
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $1.9 billion (1989)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate NA%
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab prior to the civil war, 75,000 kW, but now almost completely shut down due to war damage; note - UN and relief organizations use their own portable power systems
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab NA kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab NA kWh
{\b Industries}
\par \tab a few small industries, including sugar refining, textiles, petroleum refining (mostly shut down) (1994)
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab dominant sector, led by livestock raising (cattle, sheep, goats); crops - bananas, sorghum, corn, mangoes, sugarcane; not self-sufficient in food; distribution of food disrupted by civil strife; fishing potential largely unexploited
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-89), $639 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $3.8 billion; OPEC bilateral aid (1979-89), $1.1 billion; Communist countries (1970-89), $336 million
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 Somali shilling (So. Sh.) = 100 cents
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab Somali shillings (So. Sh.) per US$1 - approximately 5,000 (1 January 1995), 2,616 (1 July 1993), 4,200 (December 1992), 3,800.00 (December 1990), 490.7 (1989),
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab calendar year{\b Overview}
\par \tab Many of the white one-seventh of the South African population enjoy incomes, material comforts, and health and educational standards equal to those of Western Europe. In contrast, most of the remaining population suffers from the poverty patterns of the Third World, including unemployment and lack of job skills. The main strength of the economy lies in its rich mineral resources, which provide two-thirds of exports. Economic developments for the remainder of the 1990s will be driven largely by the new government's attempts to improve black living conditions, to set the country on an aggressive export-led growth path, and to cut back the enormous numbers of unemployed. The economy in recent years has absorbed less than 5% of the more than 300,000 workers entering the labor force annually. Local economists estimate that the economy must grow between 5% and 6% in real terms annually to absorb all of the new entrants, much less reduce the accumulated total.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $194.3 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 2% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $4,420 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 9% (1994 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 32.6% (1994 est.); an additional 11% underemployment
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $26.3 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $34 billion, including capital expenditures of $2.5 billion (FY93/94 est.)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $25.3 billion (f.o.b., 1994)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab gold 27%, other minerals and metals 20%-25%, food 5%, chemicals 3%
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Italy, Japan, US, Germany, UK, other EU countries, Hong Kong
\par \tab growth rate NA%; accounts for about 40% of GDP
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 39,750,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 163 billion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 3,482 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab mining (world's largest producer of platinum, gold, chromium), automobile assembly, metalworking, machinery, textile, iron and steel, chemical, fertilizer, foodstuffs
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab accounts for about 5% of GDP and 30% of labor force; diversified agriculture, with emphasis on livestock; products - cattle, poultry, sheep, wool, milk, beef, corn, wheat, sugarcane, fruits, vegetables; self-sufficient in food
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab transshipment center for heroin and cocaine; cocaine consumption on the rise; world's largest market for illicit methaqualone, usually imported illegally from India through various east African countries
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab many aid packages for the new government are still being prepared; current aid pledges include US $600 million over 3 years; UK $150 million over 3 years; Australia $21 million over 3 years; Japan $1.3 billion over 2 years
\par \tab Spain, with a per capita output approximately two-thirds that of the four leading economies of Western Europe, has shared with these countries the recession of the early 1990s and the upturn of their economic fortunes in 1994. But whereas unemployment in these countries has hovered just above 10%, Spain has been forced to cope with a 25% unemployment rate. Continued political turmoil has complicated the establishment of stable government policies toward budgetary restraint, interest rates, labor law reform, and Spain's role in the evolving economic integration of Western Europe. Because the recession has been so deep, the growth in industrial output, tourism, and other sectors in 1994, while welcome, falls far short of the growth required to bring unemployment down to, say, 10%. The recovery in the economies of major trade partners, the comparatively low inflation rate, lower interest rates, and prospects in the tourist sector suggest that Spain can make substantial progress in 1995.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $515.8 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 1.8% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $13,120 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 4.9% (1994)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 24.5% (yearend 1994)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $97.7 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $128 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1993 est.)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $72.8 billion (f.o.b., 1993)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab cars and trucks, semifinished manufactured goods, foodstuffs, machinery
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab EC 71.2%, US 4.8%, other developed countries 7.9% (1992)
\par \tab EC 60.7%, US 7.4%, other developed countries 11.5%, Middle East 5.9% (1992)
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $90 billion (1993 est.)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 4% (1994 est.)
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 43,800,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 148 billion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 3,545 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab textiles and apparel (including footwear), food and beverages, metals and metal manufactures, chemicals, shipbuilding, automobiles, machine tools, tourism
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab accounts for about 5% of GDP and 14% of labor force; major products - grain, vegetables, olives, wine grapes, sugar beets, citrus fruit, beef, pork, poultry, dairy; largely self-sufficient in food; fish catch of 1.4 million metric tons is among top 20 nations
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab key European gateway country for Latin American cocaine and North African hashish entering the European market; transshipment point for Southwest Asian heroin
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-87), $1.9 billion; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-79), $545 million
\par \tab Industry - dominated by the fast-growing apparel industry - has surpassed agriculture as the main source of export earnings and accounts for over 16% of GDP. The economy has been plagued by high rates of unemployment since the late 1970s. Economic growth, which has been depressed by ethnic unrest, accelerated in 1991-94 as domestic conditions began to improve and conditions for foreign investment brightened. Currently, however, the new government's emphasis on populist measures has clouded Sri Lanka's economic prospects.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $57.6 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 5% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $3,190 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 12% (1994 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 13.6% (1993 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $2.3 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $3.6 billion, including capital expenditures of $1.5 billion (1993)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $2.9 billion (f.o.b., 1993)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab garments and textiles, teas, diamonds, other gems, petroleum products, rubber products, other agricultural products, marine products, graphite
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab US 35.2%, Germany, UK, Belgium-Luxembourg, Japan, Netherlands, France (1993)
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $4 billion (c.i.f., 1993)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab textiles and textile materials, machinery and equipment, transport equipment, petroleum, building materials
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Japan, India, Hong Kong, South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore, China (1993)
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $7.2 billion (1993 est.)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 9% (1993 est.); accounts for 16% of GDP
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 1,410,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 3.2 billion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 168 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab processing of rubber, tea, coconuts, and other agricultural commodities; clothing, cement, petroleum refining, textiles, tobacco
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab accounts for one-fourth of GDP; field crops - rice, sugarcane, grains, pulses, oilseeds, roots, spices; cash crops - tea, rubber, coconuts; animal products - milk, eggs, hides, meat; not self-sufficient in rice production
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-89), $1 billion; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1980-89), $5.1 billion; OPEC bilateral aid (1979-89), $169 million; Communist countries (1970-89), $369 million
\par \tab The economy has traditionally depended on the growing and processing of sugarcane; decreasing world prices have hurt the industry in recent years. Tourism and export-oriented manufacturing have begun to assume larger roles, although they still only account for 7% and 4% of GDP respectively. Growth in the construction and tourism sectors spurred the economic expansion in 1994. Most food is imported.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $210 million (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 4.5% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $5,300 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 1.6% (1993)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 12.2% (1990)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $103.2 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $102.6 million, including capital expenditures of $50.1 million (1995 est.)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $32.4 million (f.o.b., 1992)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab machinery, food, electronics, beverages and tobacco
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab US 50%, UK 30%, CARICOM nations 11% (1992)
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $100 million (f.o.b., 1992)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab machinery, manufactures, food, fuels
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab US 43%, CARICOM nations 18%, UK 12%, Canada 4%, Japan 4%, OECS 4% (1992)
\par \tab accounts for 17% of GDP; cash crop - sugarcane; subsistence crops - rice, yams, vegetables, bananas; fishing potential not fully exploited
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab transshipment point for South American drugs destined for the US
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY85-88), $10.7 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $67 million
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 EC dollar (EC$) = 100 cents
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab East Caribbean dollars (EC$) per US$1 - 2.70 (fixed rate since 1976)
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab calendar year{\b Overview}
\par \tab Sudan is buffeted by civil war, chronic political instability, adverse weather, high inflation, a drop in remittances from abroad, and counterproductive economic policies. Governmental entities account for more than 70% of new investment. The private sector's main areas of activity are agriculture and trading, with most private industrial investment predating 1980. Agriculture employs 80% of the work force. Industry mainly processes agricultural items. Sluggish economic performance over the past decade, attributable largely to declining annual rainfall, has reduced levels of per capita income and consumption. A large foreign debt and huge arrearages continue to cause difficulties. In 1990 the International Monetary Fund took the unusual step of declaring Sudan noncooperative because of its nonpayment of arrearages to the Fund. After Sudan backtracked on promised reforms in 1992-93, the IMF threatened to expel Sudan from the Fund. To avoid expulsion, Khartoum agreed to make payments on its arrears to the Fund, liberalize exchange rates, and reduce subsidies. These measures have been partially implemented. The government's continued prosecution of the civil war and its growing international isolation led to a further deterioration of the nonagricultural sectors of the economy during 1994. Agriculture, on the other hand, after several disappointing years, enjoyed a bumper fall harvest in 1994; its strong performance produced an overall growth rate in GDP of perhaps 7%.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $23.7 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 7% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $870 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 112% (FY93/94 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 30% (FY92/93 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $493 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $1.1 billion, including capital expenditures of $225 million (1994 est.)
\par \tab accounts for 35% of GDP; major products - cotton, oilseeds, sorghum, millet, wheat, gum arabic, sheep; marginally self-sufficient in most foods
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-89), $1.5 billion; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $5.1 billion; OPEC bilateral aid (1979-89), $3.1 billion; Communist countries (1970-89), $588 million
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 Sudanese pound = 100 piastres
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab official rate - Sudanese pounds per US$1 - 434.8 (January 1995), 277.8 (1994), 153.8 (1993), 69.4 (1992), 5.4288 (1991), 4.5004 (1990); note - the commercial rate is 300 Sudanese pounds per US$1
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab 1 July - 30 June{\b Overview}
\par \tab The economy is dominated by the bauxite industry, which accounts for 15% of GDP and about 70% of export earnings. Paramaribo has failed to initiate the economic reforms necessary to stabilize the economy or win renewed Dutch aid disbursements. The government continues to finance deficit spending with monetary emissions. As a result, high inflation, high unemployment, widespread black market activity, and hard currency shortfalls continue to mark the economy.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $1.2 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab -0.8% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $2,800 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 225% (1994 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab NA
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $300 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $700 million, including capital expenditures of $70 million (1994 est.)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $443.3 million (f.o.b., 1993 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab alumina, aluminum, shrimp and fish, rice, bananas
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Norway 33%, Netherlands 26%, US 13%, Japan 6%, Brazil 6%, UK 3% (1992)
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $520.5 million (f.o.b., 1993 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab capital equipment, petroleum, foodstuffs, cotton, consumer goods
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab US 42%, Netherlands 22%, Trinidad and Tobago 10%, Brazil 5% (1992)
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $180 million (March 1993 est.)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 3.5% (1992 est.); accounts for 18% of GDP
\par \tab accounts for 15% of GDP and 25% of export earnings; paddy rice planted on 85% of arable land and represents 60% of total farm output; other products - bananas, palm kernels, coconuts, plantains, peanuts, beef, chicken; shrimp and forestry products of increasing importance; self-sufficient in most foods
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab transshipment point for South American drugs destined for the US and Europe
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-83), $2.5 billion; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $1.5 billion
\par \tab The economy is based on subsistence agriculture, which occupies more than 60% of the population and contributes nearly 25% to GDP. Manufacturing, which includes a number of agroprocessing factories, accounts for another quarter of GDP. Mining has declined in importance in recent years; high-grade iron ore deposits were depleted by 1978, and health concerns cut world demand for asbestos. Exports of sugar and forestry products are the main earners of hard currency. Surrounded by South Africa, except for a short border with Mozambique, Swaziland is heavily dependent on South Africa, from which it receives 90% of its imports and to which it sends about half of its exports. Remittances from Swazi workers in South African mines may supplement domestically produced income by as much as 20%.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $3.3 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 4.5% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $3,490 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 11.3% (1993 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 15% (1992 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $342 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $410 million, including capital expenditures of $130 million (1994 est.)
\par \tab South Africa 50% (est.), EC countries, Canada
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $734 million (f.o.b., 1993 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab motor vehicles, machinery, transport equipment, petroleum products, foodstuffs, chemicals
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab South Africa 90% (est.), Switzerland, UK
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $240 million (1992)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 4.2% (1993 est.)
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 120,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 410 million kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 1,003 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab mining (coal and asbestos), wood pulp, sugar
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab accounts for over 60% of labor force; mostly subsistence agriculture; cash crops - sugarcane, cotton, maize, tobacco, rice, citrus fruit, pineapples; other crops and livestock - corn, sorghum, peanuts, cattle, goats, sheep; not self-sufficient in grain
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab bilateral aid (1991) $35 million of which US disbursements $12 million, UK disbursements $6 million, and Denmark $2 million; multilateral aid (1991) $24 million of which EC disbursements $8 million
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 lilangeni (E) = 100 cents
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab emalangeni (E) per US$1 -3.5389 (January 1995), 3.5490 (1994), 3.2636 (1993), 2.8497 (1992), 2.7563 (1991), 2.5863 (1990); note - the Swazi emalangeni is at par with the South African rand
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab 1 April - 31 March{\b Overview}
\par \tab Aided by a long period of peace and neutrality during World War I through World War II, Sweden has achieved an enviable standard of living under a mixed system of high-tech capitalism and extensive welfare benefits. It has a modern distribution system, excellent internal and external communications, and a skilled labor force. Timber, hydropower, and iron ore constitute the resource base of an economy that is heavily oriented toward foreign trade. Privately owned firms account for about 90% of industrial output, of which the engineering sector accounts for 50% of output and exports. In 1990, agriculture accounted for only 1.2% of GDP and 1.9% of the jobs, Sweden being about 50% sufficient in most products. In the last few years, however, this extraordinarily favorable picture has been clouded by inflation, growing unemployment, and a gradual loss of competitiveness in international markets. Although Prime Minister BILDT's center-right minority coalition had hoped to charge ahead with free-market-oriented reforms, a skyrocketing budget deficit - about 14% of GDP in FY93/94 projections - and record unemployment have forestalled many of the plans. Unemployment in 1994 is estimated at around 9% with another 5% in job training. Continued heavy foreign exchange speculation forced the government to cooperate in late 1992 with the opposition Social Democrats on two crisis packages - one a severe austerity pact and the other a program to spur industrial competitiveness - which basically set economic policy through 1997. In November 1992, Sweden broke its tie to the EC's ECU, and the krona has since depreciated about 25% against the dollar. The boost in export competitiveness from the depreciation helped lift Sweden out of its 3-year recession. To curb the budget deficit and bolster confidence in the economy, the new Social Democratic government is proposing cuts in welfare benefits, subsidies, defense, and foreign aid. Sweden has harmonized its economic policies with those of the EU, which it joined at the start of 1995.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $163.1 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 2.4% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $18,580 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 2.5% (1994 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 8.8% (1994 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $47.9 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $70.9 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (FY93/94)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $59.9 billion (f.o.b., 1994)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab machinery, motor vehicles, paper products, pulp and wood, iron and steel products, chemicals, petroleum and petroleum products
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab EC 55.8% (Germany 15%, UK 9.7%, Denmark 7.2%, France 5.8%), EFTA 17.4% (Norway 8.4%, Finland 5.1%), US 8.2%, Central and Eastern Europe 2.5% (1992)
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $49.6 billion (c.i.f., 1994)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab machinery, petroleum and petroleum products, chemicals, motor vehicles, foodstuffs, iron and steel, clothing
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab EC 53.6% (Germany 17.9%, UK 6.3%, Denmark 7.5%, France 4.9%), EFTA (Norway 6.6%, Finland 6%), US 8.4%, Central and Eastern Europe 3% (1992)
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $NA
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 9% (1994)
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 34,560,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 141 billion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 14,891 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab iron and steel, precision equipment (bearings, radio and telephone parts, armaments), wood pulp and paper products, processed foods, motor vehicles
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab animal husbandry predominates, with milk and dairy products accounting for 37% of farm income; main crops - grains, sugar beets, potatoes; 100% self-sufficient in grains and potatoes; Sweden is about 50% self-sufficient in most products
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab transshipment point for narcotics shipped via the CIS and Baltic states for the European market
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b donor}
\par \tab ODA and OOF commitments (1970-89), $10.3 billion
\par \tab Switzerland's economy - one of the most prosperous and stable in the world - is nonetheless undergoing a stressful adjustment after both the inflationary boom of the late 1980s and the electorate's rejection of membership in the European Economic Area (EEA) in 1992. So far the decision to remain outside the European single market structure does not appear to have harmed Swiss interests. In December 1994, the Swiss began bilateral negotiations with the EU aimed at establishing closer ties in areas of mutual interest and progressing toward the free circulation of persons, goods, capital, and services between the two parties. The Swiss emerged from a three-year recession in mid-1993 and posted 1.8% GDP growth in 1994. The Swiss central bank's tight monetary policies brought inflation down from about 4% in 1992 to just under 1% in 1994. Unemployment has fallen slightly from 5.1% in 1993 to 4.7% in 1994. Swiss per capita output, living standards, education, and health care remain unsurpassed in Europe. The country has few mineral resources, but its spectacular natural beauty sustains a substantial tourism industry.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $148.4 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 1.8% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $22,080 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 0.9% (1994 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 4.7% (1994 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $26.7 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $32 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1994 est.)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $69.6 billion (f.o.b., 1994 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab machinery and equipment, precision instruments, metal products, foodstuffs, textiles and clothing
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Western Europe 63.1% (EU countries 56%, other 7.1%), US 8.8%, Japan 3.4%
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $68.2 billion (c.i.f., 1994 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab agricultural products, machinery and transportation equipment, chemicals, textiles, construction materials
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Western Europe 79.2% (EU countries 72.3%, other 6.9%), US 6.4%
\par \tab dairy farming predominates; less than 50% self-sufficient in food; must import fish, refined sugar, fats and oils (other than butter), grains, eggs, fruits, vegetables, meat
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab money-laundering center
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b donor}
\par \tab ODA and OOF commitments (1970-89), $3.5 billion
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 Swiss franc, franken, or franco (SwF) = 100 centimes, rappen, or centesimi
\par \tab In 1990-93 Syria's state-dominated Ba'thist economy benefited from the Gulf war, increased oil production, good weather, and economic deregulation. Economic growth averaged roughly 10%. The Gulf war provided Syria an aid windfall of nearly $5 billion dollars from Arab, European, and Japanese donors. However, the benefits of the 1990-93 boom were not evenly distributed and the gap between rich and poor is widening. A nationwide financial scandal and increasing inflation were accompanied by a decline in GDP growth to 4% in 1994. For the long run, Syria's economy is still saddled with a large number of poorly performing public sector firms, and industrial productivity remains to be improved. Oil production is likely to fall off dramatically by the end of the decade. Unemployment will become a problem for the government when the more than 60% of the population under the age of 20 enter the labor force.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $74.4 billion (1994 est.)
\par \tab accounts for 30% of GDP and one-third of labor force; all major crops (wheat, barley, cotton, lentils, chickpeas) grown mainly on rain-watered land causing wide swings in production; animal products - beef, lamb, eggs, poultry, milk; not self-sufficient in grain or livestock products
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab a transit country for Lebanese and Turkish refined cocaine going to Europe and heroin and hashish bound for regional and Western markets
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab no US aid; about $4.2 billion in loans and grants from Arab and Western donors 1990-92 as a result of Gulf war stance
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 Syrian pound = 100 piastres
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab Syrian pounds per US$1 - 11.2 (official fixed rate), 26.6 (blended rate used by the UN and diplomatic missions), 42.0 (neighboring country rate - applies to most state enterprise imports), 46.0 - 53.0 (offshore rate) (yearend 1993)
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab calendar year{\b Overview}
\par \tab Taiwan has a dynamic capitalist economy with considerable government guidance of investment and foreign trade and partial government ownership of some large banks and industrial firms. Real growth in GNP has averaged about 9% a year during the past three decades. Export growth has been even faster and has provided the impetus for industrialization. Inflation and unemployment are remarkably low. Agriculture contributes about 4% to GDP, down from 35% in 1952. Taiwan currently ranks as number 13 among major trading countries. Traditional labor-intensive industries are steadily being replaced with more capital- and technology-intensive industries. Taiwan has become a major investor in China, Thailand, Indonesia, the Philippines, Malaysia, and Vietnam. The tightening of labor markets has led to an influx of foreign workers, both legal and illegal.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $257 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 6% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $12,070 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 5.2% (1994 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 1.6% (1994)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $30.3 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $30.1 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1991 est.)
\par \tab accounts for 4% of GDP and 16% of labor force (includes part-time farmers); heavily subsidized sector; major crops - vegetables, rice, fruit, tea; livestock - hogs, poultry, beef, milk; not self-sufficient in wheat, soybeans, corn; fish catch increasing, reached 1.4 million metric tons in 1988
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab an important heroin transit point; also a major drug money laundering center
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US, including Ex-Im (FY46-82), $4.6 billion; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $500 million
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 New Taiwan dollar (NT$) = 100 cents
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab New Taiwan dollars per US$1 - 26.2 (1994), 26.6 (1993), 25.4 (1992), 25.748 (1991), 27.108 (1990), 26.407 (1989)
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab 1 July - 30 June{\b Overview}
\par \tab Tajikistan had the next-to-lowest per capita GDP in the former USSR, the highest rate of population growth, and an extremely low standard of living. Agriculture dominates the economy, cotton being the most important crop. Mineral resources, varied but limited in amount, include silver, gold, uranium, and tungsten. Industry is limited to a large aluminum plant, hydropower facilities, and small obsolete factories mostly in light industry and food processing. The Tajik economy has been gravely weakened by three years of civil war and by the loss of subsidies and markets for its products, which has left Tajikistan dependent on Russia and Uzbekistan and on international humanitarian assistance for much of its basic subsistence needs. Moreover, constant political turmoil and the continued dominance by former Communist officials have impeded the introduction of meaningful economic reforms. In the meantime, Tajikistan's efforts to adopt the Russian ruble as its domestic currency despite Russia's unwillingness to supply sufficient rubles left the country in a severe monetary crisis throughout 1994, keeping inflation low but leaving workers and pensioners unpaid for months at a time. The government has announced plans to introduce its own currency in 1995 to help resolve the problem.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $8.5 billion (1994 estimate as extrapolated from World Bank estimate for 1992)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab -12% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $1,415 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab NA%
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 1.5% includes only officially registered unemployed; also large numbers of underemployed workers and unregistered unemployed people (September 1994)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $NA
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $NA, including capital expenditures of $NA
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $320 million to outside the FSU countries (1994)
\par \tab illicit cultivation of cannabis and opium poppy; mostly for CIS consumption; used as transshipment points for illicit drugs from Southwest Asia to Western Europe and North America
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab Russia and Uzbekistan reportedly provided substantial general assistance throughout 1993 and 1994; Western aid and credits promised through the end of 1993 were $700 million but disbursements were only $104 million; large scale development loans await IMF approval of a reform and stabilization plan
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 ruble (R) = 100 kopeks; Tajikistan uses the Russian ruble as its currency by agreement with Russia; government has plans to introduce its own currency, the Tajik ruble, in 1995
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab NA
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab calendar year{\b Overview}
\par \tab Tanzania is one of the poorest countries in the world. The economy is heavily dependent on agriculture, which accounts for about 58% of GDP, provides 85% of exports, and employs 90% of the work force. Topography and climatic conditions, however, limit cultivated crops to only 5% of the land area. Industry accounts for 8% of GDP and is mainly limited to processing agricultural products and light consumer goods. The economic recovery program announced in mid-1986 has generated notable increases in agricultural production and financial support for the program by bilateral donors. The World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, and bilateral donors have provided funds to rehabilitate Tanzania's deteriorated economic infrastructure. Growth in 1991-94 has featured a pickup in industrial production and a substantial increase in output of minerals, led by gold. Recent banking reforms have helped increase private sector growth and investment.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $21 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 3% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $750 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 25% (1994 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $495 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $631 million, including capital expenditures of $118 million (1990 est.)
\par \tab accounts for about 58% of GDP; cash crops - coffee, sisal, tea, cotton, pyrethrum (insecticide made from chrysanthemums), cashews, tobacco, cloves (Zanzibar); food crops - corn, wheat, cassava, bananas, fruits, vegetables; small numbers of cattle, sheep, and goats; not self-sufficient in food grain production
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab growing role in transshipment of Southwest Asian heroin destined for European and US markets
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-89), $400 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $9.8 billion; OPEC bilateral aid (1979-89), $44 million; Communist countries (1970-89), $614 million
\par \tab Thailand's economy recovered rapidly from the political unrest in May 1992 to post an impressive 7.5% growth rate for the year, 7.8% in 1993, and 8% in 1994. One of the more advanced developing countries in Asia, Thailand depends on exports of manufactures and the development of the service sector to fuel the country's rapid growth. Much of Thailand's recent imports have been for capital equipment, suggesting that the export sector is poised for further growth. With foreign investment slowing, Bangkok is working to increase the generation of domestic capital. Prime Minister CHUAN's government - Thailand's fifth government in less than three years - is pledged to continue Bangkok's probusiness policies, and the return of a democratically elected government has improved business confidence. Even so, CHUAN must overcome divisions within his ruling coalition to complete much needed infrastructure development programs if Thailand is to remain an attractive place for business investment. Over the longer-term, Bangkok must produce more college graduates with technical training and upgrade workers' skills to continue its rapid economic development.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $355.2 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 8% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $5,970 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 5% (1994 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 3.2% (1993 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $28.4 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $28.4 billion, including capital expenditures of $9.6 billion (FY94/95 est.)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $46 billion (f.o.b., 1994 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab machinery and manufactures 83%, agricultural products and fisheries 16%, others 1% (1994 est.)
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab US 22%, Japan 17%, Singapore 12%, Hong Kong 5%, Germany 4% (1993)
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $52.6 billion (c.i.f., 1994 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab capital goods 44%, intermediate goods and raw materials 37%, consumer goods 16%, other 3% (1994 est.)
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Japan 30%, US 12%, Singapore 6%, Germany 5%, Taiwan 5% (1993)
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $64.3 billion (1994 est.)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 11.5% (1993 est.); accounts for about 26% of GDP
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 12,810,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 56.8 billion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 909 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab tourism is the largest source of foreign exchange; textiles and garments, agricultural processing, beverages, tobacco, cement, light manufacturing, such as jewelry; electric appliances and components, integrated circuits, furniture, plastics; world's second-largest tungsten producer and third-largest tin producer
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab accounts for 11% of GDP and 62% of labor force; leading producer and exporter of rice and cassava (tapioca); other crops - rubber, corn, sugarcane, coconuts, soybeans; except for wheat, self-sufficient in food
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab a minor producer of opium and marijuana; major illicit transit point for heroin, particularly from Burma and Laos, for the international drug market; eradication efforts have reduced the area of cannabis cultivation and shifted some production to neighboring countries; opium poppy cultivation has been reduced by eradication efforts; also a major drug money laundering center; rapidly growing role in amphetamine production for regional consumption; increasing indigenous abuse of heroin and cocaine
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-89), $870 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $8.6 billion; OPEC bilateral aid (1979-89), $19 million
\par \tab Led by recovery in Western Europe and strong performances by the US, Canada, and key Third World countries, real global output - gross world product (GWP) - rose 3% in 1994 compared with 2% in 1993. Results varied widely among regions and countries. Average growth of 3% in the GDP of industrialized countries (60% of GWP in 1994) and average growth of 6% in the GDP of less developed countries (34% of GWP) were partly offset by a further 11% drop in the GDP of the former USSR/Eastern Europe area (now only 6% of GWP). With the notable exception of Japan at 2.9%, unemployment was typically 5%-12% in the industrial world. The US accounted for 22% of GWP in 1994; Western Europe accounted for another 22%; and Japan accounted for 8%. These are the three "economic superpowers" which are presumably destined to compete for mastery in international markets on into the 21st century. As for the less developed countries, China, India, and the Four Dragons - South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Singapore - once again posted records of 5% growth or better; however, many other countries, especially in Africa, continued to suffer from drought, rapid population growth, inflation, and civil strife. Central Europe made considerable progress in moving toward "market-friendly" economies, whereas the 15 ex-Soviet countries (with the notable exceptions of the three Baltic states) typically experienced further declines in output, sometimes as high as 30%. Externally, the nation-state, as a bedrock economic-political institution, is steadily losing control over international flows of people, goods, funds, and technology. Internally, the central government in a number of cases is losing control over resources as separatist regional movements - typically based on ethnicity - gain momentum, e.g., in the successor states of the former Soviet Union, in the former Yugoslavia, and in India. In Western Europe, governments face the difficult political problem of channeling resources away from welfare programs in order to increase investment and strengthen incentives to seek employment. The addition of nearly 100 million people each year to an already overcrowded globe is exacerbating the problems of pollution, desertification, underemployment, epidemics, and famine. Because of their own internal problems, the industrialized countries have inadequate resources to deal effectively with the poorer areas of the world, which, at least from the economic point of view, are becoming further marginalized. (For the specific economic problems of each country, see the individual country entries in this volume.)
{\b National product}
\par \tab GWP (gross world product) - purchasing power parity - $30.7 trillion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 3.2% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $5,400 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab {\b all countries}
\par \tab 25%
\par \tab {\b developed countries}
\par \tab 5%
\par \tab {\b developing countries}
\par \tab 50% (1994 est.)
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab national inflation rates vary widely in individual cases, from stable prices to hyperinflation
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 30% combined unemployment and underemployment in many non-industrialized countries; developed countries typically 5%-12% unemployment
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $4 trillion (f.o.b., 1994 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab the whole range of industrial and agricultural goods and services
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab in value, about 75% of exports from the developed countries
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $4.1 trillion (c.i.f., 1994 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab the whole range of industrial and agricultural goods and services
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab in value, about 75% of imports by the developed countries
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $1 trillion for less developed countries (1993 est.)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 5% (1994 est.)
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 2,773,000,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 11.601 trillion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 1,937 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab industry worldwide is dominated by the onrush of technology, especially in computers, robotics, telecommunications, and medicines and medical equipment; most of these advances take place in OECD nations; only a small portion of non-OECD countries have succeeded in rapidly adjusting to these technological forces, and the technological gap between the industrial nations and the less-developed countries continues to widen; the rapid development of new industrial (and agricultural) technology is complicating already grim environmental problems
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab the production of major food crops has increased substantially in the last 20 years; the annual production of cereals, for instance, has risen by 50%, from about 1.2 billion metric tons to about 1.8 billion metric tons; production increases have resulted mainly from increased yields rather than increases in planted areas; while global production is sufficient for aggregate demand, about one-fifth of the world's population remains malnourished, primarily because local production cannot adequately provide for large and rapidly growing populations, which are too poor to pay for food imports; conditions are especially bad in Africa where drought in recent years has intensified the consequences of overpopulation
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab $NA{\b Overview}
\par \tab The economy is heavily dependent on subsistence agriculture, which accounts for about half of GDP and provides employment for 80% of the labor force. Primary agricultural exports are cocoa, coffee, and cotton, which together generate about 30% of total export earnings. Togo is self-sufficient in basic foodstuffs when harvests are normal. In the industrial sector phosphate mining is by far the most important activity, although it has suffered from the collapse of world phosphate prices and increased foreign competition. Togo serves as a regional commercial and trade center. The government's decade-long IMF and World Bank supported effort to implement economic reform measures to encourage foreign investment and bring revenues in line with expenditures has stalled. Political unrest, including private and public sector strikes throughout 1992 and 1993, has jeopardized the reform program, shrunk the tax base, and disrupted vital economic activity. Although strikes had ended in 1994, political unrest and lack of funds prevented the government from taking advantage of the 50% currency devaluation of January 1994. Resumption of World Bank and IMF flows will depend on implementation of several controversial moves toward privatization and on downsizing the military, on which the regime depends to stay in power.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $3.3 billion (1993 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $800 (1993 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 0.5% (1991 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $284 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $407 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1991 est.)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $221 million (f.o.b., 1993)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab phosphates, cotton, cocoa, coffee
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab EC 40%, Africa 16%, US 1% (1990)
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $292 million (c.i.f., 1993)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab machinery and equipment, consumer goods, food, chemical products
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab EC 57%, Africa 17%, US 5%, Japan 4% (1990)
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $1.3 billion (1991)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 9% (1991 est.); accounts for 20% of GDP
\par \tab accounts for 49% of GDP; cash crops - coffee, cocoa, cotton; food crops - yams, cassava, corn, beans, rice, millet, sorghum; livestock production not significant; annual fish catch of 10,000-14,000 tons
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab increasingly used as transit hub by heroin traffickers
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-90), $142 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-90), $2 billion; OPEC bilateral aid (1979-89), $35 million; Communist countries (1970-89), $51 million
\par \tab the official rate is pegged to the French franc, and beginning 12 January 1994, the CFA franc was devalued to CFAF 100 per French franc from CFAF 50 at which it had been fixed since 1948
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab calendar year{\b Overview}
\par \tab The economy's base is agriculture, which employs about 70% of the labor force and contributes 40% to GDP. Squash, coconuts, bananas, and vanilla beans are the main crops, and agricultural exports make up two-thirds of total exports. The country must import a high proportion of its food, mainly from New Zealand. The manufacturing sector accounts for only 11% of GDP. Tourism is the primary source of hard currency earnings, but the country also remains dependent on sizable external aid and remittances to offset its trade deficit. The economy continued to grow in 1993-94 largely because of a rise in squash exports, increased aid flows, and several large construction projects. The government is now turning its attention to further development of the private sector and the reduction of the budget deficit.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $214 million (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 5% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $2,050 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 3% (1993)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $36.4 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $68.1 million, including capital expenditures of $33.2 million (1991 est.)
\par \tab Japan 34%, US 17%, Australia 13%, NZ 13% (FY90/91)
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $56 million (c.i.f., FY92/93)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab food products, machinery and transport equipment, manufactures, fuels, chemicals
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab NZ 33%, Australia 22%, US 8%, Japan 8% (FY90/91)
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $47.5 million (FY90/91)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 1.5% (FY91/92); accounts for 11% of GDP
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 6,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 30 million kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 231 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab tourism, fishing
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab accounts for 40% of GDP; dominated by coconut, copra, and banana production; vanilla beans, cocoa, coffee, ginger, black pepper
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-89), $16 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $258 million
\par \tab Trinidad and Tobago's petroleum-based economy still enjoys a high per capita income by Latin American standards, even though output and living standards are substantially below the boom years of 1973-82. The country suffers from widespread unemployment, large foreign-debt payments, and periods of low international oil prices. The government has begun to make progress in its efforts to diversify exports and to liberalize its trade regime, making 1994 the first year of substantial growth since the early 1980s.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $15 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 3% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $11,280 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 10.1% (1994 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 18.1% (1994 )
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $1.6 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $1.6 billion, including capital expenditures of $158 million (1993 est.)
\par \tab accounts for 3% of GDP; major crops - cocoa, sugarcane; sugarcane acreage is being shifted into rice, citrus, coffee, vegetables; poultry sector most important source of animal protein; must import large share of food needs
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab transshipment point for South American drugs destined for the US and Europe and producer of cannabis
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-89), $373 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $518 million
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 Trinidad and Tobago dollar (TT$) = 100 cents
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab Trinidad and Tobago dollars (TT$) per US$1 - 5.8758 (January 1995), 5.9160 (1994), 5.3511 (1993), 4.2500 (fixed rate 1989-1992); note - effective 13 April 1993, the exchange rate of the TT dollar is market-determined as opposed to the prior fixed relationship to the US dollar
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab calendar year{\b Overview}
\par \tab Tunisia has a diverse economy, with important agricultural, mining, energy, tourism, and manufacturing sectors. Detailed governmental control of economic affairs has gradually lessened over the past decade, including increasing privatization of trade and commerce, simplification of the tax structure, and a cautious approach to debt. Real growth has averaged roughly 5% in 1991-94, and inflation has been moderate. Growth in tourism and IMF support have been key elements in this solid record. Further privatization and further improvements in government administrative efficiency are among the challenges for the future.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $37.1 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 4.4% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $4,250 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 4.5% (1993 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 16.2% (1993 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $4.3 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $5.5 billion, including capital expenditures to $NA (1993 est.)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $4.6 billion (f.o.b., 1993)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab hydrocarbons, agricultural products, phosphates and chemicals
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab EC countries 75%, Middle East 10%, Algeria 2%, India 2%, US 1%
\par \tab EC countries 70%, US 5%, Middle East 2%, Japan 2%, Switzerland 1%, Algeria 1%
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $7.7 billion (1993 est.)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 5% (1989); accounts for 22% of GDP, including petroleum
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 1,410,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 5.4 billion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 595 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab petroleum, mining (particularly phosphate and iron ore), tourism, textiles, footwear, food, beverages
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab accounts for 16% of GDP and one-third of labor force; output subject to severe fluctuations because of frequent droughts; export crops - olives, dates, oranges, almonds; other products - grain, sugar beets, wine grapes, poultry, beef, dairy; not self-sufficient in food
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-89), $730 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89) $52 million; OPEC bilateral aid (1979-89), $684 million; Communist countries (1970-89), $410 million
\par \tab In early 1995, after an impressive economic performance through most of the 1980s, Turkey continues to suffer through its most damaging economic crisis in the last 15 years. Sparked by the downgrading in January 1994 of Turkey's international credit rating by two US credit rating agencies, the crisis stems from years of loose fiscal and monetary policies that had exacerbated inflation and allowed the public debt, money supply, and current account deficit to explode. In April 1994, Prime Minister CILLER introduced an austerity package aimed at restoring domestic and international confidence in her fragile coalition government. Three months later the IMF endorsed the program, paving the way for a $740 million IMF standby loan. Although the economy showed signs of improvement following the stabilization measures, CILLER has been unable to overcome the political obstacles to tough structural reforms necessary for sustained, longer-term growth. As a consequence, the economy is suffering the worst of both worlds: at the end of 1994, inflation hit a record 126% (annual rate), and real GDP dropped an estimated 5% for the year as a whole, the worst decline in Turkey's post-war history. At the same time, the government missed key 1994 targets stipulated in the IMF agreement: the budget deficit is estimated to have overshot the government's goal by 47%; the total public sector borrowing requirement likely reached 10%-12% of GDP, rather than 8.5% called for in the program; and the Turkish lira's value fell 5% to 7% more than expected. The unprecedented effort by the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK) to raise the economic costs of its insurgency against the Turkish state is adding to Turkey's economic problems. Attacks against tourists have jeopardized tourist revenues, which account for about 3% of GDP, while economic activity in southeastern Turkey, where most of the violence occurs, has dropped considerably. Turkish officials are now negotiating a new letter of intent with the IMF that will stipulate more realistic macroeconomic goals for 1995 and allow the release of remaining funds of the standby agreement.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $305.2 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab -5% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $4,910 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 106% (1994)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 12.6% (1994)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $28.3 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $33.3 billion, including capital expenditures of $3.2 billion (1995)
\par \tab accounts for 16% of GDP; products - tobacco, cotton, grain, olives, sugar beets, pulses, citrus fruit, variety of animal products; self-sufficient in food most years
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab major transit route for Southwest Asian heroin and hashish to Western Europe and the US via air, land, and sea routes; major Turkish, Iranian, and other international trafficking organizations operate out of Istanbul; laboratories to convert imported morphine base into heroin are in remote regions of Turkey as well as near Istanbul; government maintains strict controls over areas of legal opium poppy cultivation and output of poppy straw concentrate
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-89), $2.3 billion; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $10.1 billion; OPEC bilateral aid (1979-89), $665 million; Communist countries (1970-89), $4.5 billion
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab aid for Persian Gulf war efforts from coalition allies (1991), $4.1 billion; aid pledged for Turkish Defense Fund, $2.5 billion
\par \tab Turkmenistan is largely desert country with nomadic cattle raising, intensive agriculture in irrigated oases, and huge gas and oil resources. Half its irrigated land is planted in cotton making it the world's tenth largest producer. It also has the world's fifth largest reserves of natural gas and significant oil resources. Until the end of 1993, Turkmenistan had experienced less economic disruption than other former Soviet states because its economy received a boost from higher prices for oil and gas and a sharp increase in hard currency earnings. In 1994, Russia's refusal to export Turkmen gas to hard currency markets and mounting debts of its major customers in the former USSR for gas deliveries contributed to a sharp fall in industrial production and caused the budget to shift from a surplus to a slight deficit. Furthermore, with an authoritarian ex-Communist regime in power and a tribally-based social structure, Turkmenistan has taken a cautious approach to economic reform, hoping to use gas and cotton sales to sustain its inefficient economy. With the onset of economic hard times, even cautious moves toward economic restructuring and privatization have slowed down. For 1995, Turkmenistan will face continuing constraints on its earnings because of its customers' inability to pay for their gas and a low average cotton crop in 1994. Turkmenistan is working hard to open new gas export channels through Iran and Turkey, but these may take many years to realize.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $13.1 billion (1994 estimate as extrapolated from World Bank estimate for 1992)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab -24% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $3,280 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 25% per month (1994)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab NA
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $NA
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $NA, including capital expenditures of $NA
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $382 million to states outside the FSU (1994)
\par \tab illicit cultivator of cannabis and opium poppy; mostly for CIS consumption; limited government eradication program; used as transshipment point for illicit drugs from Southwest Asia to Western Europe
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab Turkmenistan has received about $200 million in bilateral aid credits
{\b Currency}
\par \tab Turkmenistan introduced its national currency, the manat, on 1 November 1993
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab manats per US$1 - multiple rate system: 10 (official) and 230 (permitted in transactions between the government and individuals)
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab calendar year{\b Overview}
\par \tab The economy is based on fishing, tourism, and offshore banking. Only subsistence farming - corn, cassava, citrus, and beans - exists on the Caicos Islands, so that most foods, as well as nonfood products, must be imported.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $80.8 million (1992 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab -1.5% (1992)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $6,000 (1992 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab NA%
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 12% (1992)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $20.3 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $44 million, including capital expenditures of $23.9 million (1989 est.)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $6.8 million (f.o.b., 1993)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab lobster, dried and fresh conch, conch shells
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab US, UK
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $42.8 million (1993)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab food and beverages, tobacco, clothing, manufactures, construction materials
\par \tab subsistence farming prevails, based on corn and beans; fishing more important than farming; not self-sufficient in food
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab transshipment point for South American narcotics destined for the US
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $110 million
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 United States dollar (US$) = 100 cents
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab US currency is used
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab calendar year{\b Overview}
\par \tab Tuvalu consists of a scattered group of nine coral atolls with poor soil. The country has no known mineral resources and few exports. Subsistence farming and fishing are the primary economic activities. The islands are too small and too remote for development of a tourist industry. Government revenues largely come from the sale of stamps and coins and worker remittances. Substantial income is received annually from an international trust fund established in 1987 by Australia, NZ, and the UK and supported also by Japan and South Korea.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $7.8 million (1993 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $800 (1993 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 2.9% (1989)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $4.3 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $4.3 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1989 est.)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $165,000 (f.o.b., 1989)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab copra
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Fiji, Australia, NZ
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $4.4 million (c.i.f., 1989)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab food, animals, mineral fuels, machinery, manufactured goods
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Fiji, Australia, NZ
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $NA
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate NA%
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 2,600 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 3 million kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 330 kWh (1990)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab fishing, tourism, copra
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab coconuts and fish
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-87), $1 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $101 million
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 Tuvaluan dollar ($T) or 1 Australian dollar ($A) = 100 cents
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab Tuvaluan dollars ($T) or Australian dollars ($A) per US$1 - 1.3058 (January 1995), 1.3667 (1994), 1.4704 (1993), 1.3600 (1992), 1.2835 (1991), 1.2799 (1990)
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab NA{\b Overview}
\par \tab Uganda has substantial natural resources, including fertile soils, regular rainfall, and sizable mineral deposits of copper and cobalt. Agriculture is the most important sector of the economy, employing over 80% of the work force. Coffee is the major export crop and accounts for the bulk of export revenues. Since 1986 the government - with the support of foreign countries and international agencies - has acted to rehabilitate and stabilize the economy by undertaking currency reform, raising producer prices on export crops, increasing prices of petroleum products, and improving civil service wages. The policy changes are especially aimed at dampening inflation and boosting production and export earnings. In 1990-94, the economy turned in a solid performance based on continued investment in the rehabilitation of infrastructure, improved incentives for production and exports, and gradually improving domestic security. The economy again prospered in 1994 with rapid growth, low inflation, growing foreign investment, a trimmed bureaucracy, and the continued return of exiled Indian-Ugandan entrepreneurs.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $16.2 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 6% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $850 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 5% (1994 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $365 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $545 million, including capital expenditures of $165 million (1989 est.)
\par \tab mainly subsistence; accounts for 57% of GDP and over 80% of labor force; cash crops - coffee, tea, cotton, tobacco; food crops - cassava, potatoes, corn, millet, pulses; livestock products - beef, goat meat, milk, poultry; self-sufficient in food
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (1970-89), $145 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $1.4 billion; OPEC bilateral aid (1979-89), $60 million; Communist countries (1970-89), $169 million
\par \tab After Russia, the Ukrainian republic was far and away the most important economic component of the former Soviet Union, producing more than three times the output of the next-ranking republic. Its fertile black soil generated more than one-fourth of Soviet agricultural output, and its farms provided substantial quantities of meat, milk, grain, and vegetables to other republics. Likewise, its diversified heavy industry supplied equipment and raw materials to industrial and mining sites in other regions of the former USSR. In early 1992, the Ukrainian government liberalized most prices and erected a legal framework for privatization, but widespread resistance to reform within the government and the legislature soon stalled reform efforts and led to some backtracking. Loose monetary and fiscal policies pushed inflation to hyperinflationary levels in late 1993. Greater monetary and fiscal restraint lowered inflation in 1994, but also contributed to an accelerated decline in industrial output. Since his election in July 1994, President KUCHMA has developed - and parliament has approved - a comprehensive economic reform program, maintained financial discipline, and reduced state controls over prices, the exchange rate, and foreign trade. Implementation of KUCHMA's economic agenda will encounter considerable resistance from parliament, entrenched bureaucrats, and industrial interests and will contribute to further declines in output and rising unemployment which will sorely test the government's ability to stay the course on reform in 1995.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $189.2 billion (1994 estimate as extrapolated from World Bank estimate for 1992)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab -19% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $3,650 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 14% per month (1994)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 0.4% officially registered; large number of unregistered or underemployed workers
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $NA
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $NA, including capital expenditures of $NA
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $11.8 billion (1994)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab coal, electric power, ferrous and nonferrous metals, chemicals, machinery and transport equipment, grain, meat
\par \tab growth rate -28% (1994 est.); accounts for 50% of GDP
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 54,380,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 182 billion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 3,200 kWh (1994)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab coal, electric power, ferrous and nonferrous metals, machinery and transport equipment, chemicals, food-processing (especially sugar)
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab accounts for about 25% of GDP; grain, vegetables, meat, milk, sugar beets
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab illicit cultivator of cannabis and opium poppy; mostly for CIS consumption; limited government eradication program; used as transshipment point for illicit drugs to Western Europe
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab $550 million economic aid and $350 million to help disassemble the atomic weapons from the US in 1994
{\b Currency}
\par \tab Ukraine withdrew the Russian ruble from circulation on 12 November 1992 and declared the karbovanets (plural karbovantsi) sole legal tender in Ukrainian markets; Ukrainian officials claim this is an interim move toward introducing a new currency - the hryvnya - possibly in mid-1995
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab karbovantsi per 1$US - 107,900 (end December 1994), 130,000 (April 1994)
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab calendar year{\b Overview}
\par \tab The UAE has an open economy with one of the world's highest incomes per capita and with a sizable annual trade surplus. Its wealth is based on oil and gas output (about 40% of GDP), and the fortunes of the economy fluctuate with the prices of those commodities. Since 1973, the UAE has undergone a profound transformation from an impoverished region of small desert principalities to a modern state with a high standard of living. At present levels of production, crude oil reserves should last for over 100 years. Although much stronger economically than most Gulf states, the UAE faces similar problems with weak international oil prices and the pressures for cuts in OPEC oil production quotas. The UAE government is encouraging increased privatization within the economy.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $62.7 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab -0.5% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $22,480 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 5.1% (1994 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab NEGL% (1988)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $4.3 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $4.8 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1993 est)
\par \tab Japan 35%, South Korea 5%, Iran 4%, Oman 4%, Singapore 4% (1993)
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $20 billion (f.o.b., 1994)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab manufactured goods, machinery and transport equipment, food
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Japan 12%, UK 10%, US 9%, Germany 7%, South Korea 5% (1993)
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $11.6 billion (1994 est.)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 1.7% (1992 est.); accounts for 50% of GDP, including petroleum
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 4,760,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 16.5 billion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 5,796 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab petroleum, fishing, petrochemicals, construction materials, some boat building, handicrafts, pearling
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab accounts for 2% of GDP and 5% of labor force; cash crop - dates; food products - vegetables, watermelons, poultry, eggs, dairy, fish; only 25% self-sufficient in food
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab growing role as heroin transshipment and money-laundering center
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b donor}
\par \tab pledged in bilateral aid to less developed countries (1979-89) $9.1 billion
\par \tab The UK is one of the world's great trading powers and financial centers, and its economy ranks among the four largest in Western Europe. The economy is essentially capitalistic; over the past 13 years the ruling Tories have greatly reduced public ownership and contained the growth of social welfare programs. Agriculture is intensive, highly mechanized, and efficient by European standards, producing about 60% of food needs with only 1% of the labor force. The UK has large coal, natural gas, and oil reserves, and primary energy production accounts for 12% of GDP, one of the highest shares of any industrial nation. Services, particularly banking, insurance, and business services, account by far for the largest proportion of GDP while industry continues to decline in importance, now employing only 25% of the work force and generating only 21% of GDP. The economy registered 4.2% GDP growth in 1994, its fastest annual rate for six years. Exports and manufacturing output are the primary engines of growth. Unemployment is gradually falling. Inflation is at the lowest level in 27 years, but British monetary authorities raised interest rates to 6.25% in 1994 in a preemptive strike on emerging inflationary pressures such as higher taxes and rising manufacturing costs. The combination of a buoyant economy and fiscal tightening is projected to trim the FY94/95 budget shortfall to about $50 billion - down from about $75 billion in FY93/94. The major economic policy question for Britain in the 1990s is the terms on which it participates in the financial and economic integration of Europe.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $1.0452 trillion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 4.2% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $17,980 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 2.4% (1994)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 9.3% (1994)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $325.5 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $400.9 billion, including capital expenditures of $33 billion (FY93/94 est.)
\par \tab EU countries 51.7% (Germany 14.9%, France 9.3%, Netherlands 8.4%), US 11.6%
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $16.2 billion (June 1992)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 5.6% (1994)
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 65,360,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 303 billion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 5,123 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab production machinery including machine tools, electric power equipment, automation equipment, railroad equipment, shipbuilding, aircraft, motor vehicles and parts, electronics and communications equipment, metals, chemicals, coal, petroleum, paper and paper products, food processing, textiles, clothing, and other consumer goods
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab accounts for only 1.5% of GDP; wide variety of crops and livestock products
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab gateway country for Latin American cocaine entering the European market; producer of synthetic drugs; transshipment point for Southwest Asian heroin; money-laundering center
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b donor}
\par \tab ODA and OOF commitments (1992-93), $3.2 billion
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 British pound = 100 pence
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab British pounds per US$1 - 0.6350 (January 1995), 0.6529 (1994), 0.6033 (1993), 0.5664 (1992), 0.5652 (1991), 0.5603 (1990)
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab 1 April - 31 March{\b Overview}
\par \tab The US has the most powerful, diverse, and technologically advanced economy in the world, with a per capita GDP of $25,850, the largest among major industrial nations. The economy is market oriented with most decisions made by private individuals and business firms and with government purchases of goods and services made predominantly in the marketplace. In 1989 the economy enjoyed its seventh successive year of substantial growth, the longest in peacetime history. The expansion featured moderation in wage and consumer price increases and a steady reduction in unemployment to 5.2% of the labor force. In 1990, however, growth slowed to 1% because of a combination of factors, such as the worldwide increase in interest rates, Iraq's invasion of Kuwait in August, the subsequent spurt in oil prices, and a general decline in business and consumer confidence. In 1991 output fell by 0.6%, unemployment grew, and signs of recovery proved premature. Growth picked up to 2.3% in 1992 and to 3.1% in 1993. Unemployment, however, declined only gradually, the increase in GDP being mainly attributable to gains in output per worker. The year 1994 witnessed a solid 4% gain in real output, a low inflation rate of 2.6%, and a drop in unemployment below 6%. The capture of both houses of Congress by the Republicans in the elections of 8 November 1994 means substantial changes are likely in US economic policy, including changes in the ways the US will address its major economic problems in 1995-96. These problems include inadequate investment in economic infrastructure, rapidly rising medical costs of an aging population, and sizable budget and trade deficits.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $6.7384 trillion (1994)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 4.1% (1994)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $25,850 (1994)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 2.6% (1994)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 5.5% (March 1995)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $1.258 trillion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $1.461 trillion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1994)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $513 billion (f.o.b., 1994)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab capital goods, automobiles, industrial supplies and raw materials, consumer goods, agricultural products
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Western Europe 24.3%, Canada 22.1%, Japan 10.5% (1993)
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $664 billion (c.i.f., 1994)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab crude oil and refined petroleum products, machinery, automobiles, consumer goods, industrial raw materials, food and beverages
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Canada, 19.3%, Western Europe 18.1%, Japan 18.1% (1993)
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $NA
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 5.4% (1994 est.)
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 695,120,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 3.1 trillion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 11,236 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab leading industrial power in the world, highly diversified and technologically advanced; petroleum, steel, motor vehicles, aerospace, telecommunications, chemicals, electronics, food processing, consumer goods, lumber, mining
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab accounts for 2% of GDP and 2.9% of labor force; favorable climate and soils support a wide variety of crops and livestock production; world's second largest producer and number one exporter of grain; surplus food producer; fish catch of 4.4 million metric tons (1990)
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab illicit producer of cannabis for domestic consumption with 1987 production estimated at 3,500 metric tons or about 25% of the available marijuana; ongoing eradication program aimed at small plots and greenhouses has not reduced production
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b donor}
\par \tab commitments, including ODA and OOF, (FY80-89), $115.7 billion
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 United States dollar (US$) = 100 cents
\par \tab Uruguay's economy is a small one with favorable climate, good soils, and substantial hydropower potential. Economic development has been restrained in recent years by excessive government regulation of economic detail and 40% to 130% inflation. Although the GDP growth rate slowed in 1993 to 1.7%, following a healthy expansion to 7.5% in 1992, it rebounded in 1994 to an estimated 4%, spurred mostly by increasing agricultural and other exports and a surprise reversal of the downward trend in industrial production. In a major step toward regional economic cooperation, Uruguay confirmed its commitment to the Southern Cone Common Market (MERCOSUR) customs union by implementing MERCOSUR's common external tariff on most tradables on 1 January 1995. Inflation in 1994 declined for the third consecutive year, yet, at 44%, it remains the highest in the region; analysts predict that the expanding fiscal deficit and wage indexation will force the inflation rate back toward the 50% mark in 1995.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $23 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 4% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $7,200 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 44% (1994 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 9% (1994 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $2.9 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $3 billion, including capital expenditures of $388 million (1991 est.)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $1.78 billion (f.o.b., 1994 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab wool and textile manufactures, beef and other animal products, leather, rice
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Brazil, Argentina, US, China, Italy
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $2.461 billion (c.i.f., 1994 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab machinery and equipment, vehicles, chemicals, minerals, plastics
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Brazil, Argentina, US, Nigeria
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $4.2 billion (1993)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 3.9% (1992); accounts for 28% of GDP
\par \tab accounts for 12% of GDP; large areas devoted to livestock grazing; wheat, rice, corn, sorghum; fishing; self-sufficient in most basic foodstuffs
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-88), $105 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $420 million; Communist countries (1970-89), $69 million
\par \tab on 1 March 1993 the former New Peso (N$Ur) was replaced as Uruguay's unit of currency by the Peso which is equal to 1,000 of the New Pesos
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab calendar year{\b Overview}
\par \tab Uzbekistan is a dry, landlocked country of which 10% consists of intensely cultivated, irrigated river valleys. It is one of the poorest states of the former USSR with 60% of its population living in overpopulated rural communities. Nevertheless, Uzbekistan is the world's third largest cotton exporter, a major producer of gold and natural gas, and a regionally significant producer of chemicals and machinery. Since independence, the government has sought to prop up the Soviet-style command economy with subsidies and tight controls on prices and production. Such policies have buffered the economy from the sharp declines in output and high inflation experienced by many other former Soviet republics. They had become increasingly unsustainable, however, as inflation moves along at 14% per month and as Russia has forced the Uzbek government to introduce its own currency. Faced with mounting economic problems, the government has begun to move on a reform agenda and cooperate with international financial institutions, announced an acceleration of privatization, and stepped up efforts to attract foreign investors. Nevertheless, the regime is likely to find it difficult to sustain its drive for economic reform.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $54.5 billion (1994 estimate as extrapolated from World Bank estimate for 1992)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab -4% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $2,400 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 14% per month (1994 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 0.3% includes only officially registered unemployed; large numbers of underemployed workers (December 1994)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $NA
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $NA, including capital expenditures of $NA
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $943.7 million to outside the FSU countries (1994)
\par \tab illicit cultivator of cannabis and opium poppy; mostly for CIS consumption; limited government eradication programs; used as transshipment point for illicit drugs to Western Europe
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab the IMF has established a Systemic Transformation Facility of $74 million and the World Bank has made a rehabilitation loan of $160 million with other project loans pending; estimated annual external financing requirements for 1995-96 of $600 million to $700 million
{\b Currency}
\par \tab introduced provisional som-coupons 10 November 1993 which circulated parallel to the Russian rubles; became the sole legal currency 31 January 1994; was replaced in July 1994 by the som currency
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab soms per US$1 - 25 (yearend 1994)
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab calendar year{\b Overview}
\par \tab The economy is based primarily on subsistence farming which provides a living for about 80% of the population. Fishing and tourism are the other mainstays of the economy, with 43,000 visitors in 1992. Mineral deposits are negligible; the country has no known petroleum deposits. A small light industry sector caters to the local market. Tax revenues come mainly from import duties.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $200 million (1993 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $1,200 (1993 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 2.3% (1992 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $90 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $103 million, including capital expenditures of $45 million (1989 est.)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $14.9 million (f.o.b., 1991)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab copra, beef, cocoa, timber, coffee
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Netherlands, Japan, France, New Caledonia, Belgium
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $74 million (f.o.b., 1991)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab machines and vehicles, food and beverages, basic manufactures, raw materials and fuels, chemicals
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Australia 36%, Japan 13%, NZ 10%, France 8%, Fiji 8%
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $40 million (yearend 1992)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 8.1% (1990); accounts for about 10% of GDP
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 17,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 30 million kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 181 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab food and fish freezing, wood processing, meat canning
\par \tab This unique, noncommercial economy is supported financially by contributions (known as Peter's Pence) from Roman Catholics throughout the world, the sale of postage stamps and tourist mementos, fees for admission to museums, and the sale of publications. The incomes and living standards of lay workers are comparable to, or somewhat better than, those of counterparts who work in the city of Rome.
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $169 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $167.5 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1993)
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 5,000 kW standby
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab power supplied by Italy
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab NA kWh (1992)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab printing and production of a small amount of mosaics and staff uniforms; worldwide banking and financial activities
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 Vatican lira (VLit) = 100 centesimi
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab Vatican lire (VLit) per US$1 - 1,609.5 (January 1995), 1,612.4 (1994), 1,573.7 (1993), 1,232.4 (1992), 1,240.6 (1991), 1,198.1 (1990); note - the Vatican lira is at par with the Italian lira which circulates freely
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab calendar year{\b Overview}
\par \tab Despite efforts to broaden the base of the economy, petroleum continues to play a dominant role. In 1994, as GDP declined 3.3%, the oil sector - which accounts for 24% of the total - enjoyed a 6% expansion, provided 45% of the budget revenues, and generated 70% of the export earnings. President CALDERA, who assumed office in February 1994, has used an interventionist, reactive approach to managing the economy, instituting price and foreign exchange controls in mid-year to slow inflation and stop the loss of foreign exchange reserves. The government claims it will remove these controls once inflationary pressures abate, but the $8 billion bailout of the banking sector in 1994 has made it difficult for the government to make good on its promise. Economic controls, coupled with political uncertainty driven by recurrent coup rumors, continue to deter foreign and domestic investment; private forecasters see the recession persisting for a third year in 1995.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $178.3 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab -3.3% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $8,670 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 71% (1994 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 9% (1994 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $10.3 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $14.6 billion, including capital expenditures of $103 million (1994 est.)
\par \tab US and Puerto Rico 55%, Japan, Netherlands, Italy
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $7.6 billion (f.o.b., 1994 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab raw materials, machinery and equipment, transport equipment, construction materials
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab US 40%, Germany, Japan, Netherlands, Canada
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $40.1 billion (1994)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate -1.4% (1993 est.); accounts for 41% of GDP
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 18,740,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 72 billion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 3,311 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab petroleum, iron-ore mining, construction materials, food processing, textiles, steel, aluminum, motor vehicle assembly
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab accounts for 6% of GDP; products - corn, sorghum, sugarcane, rice, bananas, vegetables, coffee, beef, pork, milk, eggs, fish; not self-sufficient in food other than meat
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab illicit producer of cannabis, opium, and coca leaf for the international drug trade on a small scale; however, large quantities of cocaine and heroin transit the country from Colombia; important money-laundering hub
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-86), $488 million; Communist countries (1970-89), $10 million
\par \tab Vietnam has made significant progress in recent years moving away from the planned economic model toward a more effective market-based economic system. Most prices are now fully decontrolled, and the Vietnamese currency has been effectively devalued and floated at world market rates. In addition, the scope for private sector activity has been expanded, primarily through decollectivization of the agricultural sector and introduction of laws giving legal recognition to private business. Nearly three-quarters of export earnings are generated by only two commodities, rice and crude oil. Led by industry and construction, the economy did well in 1993 and 1994 with output rising 7% and 9% respectively. However, the industrial sector remains burdened by noncompetitive state-owned enterprises the government is unwilling or unable to privatize. Unemployment looms as a serious problem with roughly 20% of the work force without jobs and with population growth swelling the ranks of the labor force yearly.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $83.5 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 8.8% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $1,140 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 14.4% (1994)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 20% (1994 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $3.6 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $4.5 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1994 est.)
\par \tab accounts for 36% of GDP; paddy rice, corn, potatoes make up 50% of farm output; commercial crops (rubber, soybeans, coffee, tea, bananas) and animal products 50%; since 1989 self-sufficient in food staple rice; fish catch of 943,100 metric tons (1989 est.); note - the third largest exporter of rice in the World, behind the US and Thailand
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab opium producer and increasingly important transit point for Southeast Asian heroin destined for the US and Europe; growing opium addiction; small-scale heroin producer
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab $2 billion in credits and grants pledged by international donors for 1995, Japan largest contributor with $650 million pledged for 1995
\par \tab Tourism is the primary economic activity, accounting for more than 70% of GDP and 70% of employment. The manufacturing sector consists of textile, electronics, pharmaceutical, and watch assembly plants. The agricultural sector is small, most food being imported. International business and financial services are a small but growing component of the economy. One of the world's largest petroleum refineries is at Saint Croix.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $1.2 billion (1987 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $11,000 (1987)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab NA%
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 3.7% (1992)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $364.4 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $364.4 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1990 est.)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $2.8 billion (f.o.b., 1990)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab refined petroleum products
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab US, Puerto Rico
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $3.3 billion (c.i.f., 1990)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab crude oil, foodstuffs, consumer goods, building materials
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab US, Puerto Rico
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $NA
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate 12% (year NA); accounts for NA% of GDP
\par \tab Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $42 million
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 United States dollar (US$) = 100 cents
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab US currency is used
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab 1 October - 30 September{\b Overview}
\par \tab Economic progress in the West Bank has been hampered by Israeli military administration and the effects of the Palestinian uprising (intifadah). Industries using advanced technology or requiring sizable investment have been discouraged by a lack of local capital and restrictive Israeli policies. Capital investment consists largely of residential housing, not productive assets that would enable local Palestinian firms to compete with Israeli industry. GDP has been substantially supplemented by remittances of workers employed in Israel and Persian Gulf states. Such transfers from the Gulf dropped after Iraq invaded Kuwait in August 1990. In the wake of the Persian Gulf crisis, many Palestinians have returned to the West Bank, increasing unemployment, and export revenues have dropped because of the decline of markets in Jordan and the Gulf states. Israeli measures to curtail the intifadah also have added to unemployment and lowered living standards. The area's economic situation has worsened since Israel's partial closure of the territories in 1993.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $4 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $2,800 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 6.8% (1993)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 35% (1994 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $43.4 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $43.7 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (FY89/90)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $217 million (f.o.b., 1992)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab olives, fruit, vegetables
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Jordan, Israel
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $867 million (c.i.f., 1992)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab food, consumer goods, construction materials
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Jordan, Israel
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $NA
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate NA%
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab NA kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab NA kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab NA kWh
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab most electricity imported from Israel; East Jerusalem Electric Company buys and distributes electricity to Palestinians in East Jerusalem and its concession in the West Bank; the Israel Electric Company directly supplies electricity to most Jewish residents and military facilities; at the same time, some Palestinian municipalities, such as Nabulus and Janin, generate their own electricity from small power plants
{\b Industries}
\par \tab generally small family businesses that produce cement, textiles, soap, olive-wood carvings, and mother-of-pearl souvenirs; the Israelis have established some small-scale modern industries in the settlements and industrial centers
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab olives, citrus and other fruits, vegetables, beef, and dairy products
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab $NA
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 new Israeli shekel (NIS) = 100 new agorot; 1 Jordanian dinar (JD) = 1,000 fils
\par \tab calendar year (since 1 January 1992){\b Overview}
\par \tab Western Sahara, a territory poor in natural resources and having little rainfall, depends on pastoral nomadism, fishing, and phosphate mining as the principal sources of income for the population. Most of the food for the urban population must be imported. All trade and other economic activities are controlled by the Moroccan Government. Incomes and standards of living are substantially below the Moroccan level.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP $NA
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $NA
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab NA%
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $NA
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $NA, including capital expenditures of $NA
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $8 million (f.o.b., 1982 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab phosphates 62%
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Morocco claims and administers Western Sahara, so trade partners are included in overall Moroccan accounts
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $30 million (c.i.f., 1982 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab fuel for fishing fleet, foodstuffs
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Morocco claims and administers Western Sahara, so trade partners are included in overall Moroccan accounts
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $NA
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate NA%
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 60,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 79 million kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 339 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab phosphate mining, handicrafts
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab limited largely to subsistence agriculture and fishing; some barley is grown in nondrought years; fruit and vegetables are grown in the few oases; food imports are essential; camels, sheep, and goats are kept by the nomadic natives; cash economy exists largely for the garrison forces
\par \tab Agriculture employs more than half of the labor force, contributes 50% to GDP, and furnishes 90% of exports. The bulk of export earnings comes from the sale of coconut oil and copra. The economy depends on emigrant remittances and foreign aid to support a level of imports much greater than export earnings. Tourism has become the most important growth industry. The economy continued to falter in 1994, as remittances and tourist earnings remained low. Production of taro, the primary food export crop, has dropped 97% since a fungal disease struck the crop in 1993. The rapid growth in 1994 of the giant African snail population in Western Samoa is also threatening the country's basic food crops, such as bananas and coconuts.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $400 million (1992 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab -4.3% (1992 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $2,000 (1992 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 14% (1994 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $95.3 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $76.7 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1994 est.)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $6.4 million (f.o.b., 1993)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab coconut oil and cream, taro, copra, cocoa
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab New Zealand 34%, American Samoa 21%, Germany 18%, Australia 11%
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $11.5 million (c.i.f., 1992 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab intermediate goods 58%, food 17%, capital goods 12%
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab New Zealand 37%, Australia 25%, Japan 11%, Fiji 9%
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $141 million (June 1993)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate -0.3% (1992 est.); accounts for 16% of GDP
\par \tab accounts for about 50% of GDP; coconuts, fruit (including bananas, taro, yams)
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-89), $18 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $306 million; OPEC bilateral aid (1979-89), $4 million
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 tala (WS$) = 100 sene
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab tala (WS$) per US$1 - 2.4600 (January 1995), 2.5349 (1994), 2.5681 (1993), 2.4655 (1992), 2.3975 (1991), 2.3095 (1990)
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab calendar year{\b Overview}
\par \tab Whereas the northern city Sanaa is the political capital of a united Yemen, the southern city Aden, with its refinery and port facilities, is the economic and commercial capital. Future economic development depends heavily on Western-assisted development of the country's moderate oil resources. Former South Yemen's willingness to merge stemmed partly from the steady decline in Soviet economic support. The low level of domestic industry and agriculture has made northern Yemen dependent on imports for practically all of its essential needs. Once self-sufficient in food production, northern Yemen has become a major importer. Land once used for export crops - cotton, fruit, and vegetables - has been turned over to growing a shrub called qat, whose leaves are chewed for their stimulant effect by Yemenis and which has no significant export market. Economic growth in former South Yemen has been constrained by a lack of incentives, partly stemming from centralized control over production decisions, investment allocation, and import choices. Yemen's large trade deficits have been compensated for by remittances from Yemenis working abroad and by foreign aid. Since the Gulf crisis, remittances have dropped substantially. Growth in 1994-95 is constrained by low oil prices, rapid inflation, and political deadlock that are causing a lack of economic cooperation and leadership. However, a peace agreement with Saudi Arabia in February 1995 and the expectation of a rise in oil prices brighten Yemen's economic prospects.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $23.4 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab -1.4% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $1,955 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 145% (1994 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab 30% (December 1994)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $NA
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $NA, including capital expenditures of $NA
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $1.75 billion (f.o.b., 1994 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab crude oil, cotton, coffee, hides, vegetables, dried and salted fish
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab Germany 28%, Japan 15%, UK 9%, Austria 7%, China 7% (1992)
{\b Imports}
\par \tab $2.65 billion (f.o.b., 1994 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab textiles and other manufactured consumer goods, petroleum products, sugar, grain, flour, other foodstuffs, cement, machinery, chemicals
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab US 16%, UK 7%, Japan 6%, France 6%, Italy 6% (1992)
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $7 billion (1993)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate NA%, accounts for 18% of GDP
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 810,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 1.8 billion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 149 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab crude oil production and petroleum refining; small-scale production of cotton textiles and leather goods; food processing; handicrafts; small aluminum products factory; cement
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab accounts for 26% of GDP; products - grain, fruits, vegetables, qat (mildly narcotic shrub), coffee, cotton, dairy, poultry, meat, fish; not self-sufficient in grain
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-89), $389 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $2 billion; OPEC bilateral aid (1979-89), $3.2 billion; Communist countries (1970-89), $2.4 billion
{\b Currency}
\par \tab Yemeni rial (new currency); 1 North Yemeni riyal (YR) = 100 fils; 1 South Yemeni dinar (YD) = 1,000 fils
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab following the establishment of the Republic of Yemen on 22 May 1990, the North Yemeni riyal and the South Yemeni dinar are to be replaced with a new Yemeni rial
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab Yemeni rials per US$1 - 12.0 (official); 90 (market rate, December 1994)
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab calendar year{\b Overview}
\par \tab Zaire's economy has continued to disintegrate although Prime Minister KENGO has had some success in slowing the rate of economic decline. While meaningful economic figures are difficult to come by, Zaire's hyperinflation, chronic large government deficits, and plunging mineral production have made the country one of the world's poorest. Most formal transactions are conducted in hard currency as indigenous bank notes have lost almost all value, and a barter economy now flourishes in all but the largest cities. Most individuals and families hang on grimly through subsistence farming and petty trade. The government has not been able to meet its financial obligations to the International Monetary Fund or put in place the financial measures advocated by the IMF. Although short-term prospects for improvement are dim, improved political stability would boost Zaire's long-term potential to effectively exploit its vast wealth of mineral and agricultural resources.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $18.8 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 4% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $440 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 40% per month (1993 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $NA
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $NA, including capital expenditures of $NA
\par \tab illicit producer of cannabis, mostly for domestic consumption
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-89), $1.1 billion; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $6.9 billion; OPEC bilateral aid (1979-89), $35 million; Communist countries (1970-89), $263 million
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab except for humanitarian aid to private organizations, no US assistance has been given to Zaire since 1992
{\b Currency}
\par \tab 1 zaire (Z) = 100 makuta
{\b Exchange rates}
\par \tab new zaires (Z) per US$1 - 3,275.71 (December 1994), 1,194.12 (1994), 2.51 (1993); zaire (Z) per US$1 - 645,549 (1992), 15,587 (1991), 719 (1990)
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab on 22 October 1993 the new zaire, equal to 3,000,000 old zaires, was introduced
{\b Fiscal year}
\par \tab calendar year{\b Overview}
\par \tab Prior to 1993 the economy had been in decline for more than a decade with falling imports and growing foreign debt. Economic difficulties stemmed largely from a chronically depressed level of copper production and weak copper prices, generally ineffective economic policies, and high inflation. An annual population growth of 3% brought a decline in per capita GDP of 50% over the decade. However, economic reforms enacted since 1992 have helped reduce inflation, have begun to strengthen the social safety net, and have been accompanied by GDP growth at an estimated 6.8% in 1993 and 4% in 1994. The huge external debt remains a key problem.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $7.9 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 4% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $860 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 89% (1994 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab NA%
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $665 million
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $767 million, including capital expenditures of $300 million (1991 est.)
{\b Exports}
\par \tab $1.01 billion (f.o.b., 1993 est.)
\par \tab {\b commodities}
\par \tab copper, zinc, cobalt, lead, tobacco
\par \tab {\b partners}
\par \tab EC countries, Japan, South Africa, US, India
\par \tab EC countries, Japan, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, US
{\b External debt}
\par \tab $7.3 billion (1993)
{\b Industrial production}
\par \tab growth rate -1% (1992); accounts for 42% of GDP
{\b Electricity}
\par \tab {\b capacity}
\par \tab 2,440,000 kW
\par \tab {\b production}
\par \tab 7.8 billion kWh
\par \tab {\b consumption per capita}
\par \tab 650 kWh (1993)
{\b Industries}
\par \tab copper mining and processing, construction, foodstuffs, beverages, chemicals, textiles, and fertilizer
{\b Agriculture}
\par \tab accounts for 12% of GDP and 85% of labor force; crops - corn (food staple), sorghum, rice, peanuts, sunflower, tobacco, cotton, sugarcane, cassava; cattle, goats, beef, eggs
{\b Illicit drugs}
\par \tab increasingly a regional transshipment center for methaqualone and heroin
{\b Economic aid}
\par \tab {\b recipient}
\par \tab US commitments, including Ex-Im (1970-89), $4.8 billion; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $4.8 billion; OPEC bilateral aid (1979-89), $60 million; Communist countries (1970-89), $533 million
\par \tab Agriculture employs three-fourths of the labor force and supplies almost 40% of exports. The manufacturing sector, based on agriculture and mining, produces a variety of goods and contributes 35% to GDP. Mining accounts for only 5% of both GDP and employment, but minerals and metals account for about 40% of exports. Severe drought caused GDP to drop 8% in 1992, with growth rebounding to 2% in 1993 and 3.5% in 1994. Despite the lingering effects of the drought on economic and social conditions, the government is continuing to push its IMF/World Bank structural adjustment program aimed at encouraging exports and foreign investment.
{\b National product}
\par \tab GDP - purchasing power parity - $17.4 billion (1994 est.)
{\b National product real growth rate}
\par \tab 3.5% (1994 est.)
{\b National product per capita}
\par \tab $1,580 (1994 est.)
{\b Inflation rate (consumer prices)}
\par \tab 22% (December 1994 est.)
{\b Unemployment rate}
\par \tab at least 45% (1994 est.)
{\b Budget}
\par \tab {\b revenues}
\par \tab $1.7 billion
\par \tab {\b expenditures}
\par \tab $2.2 billion, including capital expenditures of $253 million (FY92/93)
\par \tab accounts for 20% of GDP; 40% of land area divided into 4,500 large commercial farms and 42% in communal lands; crops - corn (food staple), cotton, tobacco, wheat, coffee, sugarcane, peanuts; livestock - cattle, sheep, goats, pigs; self-sufficient in food
\par \tab total 5,529 km, China 76 km, Iran 936 km, Pakistan 2,430 km, Tajikistan 1,206 km, Turkmenistan 744 km, Uzbekistan 137 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 0 km (landlocked)
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab none; landlocked
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab periodic disputes with Iran over Helmand water rights; Iran supports clients in country, private Pakistani and Saudi sources also are active; power struggles among various groups for control of Kabul, regional rivalries among emerging warlords, traditional tribal disputes continue; support to Islamic fighters in Tajikistan's civil war; border dispute with Pakistan (Durand Line); support to Islamic militants worldwide by some factions
{\b Climate}
\par \tab arid to semiarid; cold winters and hot summers
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mostly rugged mountains; plains in north and southwest
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab natural gas, petroleum, coal, copper, talc, barites, sulphur, lead, zinc, iron ore, salt, precious and semiprecious stones
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 12%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 46%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 3%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 39%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 26,600 sq km (1989 est.)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab soil degradation; overgrazing; deforestation (much of the remaining forests are being cut down for fuel and building materials); desertification
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab damaging earthquakes occur in Hindu Kush mountains; flooding
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban; signed, but not ratified - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Life Conservation
{\b Note}
\par \tab landlocked{\b Location}
\par \tab Southeastern Europe, bordering the Adriatic Sea and Ionian Sea, between Greece and Serbia and Montenegro
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Ethnic Groups in Eastern Europe, Europe
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 28,750 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 27,400 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly larger than Maryland
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 720 km, Greece 282 km, The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia 151 km, Serbia and Montenegro 287 km (114 km with Serbia, 173 km with Montenegro)
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 362 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab the Albanian Government supports protection of the rights of ethnic Albanians outside of its borders; Albanian majority in Kosovo seeks independence from Serbian Republic; Albanians in Macedonia claim discrimination in education, access to public sector jobs and representation in government; Albania is involved in a bilaterlal dispute with Greece over border demarcation, the treatment of Albania's ethnic Greek minority, and migrant Albanian workers in Greece
{\b Climate}
\par \tab mild temperate; cool, cloudy, wet winters; hot, clear, dry summers; interior is cooler and wetter
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mostly mountains and hills; small plains along coast
\par \tab deforestation; soil erosion; water pollution from industrial and domestic effluents
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab destructive earthquakes; tsunami occur along southwestern coast
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Biodiversity, Climate Change
{\b Note}
\par \tab strategic location along Strait of Otranto (links Adriatic Sea to Ionian Sea and Mediterranean Sea){\b Location}
\par \tab Northern Africa, bordering the Mediterranean Sea, between Morocco and Tunisia
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Africa
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 2,381,740 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 2,381,740 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly less than 3.5 times the size of Texas
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 6,343 km, Libya 982 km, Mali 1,376 km, Mauritania 463 km, Morocco 1,559 km, Niger 956 km, Tunisia 965 km, Western Sahara 42 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 998 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b exclusive fishing zone}
\par \tab 32-52 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab Libya claims part of southeastern Algeria; land boundary dispute with Tunisia settled in 1993
{\b Climate}
\par \tab arid to semiarid; mild, wet winters with hot, dry summers along coast; drier with cold winters and hot summers on high plateau; sirocco is a hot, dust/sand-laden wind especially common in summer
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mostly high plateau and desert; some mountains; narrow, discontinuous coastal plain
\par \tab soil erosion from overgrazing and other poor farming practices; desertification; dumping of raw sewage, petroleum refining wastes, and other industrial effluents is leading to the pollution of rivers and coastal waters; Mediterranean Sea, in particular, becoming polluted from oil wastes, soil erosion, and fertilizer runoff; inadequate supplies of potable water
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab mountainous areas subject to severe earthquakes; mudslides
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Climate Change, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands; signed, but not ratified - Biodiversity, Desertification, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban
{\b Note}
\par \tab second-largest country in Africa (after Sudan){\b Location}
\par \tab Southwestern Europe, between France and Spain
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Europe
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 450 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 450 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly more than 2.5 times the size of Washington, DC
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 125 km, France 60 km, Spain 65 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 0 km (landlocked)
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab none; landlocked
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab temperate; snowy, cold winters and warm, dry summers
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab rugged mountains dissected by narrow valleys
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab hydropower, mineral water, timber, iron ore, lead
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 2%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 56%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 22%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 20%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab NA sq km
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab deforestation; overgrazing of mountain meadows contributes to soil erosion
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab snowslides, avalanches
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab NA
{\b Note}
\par \tab landlocked{\b Location}
\par \tab Southern Africa, bordering the South Atlantic Ocean, between Namibia and Zaire
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Africa
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 1,246,700 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 1,246,700 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly less than twice the size of Texas
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 5,198 km, Congo 201 km, Namibia 1,376 km, Zaire 2,511 km, Zambia 1,110 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 1,600 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b exclusive fishing zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 20 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab semiarid in south and along coast to Luanda; north has cool, dry season (May to October) and hot, rainy season (November to April)
\par \tab population pressures contributing to overuse of pastures and subsequent soil erosion; desertification; deforestation of tropical rain forest attributable to the international demand for tropical timber and domestic use as a fuel; deforestation contributing to loss of biodiversity; soil erosion contributing to water pollution and siltation of rivers and dams; inadequate supplies of potable water
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab locally heavy rainfall causes periodic flooding on the plateau
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Law of the Sea; signed, but not ratified - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification
{\b Note}
\par \tab Cabinda is separated from rest of country by Zaire{\b Affiliation}
\par \tab (dependent territory of the UK)
{\b Location}
\par \tab Caribbean, island in the Caribbean Sea, east of Puerto Rico
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Central America and the Caribbean
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 91 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 91 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab about half the size of Washington, DC
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab 0 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 61 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b exclusive fishing zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 3 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical; moderated by northeast trade winds
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab flat and low-lying island of coral and limestone
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab negligible; salt, fish, lobster
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab NA%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab NA%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab NA%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab NA%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab NA% (mostly rock with sparse scrub oak, few trees, some commercial salt ponds)
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab NA sq km
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab supplies of potable water sometimes cannot meet increasing demand largely because of poor distribution system
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab frequent hurricanes and other tropical storms (July to October)
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab NA{\b Location}
\par \tab continent mostly south of the Antarctic Circle
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Antarctic Region
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 14 million sq km (est.)
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 14 million sq km (est.)
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly less than 1.5 times the size of the US
\par \tab none, but see entry on International disputes
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 17,968 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab none, but see entry on International Disputes
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab Antarctic Treaty defers claims (see Antarctic Treaty Summary below); sections (some overlapping) claimed by Argentina, Australia, Chile, France (Adelie Land), New Zealand (Ross Dependency), Norway (Queen Maud Land), and UK; the US and most other nations do not recognize the territorial claims of other nations and have made no claims themselves (the US reserves the right to do so); no formal claims have been made in the sector between 90 degrees west and 150 degrees west
{\b Climate}
\par \tab severe low temperatures vary with latitude, elevation, and distance from the ocean; East Antarctica is colder than West Antarctica because of its higher elevation; Antarctic Peninsula has the most moderate climate; higher temperatures occur in January along the coast and average slightly below freezing
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab about 98% thick continental ice sheet and 2% barren rock, with average elevations between 2,000 and 4,000 meters; mountain ranges up to 4,897 meters high; ice-free coastal areas include parts of southern Victoria Land, Wilkes Land, the Antarctic Peninsula area, and parts of Ross Island on McMurdo Sound; glaciers form ice shelves along about half of the coastline, and floating ice shelves constitute 11% of the area of the continent
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab none presently exploited; iron ore, chromium, copper, gold, nickel, platinum and other minerals, and coal and hydrocarbons have been found in small, uncommercial quantities
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 100% (ice 98%, barren rock 2%)
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 0 sq km
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab in October 1991 it was reported that the ozone shield, which protects the Earth's surface from harmful ultraviolet radiation, had dwindled to the lowest level recorded over Antarctica since 1975 when measurements were first taken
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab katabatic (gravity-driven) winds blow coastward from the high interior; frequent blizzards form near the foot of the plateau; cyclonic storms form over the ocean and move clockwise along the coast; volcanism on Deception Island and isolated areas of West Antarctica; other seismic activity rare and weak
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab NA
{\b Note}
\par \tab the coldest, windiest, highest, and driest continent; during summer more solar radiation reaches the surface at the South Pole than is received at the Equator in an equivalent period; mostly uninhabitable{\b Location}
\par \tab Caribbean, islands between the Caribbean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean, east-southeast of Puerto Rico
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Central America and the Caribbean
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 440 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 440 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly less than 2.5 times the size of Washington, DC
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab includes Redonda
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab 0 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 153 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b contiguous zone}
\par \tab 24 nm
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab 200 nm or to the edge of the continental margin
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical marine; little seasonal temperature variation
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mostly low-lying limestone and coral islands with some higher volcanic areas
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab negligible; pleasant climate fosters tourism
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 18%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 7%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 16%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 59%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab NA sq km
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab water management - a major concern because of limited natural fresh water resources - is further hampered by the clearing of trees to increase crop production, causing rainfall to run off quickly
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab hurricanes and tropical storms (July to October); periodic droughts
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Whaling{\b Location}
\par \tab body of water mostly north of the Arctic Circle
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Arctic Region
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 14.056 million sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly more than 1.5 times the size of the US; smallest of the world's four oceans (after Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, and Indian Ocean)
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab includes Baffin Bay, Barents Sea, Beaufort Sea, Chukchi Sea, East Siberian Sea, Greenland Sea, Hudson Bay, Hudson Strait, Kara Sea, Laptev Sea, Northwest Passage, and other tributary water bodies
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 45,389 km
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab some maritime disputes (see littoral states); Svalbard is the focus of a maritime boundary dispute between Norway and Russia
{\b Climate}
\par \tab polar climate characterized by persistent cold and relatively narrow annual temperature ranges; winters characterized by continuous darkness, cold and stable weather conditions, and clear skies; summers characterized by continuous daylight, damp and foggy weather, and weak cyclones with rain or snow
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab central surface covered by a perennial drifting polar icepack that averages about 3 meters in thickness, although pressure ridges may be three times that size; clockwise drift pattern in the Beaufort Gyral Stream, but nearly straight line movement from the New Siberian Islands (Russia) to Denmark Strait (between Greenland and Iceland); the ice pack is surrounded by open seas during the summer, but more than doubles in size during the winter and extends to the encircling land masses; the ocean floor is about 50% continental shelf (highest percentage of any ocean) with the remainder a central basin interrupted by three submarine ridges (Alpha Cordillera, Nansen Cordillera, and Lomonsov Ridge); maximum depth is 4,665 meters in the Fram Basin
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab sand and gravel aggregates, placer deposits, polymetallic nodules, oil and gas fields, fish, marine mammals (seals and whales)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab endangered marine species include walruses and whales; fragile ecosystem slow to change and slow to recover from disruptions or damage
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab ice islands occasionally break away from northern Ellesmere Island; icebergs calved from glaciers in western Greenland and extreme northeastern Canada; permafrost in islands; virtually icelocked from October to June; ships subject to superstructure icing from October to May
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab NA
{\b Note}
\par \tab major chokepoint is the southern Chukchi Sea (northern access to the Pacific Ocean via the Bering Strait); strategic location between North America and Russia; shortest marine link between the extremes of eastern and western Russia, floating research stations operated by the US and Russia; maximum snow cover in March or April about 20 to 50 centimeters over the frozen ocean and lasts about 10 months{\b Location}
\par \tab Southern South America, bordering the South Atlantic Ocean, between Chile and Uruguay
{\b Map references}
\par \tab South America
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 2,766,890 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 2,736,690 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly less than three-tenths the size of the US
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 9,665 km, Bolivia 832 km, Brazil 1,224 km, Chile 5,150 km, Paraguay 1,880 km, Uruguay 579 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 4,989 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b contiguous zone}
\par \tab 24 nm
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab 200 nm or to the edge of the continental margin
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab short section of the boundary with Uruguay is in dispute; short section of the boundary with Chile is indefinite; claims British-administered Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas); claims British-administered South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands; territorial claim in Antarctica
{\b Climate}
\par \tab mostly temperate; arid in southeast; subantarctic in southwest
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab rich plains of the Pampas in northern half, flat to rolling plateau of Patagonia in south, rugged Andes along western border
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab fertile plains of the pampas, lead, zinc, tin, copper, iron ore, manganese, petroleum, uranium
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 9%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 4%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 52%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 22%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 13%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 17,600 sq km (1989 est.)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab erosion results from inadequate flood controls and improper land use practices; irrigated soil degradation; desertification; air pollution in Buenos Aires and other major cites; water pollution in urban areas; rivers becoming polluted due to increased pesticide and fertilizer use
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab Tucuman and Mendoza areas in the Andes subject to earthquakes; pamperos are violent windstorms that can strike the Pampas and northeast; heavy flooding
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands, Whaling; signed, but not ratified - Desertification, Law of the Sea, Marine Life Conservation
{\b Note}
\par \tab second-largest country in South America (after Brazil); strategic location relative to sea lanes between South Atlantic and South Pacific Oceans (Strait of Magellan, Beagle Channel, Drake Passage){\b Location}
\par \tab Southwestern Asia, east of Turkey
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Commonwealth of Independent States - European States
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 29,800 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 28,400 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly larger than Maryland
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 1,254 km, Azerbaijan (east) 566 km, Azerbaijan (south) 221 km, Georgia 164 km, Iran 35 km, Turkey 268 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 0 km (landlocked)
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab none; landlocked
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab supports ethnic Armenians in Nagorno-Karabakh in their separatist conflict against the Azerbaijani government; traditional demands on former Armenian lands in Turkey have subsided
{\b Climate}
\par \tab highland continental, hot summers, cold winters
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab high Armenian Plateau with mountains; little forest land; fast flowing rivers; good soil in Aras River valley
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab small deposits of gold, copper, molybdenum, zinc, alumina
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 17%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 3%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 20%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 60%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 3,050 sq km (1990)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab soil pollution from toxic chemicals such as DDT; energy blockade, the result of conflict with Azerbaijan, has led to deforestation as citizens scavenge for firewood; pollution of Hrazdan (Razdan) and Aras Rivers; the draining of Sevana Lich, a result of its use as a source for hydropower, threatens drinking water supplies
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab occasionally severe earthquakes; droughts
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Nuclear Test Ban, Wetlands; signed, but not ratified - Desertification
{\b Note}
\par \tab landlocked{\b Affiliation}
\par \tab (part of the Dutch realm)
{\b Location}
\par \tab Caribbean, island in the Caribbean Sea, north of Venezuela
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Central America and the Caribbean
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 193 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 193 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly larger than Washington, DC
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab 0 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 68.5 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical marine; little seasonal temperature variation
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab flat with a few hills; scant vegetation
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab negligible; white sandy beaches
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 100%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab NA sq km
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab lies outside the Caribbean hurricane belt
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab NA{\b Location}
\par \tab body of water between Africa, Antarctica, and the Western Hemisphere
{\b Map references}
\par \tab World
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 82.217 million sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly less than nine times the size of the US; second-largest of the world's four oceans (after the Pacific Ocean, but larger than Indian Ocean or Arctic Ocean)
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab includes Baltic Sea, Black Sea, Caribbean Sea, Davis Strait, Denmark Strait, Drake Passage, Gulf of Mexico, Mediterranean Sea, North Sea, Norwegian Sea, Scotia Sea, Weddell Sea, and other tributary water bodies
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 111,866 km
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab some maritime disputes (see littoral states)
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical cyclones (hurricanes) develop off the coast of Africa near Cape Verde and move westward into the Caribbean Sea; hurricanes can occur from May to December, but are most frequent from August to November
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab surface usually covered with sea ice in Labrador Sea, Denmark Strait, and Baltic Sea from October to June; clockwise warm water gyre (broad, circular system of currents) in the northern Atlantic, counterclockwise warm water gyre in the southern Atlantic; the ocean floor is dominated by the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, a rugged north-south centerline for the entire Atlantic basin; maximum depth is 8,605 meters in the Puerto Rico Trench
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab oil and gas fields, fish, marine mammals (seals and whales), sand and gravel aggregates, placer deposits, polymetallic nodules, precious stones
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab endangered marine species include the manatee, seals, sea lions, turtles, and whales; driftnet fishing is exacerbating declining fish stocks and contributing to international disputes; municipal sludge pollution off eastern US, southern Brazil, and eastern Argentina; oil pollution in Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico, Lake Maracaibo, Mediterranean Sea, and North Sea; industrial waste and municipal sewage pollution in Baltic Sea, North Sea, and Mediterranean Sea
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab icebergs common in Davis Strait, Denmark Strait, and the northwestern Atlantic Ocean from February to August and have been spotted as far south as Bermuda and the Madeira Islands; icebergs from Antarctica occur in the extreme southern Atlantic Ocean; ships subject to superstructure icing in extreme northern Atlantic from October to May and extreme southern Atlantic from May to October; persistent fog can be a maritime hazard from May to September
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab NA
{\b Note}
\par \tab major choke points include the Dardanelles, Strait of Gibraltar, access to the Panama and Suez Canals; strategic straits include the Strait of Dover, Straits of Florida, Mona Passage, The Sound (Oresund), and Windward Passage; the Equator divides the Atlantic Ocean into the North Atlantic Ocean and South Atlantic Ocean{\b Location}
\par \tab Oceania, continent between the Indian Ocean and the South Pacific Ocean
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Oceania
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 7,686,850 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 7,617,930 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly smaller than the US
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab includes Macquarie Island
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab 0 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 25,760 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b contiguous zone}
\par \tab 24 nm
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab 200 nm or to the edge of the continental margin
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab territorial claim in Antarctica (Australian Antarctic Territory)
{\b Climate}
\par \tab generally arid to semiarid; temperate in south and east; tropical in north
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mostly low plateau with deserts; fertile plain in southeast
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab bauxite, coal, iron ore, copper, tin, silver, uranium, nickel, tungsten, mineral sands, lead, zinc, diamonds, natural gas, petroleum
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 6%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 58%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 14%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 22%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 18,800 sq km (1989 est.)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab soil erosion from overgrazing, industrial development, urbanization, and poor farming practices; soil salinity rising due to the use of poor quality water; desertification; clearing for agricultural purposes threatens the natural habitat of many unique animal and plant species; the Great Barrier Reef off the northeast coast, the largest coral reef in the world, is threatened by increased shipping and its popularity as a tourist site; limited natural fresh water resources
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab cyclones along the coast; severe droughts
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Wetlands, Whaling; signed, but not ratified - Desertification
{\b Note}
\par \tab world's smallest continent but sixth-largest country; population concentrated along the eastern and southeastern coasts; regular, tropical, invigorating, sea breeze known as "the Doctor" occurs along the west coast in the summer{\b Location}
\par \tab Central Europe, north of Italy
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Europe
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 83,850 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 82,730 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly smaller than Maine
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 2,496 km, Czech Republic 362 km, Germany 784 km, Hungary 366 km, Italy 430 km, Liechtenstein 37 km, Slovakia 91 km, Slovenia 262 km, Switzerland 164 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 0 km (landlocked)
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab none; landlocked
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab temperate; continental, cloudy; cold winters with frequent rain in lowlands and snow in mountains; cool summers with occasional showers
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab in the west and south mostly mountains (Alps); along the eastern and northern margins mostly flat or gently sloping
\par \tab some forest degradation caused by air and soil pollution; soil pollution results from the use of agricultural chemicals; air pollution results from emissions by coal- and oil-fired power stations and industrial plants and from trucks transiting Austria between northern and southern Europe
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Wetlands; signed, but not ratified - Air Pollution-Sulpher 94, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Law of the Sea, Whaling
{\b Note}
\par \tab landlocked; strategic location at the crossroads of central Europe with many easily traversable Alpine passes and valleys; major river is the Danube; population is concentrated on eastern lowlands because of steep slopes, poor soils, and low temperatures elsewhere{\b Note}
\par \tab Azerbaijan continues to be plagued by an unresolved seven-year-old conflict with Armenian separatists over its Nagorno-Karabakh region. The Karabakh Armenians have declared independence and seized almost 20% of the country's territory, creating almost 1 million Azeri displaced persons in the process. Both sides have generally observed a Russian-mediated cease-fire in place since May 1994, and support the OSCE-mediated peace process, now entering its fourth year. Nevertheless, Baku and Xankandi (Stepanakert) remain far apart on most substantive issues from the placement and composition of a peacekeeping force to the enclave's ultimate political status, and prospects for a negotiated settlement remain dim.
{\b Location}
\par \tab Southwestern Asia, bordering the Caspian Sea, between Iran and Russia
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Commonwealth of Independent States - European States
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 86,600 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 86,100 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly larger than Maine
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab includes the exclave of Naxcivan Autonomous Republic and the Nagorno-Karabakh region; the region's autonomy was abolished by Azerbaijani Supreme Soviet on 26 November 1991
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 2,013 km, Armenia (west) 566 km, Armenia (southwest) 221 km, Georgia 322 km, Iran (south) 432 km, Iran (southwest) 179 km, Russia 284 km, Turkey 9 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 0 km (landlocked)
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab Azerbaijan borders the Caspian Sea (800 km, est.)
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab none; landlocked
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab violent and longstanding dispute with ethnic Armenians of Nagorno-Karabakh over its status; Caspian Sea boundaries are not yet determined
{\b Climate}
\par \tab dry, semiarid steppe
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab large, flat Kur-Araz Lowland (much of it below sea level) with Great Caucasus Mountains to the north, Qarabag (Karabakh) Upland in west; Baku lies on Abseron (Apsheron) Peninsula that juts into Caspian Sea
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab petroleum, natural gas, iron ore, nonferrous metals, alumina
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 18%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 4%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 25%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 53%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 14,010 sq km (1990)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab local scientists consider the Abseron (Apsheron) Peninsula (including Baku and Sumqayit) and the Caspian Sea to be the ecologically most devastated area in the world because of severe air, water, and soil pollution; soil pollution results from the use of DDT as a pesticide and also from toxic defoliants used in the production of cotton
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab droughts; some lowland areas threatened by rising levels of the Caspian Sea
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab signed, but not ratified - Biodiversity, Climate Change
{\b Note}
\par \tab landlocked{\b Location}
\par \tab Caribbean, chain of islands in the North Atlantic Ocean, southeast of Florida
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Central America and the Caribbean
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 13,940 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 10,070 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly larger than Connecticut
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab 0 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 3,542 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation
\par \tab {\b exclusive fishing zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 3 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical marine; moderated by warm waters of Gulf Stream
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab long, flat coral formations with some low rounded hills
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab salt, aragonite, timber
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 1%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 32%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 67%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab NA sq km
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab coral reef decay
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab hurricanes and other tropical storms that cause extensive flood and wind damage
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution
{\b Note}
\par \tab strategic location adjacent to US and Cuba; extensive island chain{\b Location}
\par \tab Middle East, archipelago in the Persian Gulf, east of Saudi Arabia
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Middle East
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 620 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 620 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly less than 3.5 times the size of Washington, DC
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab 0 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 161 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b contiguous zone}
\par \tab 24 nm
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab extending to boundaries to be determined
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab territorial dispute with Qatar over the Hawar Islands; maritime boundary with Qatar
{\b Climate}
\par \tab arid; mild, pleasant winters; very hot, humid summers
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mostly low desert plain rising gently to low central escarpment
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab oil, associated and nonassociated natural gas, fish
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 2%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 2%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 6%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 90%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 10 sq km (1989 est.)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab desertification resulting from the degradation of limited arable land, periods of drought, and dust storms; coastal degradation (damage to coastlines, coral reefs, and sea vegetation) resulting from oil spills and other discharges from large tankers, oil refineries, and distribution stations; no natural fresh water resources so that groundwater and sea water are the only sources for all water needs
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab periodic droughts; dust storms
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Climate Change, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection; signed, but not ratified - Biodiversity
{\b Note}
\par \tab close to primary Middle Eastern petroleum sources; strategic location in Persian Gulf through which much of Western world's petroleum must transit to reach open ocean{\b Location}
\par \tab Southern Asia, bordering the Bay of Bengal, between Burma and India
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Asia
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 144,000 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 133,910 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly smaller than Wisconsin
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 4,246 km, Burma 193 km, India 4,053 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 580 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b contiguous zone}
\par \tab 18 nm
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab up to the outer limits of the continental margin
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab a portion of the boundary with India is in dispute; water-sharing problems with upstream riparian India over the Ganges
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical; cool, dry winter (October to March); hot, humid summer (March to June); cool, rainy monsoon (June to October)
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mostly flat alluvial plain; hilly in southeast
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab natural gas, arable land, timber
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 67%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 2%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 4%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 16%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 11%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 27,380 sq km (1989)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab many people are landless and forced to live on and cultivate flood-prone land; limited access to potable water; water-borne diseases prevalent; water pollution especially of fishing areas results from the use of commercial pesticides; intermittent water shortages because of falling water tables in the northern and central parts of the country; soil degradation; deforestation; severe overpopulation
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab droughts, cyclones; much of the country routinely flooded during the summer monsoon season
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands; signed, but not ratified - Desertification, Law of the Sea{\b Location}
\par \tab Caribbean, island between the Caribbean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean, northeast of Venezuela
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Central America and the Caribbean
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 430 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 430 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly less than 2.5 times the size of Washington, DC
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab 0 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 97 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical; rainy season (June to October)
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab relatively flat; rises gently to central highland region
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab petroleum, fishing, natural gas
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 77%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 9%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 14%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab NA sq km
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab pollution of coastal waters from waste disposal by ships; soil erosion; illegal solid waste disposal threatens contamination of aquifers
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab hurricanes (especially June to October); periodic landslides
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Climate Change, Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution; signed, but not ratified - Biodiversity
\par \tab Commonwealth of Independent States - European States
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 207,600 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 207,600 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly smaller than Kansas
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 3,098 km, Latvia 141 km, Lithuania 502 km, Poland 605 km, Russia 959 km, Ukraine 891 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 0 km (landlocked)
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab none; landlocked
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab cold winters, cool and moist summers; transitional between continental and maritime
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab generally flat and contains much marshland
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab forest land, peat deposits, small quantities of oil and natural gas
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 29%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 1%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 15%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 55%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 1,490 sq km (1990)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab soil pollution from pesticide use; southern part of the country contaminated with fallout from 1986 nuclear reactor accident at Chornobyl'
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Biodiversity, Environmental Modification, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection; signed, but not ratified - Climate Change, Law of the Sea
{\b Note}
\par \tab landlocked{\b Location}
\par \tab Western Europe, bordering the North Sea, between France and the Netherlands
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Europe
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 30,510 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 30,230 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly larger than Maryland
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 1,385 km, France 620 km, Germany 167 km, Luxembourg 148 km, Netherlands 450 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 64 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab median line with neighbors
\par \tab {\b exclusive fishing zone}
\par \tab median line with neighbors (extends about 68 km from coast)
\par \tab flat coastal plains in northwest, central rolling hills, rugged mountains of Ardennes Forest in southeast
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab coal, natural gas
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 24%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 1%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 20%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 21%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 34%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 10 sq km (1989 est.)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab Meuse River, a major source of drinking water, polluted from steel production wastes; other rivers polluted by animal wastes and fertilizers; industrial air pollution contributes to acid rain in neighboring countries
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab flooding is a threat in areas of reclaimed coastal land, protected from the sea by concrete dikes
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Antarctic Treaty, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Wetlands; signed, but not ratified - Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Law of the Sea
{\b Note}
\par \tab crossroads of Western Europe; majority of West European capitals within 1,000 km of Brussels which is the seat of the EU{\b Location}
\par \tab Middle America, bordering the Caribbean Sea, between Guatemala and Mexico
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Central America and the Caribbean
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 22,960 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 22,800 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly larger than Massachusetts
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 516 km, Guatemala 266 km, Mexico 250 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 386 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm in the north, 3 nm in the south; note - from the mouth of the Sarstoon River to Ranguana Cay, Belize's territorial sea is 3 miles; according to Belize's Maritime Areas Act, 1992, the purpose of this limitation is to provide a framework for the negotiation of a definitive agreement on territorial differences with Guatemala
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab border with Guatemala in dispute; talks to resolve the dispute are stalled
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical; very hot and humid; rainy season (May to February)
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab flat, swampy coastal plain; low mountains in south
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab arable land potential, timber, fish
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 2%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 2%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 44%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 52%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 20 sq km (1989 est.)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab deforestation; water pollution from sewage, industrial effluents, agricultural runoff
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab frequent, devastating hurricanes (September to December) and coastal flooding (especially in south)
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping
{\b Note}
\par \tab national capital moved 80 km inland from Belize City to Belmopan because of hurricanes; only country in Central America without a coastline on the North Pacific Ocean{\b Location}
\par \tab Western Africa, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean, between Nigeria and Togo
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Africa
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 112,620 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 110,620 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly smaller than Pennsylvania
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 1,989 km, Burkina 306 km, Niger 266 km, Nigeria 773 km, Togo 644 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 121 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 200 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical; hot, humid in south; semiarid in north
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mostly flat to undulating plain; some hills and low mountains
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab small offshore oil deposits, limestone, marble, timber
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 12%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 4%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 4%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 35%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 45%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 60 sq km (1989 est.)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab recent droughts have severely affected marginal agriculture in north; inadequate supplies of potable water; poaching threatens wildlife populations; deforestation; desertification
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab hot, dry, dusty harmattan wind may affect north in winter
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection; signed, but not ratified - Desertification, Law of the Sea
{\b Note}
\par \tab no natural harbors{\b Affiliation}
\par \tab (dependent territory of the UK)
{\b Location}
\par \tab North America, group of islands in the North Atlantic Ocean, east of North Carolina (US)
{\b Map references}
\par \tab North America
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 50 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 50 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab about 0.3 times the size of Washington, DC
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab 0 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 103 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b exclusive fishing zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab subtropical; mild, humid; gales, strong winds common in winter
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab low hills separated by fertile depressions
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab limestone, pleasant climate fostering tourism
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 20%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 80%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab NA sq km
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab hurricanes (June to November)
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab NA
{\b Note}
\par \tab consists of about 360 small coral islands with ample rainfall, but no rivers or freshwater lakes; some reclaimed land leased by US Government{\b Location}
\par \tab Southern Asia, between China and India
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Asia
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 47,000 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 47,000 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly more than half the size of Indiana
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 1,075 km, China 470 km, India 605 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 0 km (landlocked)
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab none; landlocked
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab varies; tropical in southern plains; cool winters and hot summers in central valleys; severe winters and cool summers in Himalayas
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mostly mountainous with some fertile valleys and savanna
\par \tab soil erosion; limited access to potable water
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab violent storms coming down from the Himalayas are the source of the country's name which translates as Land of the Thunder Dragon; frequent landslides during the rainy season
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Nuclear Test Ban; signed, but not ratified - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Law of the Sea
{\b Note}
\par \tab landlocked; strategic location between China and India; controls several key Himalayan mountain passes{\b Location}
\par \tab Central South America, southwest of Brazil
{\b Map references}
\par \tab South America
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 1,098,580 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 1,084,390 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly less than three times the size of Montana
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 6,743 km, Argentina 832 km, Brazil 3,400 km, Chile 861 km, Paraguay 750 km, Peru 900 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 0 km (landlocked)
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab none; landlocked
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab has wanted a sovereign corridor to the South Pacific Ocean since the Atacama area was lost to Chile in 1884; dispute with Chile over Rio Lauca water rights
{\b Climate}
\par \tab varies with altitude; humid and tropical to cold and semiarid
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab rugged Andes Mountains with a highland plateau (Altiplano), hills, lowland plains of the Amazon Basin
\par \tab the clearing of land for agricultural purposes and the international demand for tropical timber are contributing to deforestation; soil erosion from overgrazing and poor cultivation methods (including slash-and-burn agriculture); desertification; loss of biodiversity; industrial pollution of water supplies used for drinking and irrigation
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab cold, thin air of high plateau is obstacle to efficient fuel combustion, as well as to physical activity by those unaccustomed to it from birth; flooding in the northeast (March to April)
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Nuclear Test Ban, Tropical Timber 83, Wetlands; signed, but not ratified - Desertification, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Ozone Layer Protection
{\b Note}
\par \tab landlocked; shares control of Lago Titicaca, world's highest navigable lake (elevation 3,805 m), with Peru{\b Note}
\par \tab Bosnia and Herzegovina is set to enter its third year of interethnic civil strife which began in the spring of 1992 after the Government of Bosnia and Herzegovina held a referendum on independence. Bosnia's Serbs - supported by neighboring Serbia - responded with armed resistance aimed at partitioning the republic along ethnic lines and joining Serb-held areas to 'greater Serbia'. In March 1994, Bosnia's Muslims and Croats reduced the number of warring factions from three to two by signing an agreement in Washington, DC, creating the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. A group of rebel Muslims, however, continues to battle government forces in the northwest enclave of Bihac. A Contact Group of countries, the US, UK, France, Germany, and Russia, continues to seek a resolution between the Federation and the Bosnian Serbs. In July of 1994 the Contact Group presented a plan to the warring parties that roughly equally divides the country between the two, while maintaining Bosnia in its current internationally recognized borders. The Federation agreed to the plan almost immediately, while the Bosnian Serbs rejected it.
{\b Location}
\par \tab Southeastern Europe, bordering the Adriatic Sea and Croatia
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Ethnic Groups in Eastern Europe, Europe
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 51,233 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 51,233 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly larger than Tennessee
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 1,459 km, Croatia 932 km, Serbia and Montenegro 527 km (312 km with Serbia; 215 km with Montenegro)
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 20 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab NA
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab as of January 1995, Bosnian Government and Bosnian Serb leaders remain far apart on territorial and constitutional solutions for Bosnia; the two sides did, however, sign a four-month cessation of hostilities agreement effective January 1; the Bosnian Serbs continue to reject the Contact Group Plan submitted by the United States, United Kingdom, France, Germany, and Russia, and accepted by the Bosnian Government, which stands firm in its desire to regain lost territory and preserve Bosnia as a multiethnic state within its current borders; Bosnian Serb forces control approximately 70% of Bosnian territory
{\b Climate}
\par \tab hot summers and cold winters; areas of high elevation have short, cool summers and long, severe winters; mild, rainy winters along coast
\par \tab air pollution from metallurgical plants; sites for disposing of urban waste are limited; widespread casualties, water shortages, and destruction of infrastructure because of civil strife
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab frequent and destructive earthquakes
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Air Pollution, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection{\b Location}
\par \tab Southern Africa, north of South Africa
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Africa
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 600,370 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 585,370 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly smaller than Texas
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 4,013 km, Namibia 1,360 km, South Africa 1,840 km, Zimbabwe 813 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 0 km (landlocked)
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab none; landlocked
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab short section of boundary with Namibia is indefinite; quadripoint with Namibia, Zambia, and Zimbabwe is in disagreement; dispute with Namibia over uninhabited Kasikili (Sidudu) Island in Linyanti (Chobe) River remained unresolved in mid-February 1995 and the parties agreed to refer the matter to the International Court of Justice
{\b Climate}
\par \tab semiarid; warm winters and hot summers
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab predominately flat to gently rolling tableland; Kalahari Desert in southwest
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab diamonds, copper, nickel, salt, soda ash, potash, coal, iron ore, silver
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 2%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 75%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 2%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 21%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 20 sq km (1989 est.)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab overgrazing, primarily as a result of the expansion of the cattle population; desertification; limited natural fresh water resources
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab periodic droughts; seasonal August winds blow from the west, carrying sand and dust across the country, which can obscure visibility
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Climate Change, Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection; signed, but not ratified - Biodiversity
{\b Note}
\par \tab landlocked; population concentrated in eastern part of the country{\b Location}
\par \tab Eastern South America, bordering the Atlantic Ocean
{\b Map references}
\par \tab South America
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 8,511,965 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 8,456,510 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly smaller than the US
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab includes Arquipelago de Fernando de Noronha, Atol das Rocas, Ilha da Trindade, Ilhas Martin Vaz, and Penedos de Sao Pedro e Sao Paulo
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 14,691 km, Argentina 1,224 km, Bolivia 3,400 km, Colombia 1,643 km, French Guiana 673 km, Guyana 1,119 km, Paraguay 1,290 km, Peru 1,560 km, Suriname 597 km, Uruguay 985 km, Venezuela 2,200 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 7,491 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b contiguous zone}
\par \tab 24 nm
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab short section of the boundary with Paraguay, just west of Salto das Sete Quedas (Guaira Falls) on the Rio Parana, is in dispute; two short sections of boundary with Uruguay are in dispute - Arroio Invernada (Arroyo de la Invernada) area of the Rio Quarai (Rio Cuareim) and the islands at the confluence of the Rio Quarai and the Uruguay River
{\b Climate}
\par \tab mostly tropical, but temperate in south
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mostly flat to rolling lowlands in north; some plains, hills, mountains, and narrow coastal belt
\par \tab deforestation in Amazon Basin destroys the habitat and endangers the existence of a multitude of plant and animal species indigenous to the area; air and water pollution in Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paulo, and several other large cities; land degradation and water pollution caused by improper mining activities
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab recurring droughts in northeast; floods and occasional frost in south
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Wetlands, Whaling; signed, but not ratified - Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Desertification
{\b Note}
\par \tab largest country in South America; shares common boundaries with every South American country except Chile and Ecuador{\b Affiliation}
\par \tab (dependent territory of the UK)
{\b Location}
\par \tab Caribbean, between the Caribbean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean, east of Puerto Rico
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Central America and the Caribbean
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 150 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 150 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab about 0.8 times the size of Washington, DC
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab includes the island of Anegada
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab 0 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 80 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b exclusive fishing zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 3 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab subtropical; humid; temperatures moderated by trade winds
\par \tab limited natural fresh water resources (except for a few seasonal streams and springs on Tortola, most of the island's water supply comes from wells and rainwater catchment)
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab hurricanes and tropical storms (July to October)
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab NA
{\b Note}
\par \tab strong ties to nearby US Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico{\b Location}
\par \tab Southeastern Asia, bordering the South China Sea and Malaysia
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Southeast Asia
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 5,770 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 5,270 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly larger than Delaware
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 381 km, Malysia 381 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 161 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm or to median line
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab may wish to purchase the Malaysian salient that divides the country; all of the Spratly Islands are claimed by China, Taiwan, and Vietnam; parts of them are claimed by Malaysia and the Philippines; in 1984, Brunei established an exclusive fishing zone that encompasses Louisa Reef, but has not publicly claimed the island
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical; hot, humid, rainy
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab flat coastal plain rises to mountains in east; hilly lowland in west
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab petroleum, natural gas, timber
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 1%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 1%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 1%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 79%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 18%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 10 sq km (1989 est.)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab typhoons, earthquakes, and severe flooding are very rare
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Endangered Species, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution; signed, but not ratified - Law of the Sea
{\b Note}
\par \tab close to vital sea lanes through South China Sea linking Indian and Pacific Oceans; two parts physically separated by Malaysia; almost an enclave of Malaysia{\b Location}
\par \tab Southeastern Europe, bordering the Black Sea, between Romania and Turkey
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Ethnic Groups in Eastern Europe, Europe
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 110,910 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 110,550 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly larger than Tennessee
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 1,808 km, Greece 494 km, The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia 148 km, Romania 608 km, Serbia and Montenegro 318 km (all with Serbia), Turkey 240 km
\par \tab mostly mountains with lowlands in north and southeast
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab bauxite, copper, lead, zinc, coal, timber, arable land
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 34%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 3%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 18%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 35%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 10%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 10 sq km (1989 est.)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab air pollution from industrial emissions; rivers polluted from raw sewage, heavy metals, detergents; deforestation; forest damage from air pollution and resulting acid rain; soil contamination from heavy metals from metallurgical plants and industrial wastes
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab earthquakes, landslides
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Antarctic Treaty, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands; signed, but not ratified - Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Law of the Sea
{\b Note}
\par \tab strategic location near Turkish Straits; controls key land routes from Europe to Middle East and Asia{\b Location}
\par \tab Western Africa, north of Ghana
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Africa
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 274,200 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 273,800 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly larger than Colorado
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 3,192 km, Benin 306 km, Ghana 548 km, Cote d'Ivoire 584 km, Mali 1,000 km, Niger 628 km, Togo 126 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 0 km (landlocked)
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab none; landlocked
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab following mutual acceptance of an International Court of Justice (ICJ) ruling in December 1986 on their international boundary dispute, Burkina and Mali are proceeding with boundary demarcation, including the tripoint with Niger
\par \tab mostly flat to dissected, undulating plains; hills in west and southeast
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab manganese, limestone, marble; small deposits of gold, antimony, copper, nickel, bauxite, lead, phosphates, zinc, silver
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 10%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 37%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 26%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 27%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 160 sq km (1989 est.)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab recent droughts and desertification severely affecting agricultural activities, population distribution, and the economy; overgrazing; soil degradation; deforestation
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab recurring droughts
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Marine Life Conservation, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands; signed, but not ratified - Desertification, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban
{\b Note}
\par \tab landlocked{\b Location}
\par \tab Southeastern Asia, bordering the Andaman Sea and the Bay of Bengal, between Bangladesh and Thailand
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Southeast Asia
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 678,500 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 657,740 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly smaller than Texas
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 5,876 km, Bangladesh 193 km, China 2,185 km, India 1,463 km, Laos 235 km, Thailand 1,800 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 1,930 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b contiguous zone}
\par \tab 24 nm
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab 200 nm or to the edge of the continental margin
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical monsoon; cloudy, rainy, hot, humid summers (southwest monsoon, June to September); less cloudy, scant rainfall, mild temperatures, lower humidity during winter (northeast monsoon, December to April)
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab central lowlands ringed by steep, rugged highlands
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab petroleum, timber, tin, antimony, zinc, copper, tungsten, lead, coal, some marble, limestone, precious stones, natural gas
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 15%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 1%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 1%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 49%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 34%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 10,180 sq km (1989)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab deforestation; industrial pollution of air, soil, and water; inadequate sanitation and water treatment contribute to disease
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab destructive earthquakes and cyclones; flooding and landslides common during rainy season (June to September); periodic droughts
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83; signed, but not ratified - Law of the Sea
{\b Note}
\par \tab strategic location near major Indian Ocean shipping lanes{\b Location}
\par \tab Central Africa, east of Zaire
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Africa
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 27,830 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 25,650 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly larger than Maryland
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 974 km, Rwanda 290 km, Tanzania 451 km, Zaire 233 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 0 km (landlocked)
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab none; landlocked
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab temperate; warm; occasional frost in uplands; dry season from June to September
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab hilly and mountainous, dropping to a plateau in east, some plains
\par \tab soil erosion as a result of overgrazing and the expansion of agriculture into marginal lands; deforestation (little forested land remains because of uncontrolled cutting of trees for fuel); habitat loss threatens wildlife populations
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab flooding, landslides
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Endangered Species; signed, but not ratified - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban
{\b Note}
\par \tab landlocked; straddles crest of the Nile-Congo watershed{\b Location}
\par \tab Southeastern Asia, bordering the Gulf of Thailand, between Thailand and Vietnam
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Southeast Asia
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 181,040 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 176,520 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly smaller than Oklahoma
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 2,572 km, Laos 541 km, Thailand 803 km, Vietnam 1,228 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 443 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b contiguous zone}
\par \tab 24 nm
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab offshore islands and sections of the boundary with Vietnam are in dispute; maritime boundary with Vietnam not defined; parts of border with Thailand in dispute; maritime boundary with Thailand not clearly defined
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical; rainy, monsoon season (May to November); dry season (December to April); little seasonal temperature variation
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mostly low, flat plains; mountains in southwest and north
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab timber, gemstones, some iron ore, manganese, phosphates, hydropower potential
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 16%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 1%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 3%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 76%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 4%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 920 sq km (1989 est.)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab logging activities throughout the country and strip mining for gems in the western region along the border with Thailand are resulting in habitat loss and declining biodiversity (in particular, destruction of mangrove swamps threatens natural fisheries); deforestation; soil erosion; in rural areas, a majority of the population does not have access to potable water
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab monsoonal rains (June to November); flooding; occasional droughts
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Marine Life Conservation, Ship Pollution; signed, but not ratified - Desertification, Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping
{\b Note}
\par \tab a land of paddies and forests dominated by the Mekong River and Tonle Sap{\b Location}
\par \tab Western Africa, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean, between Equatorial Guinea and Nigeria
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Africa
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 475,440 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 469,440 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly larger than California
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 4,591 km, Central African Republic 797 km, Chad 1,094 km, Congo 523 km, Equatorial Guinea 189 km, Gabon 298 km, Nigeria 1,690 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 402 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 50 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab demarcation of international boundaries in Lake Chad, the lack of which led to border incidents in the past, is completed and awaits ratification by Cameroon, Chad, Niger, and Nigeria; dispute with Nigeria over land and maritime boundaries in the vicinity of the Bakasi Peninsula has been referred to the International Court of Justice
{\b Climate}
\par \tab varies with terrain, from tropical along coast to semiarid and hot in north
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab diverse, with coastal plain in southwest, dissected plateau in center, mountains in west, plains in north
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab petroleum, bauxite, iron ore, timber, hydropower potential
\par \tab recent volcanic activity with release of poisonous gases
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Tropical Timber 83; signed, but not ratified - Desertification, Nuclear Test Ban, Tropical Timber 94
{\b Note}
\par \tab sometimes referred to as the hinge of Africa{\b Location}
\par \tab Northern North America, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean and North Pacific Ocean, north of the conterminous US
{\b Map references}
\par \tab North America
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 9,976,140 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 9,220,970 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly larger than US
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 8,893 km, US 8,893 km (includes 2,477 km with Alaska)
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 243,791 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab 200 nm or to the edge of the continental margin
\par \tab {\b exclusive fishing zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab maritime boundary disputes with the US; Saint Pierre and Miquelon is focus of maritime boundary dispute between Canada and France
{\b Climate}
\par \tab varies from temperate in south to subarctic and arctic in north
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mostly plains with mountains in west and lowlands in southeast
\par \tab air pollution and resulting acid rain severely affecting lakes and damaging forests; metal smelting, coal-burning utilities, and vehicle emissions impacting on agricultural and forest productivity; ocean waters becoming contaminated due to agricultural, industrial, mining, and forestry activities
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab continuous permafrost in north is a serious obstacle to development; cyclonic storms form east of the Rocky Mountains, a result of the mixing of air masses from the Arctic, Pacific, and American interior, and produce most of the country's rain and snow
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Wetlands; signed, but not ratified - Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Desertification, Law of the Sea
{\b Note}
\par \tab second-largest country in world (after Russia); strategic location between Russia and US via north polar route; nearly 90% of the population is concentrated in the region near the US/Canada border{\b Location}
\par \tab Western Africa, group of Islands in the North Atlantic Ocean, west of Senegal
{\b Map references}
\par \tab World
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 4,030 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 4,030 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly larger than Rhode Island
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab 0 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 965 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab measured from claimed archipelagic baselines
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab temperate; warm, dry, summer; precipitation very erratic
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab steep, rugged, rocky, volcanic
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab salt, basalt rock, pozzolana, limestone, kaolin, fish
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 9%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 6%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 85%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 20 sq km (1989 est.)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab overgrazing of livestock and improper land use such as the cultivation of crops on steep slopes has led to soil erosion; demand for wood used as fuel has resulted in deforestation; desertification; environmental damage has threatened several indigenous species of birds and reptiles; overfishing
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab prolonged droughts; harmattan wind can obscure visibility; volcanically and seismically active
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Environmental Modification, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban; signed, but not ratified - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification
{\b Note}
\par \tab strategic location 500 km from west coast of Africa near major north-south sea routes; important communications station; important sea and air refueling site{\b Affiliation}
\par \tab (dependent territory of the UK)
{\b Location}
\par \tab Caribbean, island group in Caribbean Sea, nearly one-half of the way from Cuba to Honduras
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Central America and the Caribbean
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 260 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 260 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly less than 1.5 times the size of Washington, DC
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab 0 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 160 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b exclusive fishing zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical marine; warm, rainy summers (May to October) and cool, relatively dry winters (November to April)
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab low-lying limestone base surrounded by coral reefs
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab fish, climate and beaches that foster tourism
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 8%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 23%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 69%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab NA sq km
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab no natural fresh water resources, drinking water supplies must be met by rainwater catchment
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab hurricanes (July to November)
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab NA
{\b Note}
\par \tab important location between Cuba and Central America{\b Location}
\par \tab Central Africa, north of Zaire
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Africa
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 622,980 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 622,980 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly smaller than Texas
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 5,203 km, Cameroon 797 km, Chad 1,197 km, Congo 467 km, Sudan 1,165 km, Zaire 1,577 km
\par \tab vast, flat to rolling, monotonous plateau; scattered hills in northeast and southwest
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab diamonds, uranium, timber, gold, oil
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 3%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 5%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 64%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 28%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab NA sq km
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab tap water is not potable; poaching has diminished reputation as one of last great wildlife refuges; desertification
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab hot, dry, dusty harmattan winds affect northern areas; floods are common
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Endangered Species, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection; signed, but not ratified - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Law of the Sea
{\b Note}
\par \tab landlocked; almost the precise center of Africa{\b Location}
\par \tab Central Africa, south of Libya
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Africa
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 1.284 million sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 1,259,200 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly more than three times the size of California
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 5,968 km, Cameroon 1,094 km, Central African Republic 1,197 km, Libya 1,055 km, Niger 1,175 km, Nigeria 87 km, Sudan 1,360 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 0 km (landlocked)
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab none; landlocked
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab the International Court of Justice (ICJ) ruled in February 1994 that the 100,000 sq km Aozou Strip between Chad and Libya belongs to Chad; Libya has withdrawn some of its forces in response to the ICJ ruling, but still maintains an airfield in the disputed area; demarcation of international boundaries in Lake Chad, the lack of which has led to border incidents in the past, is completed and awaiting ratification by Cameroon, Chad, Niger, and Nigeria
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical in south, desert in north
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab broad, arid plains in center, desert in north, mountains in northwest, lowlands in south
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab petroleum (unexploited but exploration under way), uranium, natron, kaolin, fish (Lake Chad)
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 2%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 36%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 11%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 51%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 100 sq km (1989 est.)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab inadequate supplies of potable water; improper waste disposal in rural areas contributes to soil and water pollution; desertification
\par \tab party to - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands; signed, but not ratified - Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping
{\b Note}
\par \tab landlocked; Lake Chad is the most significant water body in the Sahel{\b Location}
\par \tab Southern South America, bordering the South Atlantic Ocean and South Pacific Ocean, between Argentina and Peru
{\b Map references}
\par \tab South America
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 756,950 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 748,800 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly smaller than twice the size of Montana
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab includes Isla de Pascua (Easter Island) and Isla Sala y Gomez
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 6,171 km, Argentina 5,150 km, Bolivia 861 km, Peru 160 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 6,435 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b contiguous zone}
\par \tab 24 nm
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab short section of the southern boundary with Argentina is indefinite; Bolivia has wanted a sovereign corridor to the South Pacific Ocean since the Atacama area was lost to Chile in 1884; dispute with Bolivia over Rio Lauca water rights; territorial claim in Antarctica (Chilean Antarctic Territory) partially overlaps Argentine and British claims
{\b Climate}
\par \tab temperate; desert in north; cool and damp in south
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab low coastal mountains; fertile central valley; rugged Andes in east
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab copper, timber, iron ore, nitrates, precious metals, molybdenum
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 7%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 16%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 21%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 56%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 12,650 sq km (1989 est.)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab air pollution from industrial and vehicle emissions; water pollution from raw sewage; deforestation contributing to loss of biodiversity; soil erosion; desertification
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab severe earthquakes; active volcanism; tsunamis
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands, Whaling; signed, but not ratified - Law of the Sea
{\b Note}
\par \tab strategic location relative to sea lanes between Atlantic and Pacific Oceans (Strait of Magellan, Beagle Channel, Drake Passage); Atacama Desert one of world's driest regions{\b Affiliation}
\par \tab (also see separate Taiwan entry)
{\b Location}
\par \tab Eastern Asia, bordering the East China Sea, Korea Bay, Yellow Sea, and South China Sea, between North Korea and Vietnam
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Asia
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 9,596,960 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 9,326,410 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly larger than the US
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 22,143.34 km, Afghanistan 76 km, Bhutan 470 km, Burma 2,185 km, Hong Kong 30 km, India 3,380 km, Kazakhstan 1,533 km, North Korea 1,416 km, Kyrgyzstan 858 km, Laos 423 km, Macau 0.34 km, Mongolia 4,673 km, Nepal 1,236 km, Pakistan 523 km, Russia (northeast) 3,605 km, Russia (northwest) 40 km, Tajikistan 414 km, Vietnam 1,281 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 14,500 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab claim to shallow areas of East China Sea and Yellow Sea
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab boundary with India in dispute; disputed sections of the boundary with Russia remain to be settled; boundary with Tajikistan in dispute; a short section of the boundary with North Korea is indefinite; involved in a complex dispute over the Spratly Islands with Malaysia, Philippines, Taiwan, Vietnam, and possibly Brunei; maritime boundary dispute with Vietnam in the Gulf of Tonkin; Paracel Islands occupied by China, but claimed by Vietnam and Taiwan; claims Japanese-administered Senkaku-shoto (Senkaku Islands/Diaoyu Tai), as does Taiwan
{\b Climate}
\par \tab extremely diverse; tropical in south to subarctic in north
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mostly mountains, high plateaus, deserts in west; plains, deltas, and hills in east
\par \tab air pollution from the overwhelming use of high-sulfur coal as a fuel, produces acid rain which is damaging forests; water shortages experienced throughout the country, particularly in urban areas; future growth in water usage threatens to outpace supplies; water pollution from industrial effluents; much of the population does not have access to potable water; less than 10% of sewage receives treatment; deforestation; estimated loss of one-fifth of agricultural land since 1957 to soil erosion and economic development; desertification; trade in endangered species
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab frequent typhoons (about five per year along southern and eastern coasts); damaging floods; tsunamis; earthquakes; droughts
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Wetlands, Whaling; signed, but not ratified - Desertification, Law of the Sea
{\b Note}
\par \tab world's third-largest country (after Russia and Canada){\b Location}
\par \tab Northern South America, bordering the Caribbean Sea, between Panama and Venezuela, and bordering the North Pacific Ocean, between Ecuador and Panama
{\b Map references}
\par \tab South America
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 1,138,910 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 1,038,700 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly less than three times the size of Montana
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab includes Isla de Malpelo, Roncador Cay, Serrana Bank, and Serranilla Bank
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 7,408 km, Brazil 1,643 km, Ecuador 590 km, Panama 225 km, Peru 2,900 km, Venezuela 2,050 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 3,208 km (Caribbean Sea 1,760 km, North Pacific Ocean 1,448 km)
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab maritime boundary dispute with Venezuela in the Gulf of Venezuela; territorial dispute with Nicaragua over Archipelago de San Andres y Providencia and Quita Sueno Bank
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical along coast and eastern plains; cooler in highlands
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab flat coastal lowlands, central highlands, high Andes Mountains, eastern lowland plains
\par \tab party to - Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Endangered Species, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83; signed, but not ratified - Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Climate Change, Desertification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping
{\b Note}
\par \tab only South American country with coastlines on both North Pacific Ocean and Caribbean Sea{\b Location}
\par \tab Southern Africa, group of islands in the Mozambique Channel, about two-thirds of the way between northern Madagascar and northern Mozambique
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Africa
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 2,170 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 2,170 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly more than 12 times the size of Washington, DC
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab 0 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 340 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab claims French-administered Mayotte
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical marine; rainy season (November to May)
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab volcanic islands, interiors vary from steep mountains to low hills
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab negligible
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 35%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 8%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 7%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 16%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 34%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab NA sq km
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab soil degradation and erosion results from crop cultivation on slopes without proper terracing; deforestation
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab cyclones and tsunamis possible during rainy season (December to April); Mount Kartala on Grand Comore is an active volcano
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection; signed, but not ratified - Desertification
{\b Note}
\par \tab important location at northern end of Mozambique Channel{\b Location}
\par \tab Western Africa, bordering the South Atlantic Ocean, between Angola and Gabon
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Africa
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 342,000 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 341,500 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly smaller than Montana
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 5,504 km, Angola 201 km, Cameroon 523 km, Central African Republic 467 km, Gabon 1,903 km, Zaire 2,410 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 169 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 200 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab long segment of boundary with Zaire along the Congo River is indefinite (no division of the river or its islands has been made)
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical; rainy season (March to June); dry season (June to October); constantly high temperatures and humidity; particularly enervating climate astride the Equator
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab coastal plain, southern basin, central plateau, northern basin
\par \tab air pollution from vehicle emissions; water pollution from the dumping of raw sewage; tap water is not potable; deforestation
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab seasonal flooding
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Endangered Species, Ozone Layer Protection, Tropical Timber 83; signed, but not ratified - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Law of the Sea, Tropical Timber 94
{\b Note}
\par \tab about 70% of the population lives in Brazzaville, Pointe Noire, or along the railroad between them{\b Location}
\par \tab Middle America, bordering both the Caribbean Sea and the North Pacific Ocean, between Nicaragua and Panama
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Central America and the Caribbean
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 51,100 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 50,660 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly smaller than West Virginia
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab includes Isla del Coco
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 639 km, Nicaragua 309 km, Panama 330 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 1,290 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical; dry season (December to April); rainy season (May to November)
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab coastal plains separated by rugged mountains
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab hydropower potential
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 6%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 7%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 45%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 34%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 8%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 1,180 sq km (1989 est.)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab deforestation, largely a result of the clearing of land for cattle ranching; soil erosion
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab occasional earthquakes, hurricanes along Atlantic coast; frequent flooding of lowlands at onset of rainy season; active volcanoes
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands, Whaling; signed, but not ratified - Desertification, Marine Life Conservation{\b Affiliation}
\par \tab (also known as Ivory Coast)
{\b Location}
\par \tab Western Africa, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean, between Ghana and Liberia
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Africa
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 322,460 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 318,000 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly larger than New Mexico
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 3,110 km, Burkina 584 km, Ghana 668 km, Guinea 610 km, Liberia 716 km, Mali 532 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 515 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical along coast, semiarid in far north; three seasons - warm and dry (November to March), hot and dry (March to May), hot and wet (June to October)
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mostly flat to undulating plains; mountains in northwest
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab petroleum, diamonds, manganese, iron ore, cobalt, bauxite, copper
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 9%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 4%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 9%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 26%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 52%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 620 sq km (1989 est.)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab deforestation (most of the country's forests - once the largest in West Africa - have been cleared by the timber industry); water pollution from sewage and industrial and agricultural effluents
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab coast has heavy surf and no natural harbors; during the rainy season torrential flooding is possible
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83; signed, but not ratified - Desertification{\b Location}
\par \tab Southeastern Europe, bordering the Adriatic Sea, between Bosnia and Herzegovina and Slovenia
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Ethnic Groups in Eastern Europe, Europe
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 56,538 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 56,410 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly smaller than West Virginia
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 2,028 km, Bosnia and Herzegovina 932 km, Hungary 329 km, Serbia and Montenegro 266 km (241 km with Serbia; 25 km with Montenego), Slovenia 501 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 5,790 km (mainland 1,778 km, islands 4,012 km)
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab Ethnic Serbs have occupied UN protected areas in eastern Croatia and along the western Bosnia and Herzegovinian border
{\b Climate}
\par \tab Mediterranean and continental; continental climate predominant with hot summers and cold winters; mild winters, dry summers along coast
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab geographically diverse; flat plains along Hungarian border, low mountains and highlands near Adriatic coast, coastline, and islands
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab oil, some coal, bauxite, low-grade iron ore, calcium, natural asphalt, silica, mica, clays, salt
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 32%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 20%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 18%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 15%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 15%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab NA sq km
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab air pollution (from metallurgical plants) and resulting acid rain is damaging the forests; coastal pollution from industrial and domestic waste; widespread casualties and destruction of infrastructure in border areas affected by civil strife
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab frequent and destructive earthquakes
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Air Pollution, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands; signed, but not ratified - Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification
{\b Note}
\par \tab controls most land routes from Western Europe to Aegean Sea and Turkish Straits{\b Location}
\par \tab Caribbean, island between the Caribbean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean, south of Florida
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Central America and the Caribbean
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 110,860 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 110,860 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly smaller than Pennsylvania
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 29 km, US Naval Base at Guantanamo Bay 29 km
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab Guantanamo Naval Base is leased by the US and thus remains part of Cuba
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 3,735 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab US Naval Base at Guantanamo Bay is leased to US and only mutual agreement or US abandonment of the area can terminate the lease
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical; moderated by trade winds; dry season (November to April); rainy season (May to October)
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mostly flat to rolling plains with rugged hills and mountains in the southeast
\par \tab the east coast is subject to hurricanes from August to October (in general, the country averages about one hurricane every other year); droughts are common
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution; signed, but not ratified - Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Desertification, Marine Life Conservation
{\b Note}
\par \tab largest country in Caribbean{\b Location}
\par \tab Middle East, island in the Mediterreanean Sea, south of Turkey
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Middle East
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 9,250 sq km (note - 3,355 sq km are in the Turkish area)
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 9,240 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab about 0.7 times the size of Connecticut
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab 0 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 648 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab 1974 hostilities divided the island into two de facto autonomous areas, a Greek area controlled by the Cypriot Government (59% of the island's land area) and a Turkish-Cypriot area (37% of the island), that are separated by a UN buffer zone (4% of the island); there are two UK sovereign base areas within the Greek Cypriot portion of the island
{\b Climate}
\par \tab temperate, Mediterranean with hot, dry summers and cool, wet winters
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab central plain with mountains to north and south; scattered but significant plains along southern coast
\par \tab water resource problems (no natural reservoir catchments, seasonal disparity in rainfall, and most potable resources concentrated in the Turkish Cypriot area); water pollution from sewage and industrial wastes; coastal degradation; loss of wildlife habitats from urbanization
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab moderate earthquake activity
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Air Pollution, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution; signed, but not ratified - Biodiversity, Climate Change{\b Location}
\par \tab Central Europe, southeast of Germany
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Ethnic Groups in Eastern Europe, Europe
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 78,703 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 78,645 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly smaller than South Carolina
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 1,880 km, Austria 362 km, Germany 646 km, Poland 658 km, Slovakia 214 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 0 km (landlocked)
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab none; landlocked
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab Liechtenstein claims restitution for l,600 square kilometers of Czech territory confiscated from its royal family in 1918; Sudeten German claims for restitution of property confiscated in connection with their expulsion after World War II versus the Czech Republic claims that restitution does not preceed before February 1948 when the Communists seized power; unresolved property issues with Slovakia over redistribution of property of the former Czechoslovak federal government
\par \tab two main regions: Bohemia in the west, consisting of rolling plains, hills, and plateaus surrounded by low mountains; and Moravia in the east, consisting of very hilly country
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab hard coal, soft coal, kaolin, clay, graphite
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab NA%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab NA%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab NA%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab NA%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab NA%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab NA sq km
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab air and water pollution in areas of northwest Bohemia centered around Zeplica and in northern Moravia around Ostrava present health risks; acid rain damaging forests
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands; signed, but not ratified - Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Law of the Sea
{\b Note}
\par \tab landlocked; strategically located astride some of oldest and most significant land routes in Europe; Moravian Gate is a traditional military corridor between the North European Plain and the Danube in central Europe{\b Location}
\par \tab Northern Europe, bordering the Baltic Sea and the North Sea, on a peninsula north of Germany
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Europe
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 43,070 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 42,370 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly more than twice the size of Massachusetts
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab includes the island of Bornholm in the Baltic Sea and the rest of metropolitan Denmark, but excludes the Faroe Islands and Greenland
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 68 km, Germany 68 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 3,379 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b contiguous zone}
\par \tab 4 nm
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation
\par \tab {\b exclusive fishing zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 3 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab Rockall continental shelf dispute involving Iceland, Ireland, and the UK (Ireland and the UK have signed a boundary agreement in the Rockall area)
{\b Climate}
\par \tab temperate; humid and overcast; mild, windy winters and cool summers
\par \tab air pollution, principally from vehicle emissions; nitrogen and phosphorus pollution of the North Sea; drinking and surface water becoming polluted from animal wastes
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab flooding is a threat in some areas of the country (e.g., parts of Jutland, along the southern coast of the island of Lolland) that are protected from the sea by a system of dikes
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Wetlands, Whaling; signed, but not ratified - Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Desertification, Law of the Sea
{\b Note}
\par \tab controls Danish Straits linking Baltic and North Seas; about one-quarter of the population lives in Copenhagen{\b Location}
\par \tab Eastern Africa, bordering the Gulf of Aden and the Red Sea, between Eritrea and Somalia
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Africa
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 22,000 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 21,980 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly larger than Massachusetts
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 508 km, Eritrea 113 km, Ethiopia 337 km, Somalia 58 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 314 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b contiguous zone}
\par \tab 24 nm
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab desert; torrid, dry
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab coastal plain and plateau separated by central mountains
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab geothermal areas
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 9%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 91%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab NA sq km
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab inadequate supplies of potable water; desertification
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab earthquakes; droughts; occasional cyclonic disturbances from the Indian Ocean bring heavy rains and flash floods
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Biodiversity, Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Ship Pollution; signed, but not ratified - Climate Change, Desertification
{\b Note}
\par \tab strategic location near world's busiest shipping lanes and close to Arabian oilfields; terminus of rail traffic into Ethiopia; a vast wasteland{\b Location}
\par \tab Caribbean, island between the Caribbean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean, about one-half of the way from Puerto Rico to Trinidad and Tobago
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Central America and the Caribbean
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 750 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 750 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly more than four times the size of Washington, DC
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab 0 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 148 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b contiguous zone}
\par \tab 24 nm
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical; moderated by northeast trade winds; heavy rainfall
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab rugged mountains of volcanic origin
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab timber
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 9%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 13%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 3%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 41%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 34%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab NA sq km
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab flash floods are a constant threat; destructive hurricanes can be expected during the late summer months
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Environmental Modification, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Whaling{\b Location}
\par \tab Caribbean, eastern two-thirds of the island of Hispaniola, between the Caribbean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean, east of Haiti
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Central America and the Caribbean
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 48,730 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 48,380 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly more than twice the size of New Hampshire
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 275 km, Haiti 275 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 1,288 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b contiguous zone}
\par \tab 24 nm
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab 200 nm or to the edge of the continental margin
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 6 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical maritime; little seasonal temperature variation; seasonal variation in rainfall
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab rugged highlands and mountains with fertile valleys interspersed
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab nickel, bauxite, gold, silver
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 23%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 7%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 43%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 13%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 14%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 2,250 sq km (1989)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab water shortages; soil eroding into the sea damages coral reefs; deforestation
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab occasional hurricanes (July to October)
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Endangered Species, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection; signed, but not ratified - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Law of the Sea
{\b Note}
\par \tab shares island of Hispaniola with Haiti (eastern two-thirds is the Dominican Republic, western one-third is Haiti){\b Location}
\par \tab Western South America, bordering the Pacific Ocean at the Equator, between Colombia and Peru
{\b Map references}
\par \tab South America
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 283,560 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 276,840 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly smaller than Nevada
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab includes Galapagos Islands
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 2,010 km, Colombia 590 km, Peru 1,420 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 2,237 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab claims continental shelf between mainland and Galapagos Islands
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 200 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab three sections of the boundary with Peru are in dispute
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical along coast becoming cooler inland
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab coastal plain (costa), inter-Andean central highlands (sierra), and flat to rolling eastern jungle (oriente)
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab petroleum, fish, timber
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 6%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 3%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 17%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 51%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 23%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 5,500 sq km (1989 est.)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab deforestation; soil erosion; desertification; water pollution
\par \tab party to - Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Wetlands; signed, but not ratified - Tropical Timber 94
{\b Note}
\par \tab Cotopaxi in Andes is highest active volcano in world{\b Location}
\par \tab Northern Africa, bordering the Mediterranean Sea, between Libya and the Gaza Strip
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Africa
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 1,001,450 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 995,450 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly more than three times the size of New Mexico
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 2,689 km, Gaza Strip 11 km, Israel 255 km, Libya 1,150 km, Sudan 1,273 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 2,450 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b contiguous zone}
\par \tab 24 nm
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab administrative boundary with Sudan does not coincide with international boundary creating the "Hala'ib Triangle," a barren area of 20,580 sq km, tensions over this disputed area began to escalate in 1992 and remain high
{\b Climate}
\par \tab desert; hot, dry summers with moderate winters
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab vast desert plateau interrupted by Nile valley and delta
\par \tab agricultural land being lost to urbanization and windblown sands; increasing soil salinization below Aswan High Dam; desertification; oil pollution threatening coral reefs, beaches, and marine habitats; other water pollution from agricultural pesticides, raw sewage, and industrial effluents; very limited natural fresh water resources away from the Nile which is the only perennial water source; rapid growth in population overstraining natural resources
\par \tab party to - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Wetlands; signed, but not ratified - Desertification, Tropical Timber 94
{\b Note}
\par \tab controls Sinai Peninsula, only land bridge between Africa and remainder of Eastern Hemisphere; controls Suez Canal, shortest sea link between Indian Ocean and Mediterranean Sea; size, and juxtaposition to Israel, establish its major role in Middle Eastern geopolitics{\b Location}
\par \tab Middle America, bordering the North Pacific Ocean, between Guatemala and Honduras
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Central America and the Caribbean
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 21,040 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 20,720 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly smaller than Massachusetts
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 545 km, Guatemala 203 km, Honduras 342 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 307 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 200 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab land boundary dispute with Honduras mostly resolved by 11 September 1992 International Court of Justice (ICJ) decision; with respect to the maritime boundary in the Golfo de Fonseca, ICJ referred to an earlier agreement in this century and advised that some tripartite resolution among El Salvador, Honduras and Nicaragua likely would be required
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical; rainy season (May to October); dry season (November to April)
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mostly mountains with narrow coastal belt and central plateau
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab hydropower, geothermal power, petroleum
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 27%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 8%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 29%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 6%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 30%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 1,200 sq km (1989)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab deforestation; soil erosion; water pollution; contamination of soils from disposal of toxic wastes
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab known as the Land of Volcanoes; frequent and sometimes very destructive earthquakes and volcanic activity
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Biodiversity, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection; signed, but not ratified - Climate Change, Law of the Sea
{\b Note}
\par \tab smallest Central American country and only one without a coastline on Caribbean Sea{\b Location}
\par \tab Western Africa, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean, between Cameroon and Gabon
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Africa
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 28,050 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 28,050 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly larger than Maryland
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 539 km, Cameroon 189 km, Gabon 350 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 296 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab maritime boundary dispute with Gabon because of disputed sovereignty over islands in Corisco Bay
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical; always hot, humid
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab coastal plains rise to interior hills; islands are volcanic
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab timber, petroleum, small unexploited deposits of gold, manganese, uranium
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 8%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 4%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 4%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 51%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 33%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab NA sq km
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab tap water is not potable; desertification
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab violent windstorms
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Biodiversity, Endangered Species, Nuclear Test Ban; signed, but not ratified - Desertification, Law of the Sea
{\b Note}
\par \tab insular and continental regions rather widely separated{\b Location}
\par \tab Eastern Africa, bordering the Red Sea, between Djibouti and Sudan
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Africa
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 121,320 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 121,320 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly larger than Pennsylvania
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 1,630 km, Djibouti 113 km, Ethiopia 912 km, Sudan 605 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 1,151 km (land and island coastline is 2,234 km)
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab NA
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab hot, dry desert strip along Red Sea coast; cooler and wetter in the central highlands (up to 61 cm of rainfall annually); semiarid in western hills and lowlands; rainfall heaviest during June-September except on coastal desert
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab dominated by extension of Ethiopian north-south trending highlands, descending on the east to a coastal desert plain, on the northwest to hilly terrain and on the southwest to flat-to-rolling plains
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab gold, potash, zinc, copper, salt, probably oil (petroleum geologists are prospecting for it), fish
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 3%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 2% (coffee)
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 40%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 5%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 50%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab NA sq km
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab famine; deforestation; desertification; soil erosion; overgrazing; loss of infrastructure from civil warfare
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab frequent droughts
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Endangered Species; signed, but not ratified - Desertification
{\b Note}
\par \tab strategic geopolitical position along world's busiest shipping lanes; Eritrea retained the entire coastline of Ethiopia along the Red Sea upon de jure independence from Ethiopia on 27 April 1993{\b Location}
\par \tab Eastern Europe, bordering the Baltic Sea and Gulf of Finland, between Latvia and Russia
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Europe
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 45,100 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 43,200 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly larger than New Hampshire and Vermont combined
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab includes 1,520 islands in the Baltic Sea
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 557 km, Latvia 267 km, Russia 290 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 1,393 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab limits to be fixed in coordination with neighboring states
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab claims over 2,000 sq km of Russian territory in the Narva and Pechora regions - based on boundary established under the 1921 Peace Treaty of Tartu
\par \tab air heavily polluted with sulfur dioxide from oil-shale burning power plants in northeast; contamination of soil and groundwater with petroleum products, chemicals at military bases
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab flooding occurs frequently in the spring
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Ship Pollution, Wetlands{\b Location}
\par \tab Eastern Africa, west of Somalia
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Africa
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 1,127,127 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 1,119,683 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly less than twice the size of Texas
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 5,311 km, Djibouti 337 km, Eritrea 912 km, Kenya 830 km, Somalia 1,626 km, Sudan 1,606 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab none - landlocked
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab none; landlocked
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab southern half of the boundary with Somalia is a Provisional Administrative Line; territorial dispute with Somalia over the Ogaden
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical monsoon with wide topographic-induced variation
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab high plateau with central mountain range divided by Great Rift Valley
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab small reserves of gold, platinum, copper, potash
\par \tab geologically active Great Rift Valley susceptible to earthquakes, volcanic eruptions; frequent droughts
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Ozone Layer Protection; signed, but not ratified - Desertification, Environmental Modification, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban
{\b Note}
\par \tab landlocked - entire coastline along the Red Sea was lost with the de jure independence of Eritrea on 27 April 1993{\b Affiliation}
\par \tab (dependent territory of the UK)
{\b Location}
\par \tab Southern South America, islands in the South Atlantic Ocean, east of southern Argentina
{\b Map references}
\par \tab South America
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 12,170 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 12,170 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly smaller than Connecticut
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab includes the two main islands of East and West Falkland and about 200 small islands
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab 0 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 1,288 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b exclusive fishing zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab administered by the UK, claimed by Argentina
{\b Climate}
\par \tab cold marine; strong westerly winds, cloudy, humid; rain occurs on more than half of days in year; occasional snow all year, except in January and February, but does not accumulate
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab rocky, hilly, mountainous with some boggy, undulating plains
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab fish, wildlife
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 99%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 1%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab NA sq km
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab strong winds persist throughout the year
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab NA
{\b Note}
\par \tab deeply indented coast provides good natural harbors; short growing season{\b Location}
\par \tab Oceania, island group in the South Pacific Ocean, about two-thirds of the way from Hawaii to New Zealand
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Oceania
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 18,270 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 18,270 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly smaller than New Jersey
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab 0 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 1,129 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab measured from claimed archipelagic baselines
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation; rectilinear shelf claim added
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical marine; only slight seasonal temperature variation
\par \tab cyclonic storms can occur from November to January
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Law of the Sea, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Tropical Timber 94
{\b Note}
\par \tab includes 332 islands of which approximately 110 are inhabited{\b Location}
\par \tab Northern Europe, bordering the Baltic Sea, Gulf of Bothnia, and Gulf of Finland, between Sweden and Russia
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Europe
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 337,030 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 305,470 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly smaller than Montana
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 2,628 km, Norway 729 km, Sweden 586 km, Russia 1,313 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 1,126 km (excludes islands and coastal indentations)
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b contiguous zone}
\par \tab 6 nm
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation
\par \tab {\b exclusive fishing zone}
\par \tab 12 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 4 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab cold temperate; potentially subarctic, but comparatively mild because of moderating influence of the North Atlantic Current, Baltic Sea, and more than 60,000 lakes
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mostly low, flat to rolling plains interspersed with lakes and low hills
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab timber, copper, zinc, iron ore, silver
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 8%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 76%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 16%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 620 sq km (1989 est.)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab air pollution from manufacturing and power plants contributing to acid rain; water pollution from industrial wastes, agricultural chemicals; habitat loss threatens wildlife populations
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Wetlands, Whaling; signed, but not ratified - Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Desertification, Law of the Sea
{\b Note}
\par \tab long boundary with Russia; Helsinki is northernmost national capital on European continent; population concentrated on small southwestern coastal plain{\b Location}
\par \tab Western Europe, bordering the Bay of Biscay and English Channel, between Belgium and Spain southeast of the UK; bordering the Mediterranean Sea, between Italy and Spain
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Europe
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 547,030 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 545,630 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly more than twice the size of Colorado
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab includes Corsica and the rest of metropolitan France, but excludes the overseas administrative divisions
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 2,892.4 km, Andorra 60 km, Belgium 620 km, Germany 451 km, Italy 488 km, Luxembourg 73 km, Monaco 4.4 km, Spain 623 km, Switzerland 573 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 3,427 km (mainland 2,783 km, Corsica 644 km)
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b contiguous zone}
\par \tab 24 nm
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab Madagascar claims Bassas da India, Europa Island, Glorioso Islands, Juan de Nova Island, and Tromelin Island; Comoros claims Mayotte; Mauritius claims Tromelin Island; Seychelles claims Tromelin Island; Suriname claims part of French Guiana; Mexico claims Clipperton Island; territorial claim in Antarctica (Adelie Land); Saint Pierre and Miquelon is focus of maritime boundary dispute between Canada and France
{\b Climate}
\par \tab generally cool winters and mild summers, but mild winters and hot summers along the Mediterranean
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mostly flat plains or gently rolling hills in north and west; remainder is mountainous, especially Pyrenees in south, Alps in east
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab coal, iron ore, bauxite, fish, timber, zinc, potash
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 32%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 2%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 23%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 27%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 16%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 11,600 sq km (1989 est.)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab some forest damage from acid rain; air pollution from industrial and vehicle emissions; water pollution from urban wastes, agricultural runoff
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab flooding
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Wetlands, Whaling; signed, but not ratified - Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Desertification, Law of the Sea
{\b Note}
\par \tab largest West European nation; occasional warm tropical wind known as mistral{\b Affiliation}
\par \tab (overseas department of France)
{\b Location}
\par \tab Northern South America, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean, between Brazil and Suriname
{\b Map references}
\par \tab South America
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 91,000 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 89,150 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly smaller than Indiana
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 1,183 km, Brazil 673 km, Suriname 510 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 378 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab Suriname claims area between Riviere Litani and Riviere Marouini (both headwaters of the Lawa)
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical; hot, humid; little seasonal temperature variation
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab low-lying coastal plains rising to hills and small mountains
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab bauxite, timber, gold (widely scattered), cinnabar, kaolin, fish
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 82%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 18%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab NA sq km
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab high frequency of heavy showers and severe thunderstorms; flooding
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab NA
{\b Note}
\par \tab mostly an unsettled wilderness{\b Affiliation}
\par \tab (overseas territory of France)
{\b Location}
\par \tab Oceania, archipelago in the South Pacific Ocean, about one-half of the way from South America to Australia
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Oceania
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 3,941 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 3,660 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly less than one-third the size of Connecticut
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab 0 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 2,525 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical, but moderate
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mixture of rugged high islands and low islands with reefs
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab timber, fish, cobalt
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 1%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 19%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 5%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 31%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 44%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab NA sq km
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab occasional cyclonic storms in January
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab NA
{\b Note}
\par \tab includes five archipelagoes; Makatea in French Polynesia is one of the three great phosphate rock islands in the Pacific Ocean - the others are Banaba (Ocean Island) in Kiribati and Nauru{\b Location}
\par \tab Western Africa, bordering the Atlantic Ocean at the Equator, between Congo and Equatorial Guinea
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Africa
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 267,670 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 257,670 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly smaller than Colorado
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 2,551 km, Cameroon 298 km, Congo 1,903 km, Equatorial Guinea 350 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 885 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b contiguous zone}
\par \tab 24 nm
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab maritime boundary dispute with Equatorial Guinea because of disputed sovereignty over islands in Corisco Bay
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical; always hot, humid
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab narrow coastal plain; hilly interior; savanna in east and south
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab petroleum, manganese, uranium, gold, timber, iron ore
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 1%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 1%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 18%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 78%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 2%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab NA sq km
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab deforestation; poaching
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Endangered Species, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Wetlands; signed, but not ratified - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Law of the Sea, Tropical Timber 94{\b Location}
\par \tab Western Africa, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean and Senegal
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Africa
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 11,300 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 10,000 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly more than twice the size of Delaware
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 740 km, Senegal 740 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 80 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b contiguous zone}
\par \tab 18 nm
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab not specified
\par \tab {\b exclusive fishing zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab short section of boundary with Senegal is indefinite
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical; hot, rainy season (June to November); cooler, dry season (November to May)
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab flood plain of the Gambia River flanked by some low hills
\par \tab rainfall has dropped by 30% in the last thirty years
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution; signed, but not ratified - Desertification
{\b Note}
\par \tab almost an enclave of Senegal; smallest country on the continent of Africa{\b Note}
\par \tab The Israel-PLO Declaration of Principles on Interim Self-Government Arrangements ("the DOP"), signed in Washington on 13 September 1993, provides for a transitional period not exceeding five years of Palestinian interim self-government in the Gaza Strip and the West Bank. Under the DOP, final status negotiations are to begin no later than the beginning of the third year of the transitional period.
{\b Location}
\par \tab Middle East, bordering the Mediterranean Sea, between Egypt and Israel
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Middle East
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 360 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 360 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly more than twice the size of Washington, DC
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 62 km, Egypt 11 km, Israel 51 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 40 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab Israeli occupied with interim status subject to Israeli/Palestinian negotiations - final status to be determined
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab West Bank and Gaza Strip are Israeli occupied with interim status subject to Israeli/Palestinian negotiations - final status to be determined
{\b Climate}
\par \tab temperate, mild winters, dry and warm to hot summers
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab flat to rolling, sand- and dune-covered coastal plain
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab negligible
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 13%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 32%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 55%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 115 sq km (1992 est.)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab desertification
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab NA
{\b Note}
\par \tab there are 24 Jewish settlements and civilian land use sites in the Gaza Strip (August 1994 est.){\b Note}
\par \tab Georgia has been beset by ethnic and civil strife since independence. In late 1991, the country's first elected president, Zviad GAMSAKHURDIA was ousted in an armed coup. In October 1993, GAMSAKHURDIA, and his supporters sponsored a failed attempt to retake power from the current government led by former Soviet Foreign Minister Eduard SHEVARDNADZE. The Georgian government has also faced armed separatist conflicts in the Abkhazia and South Ossetia regions. A cease-fire went into effect in South Ossetia in June 1992 and a joint Georgian-Ossetian-Russian peacekeeping force has been in place since that time. Georgian forces were driven out of the Abkhaz region in September 1993 after a yearlong war with Abkhaz separatists. Nearly 200,000 Georgian refugees have since fled Abkhazia, adding substantially to the estimated 100,000 internally displaced persons already in Georgia. Russian peacekeepers are deployed along the border of Abkhazia and the rest of Georgia.
{\b Location}
\par \tab Southwestern Asia, bordering the Black Sea, between Turkey and Russia
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Middle East
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 69,700 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 69,700 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly larger than South Carolina
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 1,461 km, Armenia 164 km, Azerbaijan 322 km, Russia 723 km, Turkey 252 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 310 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab NA
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab warm and pleasant; Mediterranean-like on Black Sea coast
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab largely mountainous with Great Caucasus Mountains in the north and Lesser Caucasus Mountains in the south; Kolkhida Lowland opens to the Black Sea in the west; Mtkvari River Basin in the east; good soils in river valley flood plains, foothills of Kolkhida Lowland
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab forest lands, hydropower, manganese deposits, iron ores, copper, minor coal and oil deposits; coastal climate and soils allow for important tea and citrus growth
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 11%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 4%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 29%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 38%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 18%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 4,660 sq km (1990)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab air pollution, particularly in Rust'avi; heavy pollution of Mtkvari River and the Black Sea; inadequate supplies of potable water; soil pollution from toxic chemicals
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Ship Pollution; signed, but not ratified - Desertification{\b Location}
\par \tab Central Europe, bordering the Baltic Sea and the North Sea, between the Netherlands and Poland, south of Denmark
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Europe
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 356,910 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 349,520 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly smaller than Montana
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab includes the formerly separate Federal Republic of Germany, the German Democratic Republic, and Berlin following formal unification on 3 October 1990
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 3,621 km, Austria 784 km, Belgium 167 km, Czech Republic 646 km, Denmark 68 km, France 451 km, Luxembourg 138 km, Netherlands 577 km, Poland 456 km, Switzerland 334 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 2,389 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab temperate and marine; cool, cloudy, wet winters and summers; occasional warm, tropical foehn wind; high relative humidity
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab lowlands in north, uplands in center, Bavarian Alps in south
\par \tab emissions from coal-burning utilities and industries and lead emissions from vehicle exhausts (the result of continued use of leaded fuels) contribute to air pollution; acid rain, resulting from sulfur dioxide emissions, is damaging forests; heavy pollution in the Baltic Sea from raw sewage and industrial effluents from rivers in eastern Germany
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Wetlands, Whaling; signed, but not ratified - Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Desertification, Hazardous Wastes
{\b Note}
\par \tab strategic location on North European Plain and along the entrance to the Baltic Sea{\b Location}
\par \tab Western Africa, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean, between Cote d'Ivoire and Togo
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Africa
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 238,540 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 230,020 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly smaller than Oregon
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 2,093 km, Burkina 548 km, Cote d'Ivoire 668 km, Togo 877 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 539 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b contiguous zone}
\par \tab 24 nm
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical; warm and comparatively dry along southeast coast; hot and humid in southwest; hot and dry in north
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mostly low plains with dissected plateau in south-central area
\par \tab recent drought in north severely affecting agricultural activities; deforestation; overgrazing; soil erosion; poaching and habitat destruction threatens wildlife populations; water pollution; inadequate supplies of potable water
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab dry, dusty, harmattan winds occur from January to March; droughts
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Biodiversity, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Wetlands; signed, but not ratified - Climate Change, Desertification, Marine Life Conservation
{\b Note}
\par \tab Lake Volta is the world's largest artificial lake; northeasterly harmattan wind (January to March){\b Affiliation}
\par \tab (dependent territory of the UK)
{\b Location}
\par \tab Southwestern Europe, bordering the Strait of Gibraltar, which links the Mediterranean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean, on the southern coast of Spain
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Europe
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 6.5 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 6.5 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab about 11 times the size of The Mall in Washington, DC
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 1.2 km, Spain 1.2 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 12 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 3 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab source of occasional friction between Spain and the UK
{\b Climate}
\par \tab Mediterranean with mild winters and warm summers
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab a narrow coastal lowland borders The Rock
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab negligible
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 100%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab NA sq km
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab limited natural freshwater resources, so large concrete or natural rock water catchments collect rain water
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab NA
{\b Note}
\par \tab strategic location on Strait of Gibraltar that links the North Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea{\b Location}
\par \tab Southern Europe, bordering the Aegean Sea, Ionian Sea, and the Mediterranean Sea, between Albania and Turkey
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Europe
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 131,940 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 130,800 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly smaller than Alabama
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 1,210 km, Albania 282 km, Bulgaria 494 km, Turkey 206 km, The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia 228 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 13,676 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 6 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab complex maritime, air, and territorial disputes with Turkey in Aegean Sea; Cyprus question; dispute with The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia over name, symbols, and certain constitutional provisions; Greece is involved in a bilateral dispute with Albania over border demarcation, the treatment of Albania's ethnic Greek minority, and migrant Albanian workers in Greece
\par \tab party to - Air Pollution, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Wetlands; signed, but not ratified - Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Desertification, Law of the Sea
{\b Note}
\par \tab strategic location dominating the Aegean Sea and southern approach to Turkish Straits; a peninsular country, possessing an archipelago of about 2,000 islands{\b Affiliation}
\par \tab (part of the Danish realm)
{\b Location}
\par \tab Northern North America, island between the Arctic Ocean and the North Atlantic Ocean, northeast of Canada
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Arctic Region
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 2,175,600 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 383,600 sq km (ice free)
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly more than three times the size of Texas
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab 0 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 44,087 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b exclusive fishing zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 3 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab arctic to subarctic; cool summers, cold winters
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab flat to gradually sloping icecap covers all but a narrow, mountainous, barren, rocky coast
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab zinc, lead, iron ore, coal, molybdenum, cryolite, uranium, fish
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 1%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 99%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 0 sq km
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab continuous permafrost over northern two-thirds of the island
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab NA
{\b Note}
\par \tab dominates North Atlantic Ocean between North America and Europe; sparse population confined to small settlements along coast{\b Location}
\par \tab Caribbean, island in the Caribbean Sea, north of Trinidad and Tobago
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Central America and the Caribbean
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 340 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 340 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly less than twice the size of Washington, DC
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab 0 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 121 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical; tempered by northeast trade winds
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab volcanic in origin with central mountains
\par \tab lies on edge of hurricane belt; hurricane season lasts from June to November
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Whaling
{\b Note}
\par \tab the administration of the islands of the Grenadines group is divided between Saint Vincent and the Grenadines and Grenada{\b Affiliation}
\par \tab (overseas department of France)
{\b Location}
\par \tab Caribbean, islands in the eastern Caribbean Sea, southeast of Puerto Rico
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Central America and the Caribbean
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 1,780 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 1,706 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab 10 times the size of Washington, DC
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab Guadeloupe is an archipelago of nine inhabited islands, of which Basse-Terre, Grande-Terre, and Marie-Galante are the three largest
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab 0 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 306 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab subtropical tempered by trade winds; relatively high humidity
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab Basse-Terre is volcanic in origin with interior mountains; Grand-Terre is low limestone formation; most of the seven other islands are volcanic in origin
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab cultivable land, beaches and climate that foster tourism
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 18%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 5%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 13%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 40%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 24%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 30 sq km (1989 est.)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab hurricanes (June to October); La Soufriere is an active volcano
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab NA{\b Affiliation}
\par \tab (territory of the US)
{\b Location}
\par \tab Oceania, island in the North Pacific Ocean, about three-quarters of the way from Hawaii to the Philippines
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Oceania
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 541.3 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 541.3 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly more than three times the size of Washington, DC
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab 0 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 125.5 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical marine; generally warm and humid, moderated by northeast trade winds; dry season from January to June, rainy season from July to December; little seasonal temperature variation
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab volcanic origin, surrounded by coral reefs; relatively flat coraline limestone plateau (source of most fresh water) with steep coastal cliffs and narrow coastal plains in north, low-rising hills in center, mountains in south
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab fishing (largely undeveloped), tourism (especially from Japan)
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 11%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 11%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 15%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 18%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 45%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab NA sq km
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab frequent squalls during rainy season; relatively rare, but potentially very destructive typhoons (especially in August)
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab NA
{\b Note}
\par \tab largest and southernmost island in the Mariana Islands archipelago; strategic location in western North Pacific Ocean{\b Location}
\par \tab Middle America, bordering the Caribbean Sea, between Honduras and Belize and bordering the North Pacific Ocean, between El Salvador and Mexico
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Central America and the Caribbean
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 108,890 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 108,430 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly smaller than Tennessee
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 1,687 km, Belize 266 km, El Salvador 203 km, Honduras 256 km, Mexico 962 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 400 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab border with Belize in dispute; talks to resolve the dispute are stalled
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical; hot, humid in lowlands; cooler in highlands
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mostly mountains with narrow coastal plains and rolling limestone plateau (Peten)
\par \tab deforestation; soil erosion; water pollution
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab numerous volcanoes in mountains, with frequent violent earthquakes; Caribbean coast subject to hurricanes and other tropical storms
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Antarctic Treaty, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands; signed, but not ratified - Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea
{\b Note}
\par \tab no natural harbors on west coast{\b Location}
\par \tab Western Africa, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean, between Guinea-Bissau and Sierra Leone
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Africa
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 245,860 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 245,860 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly smaller than Oregon
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 3,399 km, Guinea-Bissau 386 km, Cote d'Ivoire 610 km, Liberia 563 km, Mali 858 km, Senegal 330 km, Sierra Leone 652 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 320 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab generally hot and humid; monsoonal-type rainy season (June to November) with southwesterly winds; dry season (December to May) with northeasterly harmattan winds
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab generally flat coastal plain, hilly to mountainous interior
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab bauxite, iron ore, diamonds, gold, uranium, hydropower, fish
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 6%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 12%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 42%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 40%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 240 sq km (1989 est.)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab deforestation; inadequate supplies of potable water; desertification; soil contamination and erosion; overfishing
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab hot, dry, dusty harmattan haze may reduce visibility during dry season
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands; signed, but not ratified - Desertification{\b Location}
\par \tab Western Africa, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean, between Guinea and Senegal
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Africa
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 36,120 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 28,000 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly less than three times the size of Connecticut
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 724 km, Guinea 386 km, Senegal 338 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 350 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical; generally hot and humid; monsoonal-type rainy season (June to November) with southwesterly winds; dry season (December to May) with northeasterly harmattan winds
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mostly low coastal plain rising to savanna in east
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab unexploited deposits of petroleum, bauxite, phosphates, fish, timber
\par \tab hot, dry, dusty harmattan haze may reduce visibility during dry season; brush fires
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Wetlands; signed, but not ratified - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification{\b Location}
\par \tab Northern South America, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean, between Suriname and Venezuela
{\b Map references}
\par \tab South America
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 214,970 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 196,850 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly smaller than Idaho
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 2,462 km, Brazil 1,119 km, Suriname 600 km, Venezuela 743 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 459 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab 200 nm or to the outer edge of the continental margin
\par \tab {\b exclusive fishing zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab all of the area west of the Essequibo River claimed by Venezuela; Suriname claims area between New (Upper Courantyne) and Courantyne/Kutari Rivers (all headwaters of the Courantyne)
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical; hot, humid, moderated by northeast trade winds; two rainy seasons (May to mid-August, mid-November to mid-January)
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mostly rolling highlands; low coastal plain; savanna in south
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab bauxite, gold, diamonds, hardwood timber, shrimp, fish
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 3%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 6%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 83%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 8%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 1,300 sq km (1989 est.)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab water pollution from sewage and agricultural and industrial chemicals; deforestation
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab flash floods are a constant threat during rainy seasons
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Tropical Timber 83{\b Location}
\par \tab Caribbean, western one-third of the island of Hispaniola, between the Caribbean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean, west of the Dominican Republic
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Central America and the Caribbean
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 27,750 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 27,560 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly larger than Maryland
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 275 km, Dominican Republic 275 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 1,771 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b contiguous zone}
\par \tab 24 nm
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab to depth of exploitation
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab claims US-administered Navassa Island
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical; semiarid where mountains in east cut off trade winds
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mostly rough and mountainous
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab bauxite
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 20%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 13%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 18%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 4%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 45%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 750 sq km (1989 est.)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab extensive deforestation (much of the remaining forested land is being cleared for agriculture and use as fuel); soil erosion; inadequate supplies of potable water
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab lies in the middle of the hurricane belt and subject to severe storms from June to October; occasional flooding and earthquakes; periodic droughts
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation; signed, but not ratified - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban
{\b Note}
\par \tab shares island of Hispaniola with Dominican Republic (western one-third is Haiti, eastern two-thirds is the Dominican Republic){\b Location}
\par \tab Middle America, bordering the Caribbean Sea, between Guatemala and Nicaragua and bordering the North Pacific Ocean, between El Salvador and Nicaragua
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Central America and the Caribbean
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 112,090 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 111,890 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly larger than Tennessee
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 1,520 km, Guatemala 256 km, El Salvador 342 km, Nicaragua 922 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 820 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b contiguous zone}
\par \tab 24 nm
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab natural extension of territory or to 200 nm
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab land boundary dispute with El Salvador mostly resolved by 11 September 1992 International Court of Justice (ICJ) decision; with respect to the maritime boundary in the Golfo de Fonseca, ICJ referred to an earlier agreement in this century and advised that some tripartite resolution among El Salvador, Honduras and Nicaragua likely would be required
{\b Climate}
\par \tab subtropical in lowlands, temperate in mountains
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mostly mountains in interior, narrow coastal plains
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab timber, gold, silver, copper, lead, zinc, iron ore, antimony, coal, fish
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 14%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 2%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 30%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 34%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 20%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 900 sq km (1989 est.)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab urban population expanding; deforestation results from logging and the clearing of land for agricultural purposes; further land degradation and soil erosion hastened by uncontrolled development and improper land use practices such as farming of marginal lands; mining activities polluting Lago de Yojoa (the country's largest source of freshwater) with heavy metals as well as several rivers and streams
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab frequent, but generally mild, earthquakes; damaging hurricanes and floods along Caribbean coast
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Tropical Timber 83, Wetlands; signed, but not ratified - Biodiversity, Climate Change{\b Affiliation}
\par \tab (dependent territory of the UK)
{\b Location}
\par \tab Eastern Asia, bordering the South China Sea and China
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Southeast Asia
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 1,040 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 990 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly less than six times the size of Washington, DC
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 30 km, China 30 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 733 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 3 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical monsoon; cool and humid in winter, hot and rainy from spring through summer, warm and sunny in fall
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab hilly to mountainous with steep slopes; lowlands in north
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab outstanding deepwater harbor, feldspar
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 7%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 1%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 1%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 12%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 79%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 20 sq km (1989)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab air and water pollution from rapid urbanization
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab occasional typhoons
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab NA
{\b Note}
\par \tab more than 200 islands{\b Location}
\par \tab Central Europe, northwest of Romania
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Ethnic Groups in Eastern Europe, Europe
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 93,030 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 92,340 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly smaller than Indiana
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 1,989 km, Austria 366 km, Croatia 329 km, Romania 443 km, Serbia and Montenegro 151 km (all with Serbia), Slovakia 515 km, Slovenia 82 km, Ukraine 103 km
\par \tab air pollution; industrial and municipal pollution of Lake Balaton
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab levees are common along many streams, but flooding occurs almost every year
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands; signed, but not ratified - Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Law of the Sea
{\b Note}
\par \tab landlocked; strategic location astride main land routes between Western Europe and Balkan Peninsula as well as between Ukraine and Mediterranean basin{\b Location}
\par \tab Northern Europe, island between the Greenland Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean, northwest of the UK
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Arctic Region
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 103,000 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 100,250 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly smaller than Kentucky
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab 0 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 4,988 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab 200 nm or to the edge of the continental margin
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab Rockall continental shelf dispute involving Denmark, Ireland, and the UK (Ireland and the UK have signed a boundary agreement in the Rockall area)
{\b Climate}
\par \tab temperate; moderated by North Atlantic Current; mild, windy winters; damp, cool summers
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mostly plateau interspersed with mountain peaks, icefields; coast deeply indented by bays and fiords
\par \tab water pollution from fertilizer runoff; inadequate wastewater treatment
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab earthquakes and volcanic activity
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Air Pollution, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands; signed, but not ratified - Environmental Modification, Marine Life Conservation
{\b Note}
\par \tab strategic location between Greenland and Europe; westernmost European country; more land covered by glaciers than in all of continental Europe{\b Location}
\par \tab Southern Asia, bordering the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal, between Bangladesh and Pakistan
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Asia
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 3,287,590 km2
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 2,973,190 km2
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly more than one-third the size of the US
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 14,103 km, Bangladesh 4,053 km, Bhutan 605 km, Burma 1,463 km, China 3,380 km, Nepal 1,690 km, Pakistan 2,912 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 7,000 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b contiguous zone}
\par \tab 24 nm
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab 200 nm or to the edge of the continental margin
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab boundaries with Bangladesh and China; status of Kashmir with Pakistan; water-sharing problems with downstream riparians, Bangladesh over the Ganges and Pakistan over the Indus
{\b Climate}
\par \tab varies from tropical monsoon in south to temperate in north
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab upland plain (Deccan Plateau) in south, flat to rolling plain along the Ganges, deserts in west, Himalayas in north
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab coal (fourth-largest reserves in the world), iron ore, manganese, mica, bauxite, titanium ore, chromite, natural gas, diamonds, petroleum, limestone
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 55%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 1%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 4%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 23%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 17%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 430,390 sq km (1989)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab deforestation; soil erosion; overgrazing; desertification; air pollution from industrial effluents and vehicle emissions; water pollution from raw sewage and runoff of agricultural pesticides; tap water is not potable throughout the country; huge and rapidly growing population is overstraining natural resources
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab droughts, flash floods, severe thunderstorms common; earthquakes
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber, Wetlands, Whaling; signed, but not ratified - Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Desertification, Law of the Sea
{\b Note}
\par \tab dominates South Asian subcontinent; near important Indian Ocean trade routes{\b Location}
\par \tab body of water between Africa, Antarctica, Asia, and Australia
{\b Map references}
\par \tab World
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 73.6 million sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly less than eight times the size of the US; third-largest ocean (after the Pacific Ocean and Atlantic Ocean, but larger than the Arctic Ocean)
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab includes Arabian Sea, Bass Straight, Bay of Bengal, Great Australian Bight, Gulf of Oman, Persian Gulf, Red Sea, Strait of Malacca, and other tributary water bodies
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 66,526 km
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab some maritime disputes (see littoral states)
{\b Climate}
\par \tab northeast monsoon (December to April), southwest monsoon (June to October); tropical cyclones occur during May/June and October/November in the northern Indian Ocean and January/February in the southern Indian Ocean
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab surface dominated by counterclockwise gyre (broad, circular system of currents) in the southern Indian Ocean; unique reversal of surface currents in the northern Indian Ocean, low atmospheric pressure over southwest Asia from hot, rising, summer air results in the southwest monsoon and southwest-to-northeast winds and currents, while high pressure over northern Asia from cold, falling, winter air results in the northeast monsoon and northeast-to-southwest winds and currents; ocean floor is dominated by the Mid-Indian Ocean Ridge and subdivided by the Southeast Indian Ocean Ridge, Southwest Indian Ocean Ridge, and Ninety East Ridge; maximum depth is 7,258 meters in the Java Trench
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab oil and gas fields, fish, shrimp, sand and gravel aggregates, placer deposits, polymetallic nodules
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab endangered marine species include the dugong, seals, turtles, and whales; oil pollution in the Arabian Sea, Persian Gulf, and Red Sea
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab ships subject to superstructure icing in extreme south near Antarctica from May to October
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab NA
{\b Note}
\par \tab major chokepoints include Bab el Mandeb, Strait of Hormuz, Strait of Malacca, southern access to the Suez Canal, and the Lombok Strait{\b Location}
\par \tab Southeastern Asia, archipelago between the Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Southeast Asia
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 1,919,440 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 1,826,440 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly less than three times the size of Texas
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 2,602 km, Malaysia 1,782 km, Papua New Guinea 820 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 54,716 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab measured from claimed archipelagic baselines
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab sovereignty over Timor Timur (East Timor Province) disputed with Portugal and not recognized by the UN; two islands in dispute with Malaysia
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical; hot, humid; more moderate in highlands
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mostly coastal lowlands; larger islands have interior mountains
\par \tab deforestation; water pollution from industrial wastes, sewage; air pollution in urban areas
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab occasional floods, severe droughts, and tsunamis
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Wetlands; signed, but not ratified - Desertification, Marine Life Conservation, Tropical Timber 94
{\b Note}
\par \tab archipelago of 13,500 islands (6,000 inhabited); straddles Equator; strategic location astride or along major sea lanes from Indian Ocean to Pacific Ocean{\b Location}
\par \tab Middle East, bordering the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf, between Iraq and Pakistan
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Middle East
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 1.648 million sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 1.636 million sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly larger than Alaska
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 5,440 km, Afghanistan 936 km, Armenia 35 km, Azerbaijan (north) 432 km, Azerbaijan (northwest) 179 km, Iraq 1,458 km, Pakistan 909 km, Turkey 499 km, Turkmenistan 992 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 2,440 km
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab Iran also borders the Caspian Sea (740 km)
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b contiguous zone}
\par \tab 24 nm
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab natural prolongation
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab bilateral agreements, or median lines in the Persian Gulf
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab Iran and Iraq restored diplomatic relations in 1990 but are still trying to work out written agreements settling outstanding disputes from their eight-year war concerning border demarcation, prisoners-of-war, and freedom of navigation and sovereignty over the Shatt al Arab waterway; Iran occupies two islands in the Persian Gulf claimed by the UAE: Tunb as Sughra (Arabic), Jazireh-ye Tonb-e Kuchek (Persian) or Lesser Tunb, and Tunb al Kubra (Arabic), Jazireh-ye Tonb-e Bozorg (Persian) or Greater Tunb; it jointly administers with the UAE an island in the Persian Gulf claimed by the UAE, Abu Musa (Arabic) or Jazireh-ye Abu Musa (Persian); in 1992 the dispute over Abu Musa and the Tunb islands became more acute when Iran unilaterally tried to control the entry of third country nationals into the UAE portion of Abu Musa island, Tehran subsequently backed off in the face of significant diplomatic support for the UAE in the region, but in 1994 it increased its military presence on the disputed islands; periodic disputes with Afghanistan over Helmand water rights; Caspian Sea boundaries are not yet determined
{\b Climate}
\par \tab mostly arid or semiarid, subtropical along Caspian coast
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab rugged, mountainous rim; high, central basin with deserts, mountains; small, discontinuous plains along both coasts
\par \tab air pollution, especially in urban areas, from vehicle emissions, refinery operations, and industrial effluents; deforestation; overgrazing; desertification; oil pollution in the Persian Gulf; inadequate supplies of potable water
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab periodic droughts, floods; duststorms, sandstorms; earthquakes along the Western border
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands; signed, but not ratified - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Environmental Modification, Law of the Sea, Marine Life Conservation{\b Location}
\par \tab Middle East, bordering the Persian Gulf, between Iran and Kuwait
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Middle East
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 437,072 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 432,162 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly more than twice the size of Idaho
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 3,631 km, Iran 1,458 km, Jordan 181 km, Kuwait 242 km, Saudi Arabia 814 km, Syria 605 km, Turkey 331 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 58 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab not specified
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab Iran and Iraq restored diplomatic relations in 1990 but are still trying to work out written agreements settling outstanding disputes from their eight-year war concerning border demarcation, prisoners-of-war, and freedom of navigation and sovereignty over the Shatt al Arab waterway; in November 1994, Iraq formally accepted the UN-demarcated border with Kuwait which had been spelled out in Security Council Resolutions 687 (1991), 773 (1993), and 883 (1993); this formally ends earlier claims to Kuwait and to Bubiyan and Warbah islands; potential dispute over water development plans by Turkey for the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers
{\b Climate}
\par \tab mostly desert; mild to cool winters with dry, hot, cloudless summers; northern mountainous regions along Iranian and Turkish borders experience cold winters with occasionally heavy snows which melt in early spring, sometimes causing extensive flooding in central and southern Iraq
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mostly broad plains; reedy marshes along Iranian border in south; mountains along borders with Iran and Turkey
\par \tab government water control projects have drained most of the inhabited marsh areas west of Al Qurnah by drying up or diverting the feeder streams and rivers; a once sizable population of Shi'a Muslims, who have inhabited these areas for thousands of years, has been displaced; furthermore, the destruction of the natural habitat poses serious threats to the area's wildlife populations; inadequate supplies of potable water; development of Tigris-Euphrates Rivers system contingent upon agreements with upstream riparian Turkey; air and water pollution; soil degradation (salinization) and erosion; desertification
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab duststorms, sandstorms, floods
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban; signed, but not ratified - Environmental Modification{\b Location}
\par \tab Western Europe, occupying five-sixths of the island of Ireland in the North Atlantic Ocean, west of Great Britain
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Europe
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 70,280 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 68,890 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly larger than West Virginia
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 360 km, UK 360 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 1,448 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab not specified
\par \tab {\b exclusive fishing zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab Northern Ireland question with the UK; Rockall continental shelf dispute involving Denmark, Iceland, and the UK (Ireland and the UK have signed a boundary agreement in the Rockall area)
{\b Climate}
\par \tab temperate maritime; modified by North Atlantic Current; mild winters, cool summers; consistently humid; overcast about half the time
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mostly level to rolling interior plain surrounded by rugged hills and low mountains; sea cliffs on west coast
\par \tab water pollution, especially of lakes, from agricultural runoff
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Climate Change, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Tropical Timber 83, Wetlands, Whaling; signed, but not ratified - Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Biodiversity, Desertification, Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Marine Life Conservation
{\b Note}
\par \tab strategic location on major air and sea routes between North America and northern Europe; over 40% of the population resides within 60 miles of Dublin{\b Affiliation}
\par \tab (also see separate Gaza Strip and West Bank entries)
{\b Note}
\par \tab The territories occupied by Israel since the 1967 war are not included in the data below. In keeping with the framework established at the Madrid Conference in October 1991, bilateral negotiations are being conducted between Israel and Palestinian representatives, Syria, and Jordan to determine the final status of the occupied territories. On 25 April 1982, Israel withdrew from the Sinai pursuant to the 1979 Israel-Egypt Peace treaty. Outstanding territorial and other disputes with Jordan were resolved in the 26 October 1994 Israel-Jordan Treaty of Peace.
{\b Location}
\par \tab Middle East, bordering the Mediterranean Sea, between Egypt and Lebanon
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Middle East
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 20,770 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 20,330 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly larger than New Jersey
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 1,006 km, Egypt 255 km, Gaza Strip 51 km, Jordan 238 km, Lebanon 79 km, Syria 76 km, West Bank 307 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 273 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab to depth of exploitation
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab separated from Lebanon, Syria, and the West Bank by the 1949 Armistice Line; the Gaza Strip and Jericho area, formerly occupied by Israel, are now administered largely by the Palestinian Authority; other areas of the West Bank outside Jericho are administered jointly by Israel and the Palestinian Authority; Golan Heights is Israeli occupied; Israeli troops in southern Lebanon since June 1982
{\b Climate}
\par \tab temperate; hot and dry in southern and eastern desert areas
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab Negev desert in the south; low coastal plain; central mountains; Jordan Rift Valley
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab copper, phosphates, bromide, potash, clay, sand, sulfur, asphalt, manganese, small amounts of natural gas and crude oil
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 17%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 5%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 40%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 6%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 32%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 2,140 sq km (1989)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab limited arable land and natural fresh water resources pose serious constraints; desertification; air pollution from industrial and vehicle emissions; groundwater pollution from industrial and domestic waste, chemical fertilizers, and pesticides
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab sandstorms may occur during spring and summer
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Biodiversity, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution; signed, but not ratified - Climate Change, Desertification, Marine Life Conservation
{\b Note}
\par \tab there are 199 Jewish settlements and civilian land use sites in the West Bank, 42 in the Israeli-occupied Golan Heights, 24 in the Gaza Strip, and 25 in East Jerusalem (August 1994 est.){\b Location}
\par \tab Southern Europe, a peninsula extending into the central Mediterranean Sea, northeast of Tunisia
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Europe
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 301,230 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 294,020 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly larger than Arizona
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab includes Sardinia and Sicily
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 1,899.2 km, Austria 430 km, France 488 km, Holy See (Vatican City) 3.2 km, San Marino 39 km, Slovenia 199 km, Switzerland 740 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 4,996 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab predominantly Mediterranean; Alpine in far north; hot, dry in south
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mostly rugged and mountainous; some plains, coastal lowlands
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab mercury, potash, marble, sulfur, dwindling natural gas and crude oil reserves, fish, coal
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 32%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 10%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 17%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 22%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 19%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 31,000 sq km (1989 est.)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab air pollution from industrial emissions such as sulfur dioxide; coastal and inland rivers polluted from industrial and agricultural effluents; acid rain damaging lakes; inadequate industrial waste treatment and disposal facilities
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab regional risks include landslides, mudflows, avalanches, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, flooding; land subsidence in Venice
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Wetlands; signed, but not ratified - Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Desertification
{\b Note}
\par \tab strategic location dominating central Mediterranean as well as southern sea and air approaches to Western Europe{\b Location}
\par \tab Caribbean, island in the Caribbean Sea, south of Cuba
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Central America and the Caribbean
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 10,990 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 10,830 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly smaller than Connecticut
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab 0 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 1,022 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation
\par \tab mostly mountains with narrow, discontinuous coastal plain
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab bauxite, gypsum, limestone
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 19%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 6%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 18%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 28%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 29%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 350 sq km (1989 est.)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab deforestation; coastal waters polluted by industrial waste, sewage, and oil spills; damage to coral reefs; air pollution in Kingston results from vehicle emissions
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab hurricanes (especially July to November)
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution
{\b Note}
\par \tab strategic location between Cayman Trench and Jamaica Channel, the main sea lanes for Panama Canal{\b Location}
\par \tab Eastern Asia, island chain between the North Pacific Ocean and the Sea of Japan, east of the Korean peninsula
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Asia
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 377,835 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 374,744 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly smaller than California
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab includes Bonin Islands (Ogasawara-gunto), Daito-shoto, Minami-jima, Okinotori-shima, Ryukyu Islands (Nansei-shoto), and Volcano Islands (Kazan-retto)
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab 0 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 29,751 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b exclusive fishing zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm; 3 nm in the international straits - La Perouse or Soya, Tsugaru, Osumi, and Eastern and Western Channels of the Korea or Tsushima Strait
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab islands of Etorofu, Kunashiri, Shikotan, and the Habomai group occupied by the Soviet Union in 1945, now administered by Russia, claimed by Japan; Liancourt Rocks disputed with South Korea; Senkaku-shoto (Senkaku Islands) claimed by China and Taiwan
{\b Climate}
\par \tab varies from tropical in south to cool temperate in north
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mostly rugged and mountainous
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab negligible mineral resources, fish
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 13%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 1%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 1%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 67%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 18%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 28,680 sq km (1989)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab air pollution from power plant emissions results in acid rain; acidification of lakes and reservoirs degrading water quality and threatening aquatic life; Japan's appetite for fish and tropical timber is contributing to the depletion of these resources in Asia and elsewhere
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab many dormant and some active volcanoes; about 1,500 seismic occurrences (mostly tremors) every year; tsunamis
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling; signed, but not ratified - Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Desertification, Law of the Sea
{\b Note}
\par \tab strategic location in northeast Asia{\b Affiliation}
\par \tab (also see separate West Bank entry)
{\b Location}
\par \tab Middle East, northwest of Saudi Arabia
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Middle East
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 89,213 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 88,884 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly smaller than Indiana
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 1,619 km, Iraq 181 km, Israel 238 km, Saudi Arabia 728 km, Syria 375 km, West Bank 97 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 26 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 3 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab mostly arid desert; rainy season in west (November to April)
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mostly desert plateau in east, highland area in west; Great Rift Valley separates East and West Banks of the Jordan River
\par \tab party to - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands{\b Location}
\par \tab Central Asia, northwest of China
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Commonwealth of Independent States - Central Asian States
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 2,717,300 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 2,669,800 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly less than four times the size of Texas
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 12,012 km, China 1,533 km, Kyrgyzstan 1,051 km, Russia 6,846 km, Turkmenistan 379 km, Uzbekistan 2,203 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 0 km (landlocked)
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab Kazakhstan borders the Aral Sea (1,015 km) and the Caspian Sea (1,894 km)
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab none; landlocked
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab Caspian Sea boundaries are not yet determined
{\b Climate}
\par \tab continental, cold winters and hot summers, arid and semiarid
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab extends from the Volga to the Altai Mountains and from the plains in western Siberia to oasis and desert in Central Asia
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab major deposits of petroleum, coal, iron ore, manganese, chrome ore, nickel, cobalt, copper, molybdenum, lead, zinc, bauxite, gold, uranium
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 15%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab NEGL%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 57%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 4%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 24%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 23,080 sq km (1990)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab radioactive or toxic chemical sites associated with its former defense industries and test ranges are found throughout the country and pose health risks for humans and animals; industrial pollution is severe in some cities; because the two main rivers which flowed into the Aral Sea have been diverted for irrigation, it is drying up and leaving behind a harmful layer of chemical pesticides and natural salts; these substances are then picked up by the wind and blown into noxious dust storms; pollution in the Caspian Sea; soil pollution from overuse of agricultural chemicals and salinization from faulty irrigation practices
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Biodiversity, Ship Pollution; signed, but not ratified - Climate Change, Desertification
{\b Note}
\par \tab landlocked{\b Location}
\par \tab Eastern Africa, bordering the Indian Ocean, between Somalia and Tanzania
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Africa
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 582,650 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 569,250 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly more than twice the size of Nevada
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 3,446 km, Ethiopia 830 km, Somalia 682 km, Sudan 232 km, Tanzania 769 km, Uganda 933 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 536 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab administrative boundary with Sudan does not coincide with international boundary; possible claim by Somalia based on unification of ethnic Somalis
{\b Climate}
\par \tab varies from tropical along coast to arid in interior
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab low plains rise to central highlands bisected by Great Rift Valley; fertile plateau in west
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab gold, limestone, soda ash, salt barytes, rubies, fluorspar, garnets, wildlife
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 3%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 1%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 7%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 4%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 85%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 520 sq km (1989)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab water pollution from urban and industrial wastes; degradation of water quality from increased use of pesticides and fertilizers; deforestation; soil erosion; desertification; poaching
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands, Whaling; signed, but not ratified - Desertification
{\b Note}
\par \tab the Kenyan Highlands comprise one of the most successful agricultural production regions in Africa; glaciers on Mt. Kenya; unique physiography supports abundant and varied wildlife of scientific and economic value{\b Location}
\par \tab Oceania, group of islands in the Pacific Ocean, straddling the equator and the International Date Line, about one-half of the way from Hawaii to Australia
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Oceania
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 717 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 717 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly more than four times the size of Washington, DC
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab includes three island groups - Gilbert Islands, Line Islands, Phoenix Islands
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab 0 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 1,143 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical; marine, hot and humid, moderated by trade winds
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mostly low-lying coral atolls surrounded by extensive reefs
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab phosphate (production discontinued in 1979)
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 51%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 3%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 46%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab NA sq km
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab typhoons can occur any time, but usually November to March; occasional tornadoes
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Biodiversity, Endangered Species, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection; signed, but not ratified - Climate Change
{\b Note}
\par \tab 20 of the 33 islands are inhabited; Banaba (Ocean Island) in Kiribati is one of the three great phosphate rock islands in the Pacific Ocean - the others are Makatea in French Polynesia and Nauru{\b Location}
\par \tab Eastern Asia, northern half of the Korean peninsula bordering the Korea Bay and the Sea of Japan, between China and Russia
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Asia
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 120,540 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 120,410 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly smaller than Mississippi
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 1,673 km, China 1,416 km, South Korea 238 km, Russia 19 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 2,495 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b military boundary line}
\par \tab 50 nm in the Sea of Japan and the exclusive economic zone limit in the Yellow Sea where all foreign vessels and aircraft without permission are banned
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab short section of boundary with China is indefinite; Demarcation Line with South Korea
{\b Climate}
\par \tab temperate with rainfall concentrated in summer
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mostly hills and mountains separated by deep, narrow valleys; coastal plains wide in west, discontinuous in east
\par \tab localized air pollution attributable to inadequate industrial controls; water pollution; inadequate supplies of potable water
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab late spring droughts often followed by severe flooding; occasional typhoons during the early fall
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Environmental Modification, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution; signed, but not ratified - Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Law of the Sea
{\b Note}
\par \tab strategic location bordering China, South Korea, and Russia; mountainous interior is isolated, nearly inaccessible, and sparsely populated{\b Location}
\par \tab Eastern Asia, southern half of the Korean peninsula bordering the Sea of Japan and the Yellow Sea, south of North Korea
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Asia
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 98,480 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 98,190 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly larger than Indiana
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 238 km, North Korea 238 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 2,413 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab not specified
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm; 3 nm in the Korea Strait
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab Demarcation Line with North Korea; Liancourt Rocks claimed by Japan
{\b Climate}
\par \tab temperate, with rainfall heavier in summer than winter
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mostly hills and mountains; wide coastal plains in west and south
\par \tab air pollution in large cities; water pollution from the discharge of sewage and industrial effluents; driftnet fishing
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab occasional typhoons bring high winds and floods; earthquakes in southwest
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Whaling; signed, but not ratified - Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Desertification, Law of the Sea{\b Location}
\par \tab Middle East, bordering the Persian Gulf, between Iraq and Saudi Arabia
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Middle East
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 17,820 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 17,820 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly smaller than New Jersey
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 464 km, Iraq 242 km, Saudi Arabia 222 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 499 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab in November 1994, Iraq formally accepted the UN-demarcated border with Kuwait which had been spelled out in Security Council Resolutions 687 (1991), 773 (1993), and 883 (1993); this formally ends earlier claims to Kuwait and to Bubiyan and Warbah islands; ownership of Qaruh and Umm al Maradim islands disputed by Saudi Arabia
{\b Climate}
\par \tab dry desert; intensely hot summers; short, cool winters
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab flat to slightly undulating desert plain
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab petroleum, fish, shrimp, natural gas
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 8%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 92%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 20 sq km (1989 est.)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab limited natural fresh water resources; some of world's largest and most sophisticated desalination facilities provide much of the water; air and water pollution; desertification
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab sudden cloudbursts are common from October to April, they bring inordinate amounts of rain which can damage roads and houses; sandstorms and duststorms occur throughout the year, but are most common between March and August
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Climate Change, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection; signed, but not ratified - Biodiversity, Endangered Species, Marine Dumping
{\b Note}
\par \tab strategic location at head of Persian Gulf{\b Location}
\par \tab Central Asia, west of China
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Commonwealth of Independent States - Central Asian States
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 198,500 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 191,300 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly smaller than South Dakota
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 3,878 km, China 858 km, Kazakhstan 1,051 km, Tajikistan 870 km, Uzbekistan 1,099 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 0 km (landlocked)
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab none; landlocked
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab territorial dispute with Tajikistan on southwestern boundary in Isfara Valley area
{\b Climate}
\par \tab dry continental to polar in high Tien Shan; subtropical in southwest (Fergana Valley); temperate in northern foothill zone
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab peaks of Tien Shan rise to 7,000 meters, and associated valleys and basins encompass entire nation
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab abundant hydroelectric potential; significant deposits of gold and rare earth metals; locally exploitable coal, oil and natural gas; other deposits of nepheline, mercury, bismuth, lead, and zinc
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 7%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab NEGL%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 42%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 51%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 10,320 sq km (1990)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab water pollution; many people get their water directly from contaminated streams and wells, as a result, water-borne diseases are prevalent; increasing soil salinity from faulty irrigation practices
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab NA
{\b Note}
\par \tab landlocked{\b Location}
\par \tab Southeastern Asia, northeast of Thailand
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Southeast Asia
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 236,800 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 230,800 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly larger than Utah
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 5,083 km, Burma 235 km, Cambodia 541 km, China 423 km, Thailand 1,754 km, Vietnam 2,130 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 0 km (landlocked)
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab none; landlocked
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab boundary dispute with Thailand
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical monsoon; rainy season (May to November); dry season (December to April)
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mostly rugged mountains; some plains and plateaus
\par \tab air and water pollution because of a lack of waste conversion equipment; Gulf of Riga and Daugava River heavily polluted; contamination of soil and groundwater with chemicals and petroleum products at military bases
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Air Pollution, Hazardous Wastes, Ship Pollution; signed, but not ratified - Biodiversity, Climate Change{\b Note}
\par \tab Lebanon has made progress toward rebuilding its political institutions and regaining its national sovereignty since the end of the devastating 16-year civil war which began in 1975. Under the Ta'if accord - the blueprint for national reconciliation - the Lebanese have established a more equitable political system, particularly by giving Muslims a greater say in the political process. Since December 1990, the Lebanese have formed three cabinets and conducted the first legislative election in 20 years. Most of the militias have been weakened or disbanded. The Lebanese Armed Forces (LAF) has seized vast quantities of weapons used by the militias during the war and extended central government authority over about one-half of the country. Hizballah, the radical Sh'ia party, retains most of its weapons. Foreign forces still occupy areas of Lebanon. Israel maintains troops in southern Lebanon and continues to support a proxy militia, The Army of South Lebanon (ASL), along a narrow stretch of territory contiguous to its border. The ASL's enclave encompasses this self-declared security zone and about 20 kilometers north to the strategic town of Jazzine. As of December 1993, Syria maintained about 30,000-35,000 troops in Lebanon. These troops are based mainly in Beirut, North Lebanon, and the Bekaa Valley. Syria's deployment was legitimized by the Arab League early in Lebanon's civil war and in the Ta'if accord. Citing the continued weakness of the LAF, Beirut's requests, and failure of the Lebanese Government to implement all of the constitutional reforms in the Ta'if accord, Damascus has so far refused to withdraw its troops from Beirut.
{\b Location}
\par \tab Middle East, bordering the Mediterranean Sea, between Israel and Syria
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Middle East
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 10,400 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 10,230 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab about 0.8 times the size of Connecticut
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 454 km, Israel 79 km, Syria 375 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 225 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab separated from Israel by the 1949 Armistice Line; Israeli troops in southern Lebanon since June 1982; Syrian troops in northern, central, and eastern Lebanon since October 1976
{\b Climate}
\par \tab Mediterranean; mild to cool, wet winters with hot, dry summers; Lebanon mountains experience heavy winter snows
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab narrow coastal plain; Al Biqa' (Bekaa Valley) separates Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon Mountains
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab limestone, iron ore, salt, water-surplus state in a water-deficit region
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 21%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 9%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 1%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 8%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 61%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 860 sq km (1989 est.)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab deforestation; soil erosion; desertification; air pollution in Beirut from vehicular traffic and the burning of industrial wastes; pollution of coastal waters from raw sewage and oil spills
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab duststorms, sandstorms
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution; signed, but not ratified - Desertification, Environmental Modification, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation
{\b Note}
\par \tab Nahr al Litani only major river in Near East not crossing an international boundary; rugged terrain historically helped isolate, protect, and develop numerous factional groups based on religion, clan, and ethnicity{\b Location}
\par \tab Southern Africa, an enclave of South Africa
\par \tab mostly highland with plateaus, hills, and mountains
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab water, agricultural and grazing land, some diamonds and other minerals
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 10%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 66%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 24%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab NA sq km
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab population pressure forcing settlement in marginal areas results in overgrazing, severe soil erosion, soil exhaustion; desertification; Highlands Water Project will control, store, and redirect water to South Africa
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab periodic droughts
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Biodiversity, Marine Life Conservation, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands; signed, but not ratified - Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping
{\b Note}
\par \tab landlocked; surrounded by South Africa{\b Location}
\par \tab Western Africa, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean, between Cote d'Ivoire and Sierra Leone
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Africa
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 111,370 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 96,320 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly larger than Tennessee
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 1,585 km, Guinea 563 km, Cote d'Ivoire 716 km, Sierra Leone 306 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 579 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 200 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical; hot, humid; dry winters with hot days and cool to cold nights; wet, cloudy summers with frequent heavy showers
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mostly flat to rolling coastal plains rising to rolling plateau and low mountains in northeast
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab iron ore, timber, diamonds, gold
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 1%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 3%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 2%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 39%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 55%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 20 sq km (1989 est.)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab tropical rain forest subject to deforestation; soil erosion; loss of biodiversity; pollution of rivers from the dumping of iron ore tailings and of coastal waters from oil residue and raw sewage
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab dust-laden harmattan winds blow from the Sahara (December to March)
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Endangered Species, Nuclear Test Ban, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94; signed, but not ratified - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Environmental Modification, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation{\b Location}
\par \tab Northern Africa, bordering the Mediterranean Sea, between Egypt and Tunisia
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Africa
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 1,759,540 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 1,759,540 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly larger than Alaska
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 4,383 km, Algeria 982 km, Chad 1,055 km, Egypt 1,150 km, Niger 354 km, Sudan 383 km, Tunisia 459 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 1,770 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
\par \tab {\b Gulf of Sidra closing line}
\par \tab 32 degrees 30 minutes north
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab the International Court of Justice (ICJ) ruled in February 1994 that the 100,000 sq km Aozou Strip between Chad and Libya belongs to Chad, and that Libya must withdraw from it by 31 May 1994; Libya has withdrawn some its forces in response to the ICJ ruling, but still maintains an airfield in the disputed area; maritime boundary dispute with Tunisia; claims part of northern Niger and part of southeastern Algeria
{\b Climate}
\par \tab Mediterranean along coast; dry, extreme desert interior
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mostly barren, flat to undulating plains, plateaus, depressions
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab petroleum, natural gas, gypsum
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 2%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 8%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 90%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 2,420 sq km (1989 est.)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab desertification; very limited natural fresh water resources; the Great Manmade River Project, the largest water development scheme in the world, is being built to bring water from large aquifers under the Sahara to coastal cities
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab hot, dry, dust-laden ghibli is a southern wind lasting one to four days in spring and fall; duststorms, sandstorms
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection; signed, but not ratified - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Law of the Sea{\b Location}
\par \tab Central Europe, between Austria and Switzerland
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Europe
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 160 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 160 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab about 0.9 times the size of Washington, DC
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 78 km, Austria 37 km, Switzerland 41 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 0 km (landlocked)
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab none; landlocked
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab claims 1,600 square kilometers of Czech territory confiscated from its royal family in 1918; the Czech Republic insists that restitution does not go back before February 1948, when the Communists seized power
{\b Climate}
\par \tab continental; cold, cloudy winters with frequent snow or rain; cool to moderately warm, cloudy, humid summers
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mostly mountainous (Alps) with Rhine Valley in western third
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab hydroelectric potential
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 25%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 38%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 19%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 18%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab NA sq km
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands; signed, but not ratified - Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Biodiversity, Law of the Sea
{\b Note}
\par \tab landlocked; variety of microclimatic variations based on elevation{\b Location}
\par \tab Eastern Europe, bordering the Baltic Sea, between Latvia and Russia
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Europe
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 65,200 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 65,200 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly larger than West Virginia
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 1,273 km, Belarus 502 km, Latvia 453 km, Poland 91 km, Russia (Kaliningrad) 227 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 108 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab dispute with Russia (Kaliningrad Oblast) over the position of the Nemunas (Nemen) River border presently located on the Lithuanian bank and not in midriver as by international standards
{\b Climate}
\par \tab maritime; wet, moderate winters and summers
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab lowland, many scattered small lakes, fertile soil
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab peat
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 49.1%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 22.2%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 16.3%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 12.4%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 430 sq km (1990)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab contamination of soil and groundwater with petroleum products and chemicals at military bases
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands; signed, but not ratified - Biodiversity, Climate Change{\b Location}
\par \tab Western Europe, between France and Germany
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Europe
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 2,586 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 2,586 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly smaller than Rhode Island
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 359 km, Belgium 148 km, France 73 km, Germany 138 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 0 km (landlocked)
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab none; landlocked
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab modified continental with mild winters, cool summers
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mostly gently rolling uplands with broad, shallow valleys; uplands to slightly mountainous in the north; steep slope down to Moselle floodplain in the southeast
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab iron ore (no longer exploited)
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 24%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 1%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 20%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 21%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 34%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab NA sq km
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab deforestation; air and water pollution in urban areas
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83; signed, but not ratified - Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Desertification, Environmental Modification, Law of the Sea
{\b Note}
\par \tab landlocked{\b Affiliation}
\par \tab (overseas territory of Portugal)
{\b Location}
\par \tab Eastern Asia, bordering the South China Sea and China
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Southeast Asia
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 16 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 16 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab about 0.1 times the size of Washington, DC
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 0.34 km, China 0.34 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 40 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab not specified
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab subtropical; marine with cool winters, warm summers
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab generally flat
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab negligible
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 100%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab NA sq km
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Ozone Layer Protection (extended from Portugal)
{\b Note}
\par \tab essentially urban; one causeway and one bridge connect the two islands to the peninsula on mainland{\b Location}
\par \tab Southeastern Europe, north of Greece
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Ethnic Groups in Eastern Europe, Europe
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 25,333 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 24,856 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly larger than Vermont
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 748 km, Albania 151 km, Bulgaria 148 km, Greece 228 km, Serbia and Montenegro 221 km (all with Serbia)
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 0 km (landlocked)
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab none; landlocked
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab dispute with Greece over name, symbols, and certain constitutional provisions
{\b Climate}
\par \tab hot, dry summers and autumns and relatively cold winters with heavy snowfall
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mountainous territory covered with deep basins and valleys; there are three large lakes, each divided by a frontier line; country bisected by the Vardar River
\par \tab party to - Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection
{\b Note}
\par \tab landlocked; major transportation corridor from Western and Central Europe to Aegean Sea and Southern Europe to Western Europe{\b Location}
\par \tab Southern Africa, island in the Indian Ocean, east of Mozambique
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Africa
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 587,040 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 581,540 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly less than twice the size of Arizona
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab 0 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 4,828 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b contiguous zone}
\par \tab 24 nm
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab 200 nm or 100 nm from the 2,500-m isobath
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab claims Bassas da India, Europa Island, Glorioso Islands, Juan de Nova Island, and Tromelin Island (all administered by France)
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical along coast, temperate inland, arid in south
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab narrow coastal plain, high plateau and mountains in center
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab graphite, chromite, coal, bauxite, salt, quartz, tar sands, semiprecious stones, mica, fish
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 4%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 1%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 58%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 26%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 11%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 9,000 sq km (1989 est.)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab soil erosion results from deforestation and overgrazing; desertification; surface water contaminated with raw sewage and other organic wastes; several species of flora and fauna unique to the island are endangered
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab periodic cyclones
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Endangered Species, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban; signed, but not ratified - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Law of the Sea
\par \tab total 2,881 km, Mozambique 1,569 km, Tanzania 475 km, Zambia 837 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 0 km (landlocked)
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab none; landlocked
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab dispute with Tanzania over the boundary in Lake Nyasa (Lake Malawi)
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical; rainy season (November to May); dry season (May to November)
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab narrow elongated plateau with rolling plains, rounded hills, some mountains
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab limestone, unexploited deposits of uranium, coal, and bauxite
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 25%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 20%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 50%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 5%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 200 sq km (1989 est.)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab deforestation; land degradation; water pollution from agricultural runoff, sewage, industrial wastes; siltation of spawning grounds endangers fish population
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection; signed, but not ratified - Law of the Sea
{\b Note}
\par \tab landlocked{\b Location}
\par \tab Southeastern Asia, peninsula and northern one-third of the island of Borneo bordering the Java Sea and the South China Sea, south of Vietnam
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Southeast Asia
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 329,750 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 328,550 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly larger than New Mexico
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 2,669 km, Brunei 381 km, Indonesia 1,782 km, Thailand 506 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 4,675 km (Peninsular Malaysia 2,068 km, East Malaysia 2,607 km)
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab 200-m depth or to depth of exploitation; specified boundary in the South China Sea
\par \tab {\b exclusive fishing zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab involved in a complex dispute over the Spratly Islands with China, Philippines, Taiwan, Vietnam, and possibly Brunei; State of Sabah claimed by the Philippines; Brunei may wish to purchase the Malaysian salient that divides Brunei into two parts; two islands in dispute with Singapore; two islands in dispute with Indonesia
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical; annual southwest (April to October) and northeast (October to February) monsoons
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab coastal plains rising to hills and mountains
\par \tab air pollution from industrial and vehicular emissions; water pollution from raw sewage; deforestation
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab flooding
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Tropical Timber 83; signed, but not ratified - Law of the Sea
{\b Note}
\par \tab strategic location along Strait of Malacca and southern South China Sea{\b Location}
\par \tab Southern Asia, group of atolls in the Indian Ocean, south-southwest of India
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Asia
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 300 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 300 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly more than 1.5 times the size of Washington, DC
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab 0 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 644 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 35-310 nm as defined by geographic coordinates; segment of zone coincides with maritime boundary with India
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical; hot, humid; dry, northeast monsoon (November to March); rainy, southwest monsoon (June to August)
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab flat with elevations only as high as 2.5 meters
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab fish
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 10%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 3%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 3%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 84%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab NA sq km
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab depletion of freshwater aquifers threatens water supplies
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab low level of islands makes them very sensitive to sea level rise
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Hazardous Wastes, Ozone Layer Protection; signed, but not ratified - Law of the Sea
{\b Note}
\par \tab 1,190 coral islands grouped into 26 atolls; archipelago of strategic location astride and along major sea lanes in Indian Ocean{\b Location}
\par \tab Western Africa, southwest of Algeria
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Africa
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 1.24 million sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 1.22 million sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly less than twice the size of Texas
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 7,243 km, Algeria 1,376 km, Burkina 1,000 km, Guinea 858 km, Cote d'Ivoire 532 km, Mauritania 2,237 km, Niger 821 km, Senegal 419 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 0 km (landlocked)
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab none; landlocked
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab the disputed international boundary between Burkina and Mali was submitted to the International Court of Justice (ICJ) in October 1983 and the ICJ issued its final ruling in December 1986, which both sides agreed to accept; Burkina and Mali are proceeding with boundary demarcation, including the tripoint with Niger
{\b Climate}
\par \tab subtropical to arid; hot and dry February to June; rainy, humid, and mild June to November; cool and dry November to February
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mostly flat to rolling northern plains covered by sand; savanna in south, rugged hills in northeast
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab gold, phosphates, kaolin, salt, limestone, uranium, bauxite, iron ore, manganese, tin, and copper deposits are known but not exploited
\par \tab hot, dust-laden harmattan haze common during dry seasons; recurring droughts
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands; signed, but not ratified - Biodiversity, Nuclear Test Ban
{\b Note}
\par \tab landlocked{\b Location}
\par \tab Southern Europe, islands in the Mediterranean Sea, south of Sicily (Italy)
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Europe
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 320 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 320 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly less than twice the size of Washington, DC
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab 0 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 140 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b contiguous zone}
\par \tab 24 nm
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation
\par \tab {\b exclusive fishing zone}
\par \tab 25 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab Malta and Tunisia are discussing the commercial exploitation of the continental shelf between their countries, particularly for oil exploration
{\b Climate}
\par \tab Mediterranean with mild, rainy winters and hot, dry summers
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mostly low, rocky, flat to dissected plains; many coastal cliffs
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab limestone, salt
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 38%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 3%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 59%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 10 sq km (1989)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab very limited natural fresh water resources; increasing reliance on desalination
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Climate Change, Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands; signed, but not ratified - Biodiversity, Desertification
{\b Note}
\par \tab the country comprises an archipelago, with only the 3 largest islands (Malta, Gozo, and Comino) being inhabited; numerous bays provide good harbors{\b Location}
\par \tab Oceania, group of atolls and reefs in the North Pacific Ocean, about one-half of the way from Hawaii to Papua New Guinea
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Oceania
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 181.3 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 181.3 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly larger than Washington, DC
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab includes the atolls of Bikini, Eniwetak, and Kwajalein
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab 0 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 370.4 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b contiguous zone}
\par \tab 24 nm
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab claims US territory of Wake Island
{\b Climate}
\par \tab wet season May to November; hot and humid; islands border typhoon belt
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab low coral limestone and sand islands
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab phosphate deposits, marine products, deep seabed minerals
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 60%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 40%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab NA sq km
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab inadequate supplies of potable water
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab occasional typhoons
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution
{\b Note}
\par \tab two archipelagic island chains of 30 atolls and 1,152 islands; Bikini and Eniwetak are former US nuclear test sites; Kwajalein, the famous World War II battleground, is now used as a US missile test range{\b Affiliation}
\par \tab (overseas department of France)
{\b Location}
\par \tab Caribbean, island in the Caribbean Sea, north of Trinidad and Tobago
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Central America and the Caribbean
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 1,100 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 1,060 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly more than six times the size of Washington, DC
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab 0 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 290 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical; moderated by trade winds; rainy season (June to October)
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mountainous with indented coastline; dormant volcano
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab coastal scenery and beaches, cultivable land
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 10%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 8%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 30%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 26%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 26%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 60 sq km (1989 est.)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab hurricanes, flooding, and volcanic activity (an average of one major natural disaster every five years)
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab NA{\b Location}
\par \tab Northern Africa, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean, between Senegal and Western Sahara
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Africa
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 1,030,700 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 1,030,400 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly larger than three times the size of New Mexico
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 5,074 km, Algeria 463 km, Mali 2,237 km, Senegal 813 km, Western Sahara 1,561 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 754 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b contiguous zone}
\par \tab 24 nm
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab 200 nm or to the edge of the continental margin
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab boundary with Senegal in dispute
{\b Climate}
\par \tab desert; constantly hot, dry, dusty
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mostly barren, flat plains of the Sahara; some central hills
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab iron ore, gypsum, fish, copper, phosphate
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 1%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 38%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 5%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 56%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 120 sq km (1989 est.)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab overgrazing, deforestation, and soil erosion aggravated by drought are contributing to desertification; very limited natural fresh water resources away from the Senegal which is the only perennial river
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab hot, dry, dust/sand-laden sirocco wind blows primarily in March and April; periodic droughts
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Climate Change, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands; signed, but not ratified - Biodiversity, Desertification, Law of the Sea
{\b Note}
\par \tab most of the population concentrated along the Senegal River in the southern part of the country{\b Location}
\par \tab Southern Africa, island in the Indian Ocean, east of Madagascar
{\b Map references}
\par \tab World
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 1,860 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 1,850 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly less than 10.5 times the size of Washington, DC
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab includes Agalega Islands, Cargados Carajos Shoals (Saint Brandon), and Rodrigues
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab 0 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 177 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab 200 nm or to the edge of the continental margin
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab claims UK-administered Chagos Archipelago, which includes the island of Diego Garcia in UK-administered British Indian Ocean Territory; claims French-administered Tromelin Island
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical, modified by southeast trade winds; warm, dry winter (May to November); hot, wet, humid summer (November to May)
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab small coastal plain rising to discontinuous mountains encircling central plateau
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab arable land, fish
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 54%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 4%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 4%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 31%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 7%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 170 sq km (1989 est.)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab water pollution
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab cyclones (November to April); almost completely surrounded by reefs that may pose maritime hazards
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection{\b Location}
\par \tab Middle America, bordering the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico, between Belize and the US and bordering the North Pacific Ocean, between Guatamala and the US
{\b Map references}
\par \tab North America
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 1,972,550 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 1,923,040 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly less than three times the size of Texas
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 4,538 km, Belize 250 km, Guatemala 962 km, US 3,326 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 9,330 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b contiguous zone}
\par \tab 24 nm
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab 200 nm or to the edge of the continental margin
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab claims Clipperton Island (French possession)
{\b Climate}
\par \tab varies from tropical to desert
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab high, rugged mountains, low coastal plains, high plateaus, and desert
\par \tab natural fresh water resources scarce and polluted in north, inaccessible and poor quality in center and extreme southeast; raw sewage and industrial effluents polluting rivers in urban areas; deforestation; widespread erosion; desertification; serious air pollution in the national capital and urban centers along US-Mexico border
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab tsunamis along the Pacific coast, destructive earthquakes in the center and south, and hurricanes on the Gulf and Caribbean coasts
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands, Whaling; signed, but not ratified - Desertification
{\b Note}
\par \tab strategic location on southern border of US{\b Location}
\par \tab Oceania, island group in the North Pacific Ocean, about three-quarters of the way from Hawaii to Indonesia
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Oceania
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 702 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 702 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly less than four times the size of Washington, DC
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab includes Pohnpei (Ponape), Truk (Chuuk), Yap, and Kosrae
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab 0 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 6,112 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical; heavy year-round rainfall, especially in the eastern islands; located on southern edge of the typhoon belt with occasional severe damage
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab islands vary geologically from high mountainous islands to low, coral atolls; volcanic outcroppings on Pohnpei, Kosrae, and Truk
\par \tab party to - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Law of the Sea
{\b Note}
\par \tab four major island groups totaling 607 islands{\b Location}
\par \tab Eastern Europe, northeast of Romania
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Commonwealth of Independent States - European States
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 33,700 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 33,700 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly more than twice the size of Hawaii
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 1,389 km, Romania 450 km, Ukraine 939 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 0 km (landlocked)
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab none; landlocked
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab certain territory of Moldova and Ukraine - including Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina - are considered by Bucharest as historically a part of Romania; this territory was incorporated into the former Soviet Union following the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact in 1940
{\b Climate}
\par \tab moderate winters, warm summers
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab rolling steppe, gradual slope south to Black Sea
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab lignite, phosphorites, gypsum
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 50%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 13%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 9%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 28%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 2,920 sq km (1990)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab heavy use of agricultural chemicals, including banned pesticides such as DDT, has contaminated soil and groundwater; extensive soil erosion from poor farming methods
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab signed, but not ratified - Biodiversity, Climate Change
{\b Note}
\par \tab landlocked{\b Location}
\par \tab Western Europe, bordering the Mediterranean Sea, on the southern coast of France, near the border with Italy
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Europe
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 1.9 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 1.9 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab about three times the size of The Mall in Washington, DC
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 4.4 km, France 4.4 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 4.1 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab Mediterranean with mild, wet winters and hot, dry summers
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab hilly, rugged, rocky
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab none
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 100%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab NA sq km
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Whaling; signed, but not ratified - Law of the Sea
{\b Note}
\par \tab second smallest independent state in world (after Holy See); almost entirely urban{\b Location}
\par \tab Northern Asia, north of China
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Asia
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 1.565 million sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 1.565 million sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly larger than Alaska
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 8,114 km, China 4,673 km, Russia 3,441 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 0 km (landlocked)
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab none; landlocked
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab desert; continental (large daily and seasonal temperature ranges)
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab vast semidesert and desert plains; mountains in west and southwest; Gobi Desert in southeast
\par \tab limited natural fresh water resources; policies of the former communist regime promoting rapid urbanization and industrial growth have raised concerns about their negative effects on the environment; the burning of soft coal and the concentration of factories in Ulaanbaatar have severely polluted the air; deforestation, overgrazing, the converting of virgin land to agricultural production have increased soil erosion from wind and rain; desertification
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab duststorms can occur in the spring
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Environmental Modification, Nuclear Test Ban; signed, but not ratified - Desertification, Law of the Sea
{\b Note}
\par \tab landlocked; strategic location between China and Russia{\b Affiliation}
\par \tab (dependent territory of the UK)
{\b Location}
\par \tab Caribbean, island in the Caribbean Sea, southeast of Puerto Rico
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Central America and the Caribbean
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 100 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 100 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab about 0.6 times the size of Washington, DC
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab 0 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 40 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b exclusive fishing zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 3 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical; little daily or seasonal temperature variation
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab volcanic islands, mostly mountainous, with small coastal lowland
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab negligible
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 20%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 10%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 40%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 30%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab NA sq km
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab land erosion occurs on slopes that have been cleared for cultivation
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab severe hurricanes (June to November); volcanic eruptions (there are seven active volcanoes on the island)
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab NA{\b Location}
\par \tab Northern Africa, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea, between Algeria and Western Sahara
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Africa
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 446,550 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 446,300 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly larger than California
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 2,002 km, Algeria 1,559 km, Western Sahara 443 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 1,835 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b contiguous zone}
\par \tab 24 nm
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab claims and administers Western Sahara, but sovereignty is unresolved; the UN is attempting to hold a referendum; the UN-administered cease-fire has been currently in effect since September 1991; Spain controls five places of sovereignty (plazas de soberania) on and off the coast of Morocco - the coastal enclaves of Ceuta and Melilla which Morocco contests as well as the islands of Penon de Alhucemas, Penon de Velez de la Gomera, and Islas Chafarinas
{\b Climate}
\par \tab Mediterranean, becoming more extreme in the interior
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab northern coast and interior are mountainous with large areas of bordering plateaus, intermontane valleys, and rich coastal plains
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab phosphates, iron ore, manganese, lead, zinc, fish, salt
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 18%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 1%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 28%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 12%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 41%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 12,650 sq km (1989 est.)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab land degradation/desertification (soil erosion resulting from farming of marginal areas, overgrazing, destruction of vegetation); water supplies contaminated by raw sewage; siltation of reservoirs; oil pollution of coastal waters
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab northern mountains geologically unstable and subject to earthquakes; periodic droughts
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Endangered Species, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ship Pollution, Wetlands; signed, but not ratified - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Environmental Modification, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection
{\b Note}
\par \tab strategic location along Strait of Gibraltar{\b Location}
\par \tab Southern Africa, bordering the Mozambique Channel, between South Africa and Tanzania
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Africa
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 801,590 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 784,090 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly less than twice the size of California
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 4,571 km, Malawi 1,569 km, South Africa 491 km, Swaziland 105 km, Tanzania 756 km, Zambia 419 km, Zimbabwe 1,231 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 2,470 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical to subtropical
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mostly coastal lowlands, uplands in center, high plateaus in northwest, mountains in west
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab coal, titanium
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 4%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 56%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 20%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 20%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 1,150 sq km (1989 est.)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab civil strife and recurrent drought in the hinterlands have resulted in increased migration to urban and coastal areas with adverse environmental consequences; desertification; pollution of surface and coastal waters
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab severe droughts and floods occur in central and southern provinces; devastating cyclones
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Endangered Species, Ozone Layer Protection; signed, but not ratified - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Law of the Sea{\b Location}
\par \tab Southern Africa, bordering the South Atlantic Ocean, between Angola and South Africa
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Africa
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 825,418 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 825,418 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly more than half the size of Alaska
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 3,824 km, Angola 1,376 km, Botswana 1,360 km, South Africa 855 km, Zambia 233 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 1,572 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b contiguous zone}
\par \tab 24 nm
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab short section of boundary with Botswana is indefinite; quadripoint with Botswana, Zambia, and Zimbabwe is in disagreement; dispute with Botswana over uninhabited Kasikili ( Sidudu) Island in Linyanti (Chobe) River remained unresolved in mid-February 1995 and the parties agreed to refer the matter to the International Court of Justice;
{\b Climate}
\par \tab desert; hot, dry; rainfall sparse and erratic
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mostly high plateau; Namib Desert along coast; Kalahari Desert in east
\par \tab very limited natural fresh water resources; desertification
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab prolonged periods of drought
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection; signed, but not ratified - Biodiversity, Climate Change{\b Location}
\par \tab Oceania, island in the South Pacific Ocean, south of the Marshall Islands
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Oceania
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 21 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 21 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab about one-tenth the size of Washington, DC
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab 0 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 30 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b exclusive fishing zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical; monsoonal; rainy season (November to February)
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab sandy beach rises to fertile ring around raised coral reefs with phosphate plateau in center
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab phosphates
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 100%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab NA sq km
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab limited natural fresh water resources, roof storage tanks collect rainwater; phosphate mining threatens limited remaining land resources
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab periodic droughts
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Marine Dumping; signed, but not ratified - Law of the Sea
{\b Note}
\par \tab Nauru is one of the three great phosphate rock islands in the Pacific Ocean - the others are Banaba (Ocean Island) in Kiribati and Makatea in French Polynesia; only 53 km south of Equator{\b Location}
\par \tab Southern Asia, between China and India
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Asia
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 140,800 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 136,800 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly larger than Arkansas
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 2,926 km, China 1,236 km, India 1,690 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 0 km (landlocked)
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab none; landlocked
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab varies from cool summers and severe winters in north to subtropical summers and mild winters in south
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab Terai or flat river plain of the Ganges in south, central hill region, rugged Himalayas in north
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab quartz, water, timber, hydroelectric potential, scenic beauty, small deposits of lignite, copper, cobalt, iron ore
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 17%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 13%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 33%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 37%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 9,430 sq km (1989)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab the almost total dependence on wood for fuel and cutting down trees to expand agricultural land without replanting has resulted in widespread deforestation; soil erosion; water pollution (use of contaminated water presents human health risks)
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab severe thunderstorms, flooding, landslides, drought, and famine depending on the timing, intensity, and duration of the summer monsoons
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Tropical Timber 83, Wetlands; signed, but not ratified - Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation
{\b Note}
\par \tab landlocked; strategic location between China and India; contains eight of world's 10 highest peaks{\b Location}
\par \tab Western Europe, bordering the North Sea, between Belgium and Germany
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Europe
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 37,330 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 33,920 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly less than twice the size of New Jersey
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 1,027 km, Belgium 450 km, Germany 577 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 451 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b exclusive fishing zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab temperate; marine; cool summers and mild winters
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mostly coastal lowland and reclaimed land (polders); some hills in southeast
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab natural gas, petroleum, fertile soil
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 26%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 1%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 32%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 9%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 32%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 5,500 sq km (1989 est.)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab water pollution in the form of heavy metals, organic compounds, and nutrients such as nitrates and phosphates; air pollution from vehicles and refining activities; acid rain
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab the extensive system of dikes and dams, protects nearly one-half of the total area from being flooded
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Wetlands, Whaling; signed, but not ratified - Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Biodiversity, Desertification, Law of the Sea
{\b Note}
\par \tab located at mouths of three major European rivers (Rhine, Maas or Meuse, and Schelde){\b Affiliation}
\par \tab (part of the Dutch realm)
{\b Location}
\par \tab Caribbean, two island groups in the Caribbean Sea - one includes Curacao and Bonaire north of Venezuela and the other is east of the Virgin Islands
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Central America and the Caribbean
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 960 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 960 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly less than 5.5 times the size of Washington, DC
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab includes Bonaire, Curacao, Saba, Sint Eustatius, and Sint Maarten (Dutch part of the island of Saint Martin)
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab 0 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 364 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b exclusive fishing zone}
\par \tab 12 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical; ameliorated by northeast trade winds
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab generally hilly, volcanic interiors
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab phosphates (Curacao only), salt (Bonaire only)
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 8%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 92%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab NA sq km
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab Curacao and Bonaire are south of Caribbean hurricane belt, so rarely threatened; Sint Maarten, Saba, and Sint Eustatius are subject to hurricanes from July to October
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Whaling (extended from Netherlands){\b Affiliation}
\par \tab (overseas territory of France)
{\b Location}
\par \tab Oceania, islands in the South Pacific Ocean, east of Australia
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Oceania
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 19,060 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 18,760 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly smaller than New Jersey
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab 0 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 2,254 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical; modified by southeast trade winds; hot, humid
\par \tab deforestation; soil erosion; native flora and fauna hard-hit by species introduced from outside
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab earthquakes are common, though usually not severe
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Tropical Timber 83, Wetlands, Whaling; signed, but not ratified - Law of the Sea, Marine Life Conservation
{\b Note}
\par \tab about 80% of the population lives in cities{\b Location}
\par \tab Middle America, bordering both the Caribbean Sea and the North Pacific Ocean, between Costa Rica and Honduras
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Central America and the Caribbean
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 129,494 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 120,254 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly larger than New York State
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 1,231 km, Costa Rica 309 km, Honduras 922 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 910 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b contiguous zone}
\par \tab 25-nm security zone
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab natural prolongation
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 200 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab territorial disputes with Colombia over the Archipelago de San Andres y Providencia and Quita Sueno Bank; with respect to the maritime boundary question in the Golfo de Fonseca, the International Court of Justice (ICJ) referred the disputants to an earlier agreement in this century and advised that some tripartite resolution among El Salvador, Honduras, and Nicaragua likely would be required
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical in lowlands, cooler in highlands
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab extensive Atlantic coastal plains rising to central interior mountains; narrow Pacific coastal plain interrupted by volcanoes
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab gold, silver, copper, tungsten, lead, zinc, timber, fish
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 9%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 1%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 43%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 35%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 12%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 850 sq km (1989 est.)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab deforestation; soil erosion; water pollution
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab destructive earthquakes, volcanoes, landslides, and occasionally severe hurricanes
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Endangered Species, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection; signed, but not ratified - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Environmental Modification, Law of the Sea{\b Location}
\par \tab Western Africa, southeast of Algeria
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Africa
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 1.267 million sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 1,266,700 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly less than twice the size of Texas
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 5,697 km, Algeria 956 km, Benin 266 km, Burkina 628 km, Chad 1,175 km, Libya 354 km, Mali 821 km, Nigeria 1,497 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 0 km (landlocked)
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab none; landlocked
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab Libya claims about 19,400 sq km in northern Niger; demarcation of international boundaries in Lake Chad, the lack of which has led to border incidents in the past, is completed and awaiting ratification by Cameroon, Chad, Niger, and Nigeria; Burkina and Mali are proceeding with boundary demarcation, including the tripoint with Niger
{\b Climate}
\par \tab desert; mostly hot, dry, dusty; tropical in extreme south
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab predominately desert plains and sand dunes; flat to rolling plains in south; hills in north
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab uranium, coal, iron ore, tin, phosphates
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 3%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 7%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 2%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 88%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 320 sq km (1989 est.)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab overgrazing; soil erosion; deforestation; desertification; wildlife populations (such as elephant, hippopotamus, and lion) threatened because of poaching and habitat destruction
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab recurring droughts
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands; signed, but not ratified - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Law of the Sea
{\b Note}
\par \tab landlocked{\b Location}
\par \tab Western Africa, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean, between Benin and Cameroon
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Africa
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 923,770 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 910,770 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly more than twice the size of California
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 4,047 km, Benin 773 km, Cameroon 1,690 km, Chad 87 km, Niger 1,497 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 853 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 30 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab demarcation of international boundaries in Lake Chad, the lack of which led to border incidents in the past, is completed and awaits ratification by Cameroon, Chad, Niger, and Nigeria; dispute with Cameroon over land and maritime boundaries in the vicinity of the Bakasi Peninsula has been referred to the International Court of Justice
{\b Climate}
\par \tab varies; equatorial in south, tropical in center, arid in north
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab southern lowlands merge into central hills and plateaus; mountains in southeast, plains in north
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab petroleum, tin, columbite, iron ore, coal, limestone, lead, zinc, natural gas
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 31%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 3%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 23%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 15%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 28%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 8,650 sq km (1989 est.)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab soil degradation; rapid deforestation; desertification; recent droughts in north severely affecting marginal agricultural activities
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab periodic droughts
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection{\b Affiliation}
\par \tab (commonwealth in political union with the US)
{\b Location}
\par \tab Oceania, islands in the North Pacific Ocean, about three-quarters of the way from Hawaii to the Philippines
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Oceania
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 477 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 477 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly more than 2.5 times the size of Washington, DC
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab includes 14 islands including Saipan, Rota, and Tinian
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab 0 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 1,482 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical marine; moderated by northeast trade winds, little seasonal temperature variation; dry season December to June, rainy season July to October
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab southern islands are limestone with level terraces and fringing coral reefs; northern islands are volcanic; highest elevation is 471 m (Mt. Okso' Takpochao on Saipan)
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab arable land, fish
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 5% on Saipan
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab NA%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 19%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab NA%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab NA%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab NA sq km
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab contamination of groundwater on Saipan by raw sewage contributes to disease
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab active volcanoes on Pagan and Agrihan; typhoons (especially August to November)
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab NA
{\b Note}
\par \tab strategic location in the North Pacific Ocean{\b Location}
\par \tab Northern Europe, bordering the North Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean, west of Sweden
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Europe
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 324,220 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 307,860 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly larger than New Mexico
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 2,515 km, Finland 729 km, Sweden 1,619 km, Russia 167 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 21,925 km (includes mainland 3,419 km, large islands 2,413 km, long fjords, numerous small islands, and minor indentations 16,093 km)
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b contiguous zone}
\par \tab 10 nm
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 4 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab territorial claim in Antarctica (Queen Maud Land); maritime boundary dispute with Russia over portion of Barents Sea
{\b Climate}
\par \tab temperate along coast, modified by North Atlantic Current; colder interior; rainy year-round on west coast
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab glaciated; mostly high plateaus and rugged mountains broken by fertile valleys; small, scattered plains; coastline deeply indented by fjords; arctic tundra in north
\par \tab water pollution; acid rain damaging forests and adversely affecting lakes, threatening fish stocks; air pollution from vehicle emissions
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Wetlands, Whaling; signed, but not ratified - Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Desertification, Law of the Sea, Tropical Timber 94
{\b Note}
\par \tab about two-thirds mountains; some 50,000 islands off its much indented coastline; strategic location adjacent to sea lanes and air routes in North Atlantic; one of most rugged and longest coastlines in world; Norway and Turkey only NATO members having a land boundary with Russia{\b Location}
\par \tab Middle East, bordering the Arabian Sea, Gulf of Oman, and Persian Gulf, between Yemen and the United Arab Emirates
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Middle East
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 212,460 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 212,460 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly smaller than Kansas
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 1,374 km, Saudi Arabia 676 km, UAE 410 km, Yemen 288 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 2,092 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b contiguous zone}
\par \tab 24 nm
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab no defined boundary with most of UAE; Administrative Line with UAE in far north
{\b Climate}
\par \tab dry desert; hot, humid along coast; hot, dry interior; strong southwest summer monsoon (May to September) in far south
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab vast central desert plain, rugged mountains in north and south
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab petroleum, copper, asbestos, some marble, limestone, chromium, gypsum, natural gas
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab less than 2%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 5%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 93%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 410 sq km (1989 est.)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab rising soil salinity; beach pollution from oil spills; very limited natural fresh water resources
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab summer winds often raise large sandstorms and duststorms in interior; periodic droughts
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Ship Pollution, Whaling; signed, but not ratified - Biodiversity, Climate Change
{\b Note}
\par \tab strategic location with small foothold on Musandam Peninsula controlling Strait of Hormuz, a vital transit point for world crude oil{\b Location}
\par \tab body of water between Antarctica, Asia, Australia, and the Western Hemisphere
{\b Map references}
\par \tab World
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 165.384 million sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab about 18 times the size of the US; the largest ocean (followed by the Atlantic Ocean, the Indian Ocean, and the Arctic Ocean); covers about one-third of the global surface; larger than the total land area of the world
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab includes Bali Sea, Bellingshausen Sea, Bering Sea, Bering Strait, Coral Sea, East China Sea, Flores Sea, Gulf of Alaska, Gulf of Tonkin, Java Sea, Philippine Sea, Ross Sea, Savu Sea, Sea of Japan, Sea of Okhotsk, South China Sea, Tasman Sea, Timor Sea, and other tributary water bodies
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 135,663 km
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab some maritime disputes (see littoral states)
{\b Climate}
\par \tab the western Pacific is monsoonal - a rainy season occurs during the summer months, when moisture-laden winds blow from the ocean over the land, and a dry season during the winter months, when dry winds blow from the Asian land mass back to the ocean
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab surface currents in the northern Pacific are dominated by a clockwise, warm-water gyre (broad circular system of currents) and in the southern Pacific by a counterclockwise, cool-water gyre; in the northern Pacific sea ice forms in the Bering Sea and Sea of Okhotsk in winter; in the southern Pacific sea ice from Antarctica reaches its northernmost extent in October; the ocean floor in the eastern Pacific is dominated by the East Pacific Rise, while the western Pacific is dissected by deep trenches, including the world's deepest, the 10,924 meter Marianas Trench
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab oil and gas fields, polymetallic nodules, sand and gravel aggregates, placer deposits, fish
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab endangered marine species include the dugong, sea lion, sea otter, seals, turtles, and whales; oil pollution in Philippine Sea and South China Sea
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab surrounded by a zone of violent volcanic and earthquake activity sometimes referred to as the Pacific Ring of Fire; subject to tropical cyclones (typhoons) in southeast and east Asia from May to December (most frequent from July to October); tropical cyclones (hurricanes) may form south of Mexico and strike Central America and Mexico from June to October (most common in August and September); southern shipping lanes subject to icebergs from Antarctica; occasional El Nino phenomenon occurs off the coast of Peru when the trade winds slacken and the warm Equatorial Countercurrent moves south, killing the plankton that is the primary food source for anchovies; consequently, the anchovies move to better feeding grounds, causing resident marine birds to starve by the thousands because of their lost food source; ships subject to superstructure icing in extreme north from October to May and in extreme south from May to October; persistent fog in the northern Pacific can be a maritime hazard from June to December
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab NA
{\b Note}
\par \tab the major choke points are the Bering Strait, Panama Canal, Luzon Strait, and the Singapore Strait; the Equator divides the Pacific Ocean into the North Pacific Ocean and the South Pacific Ocean; dotted with low coral islands and rugged volcanic islands in the southwestern Pacific Ocean{\b Location}
\par \tab Southern Asia, bordering the Arabian Sea, between India and Iran
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Asia
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 803,940 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 778,720 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly less than twice the size of California
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 6,774 km, Afghanistan 2,430 km, China 523 km, India 2,912 km, Iran 909 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 1,046 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b contiguous zone}
\par \tab 24 nm
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab 200 nm or to the edge of the continental margin
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab status of Kashmir with India; border question with Afghanistan (Durand Line); water-sharing problems (Wular Barrage) over the Indus with upstream riparian India
{\b Climate}
\par \tab mostly hot, dry desert; temperate in northwest; arctic in north
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab flat Indus plain in east; mountains in north and northwest; Balochistan plateau in west
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab land, extensive natural gas reserves, limited petroleum, poor quality coal, iron ore, copper, salt, limestone
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 23%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 6%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 4%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 67% (1993)
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 170,000 sq km (1992)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab water pollution from raw sewage, industrial wastes, and agricultural runoff; limited natural fresh water resources; a majority of the population does not have access to potable water; deforestation; soil erosion; desertification
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab frequent earthquakes, occasionally severe especially in north and west; flooding along the Indus after heavy rains (July and August)
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands; signed, but not ratified - Desertification, Law of the Sea, Marine Life Conservation
{\b Note}
\par \tab controls Khyber Pass and Bolan Pass, traditional invasion routes between Central Asia and the Indian Subcontinent{\b Location}
\par \tab Oceania, group of islands in the North Pacific Ocean, southeast of the Philippines
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Oceania
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 458 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 458 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly more than 2.5 times the size of Washington, DC
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab 0 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 1,519 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab 200-m depth or to depth of exploitation
\par \tab {\b exclusive fishing zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 3 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab wet season May to November; hot and humid
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab about 200 islands varying geologically from the high, mountainous main island of Babelthuap to low, coral islands usually fringed by large barrier reefs
\par \tab inadequate facilities for disposal of solid waste; threats to the marine ecosystem from sand and coral dredging and illegal fishing practices that involve the use of dynamite
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab typhoons (June to December)
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab NA
{\b Note}
\par \tab includes World War II battleground of Beliliou (Peleliu) and world-famous rock islands; archipelago of six island groups totaling over 200 islands in the Caroline chain{\b Location}
\par \tab Middle America, bordering both the Caribbean Sea and the North Pacific Ocean, between Colombia and Costa Rica
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Central America and the Caribbean
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 78,200 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 75,990 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly smaller than South Carolina
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 555 km, Colombia 225 km, Costa Rica 330 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 2,490 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 200 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical; hot, humid, cloudy; prolonged rainy season (May to January), short dry season (January to May)
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab interior mostly steep, rugged mountains and dissected, upland plains; coastal areas largely plains and rolling hills
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab copper, mahogany forests, shrimp
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 6%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 2%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 15%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 54%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 23%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 320 sq km (1989 est.)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab water pollution from agricultural runoff threatens fishery resources; deforestation of tropical rain forest; land degradation
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Biodiversity, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Wetlands; signed, but not ratified - Climate Change, Law of the Sea, Marine Life Conservation, Tropical Timber 94
{\b Note}
\par \tab strategic location on eastern end of isthmus forming land bridge connecting North and South America; controls Panama Canal that links North Atlantic Ocean via Caribbean Sea with North Pacific Ocean{\b Location}
\par \tab Southeastern Asia, group of islands including the eastern half of the island of New Guinea between the Coral Sea and the South Pacific Ocean, east of Indonesia
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Oceania
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 461,690 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 451,710 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly larger than California
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 820 km, Indonesia 820 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 5,152 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab measured from claimed archipelagic baselines
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation
\par \tab {\b exclusive fishing zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical; northwest monsoon (December to March), southeast monsoon (May to October); slight seasonal temperature variation
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mostly mountains with coastal lowlands and rolling foothills
\par \tab rain forest subject to deforestation as a result of growing commercial demand for tropical timber; pollution from mining projects
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab active volcanism; situated along the Pacific "Rim of Fire"; the country is subject to frequent and sometimes severe earthquakes; mudslides
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Wetlands; signed, but not ratified - Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Law of the Sea
{\b Note}
\par \tab shares island of New Guinea with Indonesia; one of world's largest swamps along southwest coast{\b Location}
\par \tab Central South America, northeast of Argentina
{\b Map references}
\par \tab South America
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 406,750 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 397,300 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly smaller than California
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 3,920 km, Argentina 1,880 km, Bolivia 750 km, Brazil 1,290 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 0 km (landlocked)
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab none; landlocked
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab short section of the boundary with Brazil, just west of Salto del Guaira (Guaira Falls) on the Rio Parana, has not been determined
{\b Climate}
\par \tab varies from temperate in east to semiarid in far west
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab grassy plains and wooded hills east of Rio Paraguay; Gran Chaco region west of Rio Paraguay mostly low, marshy plain near the river, and dry forest and thorny scrub elsewhere
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab hydropower, timber, iron ore, manganese, limestone
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 20%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 1%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 39%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 35%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 5%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 670 sq km (1989 est.)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab deforestation (an estimated 2 million hectares of forest land have been lost from 1958-1985); water pollution; inadequate means for waste disposal present health risks for many urban residents
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab local flooding in southeast (early September to June); poorly drained plains may become boggy (early October to June)
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection; signed, but not ratified - Nuclear Test Ban
{\b Note}
\par \tab landlocked; buffer between Argentina and Brazil{\b Location}
\par \tab Western South America, bordering the South Pacific Ocean, between Chile and Ecuador
{\b Map references}
\par \tab South America
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 1,285,220 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 1.28 million sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly smaller than Alaska
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 6,940 km, Bolivia 900 km, Brazil 1,560 km, Chile 160 km, Colombia 2,900 km, Ecuador 1,420 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 2,414 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 200 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab three sections of the boundary with Ecuador are in dispute
{\b Climate}
\par \tab varies from tropical in east to dry desert in west
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab western coastal plain (costa), high and rugged Andes in center (sierra), eastern lowland jungle of Amazon Basin (selva)
\par \tab deforestation; overgrazing of the slopes of the costa and sierra leading to soil erosion; desertification; air pollution in Lima; pollution of rivers and coastal waters from municipal and mining wastes
\par \tab party to - Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Wetlands, Whaling; signed, but not ratified - Desertification, Tropical Timber 94
{\b Note}
\par \tab shares control of Lago Titicaca, world's highest navigable lake, with Bolivia{\b Location}
\par \tab Southeastern Asia, archipelago between the Philippine Sea and the South China Sea, east of Vietnam
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Southeast Asia
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 300,000 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 298,170 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly larger than Arizona
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab 0 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 36,289 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab measured from claimed archipelagic baselines
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab to depth of exploitation
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab irregular polygon extending up to 100 nm from coastline as defined by 1898 treaty; since late 1970s has also claimed polygonal-shaped area in South China Sea up to 285 nm in breadth
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab involved in a complex dispute over the Spratly Islands with China, Malaysia, Taiwan, Vietnam, and possibly Brunei; claims Malaysian state of Sabah
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical marine; northeast monsoon (November to April); southwest monsoon (May to October)
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mostly mountains with narrow to extensive coastal lowlands
\par \tab uncontrolled deforestation in watershed areas; soil erosion; air and water pollution in Manila; increasing pollution of coastal mangrove swamps which are important fish breeding grounds
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab astride typhoon belt, usually affected by 15 and struck by five to six cyclonic storms per year; landslides, active volcanoes, destructive earthquakes, tsunamis
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Tropical Timber 83, Wetlands{\b Location}
\par \tab Central Europe, east of Germany
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Ethnic Groups in Eastern Europe, Europe
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 312,680 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 304,510 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly smaller than New Mexico
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 3,114 km, Belarus 605 km, Czech Republic 658 km, Germany 456 km, Lithuania 91 km, Russia (Kaliningrad Oblast) 432 km, Slovakia 444 km, Ukraine 428 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 491 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab defined by international treaties
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab temperate with cold, cloudy, moderately severe winters with frequent precipitation; mild summers with frequent showers and thundershowers
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mostly flat plain; mountains along southern border
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab coal, sulfur, copper, natural gas, silver, lead, salt
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 46%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 1%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 13%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 28%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 12%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 1,000 sq km (1989 est.)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab forest damage due to air pollution and resulting acid rain; improper means for disposal of large amounts of hazardous and industrial waste; severe water pollution from industrial and municipal sources; severe air pollution results from emissions of sulfur dioxide from coal-fired power plants, which also drifts into Germany and the Netherlands
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Air Pollution, Antarctic Treaty, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands; signed, but not ratified - Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Biodiversity, Law of the Sea
{\b Note}
\par \tab historically, an area of conflict because of flat terrain and the lack of natural barriers on the North European Plain{\b Location}
\par \tab Southwestern Europe, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean, west of Spain
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Europe
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 92,080 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 91,640 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly smaller than Indiana
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab includes Azores and Madeira Islands
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 1,214 km, Spain 1,214 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 1,793 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab sovereignty over Timor Timur (East Timor Province) disputed with Indonesia
{\b Climate}
\par \tab maritime temperate; cool and rainy in north, warmer and drier in south
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mountainous north of the Tagus, rolling plains in south
\par \tab soil erosion; air pollution caused by industrial and vehicle emissions; water pollution, especially in coastal areas
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab Azores subject to severe earthquakes
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Air Pollution, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Wetlands; signed, but not ratified - Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Desertification, Environmental Modification, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban
{\b Note}
\par \tab Azores and Madeira Islands occupy strategic locations along western sea approaches to Strait of Gibraltar{\b Affiliation}
\par \tab (commonwealth associated with the US)
{\b Location}
\par \tab Caribbean, island between the Caribbean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean, east of the Dominican Republic
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Central America and the Caribbean
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 9,104 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 8,959 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly less than three times the size of Rhode Island
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab 0 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 501 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical marine, mild, little seasonal temperature variation
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mostly mountains with coastal plain belt in north; mountains precipitous to sea on west coast; sandy beaches along most coastal areas
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab some copper and nickel, potential for onshore and offshore crude oil
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 8%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 9%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 41%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 20%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 22%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 390 sq km (1989 est.)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab the recent drought has caused water levels in reservoirs to drop and prompted water rationing for more than one-half of the population
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab periodic droughts
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab NA
{\b Note}
\par \tab important location along the Mona Passage - a key shipping lane to the Panama Canal; San Juan is one of the biggest and best natural harbors in the Caribbean; many small rivers and high central mountains ensure land is well watered; south coast relatively dry; fertile coastal plain belt in north{\b Location}
\par \tab Middle East, peninsula bordering the Persian Gulf and Saudi Arabia
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Middle East
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 11,000 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 11,000 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly smaller than Connecticut
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 60 km, Saudi Arabia 60 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 563 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b contiguous zone}
\par \tab 24 nm
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab territorial dispute with Bahrain over the Hawar Islands; maritime boundary with Bahrain
{\b Climate}
\par \tab desert; hot, dry; humid and sultry in summer
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mostly flat and barren desert covered with loose sand and gravel
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab petroleum, natural gas, fish
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 5%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 95%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab NA sq km
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab limited natural fresh water resources are increasing dependence on large-scale desalination facilities
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab haze, dust storms, sandstorms common
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab signed, but not ratified - Biodiversity, Law of the Sea
{\b Note}
\par \tab strategic location in central Persian Gulf near major petroleum deposits{\b Affiliation}
\par \tab (overseas department of France)
{\b Location}
\par \tab Southern Africa, island in the Indian Ocean, east of Madagascar
{\b Map references}
\par \tab World
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 2,510 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 2,500 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly smaller than Rhode Island
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab 0 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 201 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical, but moderates with elevation; cool and dry from May to November, hot and rainy from November to April
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mostly rugged and mountainous; fertile lowlands along coast
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab fish, arable land
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 20%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 2%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 4%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 35%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 39%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 60 sq km (1989 est.)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab periodic, devastating cyclones (December to April); Piton de la Fournaise on the southeastern coast is an active volcano
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab NA{\b Location}
\par \tab Southeastern Europe, bordering the Black Sea, between Bulgaria and Ukraine
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Ethnic Groups in Eastern Europe, Europe
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 237,500 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 230,340 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly smaller than Oregon
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 2,508 km, Bulgaria 608 km, Hungary 443 km, Moldova 450 km, Serbia and Montenegro 476 km (all with Serbia), Ukraine (north) 362 km, Ukraine (south) 169 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 225 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b contiguous zone}
\par \tab 24 nm
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab certain territory of Moldova and Ukraine - including Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina - are considered by Bucharest as historically a part of Romania; this territory was incorporated into the former Soviet Union following the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact in 1940
{\b Climate}
\par \tab temperate; cold, cloudy winters with frequent snow and fog; sunny summers with frequent showers and thunderstorms
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab central Transylvanian Basin is separated from the Plain of Moldavia on the east by the Carpathian Mountains and separated from the Walachian Plain on the south by the Transylvanian Alps
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab petroleum (reserves declining), timber, natural gas, coal, iron ore, salt
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 43%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 3%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 19%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 28%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 7%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 34,500 sq km (1989 est.)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab soil erosion and degradation; water pollution; air pollution in south from industrial effluents; contamination of Danube delta wetlands
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab earthquakes most severe in south and southwest; geologic structure and climate promote landslides
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Air Pollution, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands; signed, but not ratified - Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Law of the Sea
{\b Note}
\par \tab controls most easily traversable land route between the Balkans, Moldova, and Ukraine{\b Location}
\par \tab Northern Asia (that part west of the Urals is sometimes included with Europe), bordering the Arctic Ocean, between Europe and the North Pacific Ocean
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Asia
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 17,075,200 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 16,995,800 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly more than 1.8 times the size of the US
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 20,139 km, Azerbaijan 284 km, Belarus 959 km, China (southeast) 3,605 km, China (south) 40 km, Estonia 290 km, Finland 1,313 km, Georgia 723 km, Kazakhstan 6,846 km, North Korea 19 km, Latvia 217 km, Lithuania (Kaliningrad Oblast) 227 km, Mongolia 3,441 km, Norway 167 km, Poland (Kaliningrad Oblast) 432 km, Ukraine 1,576 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 37,653 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab inherited disputes from former USSR including: sections of the boundary with China; islands of Etorofu, Kunashiri, and Shikotan and the Habomai group occupied by the Soviet Union in 1945, administered by Russia, claimed by Japan; maritime dispute with Norway over portion of the Barents Sea; Caspian Sea boundaries are not yet determined; potential dispute with Ukraine over Crimea; Estonia claims over 2,000 sq km of Russian territory in the Narva and Pechora regions; the Abrene section of the border ceded by the Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic to Russia in 1944; has made no territorial claim in Antarctica (but has reserved the right to do so) and does not recognize the claims of any other nation
{\b Climate}
\par \tab ranges from steppes in the south through humid continental in much of European Russia; subarctic in Siberia to tundra climate in the polar north; winters vary from cool along Black Sea coast to frigid in Siberia; summers vary from warm in the steppes to cool along Arctic coast
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab broad plain with low hills west of Urals; vast coniferous forest and tundra in Siberia; uplands and mountains along southern border regions
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab wide natural resource base including major deposits of oil, natural gas, coal, and many strategic minerals, timber
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab formidable obstacles of climate, terrain, and distance hinder exploitation of natural resources
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 8%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab NEGL%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 5%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 45%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 42%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 56,000 sq km (1992)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab air pollution from heavy industry, emissions of coal-fired electric plants, and transportation in major cities; industrial and agricultural pollution of inland waterways and sea coasts; deforestation; soil erosion; soil contamination from improper application of agricultural chemicals; scattered areas of sometimes intense radioactive contamination
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab permafrost over much of Siberia is a major impediment to development; volcanic activity in the Kuril Islands; volcanoes and earthquakes on the Kamchatka Peninsula
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Antarctic Treaty, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Wetlands, Whaling; signed, but not ratified - Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Biodiversity, Law of the Sea
{\b Note}
\par \tab largest country in the world in terms of area but unfavorably located in relation to major sea lanes of the world; despite its size, much of the country lacks proper soils and climates (either too cold or too dry) for agriculture{\b Location}
\par \tab Central Africa, east of Zaire
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Africa
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 26,340 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 24,950 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly smaller than Maryland
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 893 km, Burundi 290 km, Tanzania 217 km, Uganda 169 km, Zaire 217 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 0 km (landlocked)
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab none; landlocked
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab temperate; two rainy seasons (February to April, November to January); mild in mountains with frost and snow possible
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mostly grassy uplands and hills; relief is mountainous with altitude declining from west to east
\par \tab Caribbean, island in the Caribbean Sea, north of Trinidad and Tobago
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Central America and the Caribbean
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 620 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 610 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly less than 3.5 times the size of Washington, DC
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab 0 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 158 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b contiguous zone}
\par \tab 24 nm
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm or to the edge of the continental margin
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical, moderated by northeast trade winds; dry season from January to April, rainy season from May to August
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab volcanic and mountainous with some broad, fertile valleys
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab forests, sandy beaches, minerals (pumice), mineral springs, geothermal potential
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 8%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 20%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 5%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 13%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 54%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 10 sq km (1989 est.)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab deforestation; soil erosion, particularly in the northern region
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab hurricanes and volcanic activity
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Whaling{\b Location}
\par \tab Caribbean, islands in the Caribbean Sea, north of Trinidad and Tobago
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Central America and the Caribbean
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 340 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 340 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly less than twice the size of Washington, DC
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab 0 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 84 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b contiguous zone}
\par \tab 24 nm
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical; little seasonal temperature variation; rainy season (May to November)
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab volcanic, mountainous; Soufriere volcano on the island of Saint Vincent
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab negligible
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 38%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 12%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 6%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 41%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 3%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 10 sq km (1989 est.)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab pollution of coastal waters and shorelines from discharges by pleasure yachts and other effluents; in some areas pollution is severe enough to make swimming prohibitive
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab hurricanes; Soufriere volcano is a constant threat
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Ship Pollution, Whaling; signed, but not ratified - Desertification
{\b Note}
\par \tab the administration of the islands of the Grenadines group is divided between Saint Vincent and the Grenadines and Grenada{\b Location}
\par \tab Southern Europe, an enclave in central Italy
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Europe
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 60 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 60 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab about 0.3 times the size of Washington, DC
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 39 km, Italy 39 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 0 km (landlocked)
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab none; landlocked
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab Mediterranean; mild to cool winters; warm, sunny summers
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab rugged mountains
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab building stone
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 17%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 83%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab NA sq km
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab party to - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Nuclear Test Ban; signed, but not ratified - Air Pollution
{\b Note}
\par \tab landlocked; smallest independent state in Europe after the Holy See and Monaco; dominated by the Apennines{\b Location}
\par \tab Western Africa, island in the Atlantic Ocean, straddling the equator, west of Gabon
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Africa
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 960 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 960 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly less than 5.5 times the size of Washington, DC
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab 0 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 209 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab measured from claimed archipelagic baselines
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical; hot, humid; one rainy season (October to May)
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab volcanic, mountainous
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab fish
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 1%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 20%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 1%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 75%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 3%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab NA sq km
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab deforestation; soil erosion and exhaustion
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Environmental Modification, Law of the Sea; signed, but not ratified - Biodiversity, Climate Change{\b Location}
\par \tab Middle East, bordering the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea, north of Yemen
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Middle East
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 1,960,582 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 1,960,582 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly less than one-fourth the size of the US
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 4,415 km, Iraq 814 km, Jordan 728 km, Kuwait 222 km, Oman 676 km, Qatar 60 km, UAE 457 km, Yemen 1,458 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 2,640 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b contiguous zone}
\par \tab 18 nm
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab not specified
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab large section of boundary with Yemen not defined; status of boundary with UAE not final; Kuwaiti ownership of Qaruh and Umm al Maradim islands is disputed by Saudi Arabia
{\b Climate}
\par \tab harsh, dry desert with great extremes of temperature
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mostly uninhabited, sandy desert
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab petroleum, natural gas, iron ore, gold, copper
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 1%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 39%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 1%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 59%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 4,350 sq km (1989 est.)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab desertification; depletion of underground water resources; the lack of perennial rivers or permanent water bodies has prompted the development of extensive seawater desalination facilities; coastal pollution from oil spills
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab frequent sand and dust storms
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Climate Change, Hazardous Wastes, Ozone Layer Protection; signed, but not ratified - Law of the Sea
{\b Note}
\par \tab extensive coastlines on Persian Gulf and Red Sea provide great leverage on shipping (especially crude oil) through Persian Gulf and Suez Canal{\b Location}
\par \tab Western Africa, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean, between Guinea-Bissau and Mauritania
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Africa
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 196,190 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 192,000 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly smaller than South Dakota
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 2,640 km, The Gambia 740 km, Guinea 330 km, Guinea-Bissau 338 km, Mali 419 km, Mauritania 813 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 531 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b contiguous zone}
\par \tab 24 nm
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab 200 nm or to the edge of the continental margin
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab short section of the boundary with The Gambia is indefinite; boundary with Mauritania in dispute;
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical; hot, humid; rainy season (December to April) has strong southeast winds; dry season (May to November) dominated by hot, dry harmattan wind
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab generally low, rolling, plains rising to foothills in southeast
\par \tab party to - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands, Whaling; signed, but not ratified - Desertification, Marine Dumping
{\b Note}
\par \tab The Gambia is almost an enclave of Senegal{\b Note}
\par \tab Serbia and Montenegro have asserted the formation of a joint independent state, but this entity has not been formally recognized as a state by the US; the US view is that the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY) has dissolved and that none of the successor republics represents its continuation
{\b Location}
\par \tab Southeastern Europe, bordering the Adriatic Sea, between Albania and Bosnia and Herzegovina
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Ethnic Groups in Eastern Europe, Europe
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 102,350 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 102,136 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly larger than Kentucky
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab Serbia has a total area and a land area of 88,412 sq km making it slightly larger than Maine; Montenegro has a total area of 13,938 sq km and a land area of 13,724 sq km making it slightly larger than Connecticut
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 2,246 km, Albania 287 km (114 km with Serbia; 173 km with Montenegro), Bosnia and Herzegovina 527 km (312 km with Serbia; 215 km with Montenegro), Bulgaria 318 km, Croatia (north) 241 km, Croatia (south) 25 km, Hungary 151 km, The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia 221 km, Romania 476 km
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab the internal boundary between Montenegro and Serbia is 211 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 199 km (Montenegro 199 km, Serbia 0 km)
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab NA
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab Sandzak region bordering northern Montenegro and southeastern Serbia - Muslims seeking autonomy; disputes with Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia over Serbian populated areas; Albanian majority in Kosovo seeks independence from Serbian Republic
{\b Climate}
\par \tab in the north, continental climate (cold winter and hot, humid summers with well distributed rainfall); central portion, continental and Mediterranean climate; to the south, Adriatic climate along the coast, hot, dry summers and autumns and relatively cold winters with heavy snowfall inland
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab extremely varied; to the north, rich fertile plains; to the east, limestone ranges and basins; to the southeast, ancient mountain and hills; to the southwest, extremely high shoreline with no islands off the coast
\par \tab pollution of coastal waters from sewage outlets, especially in tourist-related areas such as Kotor; air pollution around Belgrade and other industrial cities; water pollution from industrial wastes dumped into the Sava which flows into the Danube
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab destructive earthquakes
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab NA
{\b Note}
\par \tab controls one of the major land routes from Western Europe to Turkey and the Near East; strategic location along the Adriatic coast{\b Location}
\par \tab Eastern Africa, group of islands in the Indian Ocean, northeast of Madagascar
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Africa
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 455 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 455 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly more than 2.5 times the size of Washington, DC
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab 0 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 491 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab 200 nm or to the edge of the continental margin
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab claims Tromelin Island
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical marine; humid; cooler season during southeast monsoon (late May to September); warmer season during northwest monsoon (March to May)
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab Mahe Group is granitic, narrow coastal strip, rocky, hilly; others are coral, flat, elevated reefs
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab fish, copra, cinnamon trees
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 4%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 18%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 18%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 60%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab NA sq km
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab no natural fresh water resources, catchments collect rain water
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab lies outside the cyclone belt, so severe storms are rare; short droughts possible
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Whaling; signed, but not ratified - Desertification
{\b Note}
\par \tab 40 granitic and about 50 coralline islands{\b Location}
\par \tab Western Africa, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean, between Guinea and Liberia
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Africa
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 71,740 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 71,620 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly smaller than South Carolina
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 958 km, Guinea 652 km, Liberia 306 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 402 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical; hot, humid; summer rainy season (May to December); winter dry season (December to April)
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab coastal belt of mangrove swamps, wooded hill country, upland plateau, mountains in east
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab diamonds, titanium ore, bauxite, iron ore, gold, chromite
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 25%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 2%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 31%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 29%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 13%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 340 sq km (1989 est.)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab rapid population growth pressuring the environment; overharvesting of timber, expansion of cattle grazing, and slash-and-burn agriculture have resulted in deforestation and soil exhaustion; civil war depleting natural resources; overfishing
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab dry, sand-laden harmattan winds blow from the Sahara (November to May); sandstorms, dust storms
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Biodiversity, Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban; signed, but not ratified - Climate Change, Environmental Modification{\b Location}
\par \tab Southeastern Asia, islands between Malaysia and Indonesia
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Southeast Asia
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 632.6 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 622.6 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly less than 3.5 times the size of Washington, DC
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab 0 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 193 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b exclusive fishing zone}
\par \tab within and beyond territorial sea, as defined in treaties and practice
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 3 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab two islands in dispute with Malaysia
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical; hot, humid, rainy; no pronounced rainy or dry seasons; thunderstorms occur on 40% of all days (67% of days in April)
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab lowland; gently undulating central plateau contains water catchment area and nature preserve
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab fish, deepwater ports
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 4%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 7%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 5%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 84%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab NA sq km
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab industrial pollution; limited natural fresh water resources; limited land availability presents waste disposal problems
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution; signed, but not ratified - Biodiversity, Climate Change
{\b Note}
\par \tab focal point for Southeast Asian sea routes{\b Location}
\par \tab Central Europe, south of Poland
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Ethnic Groups in Eastern Europe, Europe
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 48,845 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 48,800 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab about twice the size of New Hampshire
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 1,355 km, Austria 91 km, Czech Republic 215 km, Hungary 515 km, Poland 444 km, Ukraine 90 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 0 km (landlocked)
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab none; landlocked
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab Gabcikovo Dam dispute with Hungary; unresolved property issues with Czech Republic over redistribution of former Czechoslovak federal property
\par \tab rugged mountains in the central and northern part and lowlands in the south
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab brown coal and lignite; small amounts of iron ore, copper and manganese ore; salt
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab NA%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab NA%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab NA%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab NA%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab NA%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab NA sq km
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab air pollution from metallurgical plants presents human health risks; acid rain damaging forests
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands; signed, but not ratified - Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Law of the Sea
{\b Note}
\par \tab landlocked{\b Location}
\par \tab Southeastern Europe, bordering the Adriatic Sea, between Croatia and Italy
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Ethnic Groups in Eastern Europe, Europe
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 20,296 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 20,296 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly larger than New Jersey
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 1,045 km, Austria 262 km, Croatia 501 km, Italy 199 km, Hungary 83 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 32 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab NA
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab dispute with Croatia over fishing rights in the Adriatic and over some border areas; the border issue is currently under negotiation
{\b Climate}
\par \tab Mediterranean climate on the coast, continental climate with mild to hot summers and cold winters in the plateaus and valleys to the east
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab a short coastal strip on the Adriatic, an alpine mountain region adjacent to Italy, mixed mountain and valleys with numerous rivers to the east
\par \tab Sava River polluted with domestic and industrial waste; pollution of coastal waters with heavy metals and toxic chemicals; forest damage near Koper from air pollution (originating at metallurgical and chemical plants) and resulting acid rain
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab flooding and earthquakes
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Air Pollution, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands; signed, but not ratified - Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Biodiversity, Climate Change{\b Location}
\par \tab Oceania, group of islands in the South Pacific Ocean, east of Papua New Guinea
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Oceania
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 28,450 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 27,540 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly larger than Maryland
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab 0 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 5,313 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab measured from claimed archipelagic baselines
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical monsoon; few extremes of temperature and weather
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mostly rugged mountains with some low coral atolls
\par \tab deforestation; soil erosion; much of the surrounding coral reefs are dead or dying
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab typhoons, but they are rarely destructive; geologically active region with frequent earth tremors; volcanic activity
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Climate Change, Environmental Modification, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Ozone Layer Protection, Whaling; signed, but not ratified - Biodiversity, Law of the Sea{\b Location}
\par \tab Eastern Africa, bordering the Gulf of Aden and the Indian Ocean, east of Ethiopia
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Africa
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 637,660 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 627,340 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly smaller than Texas
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 2,366 km, Djibouti 58 km, Ethiopia 1,626 km, Kenya 682 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 3,025 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 200 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab southern half of boundary with Ethiopia is a Provisional Administrative Line; territorial dispute with Ethiopia over the Ogaden
{\b Climate}
\par \tab principally desert; December to February - northeast monsoon, moderate temperatures in north and very hot in south; May to October - southwest monsoon, torrid in the north and hot in the south, irregular rainfall, hot and humid periods (tangambili) between monsoons
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mostly flat to undulating plateau rising to hills in north
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab uranium and largely unexploited reserves of iron ore, tin, gypsum, bauxite, copper, salt
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 2%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 46%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 14%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 38%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 1,600 sq km (1989 est.)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab famine; use of contaminated water contributes to human health problems; deforestation; overgrazing; soil erosion; desertification
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab recurring droughts; frequent dust storms over eastern plains in summer
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Endangered Species, Law of the Sea; signed, but not ratified - Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban
{\b Note}
\par \tab strategic location on Horn of Africa along southern approaches to Bab el Mandeb and route through Red Sea and Suez Canal{\b Location}
\par \tab Southern Africa, at the southern tip of the continent of Africa
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Africa
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 1,219,912 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 1,219,912 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly less than twice the size of Texas
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab includes Prince Edward Islands (Marion Island and Prince Edward Island)
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 4,750 km, Botswana 1,840 km, Lesotho 909 km, Mozambique 491 km, Namibia 855 km, Swaziland 430 km, Zimbabwe 225 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 2,798 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation
\par \tab {\b exclusive fishing zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab Swaziland has asked South Africa to open negotiations on reincorporating some nearby South African territories that are populated by ethnic Swazis or that were long ago part of the Swazi Kingdom;
{\b Climate}
\par \tab mostly semiarid; subtropical along east coast; sunny days, cool nights
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab vast interior plateau rimmed by rugged hills and narrow coastal plain
\par \tab lack of important arterial rivers or lakes requires extensive water conservation and control measures; growth in water usage threatens to outpace supply; pollution of rivers from agricultural runoff and urban discharge; air pollution resulting in acid rain; soil erosion; desertification
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab prolonged droughts
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Antarctic Treaty, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands, Whaling; signed, but not ratified - Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Law of the Sea
{\b Note}
\par \tab South Africa completely surrounds Lesotho and almost completely surrounds Swaziland{\b Location}
\par \tab Southwestern Europe, bordering the Bay of Biscay, Mediterranean Sea, and North Atlantic Ocean, southwest of France
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Europe
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 504,750 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 499,400 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly more than twice the size of Oregon
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab includes Balearic Islands, Canary Islands, and five places of sovereignty (plazas de soberania) on and off the coast of Morocco - Ceuta, Mellila, Islas Chafarinas, Penon de Alhucemas, and Penon de Velez de la Gomera
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 1,903.2 km, Andorra 65 km, France 623 km, Gibraltar 1.2 km, Portugal 1,214 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 4,964 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab Gibraltar question with UK; Spain controls five places of sovereignty (plazas de soberania) on and off the coast of Morocco - the coastal enclaves of Ceuta and Melilla, which Morocco contests, as well as the islands of Penon de Alhucemas, Penon de Velez de la Gomera, and Islas Chafarinas
{\b Climate}
\par \tab temperate; clear, hot summers in interior, more moderate and cloudy along coast; cloudy, cold winters in interior, partly cloudy and cool along coast
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab large, flat to dissected plateau surrounded by rugged hills; Pyrenees in north
\par \tab pollution of the Mediterranean Sea from raw sewage and effluents from the offshore production of oil and gas; air pollution; deforestation; desertification
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab periodic droughts
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Wetlands, Whaling; signed, but not ratified - Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Desertification, Law of the Sea
{\b Note}
\par \tab strategic location along approaches to Strait of Gibraltar{\b Location}
\par \tab Southern Asia, island in the Indian Ocean, south of India
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Asia
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 65,610 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 64,740 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly larger than West Virginia
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab 0 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 1,340 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b contiguous zone}
\par \tab 24 nm
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab 200 nm or to the edge of the continental margin
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical monsoon; northeast monsoon (December to March); southwest monsoon (June to October)
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mostly low, flat to rolling plain; mountains in south-central interior
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab limestone, graphite, mineral sands, gems, phosphates, clay
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 16%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 17%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 7%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 37%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 23%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 5,600 sq km (1989 est.)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab deforestation; soil erosion; wildlife populations threatened by poaching; coastal degradation from mining activities and increased pollution; freshwater resources being polluted by industrial wastes and sewage runoff
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab occasional cyclones and tornadoes
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands; signed, but not ratified - Marine Life Conservation
{\b Note}
\par \tab strategic location near major Indian Ocean sea lanes{\b Location}
\par \tab Caribbean, islands in the Caribbean Sea, about one-third of the way from Puerto Rico to Trinidad and Tobago
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Central America and the Caribbean
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 269 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 269 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly more than 1.5 times the size of Washington, DC
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab 0 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 135 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b contiguous zone}
\par \tab 24 nm
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm or to the edge of the continental margin
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab subtropical tempered by constant sea breezes; little seasonal temperature variation; rainy season (May to November)
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab volcanic with mountainous interiors
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab negligible
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 22%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 17%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 3%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 17%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 41%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab NA sq km
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab hurricanes (July to October)
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Whaling{\b Location}
\par \tab Northern Africa, bordering the Red Sea, between Egypt and Eritrea
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Africa
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 2,505,810 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 2.376 million sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly more than one-quarter the size of the US
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 7,687 km, Central African Republic 1,165 km, Chad 1,360 km, Egypt 1,273 km, Eritrea 605 km, Ethiopia 1,606 km, Kenya 232 km, Libya 383 km, Uganda 435 km, Zaire 628 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 853 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b contiguous zone}
\par \tab 18 nm
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab administrative boundary with Kenya does not coincide with international boundary; administrative boundary with Egypt does not coincide with international boundary creating the "Hala'ib Triangle," a barren area of 20,580 sq km, tensions over this disputed area began to escalate in 1992 and remain high
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical in south; arid desert in north; rainy season (April to October)
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab generally flat, featureless plain; mountains in east and west
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab small reserves of petroleum, iron ore, copper, chromium ore, zinc, tungsten, mica, silver, gold
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 5%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 24%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 20%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 51%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 18,900 sq km (1989 est.)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab inadequate supplies of potable water; wildlife populations threatened by excessive hunting; soil erosion; desertification
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab dust storms
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Climate Change, Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection; signed, but not ratified - Biodiversity, Desertification
{\b Note}
\par \tab largest country in Africa; dominated by the Nile and its tributaries{\b Location}
\par \tab Northern South America, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean, between French Guiana and Guyana
{\b Map references}
\par \tab South America
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 163,270 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 161,470 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly larger than Georgia
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 1,707 km, Brazil 597 km, French Guiana 510 km, Guyana 600 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 386 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab claims area in French Guiana between Litani Rivier and Riviere Marouini (both headwaters of the Lawa Rivier); claims area in Guyana between New (Upper Courantyne) and Courantyne/Koetari Rivers (all headwaters of the Courantyne)
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical; moderated by trade winds
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mostly rolling hills; narrow coastal plain with swamps
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab timber, hydropower potential, fish, shrimp, bauxite, iron ore, and small amounts of nickel, copper, platinum, gold
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab NEGL%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 97%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 3%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 590 sq km (1989 est.)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab deforestation as foreign producers obtain timber concessions
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Endangered Species, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ship Pollution, Wetlands; signed, but not ratified - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Law of the Sea
{\b Note}
\par \tab mostly tropical rain forest; great diversity of flora and fauna which for the most part is not threatened because of the lack of development; relatively small population most of which lives along the coast{\b Location}
\par \tab Southern Africa, between Mozambique and South Africa
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Africa
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 17,360 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 17,200 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly smaller than New Jersey
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 535 km, Mozambique 105 km, South Africa 430 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 0 km (landlocked)
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab none; landlocked
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab Swaziland has asked South Africa to open negotiations on reincorporating some nearby South African territories that are populated by ethnic Swazis or that were long ago part of the Swazi Kingdom
{\b Climate}
\par \tab varies from tropical to near temperate
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mostly mountains and hills; some moderately sloping plains
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab asbestos, coal, clay, cassiterite, hydropower, forests, small gold and diamond deposits, quarry stone, and talc
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 10.9%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 0.2%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 62.2%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 6.9%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 19.8%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 640 sq km (1993 est.)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab limited access to potable water; wildlife populations being depleted because of excessive hunting; overgrazing; soil degradation; soil erosion
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Biodiversity, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection; signed, but not ratified - Climate Change, Law of the Sea
{\b Note}
\par \tab landlocked; almost completely surrounded by South Africa{\b Location}
\par \tab Northern Europe, bordering the Baltic Sea, Gulf of Bothnia, and Skagerrak, between Finland and Norway
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Europe
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 449,964 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 410,928 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly smaller than California
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 2,205 km, Finland 586 km, Norway 1,619 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 3,218 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab agreed boundaries or midlines
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab temperate in south with cold, cloudy winters and cool, partly cloudy summers; subarctic in north
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mostly flat or gently rolling lowlands; mountains in west
\par \tab acid rain damaging soils and lakes; pollution of the North Sea and the Baltic Sea
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab ice floes in the surrounding waters, especially in the Gulf of Bothnia, can interfere with maritime traffic
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Wetlands, Whaling; signed, but not ratified - Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Desertification, Law of the Sea
{\b Note}
\par \tab strategic location along Danish Straits linking Baltic and North Seas{\b Location}
\par \tab Central Europe, east of France
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Europe
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 41,290 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 39,770 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly more than twice the size of New Jersey
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 1,852 km, Austria 164 km, France 573 km, Italy 740 km, Liechtenstein 41 km, Germany 334 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 0 km (landlocked)
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab none; landlocked
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab temperate, but varies with altitude; cold, cloudy, rainy/snowy winters; cool to warm, cloudy, humid summers with occasional showers
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mostly mountains (Alps in south, Jura in northwest) with a central plateau of rolling hills, plains, and large lakes
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab hydropower potential, timber, salt
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 10%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 1%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 40%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 26%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 23%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 250 sq km (1989)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab air pollution from vehicle emissions and open air burning; acid rain; water pollution from increased use of agricultural fertilizers; loss of biodiversity
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab avalanches, landslides, flash floods
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Wetlands, Whaling; signed, but not ratified - Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Desertification, Law of the Sea
{\b Note}
\par \tab landlocked; crossroads of northern and southern Europe; along with southeastern France and northern Italy, contains the highest elevations in Europe{\b Location}
\par \tab Middle East, bordering the Mediterranean Sea, between Lebanon and Turkey
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Middle East
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 185,180 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 184,050 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly larger than North Dakota
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab includes 1,295 sq km of Israeli-occupied territory
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 2,253 km, Iraq 605 km, Israel 76 km, Jordan 375 km, Lebanon 375 km, Turkey 822 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 193 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b contiguous zone}
\par \tab 41 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 35 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab separated from Israel by the 1949 Armistice Line; Golan Heights is Israeli occupied; Hatay question with Turkey; ongoing dispute over water development plans by Turkey for the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers; Syrian troops in northern Lebanon since October 1976
{\b Climate}
\par \tab mostly desert; hot, dry, sunny summers (June to August) and mild, rainy winters (December to February) along coast; cold weather with snow or sleet periodically hits Damascus
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab primarily semiarid and desert plateau; narrow coastal plain; mountains in west
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab petroleum, phosphates, chrome and manganese ores, asphalt, iron ore, rock salt, marble, gypsum
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 28%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 3%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 46%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 3%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 20%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 10,000 sq km (1992)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab deforestation; overgrazing; soil erosion; desertification; water pollution from dumping of raw sewage and wastes from petroleum refining; inadequate supplies of potable water
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab dust storms, sandstorms
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Hazardous Wastes, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution; signed, but not ratified - Biodiversity, Desertification, Environmental Modification
{\b Note}
\par \tab there are 42 Jewish settlements and civilian land use sites in the Israeli-occupied Golan Heights (August 1994 est.){\b Location}
\par \tab Eastern Asia, islands bordering the East China Sea, Philippine Sea, South China Sea, and Taiwan Strait, north of the Philippines, off the southeastern coast of China
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Southeast Asia
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 35,980 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 32,260 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly larger than Maryland and Delaware combined
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab includes the Pescadores, Matsu, and Quemoy
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab 0 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 1,448 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab involved in complex dispute over the Spratly Islands with China, Malaysia, Philippines, Vietnam, and possibly Brunei; Paracel Islands occupied by China, but claimed by Vietnam and Taiwan; Japanese-administered Senkaku-shoto (Senkaku Islands/Diaoyu Tai) claimed by China and Taiwan
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical; marine; rainy season during southwest monsoon (June to August); cloudiness is persistent and extensive all year
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab eastern two-thirds mostly rugged mountains; flat to gently rolling plains in west
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab small deposits of coal, natural gas, limestone, marble, and asbestos
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 24%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 1%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 5%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 55%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 15%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab NA sq km
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab water pollution from industrial emissions, raw sewage; air pollution; contamination of drinking water supplies; trade in endangered species
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab earthquakes and typhoons
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab signed, but not ratified - Marine Life Conservation{\b Note}
\par \tab Tajikistan has experienced three changes of government since it gained independence in September 1991. The current president, Emomali RAKHMONOV, was elected to the presidency in November 1994, yet has been in power since 1992. The country is suffering through its third year of a civil war, with no clear end in sight. Underlying the conflict are deeply-rooted regional and clan-based animosities that pit a government consisting of people primarily from the Kulob (Kulyab), Khujand (Leninabad), and Hisor (Hissar) regions against a secular and Islamic-led opposition from the Gharm, Gorno-Badakhshan, and Qurghonteppa (Kurgan-Tyube) regions. Government and opposition representatives have held periodic rounds of UN-mediated peace talks and agreed in September 1994 to a cease-fire. Russian-led peacekeeping troops are deployed throughout the country, and Russian border guards are stationed along the Tajik-Afghan border.
{\b Location}
\par \tab Central Asia, west of China
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Commonwealth of Independent States - Central Asian States
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 143,100 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 142,700 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly smaller than Wisconsin
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 3,651 km, Afghanistan 1,206 km, China 414 km, Kyrgyzstan 870 km, Uzbekistan 1,161 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 0 km (landlocked)
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab none; landlocked
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab boundary with China in dispute; territorial dispute with Kyrgyzstan on northern boundary in Isfara Valley area; Afghanistan's and other foreign support to Tajik rebels based in northern Afghanistan
{\b Climate}
\par \tab midlatitude continental, hot summers, mild winters; semiarid to polar in Pamir Mountains
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab Pamir and Altay Mountains dominate landscape; western Fergana Valley in north, Kofarnihon and Vakhsh Valleys in southwest
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab significant hydropower potential, some petroleum, uranium, mercury, brown coal, lead, zinc, antimony, tungsten
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 6%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 23%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 71%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 6,940 sq km (1990)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab inadequate sanitation facilities; increasing levels of soil salinity; industrial pollution; excessive pesticides; part of the basin of the shrinking Aral Sea which suffers from severe overutilization of available water for irrigation and associated pollution
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab NA
{\b Note}
\par \tab landlocked{\b Location}
\par \tab Eastern Africa, bordering the Indian Ocean, between Kenya and Mozambique
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Africa
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 945,090 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 886,040 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly larger than twice the size of California
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab includes the islands of Mafia, Pemba, and Zanzibar
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 3,402 km, Burundi 451 km, Kenya 769 km, Malawi 475 km, Mozambique 756 km, Rwanda 217 km, Uganda 396 km, Zambia 338 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 1,424 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab boundary dispute with Malawi in Lake Nyasa; Tanzania-Zaire-Zambia tripoint in Lake Tanganyika may no longer be indefinite since it is reported that the indefinite section of the Zaire-Zambia boundary has been settled
{\b Climate}
\par \tab varies from tropical along coast to temperate in highlands
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab plains along coast; central plateau; highlands in north, south
\par \tab the tsetse fly and lack of water limit agriculture; flooding on the central plateau during the rainy season
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection; signed, but not ratified - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification
{\b Note}
\par \tab Mount Kilimanjaro is highest point in Africa{\b Location}
\par \tab Southeastern Asia, bordering the Andaman Sea and the Gulf of Thailand, southeast of Burma
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Southeast Asia
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 514,000 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 511,770 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly more than twice the size of Wyoming
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 4,863 km, Burma 1,800 km, Cambodia 803 km, Laos 1,754 km, Malaysia 506 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 3,219 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab boundary dispute with Laos; unresolved maritime boundary with Vietnam; parts of border with Thailand in dispute; maritime boundary with Thailand not clearly defined
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical; rainy, warm, cloudy southwest monsoon (mid-May to September); dry, cool northeast monsoon (November to mid-March); southern isthmus always hot and humid
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab central plain; Khorat plateau in the east; mountains elsewhere
\par \tab air pollution from vehicle emissions; water pollution from organic and factory wastes; deforestation; soil erosion; wildlife populations threatened by illegal hunting
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab land subsidence in Bangkok area resulting from the depletion of the water table; droughts
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Climate Change, Endangered Species, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Tropical Timber 83; signed, but not ratified - Biodiversity, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea
{\b Note}
\par \tab controls only land route from Asia to Malaysia and Singapore{\b Map references}
\par \tab World, Time Zones
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 510.072 million sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 148.94 million sq km
\par \tab {\b water area}
\par \tab 361.132 million sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab land area about 16 times the size of the US
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab 70.8% of the world is water, 29.2% is land
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab the land boundaries in the world total 250,883.64 km (not counting shared boundaries twice)
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 356,000 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b contiguous zone}
\par \tab 24 nm claimed by most but can vary
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab 200-m depth claimed by most or to depth of exploitation, others claim 200 nm or to the edge of the continental margin
\par \tab {\b exclusive fishing zone}
\par \tab 200 nm claimed by most but can vary
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm claimed by most but can vary
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm claimed by most but can vary
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab boundary situations with neighboring states prevent many countries from extending their fishing or economic zones to a full 200 nm; 43 nations and other areas that are landlocked include Afghanistan, Andorra, Armenia, Austria, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Bhutan, Bolivia, Botswana, Burkina, Burundi, Central African Republic, Chad, Czech Republic, Ethiopia, Holy See (Vatican City), Hungary, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Laos, Lesotho, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Malawi, Mali, Moldova, Mongolia, Nepal, Niger, Paraguay, Rwanda, San Marino, Slovakia, Swaziland, Switzerland, Tajikistan, The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Turkmenistan, Uganda, Uzbekistan, West Bank, Zambia, Zimbabwe
{\b Climate}
\par \tab two large areas of polar climates separated by two rather narrow temperate zones from a wide equatorial band of tropical to subtropical climates
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab highest elevation is Mt. Everest at 8,848 meters and lowest depression is the Dead Sea at 392 meters below sea level; greatest ocean depth is the Marianas Trench at 10,924 meters
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab the rapid using up of nonrenewable mineral resources, the depletion of forest areas and wetlands, the extinction of animal and plant species, and the deterioration in air and water quality (especially in Eastern Europe and the former USSR) pose serious long-term problems that governments and peoples are only beginning to address
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 10%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 1%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 24%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 31%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 34%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab NA sq km
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab large areas subject to overpopulation, industrial disasters, pollution (air, water, acid rain, toxic substances), loss of vegetation (overgrazing, deforestation, desertification), loss of wildlife, soil degradation, soil depletion, erosion
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab large areas subject to severe weather (tropical cyclones), natural disasters (earthquakes, landslides, tsunamis, volcanic eruptions)
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab 23 selected international environmental agreements included under the Environment entry for each country and in Appendix E: Selected International Environmental Agreements{\b Location}
\par \tab Western Africa, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean, between Benin and Ghana
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Africa
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 56,790 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 54,390 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly smaller than West Virginia
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 1,647 km, Benin 644 km, Burkina 126 km, Ghana 877 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 56 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 30 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical; hot, humid in south; semiarid in north
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab gently rolling savanna in north; central hills; southern plateau; low coastal plain with extensive lagoons and marshes
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab phosphates, limestone, marble
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 25%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 1%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 4%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 28%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 42%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 70 sq km (1989 est.)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab deforestation attributable to slash-and-burn agriculture and the use of wood for fuel; recent droughts affecting agriculture
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab hot, dry harmattan wind can reduce visibility in north during winter; periodic droughts
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83; signed, but not ratified - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Tropical Timber 94{\b Location}
\par \tab Oceania, archipelago in the South Pacific Ocean, about two-thirds of the way from Hawaii to New Zealand
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Oceania
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 748 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 718 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly more than four times the size of Washington, DC
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab 0 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 419 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical; modified by trade winds; warm season (December to May), cool season (May to December)
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab most islands have limestone base formed from uplifted coral formation; others have limestone overlying volcanic base
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab fish, fertile soil
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 25%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 55%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 6%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 12%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 2%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab NA sq km
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab deforestation results as more and more land is being cleared for agriculture and settlement; some damage to coral reefs from starfish and indiscriminate coral and shell collectors; overhunting threatens native sea turtle populations
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab cyclones (October to April); earthquakes and volcanic activity on Fonuafo'ou
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban
{\b Note}
\par \tab archipelago of 170 islands (36 inhabited){\b Location}
\par \tab Caribbean, islands between the Caribbean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean, northeast of Venezuela
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Central America and the Caribbean
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 5,130 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 5,130 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly smaller than Delaware
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab 0 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 362 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b contiguous zone}
\par \tab 24 nm
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab 200 nm or to the outer edge of the continental margin
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical; rainy season (June to December)
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mostly plains with some hills and low mountains
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab petroleum, natural gas, asphalt
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 14%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 17%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 2%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 44%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 23%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 220 sq km (1989 est.)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab water pollution from agricultural chemicals, industrial wastes, and raw sewage; oil pollution of beaches; deforestation; soil erosion
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab outside usual path of hurricanes and other tropical storms
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Climate Change, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Tropical Timber 83, Wetlands; signed, but not ratified - Biodiversity{\b Location}
\par \tab Northern Africa, bordering the Mediterranean Sea, between Algeria and Libya
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Africa
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 163,610 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 155,360 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly larger than Georgia
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 1,424 km, Algeria 965 km, Libya 459 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 1,148 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b contiguous zone}
\par \tab 24 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab maritime boundary dispute with Libya; land boundary dispute with Algeria settled in 1993; Malta and Tunisia are discussing the commercial exploitation of the continental shelf between their countries, particularly for oil exploration
{\b Climate}
\par \tab temperate in north with mild, rainy winters and hot, dry summers; desert in south
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mountains in north; hot, dry central plain; semiarid south merges into the Sahara
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab petroleum, phosphates, iron ore, lead, zinc, salt
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 20%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 10%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 19%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 4%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 47%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 2,750 sq km (1989)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab toxic and hazardous waste disposal is ineffective and presents human health risks; water pollution from raw sewage; limited natural fresh water resources; deforestation; overgrazing; soil erosion; desertification
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands; signed, but not ratified - Desertification, Marine Life Conservation
{\b Note}
\par \tab strategic location in central Mediterranean{\b Location}
\par \tab Southwestern Asia (that part west of the Bosporus is sometimes included with Europe), bordering the Black Sea, between Bulgaria and Georgia, and bordering the Aegean Sea and the Mediterranean Sea, between Greece and Syria
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Middle East
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 780,580 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 770,760 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly larger than Texas
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 2,627 km, Armenia 268 km, Azerbaijan 9 km, Bulgaria 240 km, Georgia 252 km, Greece 206 km, Iran 499 km, Iraq 331 km, Syria 822 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 7,200 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab in Black Sea only - to the maritime boundary agreed upon with the former USSR
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 6 nm in the Aegean Sea,
\par \tab 12 nm in the Black Sea and in the Mediterranean Sea
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab complex maritime, air and territorial disputes with Greece in Aegean Sea; Cyprus question; Hatay question with Syria; ongoing dispute with downstream riparians (Syria and Iraq) over water development plans for the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers
{\b Climate}
\par \tab temperate; hot, dry summers with mild, wet winters; harsher in interior
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mostly mountains; narrow coastal plain; high central plateau (Anatolia)
\par \tab water pollution from dumping of chemicals and detergents; air pollution, particularly in urban areas; deforestation
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab very severe earthquakes, especially in northern Turkey, along an arc extending from the Sea of Marmara to Lake Van
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Air Pollution, Hazardous Wastes, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands; signed, but not ratified - Biodiversity, Desertification, Environmental Modification
{\b Note}
\par \tab strategic location controlling the Turkish Straits (Bosporus, Sea of Marmara, Dardanelles) that link Black and Aegean Seas{\b Location}
\par \tab Central Asia, bordering the Caspian Sea, between Iran and Kazakhstan
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Commonwealth of Independent States - Central Asian States
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 488,100 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 488,100 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly larger than California
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 3,736 km, Afghanistan 744 km, Iran 992 km, Kazakhstan 379 km, Uzbekistan 1,621 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 0 km
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab Turkmenistan borders the Caspian Sea (1,768 km)
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab none; landlocked
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab Caspian Sea boundaries are not yet determined
{\b Climate}
\par \tab subtropical desert
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab flat-to-rolling sandy desert with dunes rising to mountains in the south; low mountains along border with Iran; borders Caspian Sea in west
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab petroleum, natural gas, coal, sulphur, salt
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 2%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 69%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 29%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 12,450 sq km (1990)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab contamination of soil and groundwater with agricultural chemicals, pesticides; salinization, water-logging of soil due to poor irrigation methods; Caspian Sea pollution; diversion of a large share of the flow of the Amu Darya into irrigation contributes to that river's inability to replenish the Aral Sea; desertification
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Ozone Layer Protection
{\b Note}
\par \tab landlocked{\b Affiliation}
\par \tab (dependent territory of the UK)
{\b Location}
\par \tab Caribbean, two island groups in the North Atlantic Ocean, southeast of The Bahamas
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Central America and the Caribbean
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 430 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 430 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly less than 2.5 times the size of Washington, DC
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab 0 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 389 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b exclusive fishing zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical; marine; moderated by trade winds; sunny and relatively dry
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab low, flat limestone; extensive marshes and mangrove swamps
\par \tab Oceania, island group consisting of nine coral atolls in the South Pacific Ocean, about one-half of the way from Hawaii to Australia
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Oceania
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 26 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 26 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab about 0.1 times the size of Washington, DC
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab 0 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 24 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b contiguous zone}
\par \tab 24 nm
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical; moderated by easterly trade winds (March to November); westerly gales and heavy rain (November to March)
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab very low-lying and narrow coral atolls
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab fish
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 100%
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab Tuvalu's nine coral atolls have enough soil to grow coconuts and support subsistence agriculture
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab NA sq km
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab since there are no streams or rivers and groundwater is not potable, all water needs must be met by catchment systems with storage facilities; beachhead erosion because of the use of sand for building materials; excessive clearance of forest undergrowth for use as fuel; damage to coral reefs from the spread of the crown of thorns starfish
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab severe tropical storms are rare
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Climate Change, Endangered Species, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution; signed, but not ratified - Biodiversity, Law of the Sea{\b Location}
\par \tab Eastern Africa, west of Kenya
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Africa
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 236,040 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 199,710 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly smaller than Oregon
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 2,698 km, Kenya 933 km, Rwanda 169 km, Sudan 435 km, Tanzania 396 km, Zaire 765 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 0 km (landlocked)
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab none; landlocked
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical; generally rainy with two dry seasons (December to February, June to August); semiarid in northeast
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mostly plateau with rim of mountains
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab copper, cobalt, limestone, salt
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 23%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 9%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 25%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 30%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 13%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 90 sq km (1989 est.)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab draining of wetlands for agricultural use; deforestation; overgrazing; soil erosion; poaching is widespread
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands; signed, but not ratified - Environmental Modification
{\b Note}
\par \tab landlocked{\b Location}
\par \tab Eastern Europe, bordering the Black Sea, between Poland and Russia
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Commonwealth of Independent States - European States
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 603,700 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 603,700 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly smaller than Texas
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 4,558 km, Belarus 891 km, Hungary 103 km, Moldova 939 km, Poland 428 km, Romania (southwest) 169 km, Romania (west) 362 km, Russia 1,576 km, Slovakia 90 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 2,782 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab 200-m or to the depth of exploitation
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab undefined
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab certain territory of Moldova and Ukraine - including Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina - are considered by Bucharest as historically a part of Romania; this territory was incorporated into the former Soviet Union following the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact in 1940; potential dispute with Russia over Crimea; has made no territorial claim in Antarctica (but has reserved the right to do so) and does not recognize the claims of any other nation
{\b Climate}
\par \tab temperate continental; Mediterranean only on the southern Crimean coast; precipitation disproportionately distributed, highest in west and north, lesser in east and southeast; winters vary from cool along the Black Sea to cold farther inland; summers are warm across the greater part of the country, hot in the south
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab most of Ukraine consists of fertile plains (steppes) and plateaux, mountains being found only in the west (the Carpathians), and in the Crimean Peninsula in the extreme south
\par \tab inadequate supplies of potable water; air and water pollution; deforestation; radiation contamination in the northeast from 1986 accident at Chornobyl' Nuclear Power Plant
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Antarctic Treaty, Environmental Modification, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution; signed, but not ratified - Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Law of the Sea
{\b Note}
\par \tab strategic position at the crossroads between Europe and Asia; second largest country in Europe{\b Location}
\par \tab Middle East, bordering the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf, between Oman and Saudi Arabia
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Middle East
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 75,581 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 75,581 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly smaller than Maine
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 867 km, Oman 410 km, Saudi Arabia 457 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 1,318 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b contiguous zone}
\par \tab 24 nm
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab 200 nm or to the edge of the continental margin
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab location and status of boundary with Saudi Arabia is not final; no defined boundary with most of Oman, but Administrative Line in far north; claims two islands in the Persian Gulf occupied by Iran (Jazireh-ye Tonb-e Bozorg or Greater Tunb, and Jazireh-ye Tonb-e Kuchek or Lesser Tunb); claims island in the Persian Gulf jointly administered with Iran (Jazireh-ye Abu Musa or Abu Musa); in 1992, the dispute over Abu Musa and the Tunb islands became more acute when Iran unilaterally tried to control the entry of third country nationals into the UAE portion of Abu Musa island, Tehran subsequently backed off in the face of significant diplomatic support for the UAE in the region
{\b Climate}
\par \tab desert; cooler in eastern mountains
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab flat, barren coastal plain merging into rolling sand dunes of vast desert wasteland; mountains in east
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab petroleum, natural gas
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 2%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 98%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 50 sq km (1989 est.)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab lack of natural freshwater resources being overcome by desalination plants; desertification; beach pollution from oil spills
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab frequent sand and dust storms
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection; signed, but not ratified - Biodiversity, Law of the Sea
{\b Note}
\par \tab strategic location along southern approaches to Strait of Hormuz, a vital transit point for world crude oil{\b Location}
\par \tab Western Europe, islands including the northern one-sixth of the island of Ireland between the North Atlantic Ocean and the North Sea, northwest of France
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Europe
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 244,820 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 241,590 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly smaller than Oregon
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab includes Rockall and Shetland Islands
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 360 km, Ireland 360 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 12,429 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab as defined in continental shelf orders or in accordance with agreed upon boundaries
\par \tab {\b exclusive fishing zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab Northern Ireland question with Ireland; Gibraltar question with Spain; Argentina claims Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas); Argentina claims South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands; Mauritius claims island of Diego Garcia in British Indian Ocean Territory; Rockall continental shelf dispute involving Denmark, Iceland, and Ireland (Ireland and the UK have signed a boundary agreement in the Rockall area); territorial claim in Antarctica (British Antarctic Territory)
{\b Climate}
\par \tab temperate; moderated by prevailing southwest winds over the North Atlantic Current; more than half of the days are overcast
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mostly rugged hills and low mountains; level to rolling plains in east and southeast
\par \tab sulfur dioxide emissions from power plants contribute to air pollution; some rivers polluted by agricultural wastes and coastal waters polluted because of large-scale disposal of sewage at sea
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Wetlands, Whaling; signed, but not ratified - Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Desertification
{\b Note}
\par \tab lies near vital North Atlantic sea lanes; only 35 km from France and now linked by tunnel under the English Channel; because of heavily indented coastline, no location is more than 125 km from tidal waters{\b Location}
\par \tab North America, bordering both the North Atlantic Ocean and the North Pacific Ocean, between Canada and Mexico
{\b Map references}
\par \tab North America
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 9,372,610 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 9,166,600 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab about half the size of Russia; about three-tenths the size of Africa; about one-half the size of South America (or slightly larger than Brazil); slightly smaller than China; about two and one-half times the size of Western Europe
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab includes only the 50 states and District of Columbia
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 12,248 km, Canada 8,893 km (including 2,477 km with Alaska), Cuba 29 km (US Naval Base at Guantanamo Bay), Mexico 3,326 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 19,924 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b contiguous zone}
\par \tab 12 nm
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab not specified
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab maritime boundary disputes with Canada (Dixon Entrance, Beaufort Sea, Strait of Juan de Fuca, Machias Seal Island); US Naval Base at Guantanamo Bay is leased from Cuba and only mutual agreement or US abandonment of the area can terminate the lease; Haiti claims Navassa Island; US has made no territorial claim in Antarctica (but has reserved the right to do so) and does not recognize the claims of any other nation; Republic of Marshall Islands claims Wake Island
{\b Climate}
\par \tab mostly temperate, but tropical in Hawaii and Florida and arctic in Alaska, semiarid in the great plains west of the Mississippi River and arid in the Great Basin of the southwest; low winter temperatures in the northwest are ameliorated occasionally in January and February by warm chinook winds from the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab vast central plain, mountains in west, hills and low mountains in east; rugged mountains and broad river valleys in Alaska; rugged, volcanic topography in Hawaii
\par \tab air pollution resulting in acid rain in both the US and Canada; the US is the largest single emitter of carbon dioxide from the burning of fossil fuels; water pollution from runoff of pesticides and fertilizers; very limited natural fresh water resources in much of the western part of the country require careful management; desertification
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab tsunamis, volcanoes, and earthquake activity around Pacific Basin; hurricanes along the Atlantic coast; tornadoes in the midwest; mudslides in California; forest fires in the west; flooding; permafrost in northern Alaska is a major impediment to development
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Antarctic Treaty, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Wetlands, Whaling; signed, but not ratified - Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Biodiversity, Desertification, Hazardous Wastes, Tropical Timber 94
{\b Note}
\par \tab world's fourth-largest country (after Russia, Canada, and China){\b Location}
\par \tab Southern South America, bordering the South Atlantic Ocean, between Argentina and Brazil
{\b Map references}
\par \tab South America
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 176,220 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 173,620 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly smaller than Washington State
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 1,564 km, Argentina 579 km, Brazil 985 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 660 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation
\par \tab short section of boundary with Argentina is in dispute; two short sections of the boundary with Brazil are in dispute - Arroyo de la Invernada (Arroio Invernada) area of the Rio Cuareim (Rio Quarai) and the islands at the confluence of the Rio Cuareim (Rio Quarai) and the Uruguay River
{\b Climate}
\par \tab warm temperate; freezing temperatures almost unknown
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mostly rolling plains and low hills; fertile coastal lowland
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab soil, hydropower potential, minor minerals
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 8%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 78%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 4%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 10%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 1,100 sq km (1989 est.)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab substantial pollution from Brazilian industry along border; one-fifth of country affected by acid rain generated by Brazil; water pollution from meat packing/tannery industry; inadequate solid/hazardous waste disposal
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab seasonally high winds (the pampero is a chilly and occasional violent wind which blows north from the Argentine pampas), droughts, floods; because of the absence of mountains, which act as weather barriers, all locations are particularly vulnerable to rapid changes in weather fronts
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands; signed, but not ratified - Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation{\b Location}
\par \tab Central Asia, north of Afghanistan
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Commonwealth of Independent States - Central Asian States
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 447,400 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 425,400 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly larger than California
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 6,221 km, Afghanistan 137 km, Kazakhstan 2,203 km, Kyrgyzstan 1,099 km, Tajikistan 1,161 km, Turkmenistan 1,621 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 0 km
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab Uzbekistan borders the Aral Sea (420 km)
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab none; landlocked
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab mostly midlatitude desert, long, hot summers, mild winters; semiarid grassland in east
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mostly flat-to-rolling sandy desert with dunes; broad, flat intensely irrigated river valleys along course of Amu Darya and Sirdaryo Rivers; Fergana Valley in east surrounded by mountainous Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan; shrinking Aral Sea in west
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab natural gas, petroleum, coal, gold, uranium, silver, copper, lead and zinc, tungsten, molybdenum
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 10%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 1%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 47%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 42%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 41,550 sq km (1990)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab drying up of the Aral Sea is resulting in growing concentrations of chemical pesticides and natural salts; these substances are then blown from the increasingly exposed lake bed and contribute to desertification; water pollution from industrial wastes and the heavy use of fertilizers and pesticides is the cause of many human health disorders; increasing soil salinization; soil contamination from agricultural chemicals, including DDT
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Climate Change, Environmental Modification, Ozone Layer Protection
{\b Note}
\par \tab landlocked{\b Location}
\par \tab Oceania, group of islands in the South Pacific Ocean, about three-quarters of the way from Hawaii to Australia
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Oceania
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 14,760 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 14,760 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly larger than Connecticut
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab includes more than 80 islands
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab 0 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 2,528 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab measured from claimed archipelagic baselines
\par \tab {\b contiguous zone}
\par \tab 24 nm
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab 200 nm or to the edge of the continental margin
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical; moderated by southeast trade winds
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mostly mountains of volcanic origin; narrow coastal plains
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab manganese, hardwood forests, fish
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 1%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 5%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 2%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 1%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 91%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab NA sq km
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab a majority of the population does not have access to a potable and reliable supply of water
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab tropical cyclones or typhoons (January to April); volcanism causes minor earthquakes
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution; signed, but not ratified - Law of the Sea{\b Location}
\par \tab Southern Europe, an enclave of Rome (Italy)
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Europe
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 0.44 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 0.44 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab about 0.7 times the size of The Mall in Washington, DC
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 3.2 km, Italy 3.2 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 0 km (landlocked)
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab none; landlocked
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab temperate; mild, rainy winters (September to mid-May) with hot, dry summers (May to September)
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab low hill
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab none
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 100%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 0 sq km
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab signed, but not ratified - Air Pollution, Environmental Modification
{\b Note}
\par \tab urban; landlocked; enclave of Rome, Italy; world's smallest state; outside the Vatican City, 13 buildings in Rome and Castel Gandolfo (the pope's summer residence) enjoy extraterritorial rights{\b Location}
\par \tab Northern South America, bordering the Caribbean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean, between Colombia and Guyana
{\b Map references}
\par \tab South America
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 912,050 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 882,050 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly more than twice the size of California
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 4,993 km, Brazil 2,200 km, Colombia 2,050 km, Guyana 743 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 2,800 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b contiguous zone}
\par \tab 15 nm
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab claims all of Guyana west of the Essequibo River; maritime boundary dispute with Colombia in the Gulf of Venezuela
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical; hot, humid; more moderate in highlands
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab Andes Mountains and Maracaibo Lowlands in northwest; central plains (llanos); Guiana Highlands in southeast
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab petroleum, natural gas, iron ore, gold, bauxite, other minerals, hydropower, diamonds
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 3%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 1%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 20%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 39%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 37%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 2,640 sq km (1989 est.)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab sewage pollution of Lago de Valencia; oil and urban pollution of Lago de Maracaibo; deforestation; soil degradation; urban and industrial pollution, especially along the Caribbean coast
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab subject to floods, rockslides, mudslides; periodic droughts
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands, Whaling; signed, but not ratified - Hazardous Wastes, Marine Dumping
{\b Note}
\par \tab on major sea and air routes linking North and South America{\b Location}
\par \tab Southeastern Asia, bordering the Gulf of Thailand, Gulf of Tonkin, and South China Sea, between China and Cambodia
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Southeast Asia
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 329,560 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 325,360 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly larger than New Mexico
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 3,818 km, Cambodia 982 km, China 1,281 km, Laos 1,555 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 3,444 km (excludes islands)
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b contiguous zone}
\par \tab 24 nm
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab 200 nm or to the edge of the continental margin
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab maritime boundary with Cambodia not defined; involved in a complex dispute over the Spratly Islands with China, Malaysia, Philippines, Taiwan, and possibly Brunei; unresolved maritime boundary with Thailand; maritime boundary dispute with China in the Gulf of Tonkin; Paracel Islands occupied by China but claimed by Vietnam and Taiwan
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical in south; monsoonal in north with hot, rainy season (mid-May to mid-September) and warm, dry season (mid-October to mid-March)
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab low, flat delta in south and north; central highlands; hilly, mountainous in far north and northwest
\par \tab logging and slash-and-burn agricultural practices are contributing to deforestation; soil degradation; water pollution and overfishing threatening marine life populations; inadequate supplies of potable water because of groundwater contamination
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab occasional typhoons (May to January) with extensive flooding
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands; signed, but not ratified - Nuclear Test Ban{\b Affiliation}
\par \tab (territory of the US)
{\b Location}
\par \tab Caribbean, islands between the Caribbean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean, east of Puerto Rico
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Central America and the Caribbean
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 352 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 349 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly less than twice the size of Washington, DC
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab 0 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 188 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab subtropical, tempered by easterly tradewinds, relatively low humidity, little seasonal temperature variation; rainy season May to November
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mostly hilly to rugged and mountainous with little level land
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab sun, sand, sea, surf
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 15%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 6%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 26%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 6%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 47%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab NA sq km
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab lack of natural freshwater resources
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab rarely affected by hurricanes; frequent and severe droughts, floods, and earthquakes
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab NA
{\b Note}
\par \tab important location along the Anegada Passage - a key shipping lane for the Panama Canal; Saint Thomas has one of the best natural, deepwater harbors in the Caribbean{\b Note}
\par \tab The Israel-PLO Declaration of Principles on Interim Self-Government Arrangements ("the DOP"), signed in Washington on 13 September 1993, provides for a transitional period not exceeding five years of Palestinian interim self-government in the Gaza Strip and the West Bank. Under the DOP, final status negotiations are to begin no later than the beginning of the third year of the transitional period.
{\b Location}
\par \tab Middle East, west of Jordan
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Middle East
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 5,860 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 5,640 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly larger than Delaware
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab includes West Bank, Latrun Salient, and the northwest quarter of the Dead Sea, but excludes Mt. Scopus; East Jerusalem and Jerusalem No Man's Land are also included only as a means of depicting the entire area occupied by Israel in 1967
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 404 km, Israel 307 km, Jordan 97 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 0 km (landlocked)
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab none; landlocked
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab West Bank and Gaza Strip are Israeli occupied with interim status subject to Israeli/Palestinian negotiations - final status to be determined
{\b Climate}
\par \tab temperate, temperature and precipitation vary with altitude, warm to hot summers, cool to mild winters
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mostly rugged dissected upland, some vegetation in west, but barren in east
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab negligible
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 27%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 32%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 1%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 40%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab NA sq km
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab NA
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab NA
{\b Note}
\par \tab landlocked; highlands are main recharge area for Israel's coastal aquifers; there are 199 Jewish settlements and civilian land use sites in the West Bank and 25 in East Jerusalem (August 1994 est.){\b Location}
\par \tab Northern Africa, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean, between Mauritania and Morocco
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Africa
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 266,000 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 266,000 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly smaller than Colorado
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 2,046 km, Algeria 42 km, Mauritania 1,561 km, Morocco 443 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 1,110 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab contingent upon resolution of sovereignty issue
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab claimed and administered by Morocco, but sovereignty is unresolved and the UN is attempting to hold a referendum on the issue; the UN-administered cease-fire has been currently in effect since September 1991
{\b Climate}
\par \tab hot, dry desert; rain is rare; cold offshore air currents produce fog and heavy dew
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mostly low, flat desert with large areas of rocky or sandy surfaces rising to small mountains in south and northeast
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab phosphates, iron ore
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 19%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 81%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab NA sq km
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab sparse water and arable land
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab hot, dry, dust/sand-laden sirocco wind can occur during winter and spring; widespread harmattan haze exists 60% of time, often severely restricting visibility
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab NA{\b Location}
\par \tab Oceania, group of islands in the South Pacific Ocean, about one-half of the way from Hawaii to New Zealand
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Oceania
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 2,860 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 2,850 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly smaller than Rhode Island
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab 0 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 403 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab none
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical; rainy season (October to March), dry season (May to October)
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab narrow coastal plain with volcanic, rocky, rugged mountains in interior
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab hardwood forests, fish
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 19%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 24%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 47%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 10%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab NA sq km
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab soil erosion
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab occasional typhoons; active volcanism
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection; signed, but not ratified - Law of the Sea{\b Location}
\par \tab Middle East, bordering the Arabian Sea, Gulf of Aden, and Red Sea, between Oman and Saudi Arabia
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Middle East
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 527,970 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 527,970 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly larger than twice the size of Wyoming
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab includes Perim, Socotra, the former Yemen Arab Republic (YAR or North Yemen), and the former People's Democratic Republic of Yemen (PDRY or South Yemen)
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 1,746 km, Oman 288 km, Saudi Arabia 1,458 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 1,906 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b contiguous zone}
\par \tab 18 nm in the North; 24 nm in the South
\par \tab {\b continental shelf}
\par \tab 200 nm or to the edge of the continental margin
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab 200 nm
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab undefined section of boundary with Saudi Arabia; a treaty with Oman defining the Yemeni-Omani boundary was ratified in December 1992
{\b Climate}
\par \tab mostly desert; hot and humid along west coast; temperate in western mountains affected by seasonal monsoon; extraordinarily hot, dry, harsh desert in east
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab narrow coastal plain backed by flat-topped hills and rugged mountains; dissected upland desert plains in center slope into the desert interior of the Arabian Peninsula
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab petroleum, fish, rock salt, marble, small deposits of coal, gold, lead, nickel, and copper, fertile soil in west
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 6%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 0%
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 30%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 7%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 57%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 3,100 sq km (1989 est.)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab very limited natural fresh water resources; inadequate supplies of potable water; overgrazing; soil erosion; desertification
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab sandstorms and dust storms in summer
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Environmental Modification, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban; signed, but not ratified - Biodiversity, Climate Change
{\b Note}
\par \tab controls Bab el Mandeb, the strait linking the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, one of world's most active shipping lanes{\b Location}
\par \tab Central Africa, northeast of Angola
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Africa
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 2,345,410 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 2,267,600 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly more than one-quarter the size of US
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 10,271 km, Angola 2,511 km, Burundi 233 km, Central African Republic 1,577 km, Congo 2,410 km, Rwanda 217 km, Sudan 628 km, Uganda 765 km, Zambia 1,930 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 37 km
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab {\b exclusive economic zone}
\par \tab boundaries with neighbors
\par \tab {\b territorial sea}
\par \tab 12 nm
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab Tanzania-Zaire-Zambia tripoint in Lake Tanganyika may no longer be indefinite since it is reported that the indefinite section of the Zaire-Zambia boundary has been settled; long section with Congo along the Congo River is indefinite (no division of the river or its islands has been made)
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical; hot and humid in equatorial river basin; cooler and drier in southern highlands; cooler and wetter in eastern highlands; north of Equator - wet season April to October, dry season December to February; south of Equator - wet season November to March, dry season April to October
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab vast central basin is a low-lying plateau; mountains in east
\par \tab poaching threatens wildlife populations; water pollution; deforestation; 1.2 million Rwandan refugees are responsible for significant deforestation, soil erosion, and wildlife poaching in eastern Zaire
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab periodic droughts in south; volcanic activity
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Tropical Timber 83; signed, but not ratified - Desertification, Environmental Modification
{\b Note}
\par \tab straddles Equator; very narrow strip of land that controls the lower Congo River and is only outlet to South Atlantic Ocean; dense tropical rain forest in central river basin and eastern highlands{\b Location}
\par \tab Southern Africa, east of Angola
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Africa
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 752,610 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 740,720 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly larger than Texas
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 5,664 km, Angola 1,110 km, Malawi 837 km, Mozambique 419 km, Namibia 233 km, Tanzania 338 km, Zaire 1,930 km, Zimbabwe 797 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 0 km (landlocked)
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab none; landlocked
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab quadripoint with Botswana, Namibia, and Zimbabwe is in disagreement; Tanzania-Zaire-Zambia tripoint in Lake Tanganyika may no longer be indefinite since it is reported that the indefinite section of the Zaire-Zambia boundary has been settled
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical; modified by altitude; rainy season (October to April)
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mostly high plateau with some hills and mountains
\par \tab air pollution and resulting acid rain in the mineral extraction and refining region; poaching seriously threatens rhinoceros and elephant populations; deforestation; soil erosion; desertification; lack of adequate water treatment presents human health risks
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab tropical storms (November to April)
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands; signed, but not ratified - Desertification
{\b Note}
\par \tab landlocked{\b Location}
\par \tab Southern Africa, northeast of Botswana
{\b Map references}
\par \tab Africa
{\b Area}
\par \tab {\b total area}
\par \tab 390,580 sq km
\par \tab {\b land area}
\par \tab 386,670 sq km
\par \tab {\b comparative area}
\par \tab slightly larger than Montana
{\b Land boundaries}
\par \tab total 3,066 km, Botswana 813 km, Mozambique 1,231 km, South Africa 225 km, Zambia 797 km
{\b Coastline}
\par \tab 0 km (landlocked)
{\b Maritime claims}
\par \tab none; landlocked
{\b International disputes}
\par \tab quadripoint with Botswana, Namibia, and Zambia is in disagreement
{\b Climate}
\par \tab tropical; moderated by altitude; rainy season (November to March)
{\b Terrain}
\par \tab mostly high plateau with higher central plateau (high veld); mountains in east
{\b Natural resources}
\par \tab coal, chromium ore, asbestos, gold, nickel, copper, iron ore, vanadium, lithium, tin, platinum group metals
{\b Land use}
\par \tab {\b arable land}
\par \tab 7.25%
\par \tab {\b permanent crops}
\par \tab 0.25% (coffee is a permanent crop)
\par \tab {\b meadows and pastures}
\par \tab 12.5%
\par \tab {\b forest and woodland}
\par \tab 49%
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab 31%
{\b Irrigated land}
\par \tab 2,250 sq km (1993 est.)
{\b Environment}
\par \tab {\b current issues}
\par \tab deforestation; soil erosion; land degradation; air and water pollution; the black rhinoceros herd - once the largest concentration of the species in the world - has been significantly reduced by poaching
\par \tab {\b natural hazards}
\par \tab recurring droughts; floods and severe storms are rare
\par \tab {\b international agreements}
\par \tab party to - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection; signed, but not ratified - Desertification
\par \tab there may be two new provinces of Nurestan (Nuristan) and Khowst
{\b Independence}
\par \tab 19 August 1919 (from UK)
{\b National holiday}
\par \tab Victory of the Muslim Nation, 28 April; Remembrance Day for Martyrs and Disabled, 4 May; Independence Day, 19 August
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab none
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab a new legal system has not been adopted but the transitional government has declared it will follow Islamic law (Shari'a)
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab undetermined; previously males 15-50 years of age, universal
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state}
\par \tab President Burhanuddin RABBANI (Interim President July-December 1992; President since 2 January 1993); Vice President Mohammad NABI MOHAMMADI (since NA); election last held 31 December 1992 (next to be held NA); results - Burhanuddin RABBANI was elected to a two-year term by a national shura, later amended by multi-party agreement to 18 months; note - in June 1994 failure to agree on a transfer mechanism resulted in RABBANI's extending the term to 28 December 1994; following the expiration of the term and while negotiations on the formation of a new government go on, RABBANI continues in office
\par \tab {\b head of government}
\par \tab Prime Minister Gulbuddin HIKMATYAR (since 17 March 1993); note - Prime Minister HIKMATYAR is the nominal head of government and does not have any real authority; First Deputy Prime Minister Qutbuddin HELAL (since 17 March 1993); Deputy Prime Minister Arsala RAHMANI (since 17 March 1993)
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Council of Ministers
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab term of present government expired 28 December 1994; factional fighting since 1 January 1994 has kept government officers from actually occupying ministries and discharging government responsibilities; the government's authority to remove cabinet members, including the Prime Minister, following the expiration of their term is questionable
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab a unicameral parliament consisting of 205 members was chosen by the shura in January 1993; non-functioning as of June 1993
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab an interim Chief Justice of the Supreme Court has been appointed, but a new court system has not yet been organized
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab current political organizations include Jamiat-i-Islami (Islamic Society), Burhanuddin RABBANI, Ahmad Shah MASOOD; Hizbi Islami-Gulbuddin (Islamic Party), Gulbuddin HIKMATYAR faction; Hizbi Islami-Khalis (Islamic Party), Yunis KHALIS faction; Ittihad-i-Islami Barai Azadi Afghanistan (Islamic Union for the Liberation of Afghanistan), Abdul Rasul SAYYAF; Harakat-Inqilab-i-Islami (Islamic Revolutionary Movement), Mohammad Nabi MOHAMMADI; Jabha-i-Najat-i-Milli Afghanistan (Afghanistan National Liberation Front), Sibghatullah MOJADDEDI; Mahaz-i-Milli-Islami (National Islamic Front), Sayed Ahamad GAILANI; Hizbi Wahdat-Khalili faction (Islamic Unity Party), Abdul Karim KHALILI; Hizbi Wahdat-Akbari faction (Islamic Unity Party), Mohammad Akbar AKBARI; Harakat-i-Islami (Islamic Movement), Mohammed Asif MOHSENI; Jumbesh-i-Milli Islami (National Islamic Movement), Abdul Rashid DOSTAM; Taliban (Religious Students Movement), Mohammad OMAR
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab the former ruling Watan Party has been disbanded
{\b Other political or pressure groups}
\par \tab the former resistance commanders are the major power brokers in the countryside and their shuras (councils) are now administering most cities outside Kabul; tribal elders and religious students are trying to wrest control from them; ulema (religious scholars); tribal elders; religious students (talib)
\par \tab an interim basic law was approved by the People's Assembly on 29 April 1991; a draft constitution was rejected by popular referendum in the fall of 1994 and a new draft is pending
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 18 years of age; universal and compulsory
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state}
\par \tab President of the Republic Sali BERISHA (since 9 April 1992)
\par \tab {\b head of government}
\par \tab Prime Minister of the Council of Ministers Aleksander Gabriel MEKSI (since 10 April 1992)
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Council of Ministers; appointed by the president
\par \tab elections last held 22 March 1992; results - DP 62.29%, ASP 25.57%, SDP 4.33%, RP 3.15%, UHP 2.92%, other 1.74%; seats - (140 total) DP 92, ASP 38, SDP 7, RP 1, UHP 2
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab 6 members of the Democratic Party defected making the present seating in the Assembly DP 86, ASP 38, SDP 7, DAP 6, RP 1, UHP 2
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Supreme Court
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab there are at least 28 political parties; most prominent are the Albanian Socialist Party (ASP; formerly the Albania Workers Party), Fatos NANO, first secretary; Democratic Party (DP); Albanian Republican Party (RP), Sabri GODO; Omonia (Greek minority party), Sotir QIRJAZATI, first secretary; Social Democratic Party (SDP), Skender GJINUSHI; Democratic Alliance Party (DAP), Neritan CEKA, chairman; Unity for Human Rights Party (UHP), Vasil MELO, chairman; Ecology Party (EP), Namik HOTI, chairman
\par \tab Suite 1010, 1511 K Street NW, Washington, DC 20005
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [1] (202) 223-4942, 8187
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [1] (202) 628-7342
{\b US diplomatic representation}
\par \tab {\b chief of mission}
\par \tab Ambassador Joseph E. LAKE
\par \tab {\b embassy}
\par \tab Rruga E. Elbansanit 103, Tirane
\par \tab {\b mailing address}
\par \tab PSC 59, Box 100 (A), APO AE 09624
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [355] (42) 328-75, 335-20
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [355] (42) 322-22
{\b Flag}
\par \tab red with a black two-headed eagle in the center{\b Names}
\par \tab {\b conventional long form}
\par \tab Democratic and Popular Republic of Algeria
\par \tab {\b conventional short form}
\par \tab Algeria
\par \tab {\b local long form}
\par \tab Al Jumhuriyah al Jaza'iriyah ad Dimuqratiyah ash Shabiyah
\par \tab {\b local short form}
\par \tab Al Jaza'ir
{\b Digraph}
\par \tab AG
{\b Type}
\par \tab republic
{\b Capital}
\par \tab Algiers
{\b Administrative divisions}
\par \tab 48 provinces (wilayas, singular - wilaya); Adrar, Ain Defla, Ain Temouchent, Alger, Annaba, Batna, Bechar, Bejaia, Biskra, Blida, Bordj Bou Arreridj, Bouira, Boumerdes, Chlef, Constantine, Djelfa, El Bayadh, El Oued, El Tarf, Ghardaia, Guelma, Illizi, Jijel, Khenchela, Laghouat, Mascara, Medea, Mila, Mostaganem, M'Sila, Naama, Oran, Ouargla, Oum el Bouaghi, Relizane, Saida, Setif, Sidi Bel Abbes, Skikda, Souk Ahras, Tamanghasset, Tebessa, Tiaret, Tindouf, Tipaza, Tissemsilt, Tizi Ouzou, Tlemcen
{\b Independence}
\par \tab 5 July 1962 (from France)
{\b National holiday}
\par \tab Anniversary of the Revolution, 1 November (1954)
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab 19 November 1976, effective 22 November 1976; revised 3 November 1988 and 23 February 1989
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab socialist, based on French and Islamic law; judicial review of legislative acts in ad hoc Constitutional Council composed of various public officials, including several Supreme Court justices; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 18 years of age; universal
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state}
\par \tab President Lamine ZEROUAL (since 31 January 1994); next election to be held by the end of 1995
\par \tab {\b head of government}
\par \tab Prime Minister Mokdad SIFI (since 11 April 1994)
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Council of Ministers; appointed by the prime minister
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab unicameral; note - suspended since 1992
\par \tab {\b National People's Assembly (Al-Majlis Ech-Chaabi Al-Watani)}
\par \tab elections first round held on 26 December 1991 (second round canceled by the military after President BENDJEDID resigned 11 January 1992, effectively suspending the Assembly); results - percent of vote by party NA; seats - (281 total); the fundamentalist FIS won 188 of the 231 seats contested in the first round; note - elections (provincial and municipal) were held in June 1990, the first in Algerian history; results - FIS 55%, FLN 27.5%, other 17.5%, with 65% of the voters participating
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Supreme Court (Cour Supreme)
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab Islamic Salvation Front (FIS, outlawed April 1992), Ali BELHADJ, Dr. Abassi MADANI, Abdelkader HACHANI (all under arrest), Rabeh KEBIR (self-exile in Germany); National Liberation Front (FLN), Abdelhamid MEHRI, Secretary General; Socialist Forces Front (FFS), Hocine Ait AHMED, Secretary General
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab the government established a multiparty system in September 1989 and, as of 31 December 1990, over 50 legal parties existed
\par \tab B. P. Box 549, Alger-Gare, 16000 Algiers
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [213] (2) 69-11-86, 69-18-54, 69-38-75
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [213] (2) 69-39-79
\par \tab {\b consulate(s)}
\par \tab none (Oran closed June 1993)
{\b Flag}
\par \tab two equal vertical bands of green (hoist side) and white with a red five-pointed star within a red crescent; the crescent, star, and color green are traditional symbols of Islam (the state religion){\b Names}
\par \tab {\b conventional long form}
\par \tab Principality of Andorra
\par \tab {\b conventional short form}
\par \tab Andorra
\par \tab {\b local long form}
\par \tab Principat d'Andorra
\par \tab {\b local short form}
\par \tab Andorra
{\b Digraph}
\par \tab AN
{\b Type}
\par \tab parliamentary democracy (since March 1993) that retains as its heads of state a co-principality; the two princes are the president of France and Spanish bishop of Seo de Urgel, who are represented locally by officials called veguers
{\b Capital}
\par \tab Andorra la Vella
{\b Administrative divisions}
\par \tab 7 parishes (parroquies, singular - parroquia); Andorra, Canillo, Encamp, La Massana, Les Escaldes, Ordino, Sant Julia de Loria
{\b Independence}
\par \tab 1278
{\b National holiday}
\par \tab Mare de Deu de Meritxell, 8 September
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab Andorra's first written constitution was drafted in 1991; adopted 14 March 1993
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab based on French and Spanish civil codes; no judicial review of legislative acts; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 18 years of age; universal
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chiefs of state}
\par \tab French Co-Prince Jacques CHIRAC (since 1995), represented by Veguer de Franca Jean Pierre COURTOIS (since NA); note - COURTOIS is to become French ambassador to Libreville and his replacement has not been announced; Spanish Episcopal Co-Prince Mgr. Juan MARTI Alanis (since 31 January 1971), represented by Veguer Episcopal Francesc BADIA Bata (since NA); two permanent delegates (French Prefect Pierre STEINMETZ for the department of Pyrenees-Orientales, since NA, and Spanish Vicar General Nemesi MARQUES Oste for the Seo de Urgel diocese, since NA)
\par \tab {\b head of government}
\par \tab Executive Council President Marc FORNE (since 21 December 1994) elected by Parliament, following resignation of Oscar RIBAS Reig
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Executive Council; designated by the executive council president
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab unicameral
\par \tab {\b General Council of the Valleys}
\par \tab (Consell General de las Valls); elections last held 12 December 1993 (next to be held NA); yielded no clear winner; results - percent of vote by party NA; seats - (28 total) number of seats by party NA
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Supreme Court of Andorra at Perpignan (France) for civil cases, the Ecclesiastical Court of the bishop of Seo de Urgel (Spain) for civil cases, Tribunal of the Courts (Tribunal des Cortes) for criminal cases
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab National Democratic Group (AND), Oscar RIBAS Reig and Jordi FARRAS; Liberal Union (UL), Francesc CERQUEDA; New Democracy (ND), Jaume BARTOMEU; Andorran National Coalition (CNA), Antoni CERQUEDA; National Democratic Initiative (IDN), Vincenc MATEU; Liberal Union (UL), Marc FORNE
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab there are two other small parties
{\b Member of}
\par \tab ECE, IFRCS (associate), INTERPOL, IOC, ITU, UN, UNESCO
{\b Diplomatic representation in US}
\par \tab Andorra has no mission in the US
{\b US diplomatic representation}
\par \tab Andorra is included within the Barcelona (Spain) Consular District, and the US Consul General visits Andorra periodically
{\b Flag}
\par \tab three equal vertical bands of blue (hoist side), yellow, and red with the national coat of arms centered in the yellow band; the coat of arms features a quartered shield; similar to the flags of Chad and Romania that do not have a national coat of arms in the center{\b Note}
\par \tab Civil war has been the norm since independence from Portugal on 11 November 1975; a cease-fire lasted from 31 May 1991 until October 1992 when the insurgent National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) refused to accept its defeat in internationally monitored elections and fighting resumed throughout much of the countryside. The two sides signed another peace accord on 20 November 1994; the cease-fire is generally holding but most provisions of the accord remain to be implemented.
{\b Names}
\par \tab {\b conventional long form}
\par \tab Republic of Angola
\par \tab {\b conventional short form}
\par \tab Angola
\par \tab {\b local long form}
\par \tab Republica de Angola
\par \tab {\b local short form}
\par \tab Angola
\par \tab {\b former}
\par \tab People's Republic of Angola
{\b Digraph}
\par \tab AO
{\b Type}
\par \tab transitional government nominally a multiparty democracy with a strong presidential system
\par \tab 11 November 1975; revised 7 January 1978, 11 August 1980, 6 March 1991, and 26 August 1992
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab based on Portuguese civil law system and customary law; recently modified to accommodate political pluralism and increased use of free markets
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 18 years of age; universal
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state}
\par \tab President Jose Eduardo DOS SANTOS (since 21 September 1979)
\par \tab {\b head of government}
\par \tab Prime Minister Marcolino Jose Carlos MOCO (since 2 December 1992)
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Council of Ministers; appointed by the president
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab unicameral
\par \tab {\b National Assembly (Assembleia Nacional)}
\par \tab first nationwide, multiparty elections were held 29-30 September 1992 with disputed results
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Supreme Court (Tribunal da Relacao)
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA), led by Jose Eduardo DOS SANTOS, is the ruling party and has been in power since 1975; National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA), led by Jonas SAVIMBI, is a legal party despite its history of armed resistance to the government; five minor parties have small numbers of seats in the National Assembly
{\b Other political or pressure groups}
\par \tab Cabindan State Liberation Front (FLEC), N'ZITA Tiago, leader of largest faction (FLEC-FAC)
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab FLEC is waging a small-scale, highly factionalized, armed struggle for the independence of Cabinda Province
\par \tab C.P. 6484, Luanda; American Embassy, Luanda, Department of State, Washington, D.C. 20521-2550 (pouch)
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [244] (2) 345-481, 346-418
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [244] (2) 347-884
{\b Flag}
\par \tab two equal horizontal bands of red (top) and black with a centered yellow emblem consisting of a five-pointed star within half a cogwheel crossed by a machete (in the style of a hammer and sickle){\b Names}
\par \tab {\b conventional long form}
\par \tab none
\par \tab {\b conventional short form}
\par \tab Anguilla
{\b Digraph}
\par \tab AV
{\b Type}
\par \tab dependent territory of the UK
{\b Capital}
\par \tab The Valley
{\b Administrative divisions}
\par \tab none (dependent territory of the UK)
{\b Independence}
\par \tab none (dependent territory of the UK)
{\b National holiday}
\par \tab Anguilla Day, 30 May
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab Anguilla Constitutional Orders 1 April 1982; amended 1990
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab based on English common law
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 18 years of age; universal
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state}
\par \tab Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952), represented by Governor Alan W. SHAVE (since 14 August 1992)
\par \tab {\b head of government}
\par \tab Chief Minister Hubert HUGHES (since 16 March 1994)
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Executive Council; appointed by the governor from the elected members of the House of Assembly
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab unicameral
\par \tab {\b House of Assembly}
\par \tab elections last held 16 March 1994 (next to be held March 1999); results - percent of vote by party NA; seats - (11 total, 7 elected) ANA 2, AUP 2, ADP 2, independent 1
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab High Court
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab Anguilla National Alliance (ANA); Anguilla United Party (AUP), Hubert HUGHES; Anguilla Democratic Party (ADP), Victor BANKS
\par \tab two horizontal bands of white (top, almost triple width) and light blue with three orange dolphins in an interlocking circular design centered in the white band; a new flag may have been in use since 30 May 1990{\b Names}
\par \tab {\b conventional long form}
\par \tab none
\par \tab {\b conventional short form}
\par \tab Antarctica
{\b Digraph}
\par \tab AY
{\b Type}
\par \tab {\b Antarctic Treaty Summary}
\par \tab The Antarctic Treaty, signed on 1 December 1959 and entered into force on 23 June 1961, establishes the legal framework for the management of Antarctica. Administration is carried out through consultative member meetings - the 18th Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting was in Japan in April 1993. Currently, there are 42 treaty member nations: 26 consultative and 16 acceding. Consultative (voting) members include the seven nations that claim portions of Antarctica as national territory (some claims overlap) and 19 nonclaimant nations. The US and some other nations that have made no claims have reserved the right to do so. The US does not recognize the claims of others. The year in parentheses indicates when an acceding nation was voted to full consultative (voting) status, while no date indicates the country was an original 1959 treaty signatory. Claimant nations are - Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, New Zealand, Norway, and the UK. Nonclaimant consultative nations are - Belgium, Brazil (1983), China (1985), Ecuador (1990), Finland (1989), Germany (1981), India (1983), Italy (1987), Japan, South Korea (1989), Netherlands (1990), Peru (1989), Poland (1977), South Africa, Spain (1988), Sweden (1988), Uruguay (1985), the US, and Russia. Acceding (nonvoting) members, with year of accession in parentheses, are - Austria (1987), Bulgaria (1978), Canada (1988), Colombia (1988), Cuba (1984), Czech Republic (1993), Denmark (1965), Greece (1987), Guatemala (1991), Hungary (1984), North Korea (1987), Papua New Guinea (1981), Romania (1971), Slovakia (1993), Switzerland (1990), and Ukraine (1992).
\par \tab {\b Article 1}
\par \tab area to be used for peaceful purposes only; military activity, such as weapons testing, is prohibited, but military personnel and equipment may be used for scientific research or any other peaceful purpose
\par \tab {\b Article 2}
\par \tab freedom of scientific investigation and cooperation shall continue
\par \tab {\b Article 3}
\par \tab free exchange of information and personnel in cooperation with the UN and other international agencies
\par \tab {\b Article 4}
\par \tab does not recognize, dispute, or establish territorial claims and no new claims shall be asserted while the treaty is in force
\par \tab {\b Article 5}
\par \tab prohibits nuclear explosions or disposal of radioactive wastes
\par \tab {\b Article 6}
\par \tab includes under the treaty all land and ice shelves south of 60 degrees 00 minutes south
\par \tab {\b Article 7}
\par \tab treaty-state observers have free access, including aerial observation, to any area and may inspect all stations, installations, and equipment; advance notice of all activities and of the introduction of military personnel must be given
\par \tab {\b Article 8}
\par \tab allows for jurisdiction over observers and scientists by their own states
\par \tab {\b Article 9}
\par \tab frequent consultative meetings take place among member nations
\par \tab {\b Article 10}
\par \tab treaty states will discourage activities by any country in Antarctica that are contrary to the treaty
\par \tab {\b Article 11}
\par \tab disputes to be settled peacefully by the parties concerned or, ultimately, by the ICJ
\par \tab {\b Articles 12, 13, 14}
\par \tab deal with upholding, interpreting, and amending the treaty among involved nations
\par \tab {\b Other agreements}
\par \tab more than 170 recommendations adopted at treaty consultative meetings and ratified by governments include - Agreed Measures for the Conservation of Antarctic Fauna and Flora (1964); Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals (1972); Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (1980); a mineral resources agreement was signed in 1988 but was subsequently rejected; in 1991 the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty was signed and awaits ratification; this agreement provides for the protection of the Antarctic environment through five specific annexes on marine pollution, fauna, and flora, environmental impact assessments, waste management, and protected areas; it also prohibits all activities relating to mineral resources except scientific research; 14 parties have ratified Protocol as of April 1995
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab US law, including certain criminal offenses by or against US nationals, such as murder, may apply to areas not under jurisdiction of other countries. Some US laws directly apply to Antarctica. For example, the Antarctic Conservation Act, 16 U.S.C. section 2401 et seq., provides civil and criminal penalties for the following activities, unless authorized by regulation of statute: The taking of native mammals or birds; the introduction of nonindigenous plants and animals; entry into specially protected or scientific areas; the discharge or disposal of pollutants; and the importation into the US of certain items from Antarctica. Violation of the Antarctic Conservation Act carries penalties of up to $10,000 in fines and 1 year in prison. The Departments of Treasury, Commerce, Transportation, and Interior share enforcement responsibilities. Public Law 95-541, the US Antarctic Conservation Act of 1978, requires expeditions from the US to Antarctica to notify, in advance, the Office of Oceans and Polar Affairs, Room 5801, Department of State, Washington, DC 20520, which reports such plans to other nations as required by the Antarctic Treaty. For more information contact Permit Office, Office of Polar Programs, National Science Foundation, Arlington, Virginia 22230 (703-306-1031).{\b Names}
\par \tab {\b conventional long form}
\par \tab none
\par \tab {\b conventional short form}
\par \tab Antigua and Barbuda
{\b Digraph}
\par \tab AC
{\b Type}
\par \tab parliamentary democracy
{\b Capital}
\par \tab Saint John's
{\b Administrative divisions}
\par \tab 6 parishes and 2 dependencies*; Barbuda*, Redonda*, Saint George, Saint John, Saint Mary, Saint Paul, Saint Peter, Saint Philip
{\b Independence}
\par \tab 1 November 1981 (from UK)
{\b National holiday}
\par \tab Independence Day, 1 November (1981)
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab 1 November 1981
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab based on English common law
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 18 years of age; universal
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state}
\par \tab Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952), represented by Governor General James B. CARLISLE (since NA 1993)
\par \tab {\b head of government}
\par \tab Prime Minister Lester Bryant BIRD (since 8 March 1994)
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Council of Ministers; appointed by the governor general on the advice of the prime minister
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab bicameral Parliament
\par \tab {\b Senate}
\par \tab 17 member body appointed by the governor general
\par \tab {\b House of Representatives}
\par \tab elections last held 8 March 1994 (next to be held NA 1999); results - percent of vote by party NA; seats - (17 total) ALP 11, UPP 5, independent 1
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Eastern Caribbean Supreme Court
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab Antigua Labor Party (ALP), Lester Bryant BIRD; United Progressive Party (UPP), Baldwin SPENCER
{\b Other political or pressure groups}
\par \tab United Progressive Party (UPP), headed by Baldwin SPENCER, a coalition of three opposition political parties - the United National Democratic Party (UNDP); the Antigua Caribbean Liberation Movement (ACLM); and the Progressive Labor Movement (PLM); Antigua Trades and Labor Union (ATLU), headed by William ROBINSON
\par \tab 3216 New Mexico Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20016
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [1] (202) 362-5211, 5166, 5122
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [1] (202) 362-5225
\par \tab {\b consulate(s) general}
\par \tab Miami
{\b US diplomatic representation}
\par \tab the post was closed 30 June 1994; the US Ambassador to Barbados is accredited to Antigua and Barbuda
{\b Flag}
\par \tab red with an inverted isosceles triangle based on the top edge of the flag; the triangle contains three horizontal bands of black (top), light blue, and white with a yellow rising sun in the black band{\b Digraph}
\par \tab XQ{\b Names}
\par \tab {\b conventional long form}
\par \tab Argentine Republic
\par \tab {\b conventional short form}
\par \tab Argentina
\par \tab {\b local long form}
\par \tab Republica Argentina
\par \tab {\b local short form}
\par \tab Argentina
{\b Digraph}
\par \tab AR
{\b Type}
\par \tab republic
{\b Capital}
\par \tab Buenos Aires
{\b Administrative divisions}
\par \tab 23 provinces (provincias, singular - provincia), and 1 federal district* (distrito federal); Buenos Aires; Catamarca; Chaco; Chubut; Cordoba; Corrientes; Distrito Federal*; Entre Rios; Formosa; Jujuy; La Pampa; La Rioja; Mendoza; Misiones; Neuquen; Rio Negro; Salta; San Juan; San Luis; Santa Cruz; Santa Fe; Santiago del Estero; Tierra del Fuego, Antartida e Islas del Atlantico Sur; Tucuman
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab the US does not recognize any claims to Antarctica or Argentina's claims to the Falkland Islands
{\b Independence}
\par \tab 9 July 1816 (from Spain)
{\b National holiday}
\par \tab Revolution Day, 25 May (1810)
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab 1 May 1853; revised August 1994
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab mixture of US and West European legal systems; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 18 years of age; universal
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state and head of government}
\par \tab President Carlos Saul MENEM (re-elected May 1995); Vice President Carlos RUCKAUF (since 14 May 1995); next elections to be held May 1999
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Cabinet; appointed by the president
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab bicameral National Congress (Congreso Nacional)
\par \tab {\b Senate}
\par \tab elections last held May 1989, but provincial elections in late 1991 set the stage for indirect elections by provincial senators for one-third of 48 seats in the national senate in May 1992; seats (48 total) - PJ 29, UCR 11, others 7, vacant 1
\par \tab {\b Chamber of Deputies}
\par \tab elections last held 3 October 1993 ( next to be held October 1995); elections are held every two years and half of the total membership is elected each time for four year terms; seats - (257 total) PJ 122, UCR 83, MODIN 7, UCD 5, other 40
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Supreme Court (Corte Suprema)
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab Justicialist Party (PJ), Carlos Saul MENEM, Peronist umbrella political organization; Radical Civic Union (UCR),Raul ALFONSIN, moderately left-of-center party; Union of the Democratic Center (UCD), Jorge AGUADO, conservative party; Dignity and Independence Political Party (MODIN), Aldo RICO, right-wing party; Grand Front (Frente Grande), Carlos ALVAREZ, center-left coalition; several provincial parties
{\b Other political or pressure groups}
\par \tab Peronist-dominated labor movement; General Confederation of Labor (CGT; Peronist-leaning umbrella labor organization); Argentine Industrial Union (manufacturers' association); Argentine Rural Society (large landowners' association); business organizations; students; the Roman Catholic Church; the Armed Forces
\par \tab 1600 New Hampshire Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20009
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [1] (202) 939-6400 through 6403
\par \tab {\b consulate(s) general}
\par \tab Atlanta, Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, Miami, New Orleans, New York, San Francisco, and San Juan (Puerto Rico)
{\b US diplomatic representation}
\par \tab {\b chief of mission}
\par \tab Ambassador James R. CHEEK
\par \tab {\b embassy}
\par \tab 4300 Colombia, 1425 Buenos Aires
\par \tab {\b mailing address}
\par \tab Unit 4334; APO AA 34034
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [54] (1) 777-4533, 4534
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [54] (1) 777-0197
{\b Flag}
\par \tab three equal horizontal bands of light blue (top), white, and light blue; centered in the white band is a radiant yellow sun with a human face known as the Sun of May{\b Names}
\par \tab {\b conventional long form}
\par \tab Republic of Armenia
\par \tab {\b conventional short form}
\par \tab Armenia
\par \tab {\b local long form}
\par \tab Hayastani Hanrapetut'yun
\par \tab {\b local short form}
\par \tab Hayastan
\par \tab {\b former}
\par \tab Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic; Armenian Republic
\par \tab 28 May 1918 (First Armenian Republic); 23 September 1991 (from Soviet Union)
{\b National holiday}
\par \tab Referendum Day, 21 September
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab adopted NA April 1978; referendum on new constitution to be held 5 July 1995
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab based on civil law system
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 18 years of age; universal
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state}
\par \tab President Levon Akopovich TER-PETROSYAN (since October 1991) election last held 16 October 1991 (next to be held NA 1996); results - Levon Akopovich TER-PETROSYAN 86%; radical nationalists about 7%; note - Levon Akopovich TER-PETROSYAN was elected Chairman of the Armenian Supreme Soviet 4 August 1990 before becoming president
\par \tab {\b head of government}
\par \tab Prime Minister Hrant BAGRATYAN (since 16 February 1993); First Deputy Prime Minister Vigen CHITECHYAN (since 16 February 1993)
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Council of Ministers; appointed by the president
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab unicameral
\par \tab {\b Supreme Soviet}
\par \tab elections last held 20 May 1990 (next to be held 5 July 1995); results - percent of vote by party NA; seats - (260 total) non-aligned 136, ANM 52, DPA 17, Democratic Liberal Party 17, ARF 12, NDU 9, Christian Democratic Party 1, Constitutional Rights Union 1, ONS 1, Republican Party 1, Nagorno-Karabakh representatives 13
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Supreme Court
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab Armenian National Movement (ANM), Ter-Husik LAZARYAN, chairman; National Democratic Union (NDU), David VARTANYAN, chairman; Armenian Revolutionary Federation (ARF, Dashnaktsutyun); note - banned until reorganized; Democratic Party of Armenia (DPA; Communist Party), Aram SARKISYAN, chairman; Christian Democratic Party, Azat ARSHAKYAN, chairman; Greens Party, Hakob SANASARIAN, chairman; Democratic Liberal Party, Rouben MIRZAKHANYAN, chairman; Republican Party, Ashot NAVARSARDYAN, chairman; Union for Self-Determination (ONS), Paruir AIRIKYAN, chairman
\par \tab Suite 210, 1660 L Street NW, Washington, DC 20036
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [1] (202) 628-5766
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [1] (202) 628-5769
{\b US diplomatic representation}
\par \tab {\b chief of mission}
\par \tab Ambassador Harry J. GILMORE
\par \tab {\b embassy}
\par \tab 18 Gen Bagramian, Yerevan
\par \tab {\b mailing address}
\par \tab use embassy street address
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [7] (8852) 151-144, 524-661
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [7] (8852) 151-138
{\b Flag}
\par \tab three equal horizontal bands of red (top), blue, and gold{\b Names}
\par \tab {\b conventional long form}
\par \tab none
\par \tab {\b conventional short form}
\par \tab Aruba
{\b Digraph}
\par \tab AA
{\b Type}
\par \tab part of the Dutch realm; full autonomy in internal affairs obtained in 1986 upon separation from the Netherlands Antilles
{\b Capital}
\par \tab Oranjestad
{\b Administrative divisions}
\par \tab none (self-governing part of the Netherlands)
{\b Independence}
\par \tab none (part of the Dutch realm; in 1990, Aruba requested and received from the Netherlands cancellation of the agreement to automatically give independence to the island in 1996)
{\b National holiday}
\par \tab Flag Day, 18 March
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab 1 January 1986
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab based on Dutch civil law system, with some English common law influence
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 18 years of age; universal
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state}
\par \tab Queen BEATRIX Wilhelmina Armgard (since 30 April 1980), represented by Governor General Olindo KOOLMAN (since 1 January 1992)
\par \tab {\b head of government}
\par \tab Prime Minister Jan (Henny) H. EMAN (since 29 July 1994)
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Council of Ministers; appointed with the advice and approval of the legislature
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab unicameral
\par \tab {\b Legislature (Staten)}
\par \tab elections last held 29 July 1994 (next to be held by NA July 1998); results - percent of vote by party NA; seats - (21 total) AVP 10, MEP 9, OLA 2
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Joint High Court of Justice
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab Electoral Movement Party (MEP), Nelson ODUBER; Aruban People's Party (AVP), Jan (Henny) H. EMAN; National Democratic Action (ADN), Pedro Charro KELLY; New Patriotic Party (PPN), Eddy WERLEMEN; Aruban Patriotic Party (PPA), Benny NISBET; Aruban Democratic Party (PDA), Leo BERLINSKI; Democratic Action '86 (AD '86), Arturo ODUBER; Organization for Aruban Liberty (OLA), Glenbert CROES
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab governing coalition includes the MEP, PPA, and ADN
\par \tab none (self-governing part of the Netherlands)
{\b US diplomatic representation}
\par \tab none (self-governing part of the Netherlands)
{\b Flag}
\par \tab blue with two narrow horizontal yellow stripes across the lower portion and a red, four-pointed star outlined in white in the upper hoist-side corner{\b Digraph}
\par \tab ZH{\b Names}
\par \tab {\b conventional long form}
\par \tab Commonwealth of Australia
\par \tab {\b conventional short form}
\par \tab Australia
{\b Digraph}
\par \tab AS
{\b Type}
\par \tab federal parliamentary state
{\b Capital}
\par \tab Canberra
{\b Administrative divisions}
\par \tab 6 states and 2 territories*; Australian Capital Territory*, New South Wales, Northern Territory*, Queensland, South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria, Western Australia
{\b Dependent areas}
\par \tab Ashmore and Cartier Islands, Christmas Island, Cocos (Keeling) Islands, Coral Sea Islands, Heard Island and McDonald Islands, Norfolk Island
{\b Independence}
\par \tab 1 January 1901 (federation of UK colonies)
{\b National holiday}
\par \tab Australia Day, 26 January (1788)
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab 9 July 1900, effective 1 January 1901
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab based on English common law; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction, with reservations
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 18 years of age; universal and compulsory
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state}
\par \tab Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952), represented by Governor General William George HAYDEN (since 16 February 1989)
\par \tab {\b head of government}
\par \tab Prime Minister Paul John KEATING (since 20 December 1991); Deputy Prime Minister Brian HOWE (since 4 June 1991)
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Cabinet; prime minister selects his cabinet from members of the House and Senate
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab bicameral Federal Parliament
\par \tab {\b Senate}
\par \tab elections last held 13 March 1993 (next to be held by NA 1996); results - percent of vote by party NA; seats - (76 total) Liberal-National 36, Labor 30, Australian Democrats 7, Greens 2, independents 1
\par \tab {\b House of Representatives}
\par \tab elections last held 13 March 1993 (next to be held by NA 1996); results - percent of vote by party NA; seats - (147 total) Labor 80, Liberal-National 65, independent 2
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab High Court
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab {\b government}
\par \tab Australian Labor Party, Paul John KEATING
\par \tab {\b opposition}
\par \tab Liberal Party, John HOWARD; National Party, Timothy FISCHER; Australian Democratic Party, Cheryl KERNOT; Green Party, leader NA
{\b Other political or pressure groups}
\par \tab Australian Democratic Labor Party (anti-Communist Labor Party splinter group); Peace and Nuclear Disarmament Action (Nuclear Disarmament Party splinter group)
\par \tab 1601 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20036
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [1] (202) 797-3000
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [1] (202) 797-3168
\par \tab {\b consulate(s) general}
\par \tab Atlanta, Honolulu, Houston, Los Angeles, New York, Pago Pago (American Samoa), and San Francisco
{\b US diplomatic representation}
\par \tab {\b chief of mission}
\par \tab Ambassador Edward J. PERKINS
\par \tab {\b embassy}
\par \tab Moonah Place, Yarralumla, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory 2600
\par \tab {\b mailing address}
\par \tab APO AP 96549
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [61] (6) 270-5000
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [61] (6) 270-5970
\par \tab {\b consulate(s) general}
\par \tab Melbourne, Perth, and Sydney
\par \tab {\b consulate(s)}
\par \tab Brisbane
{\b Flag}
\par \tab blue with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and a large seven-pointed star in the lower hoist-side quadrant; the remaining half is a representation of the Southern Cross constellation in white with one small five-pointed star and four, larger, seven-pointed stars{\b Names}
\par \tab {\b conventional long form}
\par \tab Republic of Austria
\par \tab {\b conventional short form}
\par \tab Austria
\par \tab {\b local long form}
\par \tab Republik Oesterreich
\par \tab {\b local short form}
\par \tab Oesterreich
{\b Digraph}
\par \tab AU
{\b Type}
\par \tab federal republic
{\b Capital}
\par \tab Vienna
{\b Administrative divisions}
\par \tab 9 states (bundeslaender, singular - bundesland); Burgenland, Kaernten, Niederoesterreich, Oberoesterreich, Salzburg, Steiermark, Tirol, Vorarlberg, Wien
{\b Independence}
\par \tab 12 November 1918 (from Austro-Hungarian Empire)
{\b National holiday}
\par \tab National Day, 26 October (1955)
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab 1920; revised 1929 (reinstated 1 May 1945)
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab civil law system with Roman law origin; judicial review of legislative acts by a Constitutional Court; separate administrative and civil/penal supreme courts; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 18 years of age; universal; compulsory for presidential elections
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state}
\par \tab President Thomas KLESTIL (since 8 July 1992); election last held 24 May 1992 (next to be held 1996); results of second ballot - Thomas KLESTIL 57%, Rudolf STREICHER 43%
\par \tab {\b head of government}
\par \tab Chancellor Franz VRANITZKY (since 16 June 1986); Vice Chancellor Erhard BUSEK (since 2 July 1991)
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Council of Ministers; chosen by the president on the advice of the chancellor
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab bicameral Federal Assembly (Bundesversammlung)
\par \tab {\b Federal Council (Bundesrat)}
\par \tab consists of 63 members representing each of the provinces on the basis of population, but with each province having at least 3 representatives
\par \tab {\b National Council (Nationalrat)}
\par \tab elections last held 9 October 1994 (next to be held October 1998); results - SPOE 34.9%, OEVP 27.7%, FPOE 22.5%, Greens 7.3%, LF 6.0% other 1.6%; seats - (183 total) SPOE 65, OEVP 52, FPOE 42, Greens 13, LF 11
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Supreme Judicial Court (Oberster Gerichtshof) for civil and criminal cases, Administrative Court (Verwaltungsgerichtshof) for bureaucratic cases, Constitutional Court (Verfassungsgerichtshof) for constitutional cases
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab Social Democratic Party of Austria (SPOE), Franz VRANITZKY, chairman; Austrian People's Party (OEVP), Erhard BUSEK, chairman; Freedom Movement (F) (was the Freedom Party of Austria, FPOE), Joerg HAIDER, chairman; Communist Party (KPOE), Walter SILBERMAYER, chairman; The Greens, Madeleine PETROVIC; Liberal Forum (LF), Heide SCHMIDT
{\b Other political or pressure groups}
\par \tab Federal Chamber of Commerce and Industry; Austrian Trade Union Federation (primarily Socialist); three composite leagues of the Austrian People's Party (OEVP) representing business, labor, and farmers; OEVP-oriented League of Austrian Industrialists; Roman Catholic Church, including its chief lay organization, Catholic Action
\par \tab 3524 International Court NW, Washington, DC 20008-3035
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [1] (202) 895-6700
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [1] (202) 895-6750
\par \tab {\b consulate(s) general}
\par \tab Chicago, Los Angeles, and New York
{\b US diplomatic representation}
\par \tab {\b chief of mission}
\par \tab Ambassador Swanee G. HUNT
\par \tab {\b chancery}
\par \tab Boltzmanngasse 16, A-1091, Vienna
\par \tab {\b mailing address}
\par \tab use embassy street address
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [43] (1) 313-39
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [43] (1) 310-0682
\par \tab {\b consulate(s) general}
\par \tab none (Salzburg closed September 1993)
{\b Flag}
\par \tab three equal horizontal bands of red (top), white, and red{\b Names}
\par \tab {\b conventional long form}
\par \tab Azerbaijani Republic
\par \tab {\b conventional short form}
\par \tab Azerbaijan
\par \tab {\b local long form}
\par \tab Azarbaycan Respublikasi
\par \tab {\b local short form}
\par \tab none
\par \tab {\b former}
\par \tab Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic
{\b Digraph}
\par \tab AJ
{\b Type}
\par \tab republic
{\b Capital}
\par \tab Baku (Baki)
{\b Administrative divisions}
\par \tab 59 rayons (rayonlar; rayon - singular), 11 cities* (saharlar; sahar - singular), 1 autonomous republic** (muxtar respublika); Abscron Rayonu, Agcabadi Rayonu, Agdam Rayonu, Agdas Rayonu, Agstafa Rayonu, Agsu Rayonu, AliBayramli Sahari*, Astara Rayonu, Baki Sahari*, Balakan Rayonu, Barda Rayonu, Beylaqan Rayonu, Bilasuvar Rayonu, Cabrayil Rayonu, Calilabad Rayonu, Daskasan Rayonu, Davaci Rayonu, Fuzuli Rayonu, Gadabay Rayonu, Ganca Sahari*, Goranboy Rayonu, Goycay Rayonu, Haciqabul Rayonu, Imisli Rayonu, Ismayilli Rayonu, Kalbacar Rayonu, Kurdamir Rayonu, Lacin Rayonu, Lankaran Rayonu, Lankaran Sahari*, Lerik Rayonu, Masalli Rayonu, Mingacevir Sahari*, Naftalan Sahari*, Naxcivan Muxtar Respublikasi**, Neftcala Rayonu, Oguz Rayonu, Qabala Rayonu, Qax Rayonu, Qazax Rayonu, Qobustan Rayonu, Quba Rayonu, Qubadli Rayonu, Qusar Rayonu, Saatli Rayonu, Sabirabad Rayonu, Saki Rayonu, Saki Sahari*, Salyan Rayonu, Samaxi Rayonu, Samkir Rayonu, Samux Rayonu, Siyazan Rayonu, Sumqayit Sahari*, Susa Rayonu, Susa Sahari*, Tartar Rayonu, Tovuz Rayonu, Ucar Rayonu, Xacmaz Rayonu, Xankandi Sahari*, Xanlar Rayonu, Xizi Rayonu, Xocali Rayonu, Xocavand Rayonu, Yardimb Rayonu, Yevlax Rayonu, Yevlax Sahari*, Zangilan Rayonu, Zaqatala Rayonu, Zardab Rayonu
{\b Independence}
\par \tab 30 August 1991 (from Soviet Union)
{\b National holiday}
\par \tab Independence Day, 28 May
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab adopted NA April 1978; writing a new constitution
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab based on civil law system
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 18 years of age; universal
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state}
\par \tab President Heydar ALIYEV (since 18 June 1993); election last held 3 October 1993 (next to be held NA); results - Heydar ALIYEV won 97% of vote
\par \tab {\b head of government}
\par \tab Prime Minister Fuad QULIYEV (since 9 October 1994); First Deputy Prime Ministers Abbas ABBASOV, Samed SADYKOV, Vahid AKHMEDOV (since NA)
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Council of Ministers; appointed by the president and confirmed by the Mejlis
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab unicameral
\par \tab {\b National Assembly (Milli Mejlis)}
\par \tab elections last held 30 September and 14 October 1990 for the Supreme Soviet (next expected to be held September 1995 for the National Assembly); seats for Supreme Soviet - (360 total) Communists 280, Democratic Bloc 45 (grouping of opposition parties), other 15, vacant 20; note - on 19 May 1992 the Supreme Soviet was prorogued in favor of a Popular Front-dominated National Council; seats - (50 total) Popular Front 25, opposition elements 25
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab since June 1993 ALIYEV has rotated in several supporters to replace Popular Front adherents
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Supreme Court
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab Azerbaijan Popular Front (APF), Ebulfez ELCIBEY, chairman; Musavat Party, Isa GAMBAR, chairman; National Independence Party, Etibar MAMEDOV, chairman; Social Democratic Party (SDP), Araz ALIZADE, chairman; Communist Party, Ramiz AKHMEDOV, chairman; People's Freedom Party, Yunus OGUZ, chairman; Independent Social Democratic Party, Arif YUNUSOV and Leila YUNOSOVA, cochairmen; New Azerbaijan Party, Heydar ALIYEV, chairman; Boz Gurd Party, Iskander HAMIDOV, chairman; Azerbaijan Democratic Independence Party, Qabil HUSEYNLI, chairman; Islamic Party of Azerbaijan, Ali Akram, chairman; Ana Veten Party, Fazail AGAMALIYEV; Azerbaijan Democratic Party, Sardar Jalaloglu MAMEDOV; Azerbaijan Democratic Party of Proprietors (DPOP), Makhmud MAMEDOV; Azerbaijan Patriotic Solidarity Party, Sabir RUSTAMHANLI; Azerbaijan Republic Reform Party, Fuad ASADOV; Communist Party of Azerbaijan (unregistered), Sayad SAYADOV; Equality of the Peoples Party, Faukhraddin AYDAYEV; Independent Azerbaijan Party, Nizami SULEYMANOV; Labor Party of Azerbaijan, Sabutai HAJIYEV; Liberal-Democratic Party of Azerbaijan, Lyudmila NIKOLAYEVNA; National Enlightenment Party, Hajy Osman EFENDIYEV; National Liberation Party, Panak SHAKHSEVEV; Peasant Party, Firuz MUSTAFAYEV; Radical Party of Azerbaijan, Malik SHARIFOV; United Azerbaijan Party, Kerrar ABILOV; Vetan Adzhagy Party, Zakir TAGIYEV
{\b Other political or pressure groups}
\par \tab self-proclaimed Armenian Nagorno-Karabakh Republic; Talysh independence movement
\par \tab (temporary) Suite 700, 927 15th Street NW, Washington, DC 20005
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [1] (202) 842-0001
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [1] (202) 842-0004
{\b US diplomatic representation}
\par \tab {\b chief of mission}
\par \tab Ambassador Richard D. KAUZLARICH
\par \tab {\b embassy}
\par \tab Azadliq Prospect 83, Baku
\par \tab {\b mailing address}
\par \tab use embassy street address
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [9] (9412) 96-00-19, 98-03-37
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [9] (9412) 98-37-55
{\b Flag}
\par \tab three equal horizontal bands of blue (top), red, and green; a crescent and eight-pointed star in white are centered in red band{\b Names}
\par \tab {\b conventional long form}
\par \tab Commonwealth of The Bahamas
\par \tab {\b conventional short form}
\par \tab The Bahamas
{\b Digraph}
\par \tab BF
{\b Type}
\par \tab commonwealth
{\b Capital}
\par \tab Nassau
{\b Administrative divisions}
\par \tab 21 districts; Acklins and Crooked Islands, Bimini, Cat Island, Exuma, Freeport, Fresh Creek, Governor's Harbour, Green Turtle Cay, Harbour Island, High Rock, Inagua, Kemps Bay, Long Island, Marsh Harbour, Mayaguana, New Providence, Nicholls Town and Berry Islands, Ragged Island, Rock Sound, Sandy Point, San Salvador and Rum Cay
{\b Independence}
\par \tab 10 July 1973 (from UK)
{\b National holiday}
\par \tab National Day, 10 July (1973)
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab 10 July 1973
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab based on English common law
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 18 years of age; universal
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state}
\par \tab Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952), represented by Governor General Sir Orville TURNQUEST
\par \tab {\b head of government}
\par \tab Prime Minister Hubert A. INGRAHAM (since 19 August 1992)
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Cabinet; appointed by the governor on the prime minister's recommendation
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab bicameral Parliament
\par \tab {\b Senate}
\par \tab a 16-member body appointed by the governor general
\par \tab {\b House of Assembly}
\par \tab elections last held 19 August 1992 (next to be held by August 1997); results - percent of vote by party NA; seats - (49 total) FNM 32, PLP 17
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Supreme Court
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab Progressive Liberal Party (PLP), Sir Lynden O. PINDLING; Free National Movement (FNM), Hubert Alexander INGRAHAM;
\par \tab 2220 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [1] (202) 319-2660
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [1] (202) 319-2668
\par \tab {\b consulate(s) general}
\par \tab Miami and New York
{\b US diplomatic representation}
\par \tab {\b chief of mission}
\par \tab Ambassador Sidney WILLIAMS
\par \tab {\b embassy}
\par \tab Mosmar Building, Queen Street, Nassau
\par \tab {\b mailing address}
\par \tab P. O. Box N-8197, Nassau
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [1] (809) 322-1181, 328-2206
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [1] (809) 328-7838
{\b Flag}
\par \tab three equal horizontal bands of aquamarine (top), gold, and aquamarine with a black equilateral triangle based on the hoist side{\b Names}
\par \tab {\b conventional long form}
\par \tab State of Bahrain
\par \tab {\b conventional short form}
\par \tab Bahrain
\par \tab {\b local long form}
\par \tab Dawlat al Bahrayn
\par \tab {\b local short form}
\par \tab Al Bahrayn
{\b Digraph}
\par \tab BA
{\b Type}
\par \tab traditional monarchy
{\b Capital}
\par \tab Manama
{\b Administrative divisions}
\par \tab 12 districts (manatiq, singular - mintaqah); Al Hadd, Al Manamah, Al Mintaqah al Gharbiyah, Al Mintaqah al Wusta, Al Mintaqah ash Shamaliyah, Al Muharraq, Ar Rifa'wa al Mintaqah al Janubiyah, Jidd Hafs, Madinat Hamad, Madinat 'Isa, Mintaqat Juzur Hawar, Sitrah
{\b Independence}
\par \tab 15 August 1971 (from UK)
{\b National holiday}
\par \tab Independence Day, 16 December (1961)
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab 26 May 1973, effective 6 December 1973
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab based on Islamic law and English common law
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab none
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state}
\par \tab Amir ISA bin Salman Al Khalifa (since 2 November 1961); Heir Apparent HAMAD bin Isa bin Salman Al Khalifa (son of the Amir, born 28 January 1950)
\par \tab {\b head of government}
\par \tab Prime Minister KHALIFA bin Salman Al Khalifa (since 19 January 1970)
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Cabinet
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab unicameral National Assembly was dissolved 26 August 1975 and legislative powers were assumed by the Cabinet; appointed Advisory Council established 16 December 1992
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab High Civil Appeals Court
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab political parties prohibited; several small, clandestine leftist and Islamic fundamentalist groups are active
\par \tab 4 November 1972, effective 16 December 1972, suspended following coup of 24 March 1982, restored 10 November 1986, amended many times
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab based on English common law
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 18 years of age; universal
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state}
\par \tab President Abdur Rahman BISWAS (since 8 October 1991); election last held 8 October 1991 (next to be held by NA October 1996); results - Abdur Rahman BISWAS received 52.1% of parliamentary vote
\par \tab {\b head of government}
\par \tab Prime Minister Khaleda Zur RAHMAN (since 20 March 1991)
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Council of Ministers; appointed by the president
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab unicameral
\par \tab {\b National Parliament (Jatiya Sangsad)}
\par \tab elections last held 27 February 1991 (next to be held by February 1996); results - percent of vote by party NA; seats - (330 total, 300 elected and 30 seats reserved for women) BNP 168, AL 93, JP 35, JI 20, BCP 5, National Awami Party (Muzaffar) 1, Workers Party 1, JSD 1, Ganotantri Party 1, Islami Oikya Jote 1, NDP 1, independents 3
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Supreme Court
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP), Khaleda ZIAur RAHMAN; Awami League (AL), Sheikh Hasina WAJED; Jatiyo Party (JP), Hussain Mohammad ERSHAD (in jail); Jamaat-E-Islami (JI), Ali KHAN; Bangladesh Communist Party (BCP), Saifuddin Ahmed MANIK; National Awami Party (Muzaffar); Workers Party, leader NA; Jatiyo Samajtantik Dal (JSD), Serajul ALAM KHAN; Ganotantri Party, leader NA; Islami Oikya Jote, leader NA; National Democratic Party (NDP), leader NA; Muslim League, Khan A. SABUR; Democratic League, Khondakar MUSHTAQUE Ahmed; Democratic League, Khondakar MUSHTAQUE Ahmed; United People's Party, Kazi ZAFAR Ahmed
\par \tab green with a large red disk slightly to the hoist side of center; green is the traditional color of Islam{\b Names}
\par \tab {\b conventional long form}
\par \tab none
\par \tab {\b conventional short form}
\par \tab Barbados
{\b Digraph}
\par \tab BB
{\b Type}
\par \tab parliamentary democracy
{\b Capital}
\par \tab Bridgetown
{\b Administrative divisions}
\par \tab 11 parishes; Christ Church, Saint Andrew, Saint George, Saint James, Saint John, Saint Joseph, Saint Lucy, Saint Michael, Saint Peter, Saint Philip, Saint Thomas
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab the new city of Bridgetown may be given parish status
{\b Independence}
\par \tab 30 November 1966 (from UK)
{\b National holiday}
\par \tab Independence Day, 30 November (1966)
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab 30 November 1966
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab English common law; no judicial review of legislative acts
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 18 years of age; universal
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state}
\par \tab Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952), represented by Governor General Dame Nita BARROW (since 6 June 1990)
\par \tab {\b head of government}
\par \tab Prime Minister Owen Seymour ARTHUR (since 6 September 1994); Deputy Prime Minister Billie MILLER (since 6 September 1994)
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Cabinet; appointed by the governor general on advice of the prime minister
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab bicameral Parliament
\par \tab {\b Senate}
\par \tab consists of a 21-member body appointed by the governor general
\par \tab {\b House of Assembly}
\par \tab election last held 6 September 1994 (next to be held by January 1999); results - percentage vote by party NA; seats - (28 total) DLP 8, BLP 19, NDP 1
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Supreme Court of Judicature
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab Democratic Labor Party (DLP),David THOMPSON; Barbados Labor Party (BLP), Owen ARTHUR; National Democratic Party (NDP), Richard HAYNES
{\b Other political or pressure groups}
\par \tab Barbados Workers Union, Leroy TROTMAN; People's Progressive Movement, Eric SEALY; Workers' Party of Barbados, Dr. George BELLE; Clement Payne Labor Union, David COMMISSIONG
\par \tab 2144 Wyoming Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [1] (202) 939-9218, 9219
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [1] (202) 332-7467
\par \tab {\b consulate(s) general}
\par \tab Miami and New York
\par \tab {\b consulate(s)}
\par \tab Los Angeles
{\b US diplomatic representation}
\par \tab {\b chief of mission}
\par \tab Ambassador Jeanette W. HYDE
\par \tab {\b embassy}
\par \tab Canadian Imperial Bank of Commerce Building, Broad Street, Bridgetown
\par \tab {\b mailing address}
\par \tab P. O. Box 302, Bridgetown; FPO AA 34055
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [1] (809) 436-4950
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [1] (809) 429-5246
{\b Flag}
\par \tab three equal vertical bands of blue (hoist side), yellow, and blue with the head of a black trident centered on the gold band; the trident head represents independence and a break with the past (the colonial coat of arms contained a complete trident){\b Names}
\par \tab the administrative centers of the voblastsi are included in parentheses
{\b Independence}
\par \tab 25 August 1991 (from Soviet Union)
{\b National holiday}
\par \tab Independence Day, 27 July (1990)
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab adopted 15 March 1994; replaces constitution of April 1978
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab based on civil law system
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 18 years of age; universal
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state}
\par \tab President Aleksandr LUKASHENKO (since 20 July 1994); election held June 24 and 10 July 1994 (next to be held NA 1999); Aleksandr LUKASHENKO 80%, Vyacheslav KEBICH 14%
\par \tab {\b head of government}
\par \tab Prime Minister Mikhail CHIGIR (since July 1994); Deputy Prime Ministers Vladimir GARKUN, Viktor GONCHAR, Sergey LING, Mikhail MYASNIKOVICH, Valeriy KOKAREV (since NA)
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Council of Ministers
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab first presidential elections took place in June-July 1994
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab unicameral
\par \tab {\b Supreme Soviet}
\par \tab elections last held 4 April 1990 (next to be held 14 May 1995); results - Communists 87%; seats - (360 total) number of seats by party NA; note - 50 seats are for public bodies; the Communist Party obtained an overwhelming majority
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Supreme Court
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab Belarusian Popular Front (BPF), Zenon POZNYAK, chairman; Party of Popular Accord, Gennadiy KARPENKO; Union of Belarusian Entreprenuers, V. N. KARYAGIN; Belarusian Party of Communists, Vasiliy NOVIKOV, Viktor CHIKIN, chairmen; Belarus Peasant Party, Yevgeniy LUGIN, chairman; Belarusian Socialist Party, Vyacheslav KUZNETSOV, chairman; Belarusian Social Democrat Party (SDBP), Oleg TRUSOV, Stanislav SHUSHKEVICH, chairmen; Agrarian Party of Belarus, Aleksandr DUBKO; United Democratic Party of Belarus (UDPB), Aleksandr DOBROVOLSKIY, chairman; Independent Trade Unions, Sergey ANTONCHIK, chairman
{\b Member of}
\par \tab CCC, CE (guest), CEI (associate members), CIS, EBRD, ECE, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, IFC, ILO, IMF, INMARSAT, INTELSAT (nonsignatory user), INTERPOL, IOC, ISO, ITU, NACC, OSCE, PCA, PFP, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WHO, WIPO, WMO
{\b Diplomatic representation in US}
\par \tab {\b chief of mission}
\par \tab Ambassador Sergey Nikolayevich MARTYNOV
\par \tab {\b chancery}
\par \tab 1619 New Hampshire Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20009
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [1] (202) 986-1604
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [1] (202) 986-1805
\par \tab {\b consulate(s) general}
\par \tab New York
{\b US diplomatic representation}
\par \tab {\b chief of mission}
\par \tab Ambassador Kenneth Spencer YALOWITZ
\par \tab {\b embassy}
\par \tab Starovilenskaya #46, Minsk
\par \tab {\b mailing address}
\par \tab use embassy street address
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [7] (0172) 34-65-37
{\b Flag}
\par \tab three horizontal bands of white (top), red, and white{\b Names}
\par \tab National Day, 21 July (ascension of King Leopold to the throne in 1831)
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab 7 February 1831, last revised 14 July 1993; parliament approved a constitutional package creating a federal state
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab civil law system influenced by English constitutional theory; judicial review of legislative acts; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction, with reservations
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 18 years of age, universal and compulsory
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state}
\par \tab King ALBERT II (since 9 August 1993)
\par \tab {\b head of government}
\par \tab Prime Minister Jean-Luc DEHAENE (since 6 March 1992)
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Cabinet; the king appoints the ministers who are approved by the legislature
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab bicameral Parliament
\par \tab {\b Senate}
\par \tab (Flemish - Senaat, French - Senat); elections last held 24 November 1991 (next to be held by the end of 1995); results - percent of vote by party NA; seats - (184 total; of which 106 are directly elected; in the 1995 elections, seats will decrease to 71) CVP 20, SP 14, VLD 13, VU 5, AGALEV 5, VB 5, ROSSEN 1, PS 18, PRL 9, PSC 9, ECOLO 6, FDF 1
\par \tab {\b Chamber of Deputies}
\par \tab (Flemish - Kamer van Volksvertegenwoordigers, French - Chambre des Representants); elections last held 24 November 1991 (next to be held by 21 May 1995); results - CVP 16.7%, PS 13.6%, SP 12.0%, VLD 11.9%, PRL 8.2%, PSC 7.8%, VB 6.6%, VU 5.9%, ECOLO 5.1%, AGALEV 4.9%, FDF 2.6%, ROSSEM 3.2%, FN 1.5%; seats - (212 total; in 1995 elections, seats will decrease to 150) CVP 39, PS 35, SP 28, VLD 26, PRL 20, PSC 18, VB 12, VU 10, ECOLO 10, AGALEV 7, FDF 3, ROSSEM 3, FN 1
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Supreme Court of Justice (Flemish - Hof van Cassatie, French - Cour de Cassation)
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab Flemish Christian Democrats (CVP - Christian People's Party), Johan van HECKE, president; Francophone Christian Democrats (PSC - Social Christian Party), Gerard DEPREZ, president; Flemish Socialist Party (SP), Louis TOBBACK, president; Francophone Socialist Party (PS), Philippe BUSQUIN, president; Flemish Liberal Democrats (VLD), Guy VERHOFSTADT, president; Francophone Liberal Reform Party (PRL), Jean GOL, president; Francophone Democratic Front (FDF), Georges CLERFAYT, president; Volksunie (VU), Bert ANCIAUX, president; Vlaams Blok (VB), Karel DILLEN, chairman; ROSSEM, Jean Pierre VAN ROSSEM; National Front (FN), Daniel FERET, president; AGALEV (Flemish Greens), no president; ECOLO (Francophone Ecologists), no president; other minor parties
{\b Other political or pressure groups}
\par \tab Christian and Socialist Trade Unions; Federation of Belgian Industries; numerous other associations representing bankers, manufacturers, middle-class artisans, and the legal and medical professions; various organizations represent the cultural interests of Flanders and Wallonia; various peace groups such as the Flemish Action Committee Against Nuclear Weapons and Pax Christi
\par \tab Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952), represented by Governor General Sir Colville YOUNG (since 17 November 1993)
\par \tab {\b head of government}
\par \tab Prime Minister Manuel ESQUIVEL (since July 1993); Deputy Prime Minister Dean BARROW (since NA 1993)
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Cabinet; appointed by the governor general on advice from the prime minister
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab bicameral National Assembly
\par \tab {\b Senate}
\par \tab consists of an 8-member appointed body; 5 members are appointed on the advice of the prime minister, 2 on the advice of the leader of the opposition, and 1 after consultation with the Belize Advisory Council (this council serves as an independent body to advise the governor-general with respect to difficult decisions such as granting pardons, commutations, stays of execution, the removal of justices of appeal who appear to be incompetent, etc.)
\par \tab {\b National Assembly}
\par \tab elections last held 30 June 1993 (next to be held June 1998); results - percent of vote by party NA; seats - (28 total) PUP 13 UDP 15
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Supreme Court
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab People's United Party (PUP), George PRICE, Florencio MARIN, Said MUSA; United Democratic Party (UDP), Manuel ESQUIVEL, Dean LINDO, Dean BARROW; National Alliance for Belizean Rights, Philip GOLDSON
{\b Other political or pressure groups}
\par \tab Society for the Promotion of Education and Research (SPEAR), Assad SHOMAN; United Workers Front, leader NA
\par \tab 2535 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [1] (202) 332-9636
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [1] (202) 332-6888
\par \tab {\b consulate(s) general}
\par \tab Los Angeles
\par \tab {\b consulate(s)}
\par \tab New York
{\b US diplomatic representation}
\par \tab {\b chief of mission}
\par \tab Ambassador George Charles BRUNO
\par \tab {\b embassy}
\par \tab Gabourel Lane and Hutson Street, Belize City
\par \tab {\b mailing address}
\par \tab P. O. Box 286, Belize City; APO: Unit 7401, APO AA 34025
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [501] (2) 77161 through 77163
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [501] (2) 30802
{\b Flag}
\par \tab blue with a narrow red stripe along the top and the bottom edges; centered is a large white disk bearing the coat of arms; the coat of arms features a shield flanked by two workers in front of a mahogany tree with the related motto SUB UMBRA FLOREO (I Flourish in the Shade) on a scroll at the bottom, all encircled by a green garland{\b Names}
\par \tab {\b conventional long form}
\par \tab Republic of Benin
\par \tab {\b conventional short form}
\par \tab Benin
\par \tab {\b local long form}
\par \tab Republique du Benin
\par \tab {\b local short form}
\par \tab Benin
\par \tab {\b former}
\par \tab Dahomey
{\b Digraph}
\par \tab BN
{\b Type}
\par \tab republic under multiparty democratic rule dropped Marxism-Leninism December 1989; democratic reforms adopted February 1990; transition to multiparty system completed 4 April 1991
{\b Capital}
\par \tab Porto-Novo
{\b Administrative divisions}
\par \tab 6 provinces; Atakora, Atlantique, Borgou, Mono, Oueme, Zou
{\b Independence}
\par \tab 1 August 1960 (from France)
{\b National holiday}
\par \tab National Day, 1 August (1990)
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab 2 December 1990
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab based on French civil law and customary law; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 18 years of age; universal
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state and head of government}
\par \tab President Nicephore SOGLO (since 4 April 1991); election last held 10 and 24 March 1991 (next election 1996); results - Nicephore SOGLO 68%, Mathieu KEREKOU 32%
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Executive Council; appointed by the president
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab unicameral
\par \tab {\b National Assembly (Assemblee Nationale)}
\par \tab elections last held 28 March 1995; results - percent of vote by party NA; seats - (83 total) Renaissance Party and allies 20, PRD 19, FARD-ALAFIA 10, PSD 7, NCC 3, RDL-VIVOTEN 3, Communist Party 2, Alliance Chameleon 1, RDP 1, ADP 1, other 16
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Supreme Court (Cour Supreme)
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab as of August 1994, 72 political parties were officially recognized; the following are among the most important: Alliance of the Democratic Union for the Forces of Progress (UDFP), Timothee ADANLIN; Movement for Democracy and Social Progress (MDPS), Jean-Roger AHOYO; Union for Liberty and Development (ULD), Marcellin DEGBE; Alliance of the National Party for Democracy and Development (PNDD) and the Democratic Renewal Party (PRD), Pascal Chabi KAO; Alliance of the Social Democratic Party (PSD) and the National Union for Solidarity and Progress (UNSP), Bruno AMOUSSOU; Our Common Cause (NCC), Albert TEVOEDJRE; National Rally for Democracy (RND), Joseph KEKE; Alliance of the National Movement for Democracy and Development (MNDD), leader NA; Movement for Solidarity, Union, and Progress (MSUP), Adebo ADENIYI; Union for Democracy and National Reconstruction (UDRN), Azaria FAKOREDE; Union for Democracy and National Solidarity (UDS), Mama Amadou N'DIAYE; Assembly of Liberal Democrats for National Reconstruction (RDL), Severin ADJOVI; Alliance for Social Democracy (ASD), Robert DOSSOU; Bloc for Social Democracy (BSD), Michel MAGNIDE; Alliance for Democracy and Progress (ADP), Akindes ADEKPEDJOU, and the Democratic Union for Social Renewal (UDRS), Bio Gado Seko N'GOYE; National Union for Democracy and Progress (UNDP), Robert TAGNON; Party for Progress and Democracy, Thiophile NATA; FARD-ALAFIA, Mathieu KEREKOU; The Renaissance Party, Nicephore SOGLO; The Patriotic Union for the Republic (UPR), Jean-Marie ZAHOUN; Union for the Conservation of Democracy, Bernard HOUEGNON
\par \tab 2737 Cathedral Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [1] (202) 232-6656, 6657, 6658
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [1] (202) 265-1996
{\b US diplomatic representation}
\par \tab {\b chief of mission}
\par \tab Ambassador Ruth A. DAVIS
\par \tab {\b embassy}
\par \tab Rue Caporal Bernard Anani, Cotonou
\par \tab {\b mailing address}
\par \tab B. P. 2012, Cotonou
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [229] 30-06-50, 30-05-13, 30-17-92
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [229] 41-15-22
{\b Flag}
\par \tab two equal horizontal bands of yellow (top) and red with a vertical green band on the hoist side{\b Names}
\par \tab {\b conventional long form}
\par \tab none
\par \tab {\b conventional short form}
\par \tab Bermuda
{\b Digraph}
\par \tab BD
{\b Type}
\par \tab dependent territory of the UK
{\b Capital}
\par \tab Hamilton
{\b Administrative divisions}
\par \tab 9 parishes and 2 municipalities*; Devonshire, Hamilton, Hamilton*, Paget, Pembroke, Saint George*, Saint Georges, Sandys, Smiths, Southampton, Warwick
{\b Independence}
\par \tab none (dependent territory of the UK)
{\b National holiday}
\par \tab Bermuda Day, 24 May
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab 8 June 1968
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab English law
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 21 years of age; universal
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state}
\par \tab Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952), represented by Governor Lord David WADDINGTON (since 25 August 1992)
\par \tab {\b head of government}
\par \tab Premier David SAUL; Deputy Premier J. Irving PEARMAN (since 5 October 1993)
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Cabinet; nominated by the premier, appointed by the governor
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab bicameral Parliament
\par \tab {\b Senate}
\par \tab consists of an 11-member body appointed by the governor
\par \tab {\b House of Assembly}
\par \tab elections last held 5 October 1993 (next to be held by NA October 1998); results - percent of vote by party UBP 50%, PLP 46%, independents 4%; seats - (40 total) UBP 22, PLP 18
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Supreme Court
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab United Bermuda Party (UBP), John W. D. SWAN; Progressive Labor Party (PLP), Frederick WADE; National Liberal Party (NLP), Gilbert DARRELL
{\b Other political or pressure groups}
\par \tab Bermuda Industrial Union (BIU), Ottiwell SIMMONS
{\b Member of}
\par \tab CARICOM (observer), CCC, ICFTU, INTERPOL (subbureau), IOC
{\b Diplomatic representation in US}
\par \tab none (dependent territory of the UK)
{\b US diplomatic representation}
\par \tab {\b chief of mission}
\par \tab Ambassador Robert A. FARMER
\par \tab {\b consulate(s) general}
\par \tab Crown Hill, 16 Middle Road, Devonshire, Hamilton
\par \tab {\b mailing address}
\par \tab P. O. Box HM325, Hamilton HMBX; PSC 1002, FPO AE 09727-1002
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [1] (809) 295-1342
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [1] (809) 295-1592
{\b Flag}
\par \tab red with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and the Bermudian coat of arms (white and blue shield with a red lion holding a scrolled shield showing the sinking of the ship Sea Venture off Bermuda in 1609) centered on the outer half of the flag{\b Names}
\par \tab {\b conventional long form}
\par \tab Kingdom of Bhutan
\par \tab {\b conventional short form}
\par \tab Bhutan
{\b Digraph}
\par \tab BT
{\b Type}
\par \tab monarchy; special treaty relationship with India
\par \tab Bhutan has no embassy in the US, but does have a Permanent Mission to the UN, headed by Ugyen TSERING, located at 2 United Nations Plaza, 27th Floor, New York, NY 10017, telephone [1] (212) 826-1919; note - the Bhutanese mission to the UN has consular jurisdiction in the US
\par \tab {\b consulate(s) general}
\par \tab New York
\par \tab {\b honorary consulate(s)}
\par \tab San Francisco; Washington, DC
{\b US diplomatic representation}
\par \tab no formal diplomatic relations, although informal contact is maintained between the Bhutanese and US Embassy in New Delhi (India)
{\b Flag}
\par \tab divided diagonally from the lower hoist side corner; the upper triangle is orange and the lower triangle is red; centered along the dividing line is a large black and white dragon facing away from the hoist side{\b Names}
\par \tab {\b conventional long form}
\par \tab Republic of Bolivia
\par \tab {\b conventional short form}
\par \tab Bolivia
\par \tab {\b local long form}
\par \tab Republica de Bolivia
\par \tab {\b local short form}
\par \tab Bolivia
{\b Digraph}
\par \tab BL
{\b Type}
\par \tab republic
{\b Capital}
\par \tab La Paz (seat of government); Sucre (legal capital and seat of judiciary)
{\b Administrative divisions}
\par \tab 9 departments (departamentos, singular - departamento); Chuquisaca, Cochabamba, Beni, La Paz, Oruro, Pando, Potosi, Santa Cruz, Tarija
{\b Independence}
\par \tab 6 August 1825 (from Spain)
{\b National holiday}
\par \tab Independence Day, 6 August (1825)
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab 2 February 1967
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab based on Spanish law and Code Napoleon; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 18 years of age, universal and compulsory (married); 21 years of age, universal and compulsory (single)
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state and head of government}
\par \tab President Gonzalo SANCHEZ DE LOZADA Bustamente (since 6 August 1993); Vice President Victor Hugo CARDENAS Conde (since 6 August 1993); election last held 6 June 1993 (next to be held May 1997); results - Gonzalo SANCHEZ DE LOZADA (MNR) 34%, Hugo BANZER Suarez (ADN/MIR alliance) 20%, Carlos PALENQUE Aviles (CONDEPA) 14%, Max FERNANDEZ Rojas (UCS) 13%, Antonio ARANIBAR Quiroga (MBL) 5%; no candidate received a majority of the popular vote; Gonzalo SANCHEZ DE LOZADA won a congressional runoff election on 4 August 1993 after forming a coalition with Max FERNANDEZ and Antonio ARANIBAR; FERNANDEZ left the coalition in 1994
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Cabinet; appointed by the president from panel proposed by the Senate
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab bicameral National Congress (Congreso Nacional)
\par \tab {\b Chamber of Deputies (Camara de Diputados)}
\par \tab elections last held 6 June 1993 (next to be held May 1997); results - percent of vote by party NA; seats - (130 total) MNR 52, UCS 20, ADN 17, MIR 17, CONDEPA 13, MBL 7, ARBOL 1, ASD 1, EJE 1, PCD 1
\par \tab {\b Chamber of Senators (Camara de Senadores)}
\par \tab elections last held 6 June 1993 (next to be held May 1997); results - percent of vote by party NA; seats - (27 total) MNR 17, ADN 4, MIR 4, CONDEPA 1, UCS 1
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Supreme Court (Corte Suprema)
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab {\b Left parties}
\par \tab Free Bolivia Movement (MBL), Antonio ARANIBAR; April 9 Revolutionary Vanguard (VR-9), Carlos SERRATE; Alternative of Democratic Socialism (ASD), Jerjes JUSTIANO; Revolutionary Front of the Left (FRI), Oscar ZAMORA; Bolivian Socialist Falange (FSB); Socialist Unzaguista Movement (MAS); Socialist Party One (PS-1); Bolivian Communist Party (PCB)
\par \tab {\b Center-Left parties}
\par \tab Nationalist Revolutionary Movement (MNR), Gonzalo SANCHEZ DE LOZADA; Movement of the Revolutionary Left (MIR), Jaime PAZ Zamora, Oscar EID; Christian Democrat (PCD), Jorge AGREDA
\par \tab {\b Center-Right party}
\par \tab Nationalist Democratic Action (ADN), Jorge LANDIVAR, Hugo BANZER
\par \tab {\b populist parties}
\par \tab Civic Solidarity Union (UCS), Max FERNANDEZ Rojas; Conscience of the Fatherland (CONDEPA), Carlos PALENQUE Aviles; Popular Patriotic Movement (MPP), Julio MANTILLA; Unity and Progress Movement (MUP), Ivo KULJIS
\par \tab {\b Evangelical}
\par \tab Bolivian Renovating Alliance (ARBOL), Hugo VILLEGAS
\par \tab {\b indigenous}
\par \tab Tupac Katari Revolutionary Liberation Movement (MRTK-L), Victor Hugo CARDENAS Conde; Patriotic Axis of Convergence (EJE-P), Ramiro BARRANCHEA; National Katarista Movement (MKN), Fernando UNTOJA
\par \tab 3014 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [1] (202) 483-4410 through 4412
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [1] (202) 328-3712
\par \tab {\b consulate(s) general}
\par \tab Miami, New York, and San Francisco
{\b US diplomatic representation}
\par \tab {\b chief of mission}
\par \tab Ambassador Curt Warren KAMMAN
\par \tab {\b embassy}
\par \tab Avenida Arce 2780, San Jorge, La Paz
\par \tab {\b mailing address}
\par \tab P. O. Box 425, La Paz; APO AA 34032
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [591] (2) 430251
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [591] (2) 4339000
{\b Flag}
\par \tab three equal horizontal bands of red (top), yellow, and green with the coat of arms centered on the yellow band; similar to the flag of Ghana, which has a large black five-pointed star centered in the yellow band{\b Note}
\par \tab The US recognizes the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, formed by the Muslims and Croats in March 1994, remains in the implementation stages.
{\b Names}
\par \tab {\b conventional long form}
\par \tab Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina
\par \tab {\b conventional short form}
\par \tab Bosnia and Herzegovina
\par \tab {\b local long form}
\par \tab Republika Bosna i Hercegovina
\par \tab {\b local short form}
\par \tab Bosna i Hercegovina
{\b Digraph}
\par \tab BK
{\b Type}
\par \tab emerging democracy
{\b Capital}
\par \tab Sarajevo
{\b Administrative divisions}
\par \tab 109 districts (opstinas, singular - opstina) Banovici, Banja Luka, Bihac, Bijeljina, Bileca, Bosanska Dubica, Bosanska Gradiska, Bosanska Krupa, Bosanski Brod, Bosanski Novi, Bosanski Petrovac, Bosanski Samac, Bosansko Grahovo, Bratunac, Brcko, Breza, Bugojno, Busovaca, Cazin, Cajnice, Capljina, Celinac, Citluk, Derventa, Doboj, Donji Vakuf, Foca, Fojnica, Gacko, Glamoc, Gorazde, Gornji Vakuf, Gracanica, Gradacac, Grude, Han Pijesak, Jablanica, Jajce, Kakanj, Kalesija, Kalinovik, Kiseljak, Kladanj, Kljuc, Konjic, Kotor Varos, Kresevo, Kupres, Laktasi, Listica, Livno, Lopare, Lukavac, Ljubinje, Ljubuski, Maglaj, Modrica, Mostar, Mrkonjic-Grad, Neum, Nevesinje, Odzak, Olovo, Orasje, Posusje, Prijedor, Prnjavor, Prozor, (Pucarevo) Novi Travnik, Rogatica, Rudo, Sanski Most, Sarajevo-Centar, Sarajevo-Hadzici, Sarajevo-Ilidza, Sarajevo-Ilijas, Sarajevo-Novi Grad, Sarajevo-Novo, Sarajevo-Pale, Sarajevo-Stari Grad, Sarajevo-Trnovo, Sarajevo-Vogosca, Skender Vakuf, Sokolac, Srbac, Srebrenica, Srebrenik, Stolac, Sekovici, Sipovo, Teslic, Tesanj, Drvar, Duvno, Travnik, Trebinje, Tuzla, Ugljevik, Vares, Velika Kladusa, Visoko, Visegrad, Vitez, Vlasenica, Zavidovici, Zenica, Zvornik, Zepce, Zivinice
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab currently under negotiation with the assistance of international mediators
{\b Independence}
\par \tab NA April 1992 (from Yugoslavia)
{\b National holiday}
\par \tab NA
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab promulgated in 1974 (under the Communists), amended 1989, 1990, and 1991; the Assembly planned to draft a new constitution in 1991, before conditions deteriorated; constitution of Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (including Muslim and Croatian controlled parts of Republic) ratified April 1994
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab based on civil law system
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 16 years of age, if employed; 18 years of age, universal
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state}
\par \tab President Alija IZETBEGOVIC (since 20 December 1990), other members of the collective presidency: Ejup GANIC (since NA November 1990), Nijaz DURAKOVIC (since NA October 1993), Stjepan KLJUJIC (since NA October 1993), Ivo KOMSIC (since NA October 1993), Mirko PEJANOVIC (since NA June 1992), Tatjana LJUJIC-MIJATOVIC (since NA December 1992)
\par \tab {\b head of government}
\par \tab Prime Minister Haris SILAJDZIC (since NA October 1993)
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab executive body of ministers; members of, and responsible to, the National Assembly
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab the president of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina is Kresimir ZUBAK (since 31 May 1994); Vice President Ejup GANIC (since 31 May 1994)
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab bicameral National Assembly
\par \tab {\b Chamber of Municipalities (Vijece Opeina)}
\par \tab elections last held November-December 1990 (next to be held NA); percent of vote by party NA; seats - (110 total) SDA 43, SDS BiH 38, HDZ BiH 23, Party of Democratic Changes 4, DSS 1, SPO 1
\par \tab {\b Chamber of Citizens (Vijece Gradanstvo)}
\par \tab elections last held November-December 1990 (next to be held NA); percent of vote by party NA; seats - (130 total) SDA 43, SDS BiH 34, HDZ BiH 21, Party of Democratic Changes 15, SRSJ BiH 12, LBO 2, DSS 1, DSZ 1, LS 1
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab legislative elections for Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina are slated for late 1994
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Supreme Court, Constitutional Court
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab Party of Democratic Action (SDA), Alija IZETBEGOVIC; Croatian Democratic Union of Bosnia and Herzegovina (HDZ BiH), Dario KORDIC; Serbian Democratic Party of Bosnia and Herzegovina (SDS BiH), Radovan KARADZIC, president; Liberal Bosnian Organization (LBO), Adil ZULFIKARPASIC, president; Democratic Party of Socialists (DSS), Nijaz DURAKOVIC, president; Party of Democratic Changes, leader NA; Serbian Movement for Renewal (SPO), Milan TRIVUNCIC; Alliance of Reform Forces of Yugoslavia for Bosnia and Herzegovina (SRSJ BiH), Dr. Nenad KECMANOVIC, president; Democratic League of Greens (DSZ), Drazen PETROVIC; Liberal Party (LS), Rasim KADIC, president
{\b Other political or pressure groups}
\par \tab NA
{\b Member of}
\par \tab CE (guest), CEI, ECE, FAO, ICAO, IFAD, ILO, IMO, INTELSAT (nonsignatory user), INTERPOL, IOC, IOM (observer), ITU, NAM (guest), OSCE, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WHO, WIPO, WTO
{\b Diplomatic representation in US}
\par \tab {\b chief of mission}
\par \tab Ambassador Sven ALKALAJ
\par \tab {\b chancery}
\par \tab Suite 760, 1707 L Street NW, Washington, DC 20036
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [1] (202) 833-3612, 3613, 3615
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [1] (202) 833-2061
\par \tab {\b consulate(s) general}
\par \tab New York
{\b US diplomatic representation}
\par \tab {\b chief of mission}
\par \tab Ambassador Victor JACKOVICH
\par \tab {\b embassy}
\par \tab address NA
\par \tab {\b mailing address}
\par \tab American Embassy Bosnia, c/o AmEmbassy Vienna Boltzmangasse 16, A-1091, Vienna, Austria; APO: (Bosnia) Vienna, Department of State, Washington, DC 20521-9900
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [43] (1) 313-39
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [43] (1) 310-0682
{\b Flag}
\par \tab white with a large blue shield; the shield contains white Roman crosses with a white diagonal band running from the upper hoist corner to the lower fly side{\b Names}
\par \tab {\b conventional long form}
\par \tab Republic of Botswana
\par \tab {\b conventional short form}
\par \tab Botswana
\par \tab {\b former}
\par \tab Bechuanaland
{\b Digraph}
\par \tab BC
{\b Type}
\par \tab parliamentary republic
{\b Capital}
\par \tab Gaborone
{\b Administrative divisions}
\par \tab 10 districts; Central, Chobe, Ghanzi, Kgalagadi, Kgatleng, Kweneng, Ngamiland, North-East, South-East, Southern; in addition, there are 4 town councils - Francistown, Gaborone, Lobatse, Selebi-Phikwe
{\b Independence}
\par \tab 30 September 1966 (from UK)
{\b National holiday}
\par \tab Independence Day, 30 September (1966)
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab March 1965, effective 30 September 1966
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab based on Roman-Dutch law and local customary law; judicial review limited to matters of interpretation; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 21 years of age; universal
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state and head of government}
\par \tab President Sir Ketumile MASIRE (since 13 July 1980); Vice President Festus MOGAE (since 9 March 1992); election last held 15 October 1994 (next to be held October 1999); results - President Sir Ketumile MASIRE was reelected by the National Assembly
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Cabinet; appointed by the president
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab bicameral Parliament
\par \tab {\b House of Chiefs}
\par \tab is a largely advisory 15-member body consisting of chiefs of the 8 principal tribes, 4 elected subchiefs, and 3 members selected by the other 12
\par \tab {\b National Assembly}
\par \tab elections last held 15 October 1994 (next to be held October 1999); results - percent of vote by party NA; seats - (44 total of which 40 are elected and 4 are appointed) BDP 27, BNF 13
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab High Court, Court of Appeal
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab Botswana Democratic Party (BDP), Sir Ketumile MASIRE; Botswana National Front (BNF), Kenneth KOMA; Botswana People's Party (BPP), Knight MARIPE; Botswana Independence Party (BIP), Motsamai MPHO
\par \tab Suite 7M, 3400 International Drive NW, Washington, DC 20008
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [1] (202) 244-4990, 4991
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [1] (202) 244-4164
{\b US diplomatic representation}
\par \tab {\b chief of mission}
\par \tab Ambassador Howard F. JETER
\par \tab {\b embassy}
\par \tab address NA, Gaborone
\par \tab {\b mailing address}
\par \tab P. O. Box 90, Gaborone
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [267] 353982
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [267] 356947
{\b Flag}
\par \tab light blue with a horizontal white-edged black stripe in the center{\b Names}
\par \tab {\b conventional long form}
\par \tab Federative Republic of Brazil
\par \tab {\b conventional short form}
\par \tab Brazil
\par \tab {\b local long form}
\par \tab Republica Federativa do Brasil
\par \tab {\b local short form}
\par \tab Brasil
{\b Digraph}
\par \tab BR
{\b Type}
\par \tab federal republic
{\b Capital}
\par \tab Brasilia
{\b Administrative divisions}
\par \tab 26 states (estados, singular - estado) and 1 federal district* (distrito federal); Acre, Alagoas, Amapa, Amazonas, Bahia, Ceara, Distrito Federal*, Espirito Santo, Goias, Maranhao, Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, Minas Gerais, Para, Paraiba, Parana, Pernambuco, Piaui, Rio de Janeiro, Rio Grande do Norte, Rio Grande do Sul, Rondonia, Roraima, Santa Catarina, Sao Paulo, Sergipe, Tocantins
{\b Independence}
\par \tab 7 September 1822 (from Portugal)
{\b National holiday}
\par \tab Independence Day, 7 September (1822)
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab 5 October 1988
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab based on Roman codes; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab voluntary between 16 and 18 years of age and over 70; compulsory over 18 and under 70 years of age
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state and head of government}
\par \tab President Fernando Henrique CARDOSO (since 1 January 1995) election last held 3 October 1994; next to be held October 1998); results - Fernando Henrique CARDOSO 53%, Luis Inacio LULA da Silva 26%, Eneas CARNEIRO 7%, Orestes QUERCIA 4%, Leonel BRIZOLA 3%, Espiridiao AMIN 3%; note - second free, direct presidential election since 1960
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Cabinet; appointed by the president
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab bicameral National Congress (Congresso Nacional)
\par \tab {\b Federal Senate (Senado Federal)}
\par \tab election last held 3 October 1994 for two-thirds of Senate (next to be held October 1996 for one-third of the Senate); results - PMBD 28%, PFL 22%, PSDB 12%, PPR 7%, PDT 7%, PT 6%, PTB 6%, other 12%
\par \tab {\b Chamber of Deputies (Camara dos Deputados)}
\par \tab election last held 3 October 1994 (next to be held October 1998); results - PMDB 21%, PFL 18%, PDT 7%, PSDB 12%, PPR 10%, PTB 6%, PT 10%, other 16%
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Supreme Federal Tribunal
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab National Reconstruction Party (PRN), Daniel TOURINHO, president; Brazilian Democratic Movement Party (PMDB), Luiz HENRIQUE da Silveira, president; Liberal Front Party (PFL), Jorge BORNHAUSEN, president; Workers' Party (PT), Rui Goethe da Costa FALCAO, president; Brazilian Workers' Party (PTB), Jose Eduardo ANDRADE VIEIRA, president; Democratic Workers' Party (PDT), Anthony GAROTINHO, president; Progressive Renewal Party (PPR), Espiridiao AMIN, president; Brazilian Social Democracy Party (PSDB), Artur DA TAVOLA, president; Popular Socialist Party (PPS), Roberto FREIRE, president; Communist Party of Brazil (PCdoB), Joao AMAZONAS, secretary general; Liberal Party (PL), Alvero VALLE, president
{\b Other political or pressure groups}
\par \tab left wing of the Catholic Church and labor unions allied to leftist Workers' Party are critical of government's social and economic policies
\par \tab 3006 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [1] (202) 745-2700
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [1] (202) 745-2827
\par \tab {\b consulate(s) general}
\par \tab Boston, Chicago, Los Angeles, Miami, New York, San Juan (Puerto Rico), and San Francisco
\par \tab {\b consulate(s)}
\par \tab Houston
{\b US diplomatic representation}
\par \tab {\b chief of mission}
\par \tab Ambassador Melvyn LEVITSKY
\par \tab {\b embassy}
\par \tab Avenida das Nacoes, Lote 3, Brasilia, Distrito Federal
\par \tab {\b mailing address}
\par \tab Unit 3500; APO AA 34030
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [55] (61) 321-7272
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [55] (61) 225-9136
\par \tab {\b consulate(s) general}
\par \tab Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paulo
\par \tab {\b consulate(s)}
\par \tab Porto Alegre, Recife
{\b Flag}
\par \tab green with a large yellow diamond in the center bearing a blue celestial globe with 27 white five-pointed stars (one for each state and the Federal District) arranged in the same pattern as the night sky over Brazil; the globe has a white equatorial band with the motto ORDEM E PROGRESSO (Order and Progress){\b Names}
\par \tab {\b conventional long form}
\par \tab none
\par \tab {\b conventional short form}
\par \tab British Virgin Islands
{\b Abbreviation}
\par \tab BVI
{\b Digraph}
\par \tab VI
{\b Type}
\par \tab dependent territory of the UK
{\b Capital}
\par \tab Road Town
{\b Administrative divisions}
\par \tab none (dependent territory of the UK)
{\b Independence}
\par \tab none (dependent territory of the UK)
{\b National holiday}
\par \tab Territory Day, 1 July
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab 1 June 1977
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab English law
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 18 years of age; universal
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state}
\par \tab Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952), represented by Governor Peter Alfred PENFOLD (since 14 October 1991)
\par \tab {\b head of government}
\par \tab Chief Minister H. Lavity STOUTT (since NA September 1986)
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Executive Council; appointed by the governor
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab unicameral
\par \tab {\b Legislative Council}
\par \tab election last held 20 February 1995 (next to be held on NA February 2000); results - percent of vote by party NA; seats - (13 total) VIP 6, CCM 2, UP 2, independents 3
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab legislature was expanded to 13 seats as of election on 20 February 1995
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Eastern Caribbean Supreme Court
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab United Party (UP), Conrad MADURO; Virgin Islands Party (VIP), H. Lavity STOUTT; Concerned Citizens Movement (CCM), E. Walwyln BREWLEY
\par \tab blue with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and the Virgin Islander coat of arms centered in the outer half of the flag; the coat of arms depicts a woman flanked on either side by a vertical column of six oil lamps above a scroll bearing the Latin word VIGILATE (Be Watchful){\b Names}
\par \tab 29 September 1959 (some provisions suspended under a State of Emergency since December 1962, others since independence on 1 January 1984)
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab based on Islamic law
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab none
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state and head of government}
\par \tab Sultan and Prime Minister His Majesty Paduka Seri Baginda Sultan Haji HASSANAL Bolkiah Mu'izzaddin Waddaulah (since 5 October 1967)
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Council of Cabinet Ministers; composed chiefly of members of the royal family
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab unicameral
\par \tab {\b Legislative Council (Majlis Masyuarat Megeri)}
\par \tab elections last held in March 1962; in 1970 the Council was changed to an appointive body by decree of the sultan; an elected legislative Council is being considered as part of constitution reform, but elections are unlikely for several years
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Supreme Court
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab Brunei United National Party (inactive), Anak HASANUDDIN, chairman; Brunei National Solidarity Party (the first legal political party and now banned), leader NA; Brunei Peoples Party (banned), leader NA
{\b Member of}
\par \tab APEC, ASEAN, C, ESCAP, FAO, G-77, GATT, ICAO, IDB, IMO, INMARSAT, INTELSAT (nonsignatory user), INTERPOL, IOC, ISO (correspondent), ITU, NAM, OIC, UN, UNCTAD, UPU, WHO, WIPO, WMO
{\b Diplomatic representation in US}
\par \tab {\b chief of mission}
\par \tab Ambassador Haji JAYA bin Abdul Latif
\par \tab {\b chancery}
\par \tab Watergate, Suite 300, 3rd floor, 2600 Virginia Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20037
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [1] (202) 342-0159
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [1] (202) 342-0158
{\b US diplomatic representation}
\par \tab {\b chief of mission}
\par \tab Ambassador Theresa A. TULL
\par \tab {\b embassy}
\par \tab Third Floor, Teck Guan Plaza, Jalan Sultan, Bandar Seri Begawan
\par \tab {\b mailing address}
\par \tab American Embassy Box B, APO AP 96440
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [673] (2) 229670
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [673] (2) 225293
{\b Flag}
\par \tab yellow with two diagonal bands of white (top, almost double width) and black starting from the upper hoist side; the national emblem in red is superimposed at the center; the emblem includes a swallow-tailed flag on top of a winged column within an upturned crescent above a scroll and flanked by two upraised hands{\b Names}
\par \tab {\b conventional long form}
\par \tab Republic of Bulgaria
\par \tab {\b conventional short form}
\par \tab Bulgaria
{\b Digraph}
\par \tab BU
{\b Type}
\par \tab emerging democracy
{\b Capital}
\par \tab Sofia
{\b Administrative divisions}
\par \tab 9 provinces (oblasti, singular - oblast); Burgas, Grad Sofiya, Khaskovo, Lovech, Montana, Plovdiv, Ruse, Sofiya, Varna
{\b Independence}
\par \tab 22 September 1908 (from Ottoman Empire)
{\b National holiday}
\par \tab Independence Day 3 March (1878)
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab adopted 12 July 1991
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab based on civil law system, with Soviet law influence; has accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 18 years of age; universal and compulsory
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state}
\par \tab President Zhelyu Mitev ZHELEV (since 1 August 1990); Vice President (vacant); election last held January 1992; results - Zhelyu ZHELEV was elected by popular vote
\par \tab {\b head of government}
\par \tab Chairman of the Council of Ministers (Prime Minister) Zhan VIDENOV (since 25 January 1995); Deputy Prime Ministers Doncho KONAKCHIEV, Kiril TSOCHEV, Rumen GECHEV, Svetoslav SHIVAROV (since 25 January 1995)
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Council of Ministers; elected by the National Assembly
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab unicameral
\par \tab {\b National Assembly (Narodno Sobranie)}
\par \tab last held 18 December 1994 (next to be held NA 1997); results - BSP 43.5%, UDF 24.2%, PU 6.5%, MRF 5.4%, BBB 4.7%; seats - (240 total) BSP 125, UDF 69, PU 18, MRF 15, BBB 13
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Supreme Court, Constitutional Court
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab Bulgarian Socialist Party (BSP), Zhan VIDENOV, chairman; Union of Democratic Forces (UDF), Ivan KOSTOV an alliance of pro-Democratic parties; People's Union (PU), Stefan SAVOV; Movement for Rights and Freedoms (mainly ethnic Turkish party) (MRF), Ahmed DOGAN; Bulgarian Business Bloc (BBB), George GANCHEV
{\b Other political or pressure groups}
\par \tab Democratic Alliance for the Republic (DAR); New Union for Democracy (NUD); Ecoglasnost; Podkrepa Labor Confederation; Fatherland Union; Bulgarian Communist Party (BCP); Confederation of Independent Trade Unions of Bulgaria (KNSB); Bulgarian Agrarian National Union - United (BZNS); Bulgarian Democratic Center; "Nikola Petkov" Bulgarian Agrarian National Union; Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization - Union of Macedonian Societies (IMRO-UMS); numerous regional, ethnic, and national interest groups with various agendas
\par \tab 1621 22nd Street NW, Washington, DC 20008
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [1] (202) 387-7969
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [1] (202) 234-7973
{\b US diplomatic representation}
\par \tab {\b chief of mission}
\par \tab Ambassador William D. MONTGOMERY
\par \tab {\b embassy}
\par \tab 1 Saborna Street, Sofia
\par \tab {\b mailing address}
\par \tab Unit 1335, Sofia; APO AE 09213-1335
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [359] (2) 88-48-01 through 05
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [359] (2) 80-19-77
{\b Flag}
\par \tab three equal horizontal bands of white (top), green, and red; the national emblem formerly on the hoist side of the white stripe has been removed - it contained a rampant lion within a wreath of wheat ears below a red five-pointed star and above a ribbon bearing the dates 681 (first Bulgarian state established) and 1944 (liberation from Nazi control){\b Names}
\par \tab Anniversary of the Revolution, 4 August (1983)
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab 2 June 1991
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab based on French civil law system and customary law
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab none
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state}
\par \tab President Captain Blaise COMPAORE (since 15 October 1987); election last held December 1991
\par \tab {\b head of government}
\par \tab Prime Minister Roch KABORE (since March 1994)
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Council of Ministers; appointed by the president
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab unicameral
\par \tab {\b Assembly of People's Deputies}
\par \tab elections last held 24 May 1992 (next to be held 1997); results - percent of vote by party NA; seats - (107 total), ODP-MT 78, CNPP-PSD 12, RDA 6, ADF 4, other 7
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab the current law also provides for a second consultative chamber, which has not been formally constituted
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Appeals Court
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab Organization for People's Democracy - Labor Movement (ODP-MT), ruling party, Simon COMPAORE, Secretary General; National Convention of Progressive Patriots-Social Democratic Party (CNPP-PSD), Moussa BOLY; African Democratic Rally (RDA), Gerard Kango OUEDRAOGO; Alliance for Democracy and Federation (ADF), Amadou Michel NANA
{\b Other political or pressure groups}
\par \tab committees for the defense of the revolution; watchdog/political action groups throughout the country in both organizations and communities
\par \tab 2340 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [1] (202) 332-5577, 6895
{\b US diplomatic representation}
\par \tab {\b chief of mission}
\par \tab Ambassador Donald J. McCONNELL
\par \tab {\b embassy}
\par \tab Avenue Raoul Follerau, Ouagadougou
\par \tab {\b mailing address}
\par \tab 01 B. P. 35, Ouagadougou
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [226] 306723 through 306725
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [226] 312368
{\b Flag}
\par \tab two equal horizontal bands of red (top) and green with a yellow five-pointed star in the center; uses the popular pan-African colors of Ethiopia{\b Names}
\par \tab {\b conventional long form}
\par \tab Union of Burma
\par \tab {\b conventional short form}
\par \tab Burma
\par \tab {\b local long form}
\par \tab Pyidaungzu Myanma Naingngandaw (translated by the US Government as Union of Myanma and by the Burmese as Union of Myanmar)
\par \tab {\b local short form}
\par \tab Myanma Naingngandaw
\par \tab {\b former}
\par \tab Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma
{\b Digraph}
\par \tab BM
{\b Type}
\par \tab military regime
{\b Capital}
\par \tab Rangoon (regime refers to the capital as Yangon)
\par \tab 3 January 1974 (suspended since 18 September 1988); National Convention started on 9 January 1993 to draft a new constitution; chapter headings and three of 15 sections have been approved
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 18 years of age; universal
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state and head of government}
\par \tab Chairman of the State Law and Order Restoration Council Gen. THAN SHWE (since 23 April 1992)
\par \tab {\b State Law and Order Restoration Council}
\par \tab military junta which assumed power 18 September 1988
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab {\b People's Assembly (Pyithu Hluttaw)}
\par \tab election last held 27 May 1990, but Assembly never convened; results - NLD 80%; seats - (485 total) NLD 396, the regime-favored NUP 10, other 79; was dissolved after the coup of 18 September 1988
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab limited; remnants of the British-era legal system in place, but there is no guarantee of a fair public trial; the judiciary is not independent of the executive
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab Union Solidarity and Development Association (USDA), THAN AUNG, Secretary; National Unity Party (NUP; proregime), THA KYAW; National League for Democracy (NLD), U AUNG SHWE; and eight other minor legal parties
{\b Other political or pressure groups}
\par \tab National Coalition Government of the Union of Burma (NCGUB), headed by the elected prime minister SEIN WIN (consists of individuals legitimately elected to Parliament but not recognized by the military regime; the group fled to a border area and joined with insurgents in December 1990 to form a parallel government; Kachin Independence Army (KIA); United Wa State Army (UWSA); Karen National Union (KNU); several Shan factions, including the Mong Tai Army (MTA); All Burma Student Democratic Front (ABSDF)
\par \tab red with a blue rectangle in the upper hoist-side corner bearing, all in white, 14 five-pointed stars encircling a cogwheel containing a stalk of rice; the 14 stars represent the 14 administrative divisions{\b Names}
\par \tab 1 July 1962 (from UN trusteeship under Belgian administration)
{\b National holiday}
\par \tab Independence Day, 1 July (1962)
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab 13 March 1992; provides for establishment of a plural political system
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab based on German and Belgian civil codes and customary law; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab universal adult at age NA
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state}
\par \tab President Sylvestre NTIBANTUNGANYA (since September 1994)
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab President Melchior NDADAYE, Burundi's first democratically elected president, died in the military coup of 21 October 1993 and was succeeded on 5 February 1994 by President Cyprien NTARYAMIRA, who was killed in a mysterious airplane explosion on 6 April 1994
\par \tab {\b head of government}
\par \tab Prime Minister Antoine NDUWAYO (since February 1995); selected by President NTIBANTUNGANYA following the resignation of Anatole KANYENKIKO on 15 February 1995
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Council of Ministers; appointed by prime minister
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab unicameral
\par \tab {\b National Assembly (Assemblee Nationale)}
\par \tab elections last held 29 June 1993 (next to be held NA); results - FRODEBU 71%, UPRONA 21.4%; seats - (81 total) FRODEBU 65, UPRONA 16; other parties won too small shares of the vote to win seats in the assembly
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab The National Unity Charter outlining the principles for constitutional government was adopted by a national referendum on 5 February 1991
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Supreme Court (Cour Supreme)
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab Unity for National Progress (UPRONA); Burundi Democratic Front (FRODEBU); Organization of the People of Burundi (RBP); Socialist Party of Burundi (PSB); People's Reconciliation Party (PRP); opposition parties, legalized in March 1992, include Burundi African Alliance for the Salvation (ABASA); Rally for Democracy and Economic and Social Development (RADDES); and Party for National Redress (PARENA)
\par \tab post vacant since recall of Ambassador Jacques BACAMURWANKO in November 1994
\par \tab {\b chancery}
\par \tab Suite 212, 2233 Wisconsin Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20007
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [1] (202) 342-2574
{\b US diplomatic representation}
\par \tab {\b chief of mission}
\par \tab Ambassador Robert C. KRUEGER
\par \tab {\b embassy}
\par \tab Avenue des Etats-Unis, Bujumbura
\par \tab {\b mailing address}
\par \tab B. P. 1720, Bujumbura
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [257] (2) 23454
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [257] (2) 22926
{\b Flag}
\par \tab divided by a white diagonal cross into red panels (top and bottom) and green panels (hoist side and outer side) with a white disk superimposed at the center bearing three red six-pointed stars outlined in green arranged in a triangular design (one star above, two stars below){\b Names}
\par \tab {\b conventional long form}
\par \tab Kingdom of Cambodia
\par \tab {\b conventional short form}
\par \tab Cambodia
\par \tab {\b local long form}
\par \tab Reacheanachak Kampuchea
\par \tab {\b local short form}
\par \tab Kampuchea
{\b Digraph}
\par \tab CB
{\b Type}
\par \tab multiparty liberal democracy under a constitutional monarchy established in September 1993
{\b Capital}
\par \tab Phnom Penh
{\b Administrative divisions}
\par \tab 21 provinces (khet, singular and plural); Banteay Meanchey, Batdambang, Kampong Cham, Kampong Chhnang, Kampong Spoe, Kampong Thum, Kampot, Kandal, Kaoh Kong, Kracheh, Mondol Kiri, Phnum Penh, Pouthisat, Preah Vihear, Prey Veng, Rotanokiri, Siemreab-Otdar Meanchey, Sihanoukville, Stoeng Treng, Svay Rieng, Takev
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab Siemreab-Otdar Meanchey may have been divided into two provinces named Siemreab and Otdar Meanchey
{\b Independence}
\par \tab 9 November 1949 (from France)
{\b National holiday}
\par \tab Independence Day, 9 November 1949
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab promulgated September 1993
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab currently being defined
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 18 years of age; universal
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state}
\par \tab King Norodom SIHANOUK (reinstated 24 September 1993)
\par \tab {\b head of government}
\par \tab power shared between First Prime Minister Prince Norodom RANARIDDH and Second Prime Minister HUN SEN
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Council of Ministers; elected by the National Assembly
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab unicameral; a 120-member constituent assembly based on proportional representation within each province was established following the UN-supervised election in May 1993; the constituent assembly was transformed into a legislature in September 1993 after delegates promulgated the constitution
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Supreme Court provided for by the constitution has not yet been established and the future judicial system is yet to be defined by law
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab National United Front for an Independent, Neutral, Peaceful, and Cooperative Cambodia (FUNCINPEC), Prince NORODOM RANARIDDH; Cambodian Pracheachon Party or Cambodian People's Party (CPP), CHEA SIM; Buddhist Liberal Democratic Party, SON SANN; Democratic Kampuchea (DK, also known as the Khmer Rouge), KHIEU SAMPHAN; Molinaka, PROM NEAKAREACH
\par \tab Ambassador SISOWATH SIRIRATH represents Cambodia at the United Nations
{\b US diplomatic representation}
\par \tab {\b chief of mission}
\par \tab Ambassador Charles H. TWINING
\par \tab {\b embassy}
\par \tab 27 EO Street 240, Phnom Penh
\par \tab {\b mailing address}
\par \tab Box P, APO AP 96546
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [855] (23) 26436, 26438
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [855] (23) 26437
{\b Flag}
\par \tab horizontal band of red separates two equal horizontal bands of blue with a white three-towered temple representing Angkor Wat in the center{\b Names}
\par \tab 10 provinces; Adamaoua, Centre, Est, Extreme-Nord, Littoral, Nord, Nord-Ouest, Ouest, Sud, Sud-Ouest
{\b Independence}
\par \tab 1 January 1960 (from UN trusteeship under French administration)
{\b National holiday}
\par \tab National Day, 20 May (1972)
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab 20 May 1972
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab based on French civil law system, with common law influence; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 20 years of age; universal
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state}
\par \tab President Paul BIYA (since 6 November 1982); election last held 11 October 1992; results - President Paul BIYA reelected with about 40% of the vote amid widespread allegations of fraud; SDF candidate John FRU NDI got 36% of the vote; UNDP candidate Bello Bouba MAIGARI got 19% of the vote
\par \tab {\b head of government}
\par \tab Prime Minister Simon ACHIDI ACHU (since 9 April 1992)
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Cabinet; appointed by the president
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab unicameral
\par \tab {\b National Assembly (Assemblee Nationale)}
\par \tab elections last held 1 March 1992 (next scheduled for March 1997); results - (180 seats) CPDM 88, UNDP 68, UPC 18, MDR 6
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Supreme Court
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab Cameroon People's Democratic Movement (CPDM), Paul BIYA, president, is government-controlled and was formerly the only party, but opposition parties were legalized in 1990
\par \tab {\b major opposition parties}
\par \tab National Union for Democracy and Progress (UNDP); Social Democratic Front (SDF); Cameroonian Democratic Union (UDC); Union of Cameroonian Populations (UPC); Movement for the Defense of the Republic (MDR)
{\b Other political or pressure groups}
\par \tab Alliance for Change (FAC), Cameroon Anglophone Movement (CAM)
\par \tab 2349 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [1] (202) 265-8790 through 8794
{\b US diplomatic representation}
\par \tab {\b chief of mission}
\par \tab Ambassador Harriet W. ISOM
\par \tab {\b embassy}
\par \tab Rue Nachtigal, Yaounde
\par \tab {\b mailing address}
\par \tab B. P. 817, Yaounde
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [237] 23-40-14
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [237] 23-07-53
\par \tab {\b consulate(s)}
\par \tab none (Douala closed September 1993)
{\b Flag}
\par \tab three equal vertical bands of green (hoist side), red, and yellow with a yellow five-pointed star centered in the red band; uses the popular pan-African colors of Ethiopia{\b Names}
\par \tab {\b conventional long form}
\par \tab none
\par \tab {\b conventional short form}
\par \tab Canada
{\b Digraph}
\par \tab CA
{\b Type}
\par \tab confederation with parliamentary democracy
{\b Capital}
\par \tab Ottawa
{\b Administrative divisions}
\par \tab 10 provinces and 2 territories*; Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, New Brunswick, Newfoundland, Northwest Territories*, Nova Scotia, Ontario, Prince Edward Island, Quebec, Saskatchewan, Yukon Territory*
{\b Independence}
\par \tab 1 July 1867 (from UK)
{\b National holiday}
\par \tab Canada Day, 1 July (1867)
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab amended British North America Act 1867 patriated to Canada 17 April 1982; charter of rights and unwritten customs
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab based on English common law, except in Quebec, where civil law system based on French law prevails; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction, with reservations
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 18 years of age; universal
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state}
\par \tab Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952), represented by Governor General Romeo LeBLANC (since 8 February 1995)
\par \tab {\b head of government}
\par \tab Prime Minister Jean CHRETIEN (since 4 November 1993) was elected on 25 October 1993, replacing Kim CAMBELL; Deputy Prime Minister Sheila COPPS
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Federal Ministry; chosen by the prime minister from members of his own party sitting in Parliament
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab bicameral Parliament (Parlement)
\par \tab {\b Senate (Senat)}
\par \tab consisting of a body whose members are appointed to serve until 75 years of age by the governor general and selected on the advice of the prime minister; its normal limit 104 senators
\par \tab {\b House of Commons (Chambre des Communes)}
\par \tab elections last held 25 October 1993 (next to be held by NA October 1998); results - percent of votes by party NA; seats - (295 total) Liberal Party 178, Bloc Quebecois 54, Reform Party 52, New Democratic Party 8, Progressive Conservative Party 2, independents 1
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Supreme Court
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab Liberal Party, Jean CHRETIEN; Bloc Quebecois, Lucien BOUCHARD; Reform Party, Preston MANNING; New Democratic Party, Audrey McLAUGHLIN; Progressive Conservative Party, Jean CHAREST
\par \tab 501 Pennsylvania Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20001
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [1] (202) 682-1740
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [1] (202) 682-7726
\par \tab {\b consulate(s) general}
\par \tab Atlanta, Boston, Buffalo, Chicago, Dallas, Detroit, Los Angeles, Minneapolis, New York, and Seattle
\par \tab {\b consulate(s)}
\par \tab Cincinnati, Cleveland, Miami, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Princeton, San Diego, San Francisco, San Jose, and San Juan (Puerto Rico)
{\b US diplomatic representation}
\par \tab {\b chief of mission}
\par \tab Ambassador James Johnston BLANCHARD
\par \tab {\b embassy}
\par \tab 100 Wellington Street, K1P 5T1, Ottawa
\par \tab {\b mailing address}
\par \tab P. O. Box 5000, Ogdensburg, NY 13669-0430
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [1] (613) 238-5335, 4470
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [1] (613) 238-5720
\par \tab {\b consulate(s) general}
\par \tab Calgary, Halifax, Montreal, Quebec, Toronto, and Vancouver
{\b Flag}
\par \tab three vertical bands of red (hoist side), white (double width, square), and red with a red maple leaf centered in the white band{\b Names}
\par \tab {\b conventional long form}
\par \tab Republic of Cape Verde
\par \tab {\b conventional short form}
\par \tab Cape Verde
\par \tab {\b local long form}
\par \tab Republica de Cabo Verde
\par \tab {\b local short form}
\par \tab Cabo Verde
{\b Digraph}
\par \tab CV
{\b Type}
\par \tab republic
{\b Capital}
\par \tab Praia
{\b Administrative divisions}
\par \tab 14 districts (concelhos, singular - concelho); Boa Vista, Brava, Fogo, Maio, Paul, Praia, Porto Novo, Ribeira Grande, Sal, Santa Catarina, Santa Cruz, Sao Nicolau, Sao Vicente, Tarrafal
{\b Independence}
\par \tab 5 July 1975 (from Portugal)
{\b National holiday}
\par \tab Independence Day, 5 July (1975)
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab new constitution came into force 25 September 1992
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab NA
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 18 years of age; universal
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state}
\par \tab President Antonio MASCARENHAS Monteiro (since 22 March 1991; election last held 17 February 1991 (next to be held February 1996); results - Antonio Monteiro MASCARENHAS (independent) received 72.6% of vote
\par \tab {\b head of government}
\par \tab Prime Minister Carlos Alberto Wahnon de Carvalho VEIGA (since 13 January 1991)
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Council of Ministers; appointed by prime minister from members of the Assembly
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab unicameral
\par \tab {\b People's National Assembly (Assembleia Nacional Popular)}
\par \tab elections last held 13 January 1991 (next to be held January 1996); results - percent of vote by party NA; seats - (79 total) MPD 56, PAICV 23; note - the 1991 multiparty Assembly election ended 15 years of single-party rule
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Supreme Tribunal of Justice (Supremo Tribunal de Justia)
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab Movement for Democracy (MPD), Prime Minister Carlos VEIGA, founder and chairman; African Party for Independence of Cape Verde (PAICV), Pedro Verona Rodrigues PIRES, chairman
{\b Member of}
\par \tab ACP, AfDB, CCC, ECA, ECOWAS, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, INTELSAT, INTERPOL, IOC, IOM (observer), ITU, NAM, OAU, UN (Cape Verde assumed a nonpermanent seat on the Security Council on 1 January 1992), UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNOMOZ, UPU, WCL, WHO, WMO
{\b Diplomatic representation in US}
\par \tab {\b chief of mission}
\par \tab (vacant); Charge d'Affaires Jose Eduardo BARBOSA (since 12 February 1994)
\par \tab {\b chancery}
\par \tab 3415 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20007
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [1] (202) 965-6820
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [1] (202) 965-1207
\par \tab {\b consulate(s) general}
\par \tab Boston
{\b US diplomatic representation}
\par \tab {\b chief of mission}
\par \tab Ambassador Joseph M. SEGARS
\par \tab {\b embassy}
\par \tab Rua Abilio Macedo 81, Praia
\par \tab {\b mailing address}
\par \tab C. P. 201, Praia
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [238] 61 56 16
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [238] 61 13 55
{\b Flag}
\par \tab three horozontal bands of light blue (top, double width), white (with a horozontal red stripe in the middle third), and light blue; a circle of 10 yellow five-pointed stars is centered on the hoist end of the red stripe and extends into the upper and lower blue bands{\b Names}
\par \tab {\b conventional long form}
\par \tab none
\par \tab {\b conventional short form}
\par \tab Cayman Islands
{\b Digraph}
\par \tab CJ
{\b Type}
\par \tab dependent territory of the UK
{\b Capital}
\par \tab George Town
{\b Administrative divisions}
\par \tab 8 districts; Creek, Eastern, Midland, South Town, Spot Bay, Stake Bay, West End, Western
{\b Independence}
\par \tab none (dependent territory of the UK)
{\b National holiday}
\par \tab Constitution Day (first Monday in July)
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab 1959, revised 1972 and 1992
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab British common law and local statutes
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 18 years of age; universal
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state}
\par \tab Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952)
\par \tab {\b head of government}
\par \tab Governor and President of the Executive Council Michael GORE (since 15 September 1992)
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Executive Council; 3 members are appointed by the governor, 4 members elected by the Legislative Assembly
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab unicameral
\par \tab {\b Legislative Assembly}
\par \tab election last held November 1992 (next to be held November 1996); results - percent of vote by party NA; seats - (15 total, 12 elected)
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Grand Court, Cayman Islands Court of Appeal
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab no formal political parties
{\b Member of}
\par \tab CARICOM (observer), CDB, INTERPOL (subbureau), IOC
{\b Diplomatic representation in US}
\par \tab none (dependent territory of the UK)
{\b US diplomatic representation}
\par \tab none (dependent territory of the UK)
{\b Flag}
\par \tab blue, with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and the Caymanian coat of arms on a white disk centered on the outer half of the flag; the coat of arms includes a pineapple and turtle above a shield with three stars (representing the three islands) and a scroll at the bottom bearing the motto HE HATH FOUNDED IT UPON THE SEAS{\b Names}
\par \tab National Day, 1 December (1958) (proclamation of the republic)
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab 21 November 1986
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab based on French law
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 21 years of age; universal
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state}
\par \tab President Ange PATASSE (since 22 October 1993); election last held 19 September 1993 (next scheduled for 1998); PATASSE received 52.45% of the votes and Abel GOUMBA received 45.62%
\par \tab {\b head of government}
\par \tab Prime Minister Gabriel Edouard KOYAMBOUNOU
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Council of Ministers; appointed by the president
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab unicameral
\par \tab {\b National Assembly (Assemblee Nationale)}
\par \tab elections last held 19 September 1993; results - percentage vote by party NA; seats - (85 total) MLPC 33, RDC 14, PLD 7, ADP 6, PSD 3, others 22
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab the National Assembly is advised by the Economic and Regional Council (Conseil Economique et Regional); when they sit together they are called the Congress (Congres)
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Supreme Court (Cour Supreme)
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab Movement for the Liberation of the Central African People (MLPC), the party of the new president, Ange Felix PATASSE; Movement for Democracy and Development (MDD), David DACKO; Marginal Movement for Democracy, Renaissance and Evolution (MDREC), Joseph BENDOUNGA; Central African Democratic Assembly (RDC), Andre KOLINGBA; Patriotic Front for Progress (FFP), Abel GOUMBA; Civic Forum (FC), Gen. Timothee MALENDOMA
\par \tab Ambassador Henri KOBA (appointed 19 September 1994)
\par \tab {\b chancery}
\par \tab 1618 22nd Street NW, Washington, DC 20008
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [1] (202) 483-7800, 7801
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [1] (202) 332-9893
{\b US diplomatic representation}
\par \tab {\b chief of mission}
\par \tab Ambassador Robert E. GRIBBIN III
\par \tab {\b embassy}
\par \tab Avenue David Dacko, Bangui
\par \tab {\b mailing address}
\par \tab B. P. 924, Bangui
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [236] 61 02 00, 61 25 78, 61 02 10
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [236] 61 44 94
{\b Flag}
\par \tab four equal horizontal bands of blue (top), white, green, and yellow with a vertical red band in center; there is a yellow five-pointed star on the hoist side of the blue band{\b Names}
\par \tab 22 December 1989 (suspended 3 December 1990); Provisional National Charter 1 March 1991 is in effect (note - the constitutional commission, which was drafting a new constitution to submit to transitional parliament for ratification in April 1994, failed to do so but expects to submit a new draft to the parliament before the end of April 1995)
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab based on French civil law system and Chadian customary law; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab universal at age NA
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state}
\par \tab President Lt. Gen. Idriss DEBY, since 4 December 1990 (after seizing power on 3 December 1990 - transitional government's mandate expires April 1996)
\par \tab {\b head of government}
\par \tab Prime Minister Djimasta KOIBLA (since 9 April 1995)
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Council of State; appointed by the president on recommendation of the prime minister
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab unicameral
\par \tab {\b National Consultative Council (Conceil National Consultatif)}
\par \tab elections, formerly scheduled for April 1995, were postponed by mutual agreement of the parties concerned until some time prior to April 1996; elections last held 8 July 1990; the National Consultative Council was disbanded 3 December 1990 and replaced by the Provisional Council of the Republic having 30 members appointed by President DEBY on 8 March 1991; this, in turn, was replaced by a 57-member Higher Transitional Council (Conseil Superieur de Transition) elected by a specially convened Sovereign National Conference on 6 April 1993
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Court of Appeal
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab Patriotic Salvation Movement (MPS), former dissident group, Idriss DEBY, chairman
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab President DEBY, who promised political pluralism, a new constitution, and free elections by April 1994, subsequently twice postponed these initiatives, first until April 1995 and again until sometime before April 1996; there are numerous dissident groups and at least 45 opposition political parties
\par \tab three equal vertical bands of blue (hoist side), yellow, and red; similar to the flag of Romania; also similar to the flag of Andorra, which has a national coat of arms featuring a quartered shield centered in the yellow band; design was based on the flag of France{\b Names}
\par \tab {\b conventional long form}
\par \tab Republic of Chile
\par \tab {\b conventional short form}
\par \tab Chile
\par \tab {\b local long form}
\par \tab Republica de Chile
\par \tab {\b local short form}
\par \tab Chile
{\b Digraph}
\par \tab CI
{\b Type}
\par \tab republic
{\b Capital}
\par \tab Santiago
{\b Administrative divisions}
\par \tab 13 regions (regiones, singular - region); Aisen del General Carlos Ibanez del Campo, Antofagasta, Araucania, Atacama, Bio-Bio, Coquimbo, Libertador General Bernardo O'Higgins, Los Lagos, Magallanes y de la Antartica Chilena, Maule, Region Metropolitana, Tarapaca, Valparaiso
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab the US does not recognize claims to Antarctica
{\b Independence}
\par \tab 18 September 1810 (from Spain)
{\b National holiday}
\par \tab Independence Day, 18 September (1810)
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab 11 September 1980, effective 11 March 1981; amended 30 July 1989
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab based on Code of 1857 derived from Spanish law and subsequent codes influenced by French and Austrian law; judicial review of legislative acts in the Supreme Court; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 18 years of age; universal and compulsory
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state and head of government}
\par \tab President Eduardo FREI Ruiz-Tagle (since 11 March 1994) election last held 11 December 1993 (next to be held December 1999); results - Eduardo FREI Ruiz-Tagle (PDC) 58%, Arturo ALESSANDRI 24.4%, other 17.6%
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Cabinet; appointed by the president
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab bicameral National Congress (Congreso Nacional)
\par \tab {\b Senate (Senado)}
\par \tab election last held 11 December 1993 (next to be held December 1997); results - percent of vote by party NA; seats - (46 total, 38 elected) Concertation of Parties for Democracy 21 (PDC 13, PS 4, PPD 3, PR 1), Union for the Progress of Chile 15 (RN 11, UDI 3, UCC 1), right-wing independents 10
\par \tab {\b Chamber of Deputies (Camara de Diputados)}
\par \tab election last held 11 December 1993 (next to be held December 1997); results - Concertation of Parties for Democracy 53.95% (PDC 27.16%, PS 12.01%, PPD 11.82%, PR 2.96%,); Union for the Progress of Chile 30.57% (RN 15.25%, UDI 12.13%, UCC 3.19%); seats - (120 total) Concertation of Parties for Democracy 70 (PDC 37, PPD 15, PR 2, PS 15, left-wing independent 1), Union for the Progress of Chile 47 (RN 30, UDI 15, UCC 2), right-wing independents 3
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Supreme Court (Corte Suprema)
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab Concertation of Parties for Democracy consists mainly of three parties: Christian Democratic Party (PDC), Alejandro FOXLEY; Socialist Party (PS), Camilo ESCALONA; Party for Democracy (PPD), Jorge SCHAULSOHN; Radical Party (PR); Union for the Progress of Chile consists mainly of three parties: National Renewal (RN), Andres ALLAMAND; Independent Democratic Union (UDI), Jovino NOVOA; Center Center Union (UCC), Francisco Javier ERRAZURIZ
{\b Other political or pressure groups}
\par \tab revitalized university student federations at all major universities; labor - United Labor Central (CUT) includes trade unionists from the country's five largest labor confederations; Roman Catholic Church
\par \tab 1732 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20036
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [1] (202) 785-1746
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [1] (202) 887-5579
\par \tab {\b consulate(s) general}
\par \tab Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, Miami, New York, Philadelphia, San Francisco, and San Juan (Puerto Rico)
{\b US diplomatic representation}
\par \tab {\b chief of mission}
\par \tab Ambassador Gabriel GUERRA-MONDRAGON
\par \tab {\b embassy}
\par \tab Codina Building, 1343 Agustinas, Santiago
\par \tab {\b mailing address}
\par \tab Unit 4127, Santiago; APO AA 34033
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [56] (2) 232-2600
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [56] (2) 330-3710
{\b Flag}
\par \tab two equal horizontal bands of white (top) and red; there is a blue square the same height as the white band at the hoist-side end of the white band; the square bears a white five-pointed star in the center; design was based on the US flag{\b Names}
\par \tab {\b conventional long form}
\par \tab People's Republic of China
\par \tab {\b conventional short form}
\par \tab China
\par \tab {\b local long form}
\par \tab Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo
\par \tab {\b local short form}
\par \tab Zhong Guo
{\b Abbreviation}
\par \tab PRC
{\b Digraph}
\par \tab CH
{\b Type}
\par \tab Communist state
{\b Capital}
\par \tab Beijing
{\b Administrative divisions}
\par \tab 23 provinces (sheng, singular and plural), 5 autonomous regions* (zizhiqu, singular and plural), and 3 municipalities** (shi, singular and plural); Anhui, Beijing**, Fujian, Gansu, Guangdong, Guangxi*, Guizhou, Hainan, Hebei, Heilongjiang, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Jilin, Liaoning, Nei Mongol*, Ningxia*, Qinghai, Shaanxi, Shandong, Shanghai**, Shanxi, Sichuan, Tianjin**, Xinjiang*, Xizang* (Tibet), Yunnan, Zhejiang
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab China considers Taiwan its 23rd province
{\b Independence}
\par \tab 221 BC (unification under the Qin or Ch'in Dynasty 221 BC; Qing or Ch'ing Dynasty replaced by the Republic on 12 February 1912; People's Republic established 1 October 1949)
{\b National holiday}
\par \tab National Day, 1 October (1949)
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab most recent promulgated 4 December 1982
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab a complex amalgam of custom and statute, largely criminal law; rudimentary civil code in effect since 1 January 1987; new legal codes in effect since 1 January 1980; continuing efforts are being made to improve civil, administrative, criminal, and commercial law
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 18 years of age; universal
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state}
\par \tab President JIANG Zemin (since 27 March 1993); Vice President RONG Yiren (since 27 March 1993); election last held 27 March 1993 (next to be held 1998); results - JIANG Zemin was nominally elected by the Eighth National People's Congress
\par \tab {\b head of government}
\par \tab Premier LI Peng (Acting Premier since 24 November 1987, Premier since 9 April 1988) Vice Premier ZHU Rongji (since 8 April 1991); Vice Premier ZOU Jiahua (since 8 April 1991); Vice Premier QIAN Qichen (since 29 March 1993); Vice Premier LI Lanqing (29 March 1993); Vice Premier WU Bangguo (since 17 March 1995); Vice Premier JIANG Chunyun (since 17 March 1995)
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab State Council; appointed by the National People's Congress (NPC)
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab unicameral
\par \tab {\b National People's Congress}
\par \tab (Quanguo Renmin Daibiao Dahui) elections last held March 1993 (next to be held March 1998); results - CCP is the only party but there are also independents; seats - (2,977 total) (elected at county or xian level)
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Supreme People's Court
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab Chinese Communist Party (CCP), JIANG Zemin, general secretary of the Central Committee (since 24 June 1989); eight registered small parties controlled by CCP
{\b Other political or pressure groups}
\par \tab such meaningful opposition as exists consists of loose coalitions, usually within the party and government organization, that vary by issue
\par \tab 2300 Connecticut Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [1] (202) 328-2500 through 2502
\par \tab {\b consulate(s) general}
\par \tab Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, New York, and San Francisco
{\b US diplomatic representation}
\par \tab {\b chief of mission}
\par \tab Ambassador J. Stapleton ROY
\par \tab {\b embassy}
\par \tab Xiu Shui Bei Jie 3, 100600 Beijing
\par \tab {\b mailing address}
\par \tab PSC 461, Box 50, Beijing; FPO AP 96521-0002
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [86] (1) 5323831
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [86] (1) 5323178
\par \tab {\b consulate(s) general}
\par \tab Chengdu, Guangzhou, Shanghai, Shenyang
{\b Flag}
\par \tab red with a large yellow five-pointed star and four smaller yellow five-pointed stars (arranged in a vertical arc toward the middle of the flag) in the upper hoist-side corner{\b Names}
\par \tab {\b conventional long form}
\par \tab Republic of Colombia
\par \tab {\b conventional short form}
\par \tab Colombia
\par \tab {\b local long form}
\par \tab Republica de Colombia
\par \tab {\b local short form}
\par \tab Colombia
{\b Digraph}
\par \tab CO
{\b Type}
\par \tab republic; executive branch dominates government structure
{\b Capital}
\par \tab Bogota
{\b Administrative divisions}
\par \tab 32 departments (departamentos, singular - departamento) and 1 capital district* (distrito capital); Amazonas, Antioquia, Arauca, Atlantico, Bogota*, Bolivar, Boyaca, Caldas, Caqueta, Casanare, Cauca, Cesar, Choco, Cordoba, Cundinamarca, Guainia, Guaviare, Huila, La Guajira, Magdalena, Meta, Narino, Norte de Santander, Putumayo, Quindio, Risaralda, San Andres y Providencia, Santander, Sucre, Tolima, Valle del Cauca, Vaupes, Vichada
{\b Independence}
\par \tab 20 July 1810 (from Spain)
{\b National holiday}
\par \tab Independence Day, 20 July (1810)
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab 5 July 1991
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab based on Spanish law; a new criminal code modeled after US procedures was enacted in 1992-93; judicial review of executive and legislative acts; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction, with reservations
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 18 years of age; universal and compulsory
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state and head of government}
\par \tab President Ernesto SAMPER Pizano (since 7 August 1994); election last held 29 May 1994 (next to be held May 1998) and resulted in no candidate receiving more than 50% of the total vote; a run-off election to select a president from the two leading candidates was held on 19 June 1994; results - Ernesto SAMPER Pizano (Liberal Party) 50.4%, Andres PASTRANA Arango (Conservative Party) 48.6%, blank votes 1%; Humberto de la CALLE was elected vice president in a new proceedure that replaces the traditional designation of vice presidents by newly elected presidents.
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Cabinet
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab bicameral Congress (Congreso)
\par \tab {\b Senate (Senado)}
\par \tab elections last held 13 March 1994 (next to be held NA March 1998); preliminary results - percent of vote by party NA; seats - (102 total) Liberal Party 59, conservatives (includes PC, MSN, and NDF) 31, other 12
\par \tab {\b House of Representatives (Camara de Representantes)}
\par \tab elections last held 13 March 1994 (next to be held NA March 1998); preliminary results - percent of vote by party NA; seats - (161 total) Liberal Party 89, conservatives (includes PC, MSN, and NDF) 53, AD/M-19 2, other 17
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Supreme Court of Justice (Corte Suprema de Justical), Constitutional Court, Council of State
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab Liberal Party (PL), Juan Guillermo ANGEL; Conservative Party (PC), Fabio VALENCIA Cossio; National Salvation Movement (MSN), Alvaro GOMEZ Hurtado; New Democratic Force (NDF), Andres PASTRANA Arango; Democratic Alliance M-19 (AD/M-19) is a coalition of small leftist parties and dissident liberals and conservatives; Patriotic Union (UP) is a legal political party formed by Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) and Colombian Communist Party (PCC), Carlos ROMERO
{\b Other political or pressure groups}
\par \tab three insurgent groups are active in Colombia - Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC), Manuel MARULANDA and Alfonso CANO; National Liberation Army (ELN), Manuel PEREZ; and dissidents of the recently demobilized People's Liberation Army (EPL), Francisco CARABALLO; Francisco CARABALLO was captured by the government in June 1994
\par \tab 2118 Leroy Place NW, Washington, DC 20008
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [1] (202) 387-8338
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [1] (202) 232-8643
\par \tab {\b consulate(s) general}
\par \tab Boston, Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, Miami, New Orleans, New York, San Francisco, San Juan (Puerto Rico), and Washington, DC
\par \tab {\b consulate(s)}
\par \tab Atlanta and Tampa
{\b US diplomatic representation}
\par \tab {\b chief of mission}
\par \tab Ambassador Myles R. R. FRECHETTE
\par \tab {\b embassy}
\par \tab Calle 38, No. 8-61, Bogota
\par \tab {\b mailing address}
\par \tab Apartado Aereo 3831, Bogota; APO AA 34038
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [57] (1) 320-1300
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [57] (1) 288-5687
\par \tab {\b consulate(s)}
\par \tab Barranquilla
{\b Flag}
\par \tab three horizontal bands of yellow (top, double-width), blue, and red; similar to the flag of Ecuador, which is longer and bears the Ecuadorian coat of arms superimposed in the center{\b Names}
\par \tab {\b conventional long form}
\par \tab Federal Islamic Republic of the Comoros
\par \tab {\b conventional short form}
\par \tab Comoros
\par \tab {\b local long form}
\par \tab Republique Federale Islamique des Comores
\par \tab {\b local short form}
\par \tab Comores
{\b Digraph}
\par \tab CN
{\b Type}
\par \tab independent republic
{\b Capital}
\par \tab Moroni
{\b Administrative divisions}
\par \tab three islands; Grand Comore (Njazidja), Anjouan (Nzwani), and Moheli (Mwali)
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab there are also four municipalities named Domoni, Fomboni, Moroni, and Mutsamudu
{\b Independence}
\par \tab 6 July 1975 (from France)
{\b National holiday}
\par \tab Independence Day, 6 July (1975)
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab 7 June 1992
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab French and Muslim law in a new consolidated code
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 18 years of age; universal
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state}
\par \tab President (Acting) Caabi el Yachourtu MOHAMED
\par \tab {\b head of government}
\par \tab Prime Minister (vacant)
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Council of Ministers; appointed by the president
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab unicameral
\par \tab {\b Federal Assembly (Assemblee Federale)}
\par \tab elections last held 12-20 December 1993 (next to be held by NA January 1998); results - percent of vote by party NA; seats - (42 total) Ruling Coalition: RDR 15, UNDC 5, MWANGAZA 2; Opposition: UDZIMA 8, other smaller parties 10; 2 seats remained unfilled
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Supreme Court (Cour Supreme)
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab over 20 political parties are currently active, the most important of which are; Comoran Union for Progress (UDZIMA), Omar TAMOU; Islands' Fraternity and Unity Party (CHUMA), Said Ali KEMAL; Comoran Party for Democracy and Progress (PCDP), Ali MROUDJAE; Realizing Freedom's Capability (UWEZO), Mouazair ABDALLAH; Democratic Front of the Comoros (FDR), Moustapha CHELKH; Dialogue Proposition Action (DPA/MWANGAZA), Said MCHAWGAMA; Rally for Change and Democracy (RACHADE), Hassan HACHIM; Union for Democracy and Decentralization (UNDC), Mohamed Taki Halidi IBRAHAM; Rally for Democracy and Renewal (RDR); Comoran Popular Front (FPC), Mohamed HASSANALI, Mohamed El Arif OUKACHA, Abdou MOUSTAKIM (Secretary General)
\par \tab Ambassador Mohamed Ahamadu DJIMBANAO (ambassador to the US and Canada)
\par \tab {\b chancery}
\par \tab (temporary) care of the Permanent Mission of the Federal and Islamic Republic of the Comoros to the United Nations, 336 East 45th Street, 2nd Floor, New York, NY 10017
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [1] (212) 972-8010
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [1] (212) 983-4712
{\b US diplomatic representation}
\par \tab none; ambassador to Port Louis, Mauritius, is accredited to Comoros
{\b Flag}
\par \tab green with a white crescent in the center of the field, its points facing upward; there are four white five-pointed stars placed in a line between the points of the crescent; the crescent, stars, and color green are traditional symbols of Islam; the four stars represent the four main islands of the archipelago - Mwali, Njazidja, Nzwani, and Mayotte (a territorial collectivity of France, but claimed by Comoros); the design, the most recent of several, is described in the constitution approved by referendum on 7 June 1992{\b Names}
\par \tab {\b conventional long form}
\par \tab Republic of the Congo
\par \tab {\b conventional short form}
\par \tab Congo
\par \tab {\b local long form}
\par \tab Republique Populaire du Congo
\par \tab {\b local short form}
\par \tab Congo
\par \tab {\b former}
\par \tab Congo/Brazzaville
{\b Digraph}
\par \tab CF
{\b Type}
\par \tab republic
{\b Capital}
\par \tab Brazzaville
{\b Administrative divisions}
\par \tab 9 regions (regions, singular - region) and 1 commune*; Bouenza, Brazzaville*, Cuvette, Kouilou, Lekoumou, Likouala, Niari, Plateaux, Pool, Sangha
{\b Independence}
\par \tab 15 August 1960 (from France)
{\b National holiday}
\par \tab Congolese National Day, 15 August (1960)
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab new constitution approved by referendum March 1992
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab based on French civil law system and customary law
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 18 years of age; universal
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state}
\par \tab President Pascal LISSOUBA (since August 1992); election last held August 1992 (next to be held August 1997); results - President Pascal LISSOUBA won with 61% of the vote
\par \tab {\b head of government}
\par \tab Prime Minister Jacques Joachim YHOMBI-OPANGO (since 23 June 1993)
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Council of Ministers; named by the president
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab bicameral
\par \tab {\b National Assembly (Assemblee Nationale)}
\par \tab election last held 3 October 1993; results - percentage vote by party NA; seats - (125 total) UPADS 64, URD/PCT 58, others 3
\par \tab {\b Senate}
\par \tab election last held 26 July 1992 (next to be held July 1998); results - percent of vote by party NA; seats - (60 total) UPADS 23, MCDDI 14, RDD 8, RDPS 5, PCT 2, others 8
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Supreme Court (Cour Supreme)
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab Congolese Labor Party (PCT), Denis SASSOU-NGUESSO, president; Pan-African Union for Social Development (UPADS), Pascal LISSOUBA, leader; Association for Democracy and Development (RDD), Joachim Yhombi OPANGO, president; Congolese Movement for Democracy and Integral Development (MCDDI), Bernard KOLELAS, leader; Association for Democracy and Social Progress (RDPS), Jean-Pierre Thystere TCHICAYA, president; Union of Democratic Forces (UFD), David Charles GANAO, leader; Union for Development and Social Progress (UDPS), Jean-Michael BOKAMBA-YANGOUMA, leader
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab Congo has many political parties of which these are among the most important
{\b Other political or pressure groups}
\par \tab Union of Congolese Socialist Youth (UJSC); Congolese Trade Union Congress (CSC); Revolutionary Union of Congolese Women (URFC); General Union of Congolese Pupils and Students (UGEEC)
\par \tab Ambassador Pierre Damien BOUSSOUKOU-BOUMBA
\par \tab {\b chancery}
\par \tab 4891 Colorado Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20011
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [1] (202) 726-0825
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [1] (202) 726-1860
{\b US diplomatic representation}
\par \tab {\b chief of mission}
\par \tab Ambassador William C. RAMSEY
\par \tab {\b embassy}
\par \tab Avenue Amilcar Cabral, Brazzaville
\par \tab {\b mailing address}
\par \tab B. P. 1015, Brazzaville
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [242] 83 20 70
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [242] 83 63 38
{\b Flag}
\par \tab red, divided diagonally from the lower hoist side by a yellow band; the upper triangle (hoist side) is green and the lower triangle is red; uses the popular pan-African colors of Ethiopia{\b Names}
\par \tab {\b conventional long form}
\par \tab Republic of Costa Rica
\par \tab {\b conventional short form}
\par \tab Costa Rica
\par \tab {\b local long form}
\par \tab Republica de Costa Rica
\par \tab {\b local short form}
\par \tab Costa Rica
{\b Digraph}
\par \tab CS
{\b Type}
\par \tab democratic republic
{\b Capital}
\par \tab San Jose
{\b Administrative divisions}
\par \tab 7 provinces (provincias, singular - provincia); Alajuela, Cartago, Guanacaste, Heredia, Limon, Puntarenas, San Jose
{\b Independence}
\par \tab 15 September 1821 (from Spain)
{\b National holiday}
\par \tab Independence Day, 15 September (1821)
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab 9 November 1949
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab based on Spanish civil law system; judicial review of legislative acts in the Supreme Court; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 18 years of age; universal and compulsory
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state and head of government}
\par \tab President Jose Maria FIGUERES Olsen (since 8 May 1994); First Vice President Rodrigo OREAMUNO Blanco (since 8 May 1994); Second Vice President Rebeca GRYNSPAN Mayufis (since 8 May 1994); election last held 6 February 1994 (next to be held February 1998); results - President FIGUERES (PLN party) 49.7%, Miquel Angel RODRIGUEZ (PUSC party) 47.5%
\par \tab elections last held 6 February 1994 (next to be held February 1998); results - percent of vote by party NA; seats - (61 total) PLN 28, PUSC 29, minority parties 4
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Supreme Court (Corte Suprema)
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab National Liberation Party (PLN), Manuel AGUILAR Bonilla; Social Christian Unity Party (PUSC), Rafael Angel CALDERON Fournier; Marxist Popular Vanguard Party (PVP), Humberto VARGAS Carbonell; New Republic Movement (MNR), Sergio Erick ARDON Ramirez; Progressive Party (PP), Isaac Felipe AZOFEIFA Bolanos; People's Party of Costa Rica (PPC), Lenin CHACON Vargas; Radical Democratic Party (PRD), Juan Jose ECHEVERRIA Brealey
{\b Other political or pressure groups}
\par \tab Costa Rican Confederation of Democratic Workers (CCTD, Liberation Party affiliate); Confederated Union of Workers (CUT, Communist Party affiliate); Authentic Confederation of Democratic Workers (CATD, Communist Party affiliate); Chamber of Coffee Growers; National Association for Economic Development (ANFE); Free Costa Rica Movement (MCRL, rightwing militants); National Association of Educators (ANDE)
{\b Member of}
\par \tab AG (observer), BCIE, CACM, ECLAC, FAO, G-77, GATT, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, INTELSAT, INTERPOL, IOC, IOM, ITU, LAES, LAIA (observer), NAM (observer), OAS, OPANAL, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNU, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO
{\b Diplomatic representation in US}
\par \tab {\b chief of mission}
\par \tab Ambassador Sonia PICADO
\par \tab {\b chancery}
\par \tab 2114 S Street NW, Washington, DC 20008
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [1] (202) 234-2945
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [1] (202) 265-4795
\par \tab {\b consulate(s) general}
\par \tab Albuquerque, Atlanta, Chicago, Durham, Houston, Los Angeles, Miami, New Orleans, New York, Orlando, Philadelphia, San Antonio, San Diego, San Francisco, and San Juan (Puerto Rico)
\par \tab {\b consulate(s)}
\par \tab Austin
{\b US diplomatic representation}
\par \tab {\b chief of mission}
\par \tab US Ambassador to Costa Rica Peter DE VOS
\par \tab {\b embassy}
\par \tab Pavas Road, San Jose
\par \tab {\b mailing address}
\par \tab APO AA 34020
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [506] 220-3939
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [506] 220-2305
{\b Flag}
\par \tab five horizontal bands of blue (top), white, red (double width), white, and blue, with the coat of arms in a white disk on the hoist side of the red band{\b Names}
\par \tab {\b conventional long form}
\par \tab Republic of Cote d'Ivoire
\par \tab {\b conventional short form}
\par \tab Cote d'Ivoire
\par \tab {\b local long form}
\par \tab Republique de Cote d'Ivoire
\par \tab {\b local short form}
\par \tab Cote d'Ivoire
\par \tab {\b former}
\par \tab Ivory Coast
{\b Digraph}
\par \tab IV
{\b Type}
\par \tab republic; multiparty presidential regime established 1960
{\b Capital}
\par \tab Yamoussoukro
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab although Yamoussoukro has been the capital since 1983, Abidjan remains the administrative center; foreign governments, including the United States, maintain presence in Abidjan
\par \tab 3 November 1960; has been amended numerous times, last time November 1990
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab based on French civil law system and customary law; judicial review in the Constitutional Chamber of the Supreme Court; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 21 years of age; universal
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state}
\par \tab President Henri Konan BEDIE (since 7 December 1993) constitutional successor who will serve during the remainder of the term of former President Felix HOUPHOUET-BOIGNY who died in office after continuous service from November 1960 (next election October 1995)
\par \tab {\b head of government}
\par \tab Prime Minister Daniel Kablan DUNCAN (since 10 December 1993)
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Council of Ministers; appointed by the prime minister
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab unicameral
\par \tab {\b National Assembly (Assemblee Nationale)}
\par \tab elections last held 25 November 1990 (next to be held November 1995); results - percent of vote by party NA; seats - (175 total) PDCI 163, FPI 9, PIT 1, independents 2
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Supreme Court (Cour Supreme)
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab Democratic Party of the Cote d'Ivoire (PDCI), Henri Konan BEDIE; Rally of the Republicans (RDR), Djeny KOBINA; Ivorian Popular Front (FPI), Laurent GBAGBO; Ivorian Worker's Party (PIT), Francis WODIE; Ivorian Socialist Party (PSI), Morifere BAMBA; over 20 smaller parties
\par \tab 2424 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [1] (202) 797-0300
{\b US diplomatic representation}
\par \tab {\b chief of mission}
\par \tab Ambassador Hume A. HORAN
\par \tab {\b embassy}
\par \tab 5 Rue Jesse Owens, Abidjan
\par \tab {\b mailing address}
\par \tab 01 B. P. 1712, Abidjan
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [225] 21 09 79, 21 46 72
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [225] 22 32 59
{\b Flag}
\par \tab three equal vertical bands of orange (hoist side), white, and green; similar to the flag of Ireland, which is longer and has the colors reversed - green (hoist side), white, and orange; also similar to the flag of Italy, which is green (hoist side), white, and red; design was based on the flag of France{\b Names}
\par \tab {\b conventional long form}
\par \tab Republic of Croatia
\par \tab {\b conventional short form}
\par \tab Croatia
\par \tab {\b local long form}
\par \tab Republika Hrvatska
\par \tab {\b local short form}
\par \tab Hrvatska
{\b Digraph}
\par \tab HR
{\b Type}
\par \tab parliamentary democracy
{\b Capital}
\par \tab Zagreb
{\b Administrative divisions}
\par \tab 21 counties (zupanijas, zupanija - singular): Bjelovar-Bilogora, City of Zagreb, Dubrovnik-Neretva, Istra, Karlovac, Koprivnica-Krizevci, Krapina-Zagorje, Lika-Senj, Medimurje, Osijek-Baranja, Pozega-Slavonija, Primorje-Gorski Kotar, Sibenik, Sisak-Moslavina, Slavonski Brod-Posavina, Split-Dalmatia, Varazdin, Virovitica-Podravina, Vukovar-Srijem, Zadar-Knin, Zagreb
{\b Independence}
\par \tab 25 June 1991 (from Yugoslavia)
{\b National holiday}
\par \tab Statehood Day, 30 May (1990)
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab adopted on 22 December 1990
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab based on civil law system
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 18 years of age; universal (16 years of age, if employed)
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state}
\par \tab President Franjo TUDJMAN (since 30 May 1990); election last held 4 August 1992 (next to be held NA 1997); results - Franjo TUDJMAN reelected with about 56% of the vote; his opponent Dobroslav PARAGA got 5% of the vote
\par \tab {\b head of government}
\par \tab Prime Minister Zlatko MATESA; Deputy Prime Ministers Mato GRANIC (since 8 September 1992); Ivica KOSTOVIC (since 14 October 1993); Jure RADIC (since NA); Borislav SKEGRO (since 3 April 1993)
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Council of Ministers; appointed by the president
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab bicameral parliament Assembly (Sabor)
\par \tab {\b House of Districts (Zupanije Dom)}
\par \tab elections last held 7 and 21 February 1993 (next to be held NA February 1997); results - percent of vote by party NA; seats - (68 total; 63 elected, 5 presidentially appointed) HDZ 37, HSLS 16, HSS 5, Istrian Democratic Assembly 3, SPH-SDP 1, HNS 1
\par \tab {\b House of Representatives (Predstavnicke Dom)}
\par \tab elections last held 2 August 1992 (next to be held NA August 1996); results - percent of vote by party NA; seats - (138 total) HDZ 85, HSLS 14, SPH-SDP 11, HNS 6, Dalmatian Action/Istrian Democratic Assembly/ Rijeka Democratic Alliance coalition 6, HSP 5, HSS 3, SNS 3, independents 5
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Supreme Court, Constitutional Court
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab Croatian Democratic Union (HDZ), Zlatko CANJUGA, secretary general; Croatian Democratic Independents (HND), Stjepan MESIC, president; Croatian Social Liberal Party (HSLS), Drazen BUDISA, president; Croatian Democratic Peasant Party (HDSS), Ante BABIC; Croatian Party of Rights (HSP), Ante DAPIC; Croatian Peasants' Party (HSS), Josip PANKRETIC; Croatian People's Party (HNS), Radimir CACIC, president; Dalmatian Action (DA), Mira LJUBIC-LORGER; Serb National Party (SNS), Milan DJUKIC; Social Democratic Action (SDP), Miko TRIPALO; other small parties include the Istrian Democratic Assembly and the Rijeka Democratic Alliance
{\b Other political or pressure groups}
\par \tab NA
{\b Member of}
\par \tab CCC, CE (guest), CEI, EBRD, ECE, FAO, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, ILO, IMF, IMO, INMARSAT, INTELSAT, INTERPOL, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, NAM (observer), OSCE, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO
{\b Diplomatic representation in US}
\par \tab {\b chief of mission}
\par \tab Ambassador Petar A. SARCEVIC
\par \tab {\b chancery}
\par \tab 2343 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [1] (202) 588-5899
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [1] (202) 588-8936
\par \tab {\b consulate(s) general}
\par \tab New York
{\b US diplomatic representation}
\par \tab {\b chief of mission}
\par \tab Ambassador Peter W. GALBRAITH
\par \tab {\b embassy}
\par \tab Andrije Hebranga 2, Zagreb
\par \tab {\b mailing address}
\par \tab US Embassy, Zagreb, Unit 1345, APO AE 09213-1345
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [385] (41) 456-000
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [385] (41) 440-235
{\b Flag}
\par \tab red, white, and blue horizontal bands with Croatian coat of arms (red and white checkered){\b Names}
\par \tab {\b conventional long form}
\par \tab Republic of Cuba
\par \tab {\b conventional short form}
\par \tab Cuba
\par \tab {\b local long form}
\par \tab Republica de Cuba
\par \tab {\b local short form}
\par \tab Cuba
{\b Digraph}
\par \tab CU
{\b Type}
\par \tab Communist state
{\b Capital}
\par \tab Havana
{\b Administrative divisions}
\par \tab 14 provinces (provincias, singular - provincia) and 1 special municipality* (municipio especial); Camaguey, Ciego de Avila, Cienfuegos, Ciudad de La Habana, Granma, Guantanamo, Holguin, Isla de la Juventud*, La Habana, Las Tunas, Matanzas, Pinar del Rio, Sancti Spiritus, Santiago de Cuba, Villa Clara
{\b Independence}
\par \tab 20 May 1902 (from Spain 10 December 1898; administered by the US from 1898 to 1902)
{\b National holiday}
\par \tab Rebellion Day, 26 July (1953)
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab 24 February 1976
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab based on Spanish and American law, with large elements of Communist legal theory; does not accept compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 16 years of age; universal
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state and head of government}
\par \tab President of the Council of State and President of the Council of Ministers Fidel CASTRO Ruz (Prime Minister from February 1959 until 24 February 1976 when office was abolished; President since 2 December 1976); First Vice President of the Council of State and First Vice President of the Council of Ministers Gen. Raul CASTRO Ruz (since 2 December 1976)
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Council of Ministers; proposed by the president of the Council of State, appointed by the National Assembly
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab unicameral
\par \tab {\b National Assembly of People's Power}
\par \tab (Asamblea Nacional del Poder Popular) elections last held February 1993 (next to be held NA); seats - 589 total, elected directly from slates approved by special candidacy commissions
\par \tab only party - Cuban Communist Party (PCC), Fidel CASTRO Ruz, first secretary
{\b Member of}
\par \tab CCC, ECLAC, FAO, G-77, GATT, IAEA, ICAO, ICRM, IFAD, IFRCS, ILO, IMO, INMARSAT, INTELSAT (nonsignatory user), INTERPOL, IOC, ISO, ITU, LAES, LAIA (observer), NAM, OAS (excluded from formal participation since 1962), PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO
{\b Diplomatic representation in US}
\par \tab {\b chief of mission}
\par \tab Principal Officer Alfonso FRAGA PEREZ (since August 1992) represented by the Cuban Interests Section of the Swiss Embassy in Washington, DC
\par \tab {\b chancery}
\par \tab 2630 and 2639 16th Street NW, Cuban Interests Section, Swiss Embassy, Washington, DC 20009
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [1] (202) 797-8609, 8610, 8615
{\b US diplomatic representation}
\par \tab {\b chief of mission}
\par \tab Principal Officer Joseph G. SULLIVAN
\par \tab {\b US Interests Section}
\par \tab USINT, Swiss Embassy, Calzada Entre L Y M, Vedado Seccion, Havana
\par \tab {\b mailing address}
\par \tab use street address
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab 33-3551 through 3559, 33-3543 through 3547, 33-3700 (operator assistance required)
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab Telex 512206
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab protecting power in Cuba is Switzerland - US Interests Section, Swiss Embassy
{\b Flag}
\par \tab five equal horizontal bands of blue (top and bottom) alternating with white; a red equilateral triangle based on the hoist side bears a white five-pointed star in the center{\b Names}
\par \tab {\b conventional long form}
\par \tab Republic of Cyprus
\par \tab {\b conventional short form}
\par \tab Cyprus
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab the Turkish area refers to itself as the "Turkish Republic" or the "Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus"
{\b Abbreviation}
\par \tab the Turkish area is sometimes referred to as the TRNC which is short for "Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus"
{\b Digraph}
\par \tab CY
{\b Type}
\par \tab republic
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab a disaggregation of the two ethnic communities inhabiting the island began after the outbreak of communal strife in 1963; this separation was further solidified following the Turkish invasion of the island in July 1974, which gave the Turkish Cypriots de facto control in the north; Greek Cypriots control the only internationally recognized government; on 15 November 1983 Turkish Cypriot President Rauf DENKTASH declared independence and the formation of a "Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus" (TRNC), which has been recognized only by Turkey; both sides publicly call for the resolution of intercommunal differences and creation of a new federal system of government
{\b Capital}
\par \tab Nicosia
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab the Turkish area's capital is Lefkosa (Nicosia)
{\b Administrative divisions}
\par \tab 6 districts; Famagusta, Kyrenia, Larnaca, Limassol, Nicosia, Paphos; note - Turkish area administrative divisions include Kyrenia, all but a small part of Famagusta, and small parts of Nicosia and Larnaca
{\b Independence}
\par \tab 16 August 1960 (from UK)
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab Turkish area proclaimed self-rule on NA February 1975 from Republic of Cyprus
{\b National holiday}
\par \tab Independence Day, 1 October
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab Turkish area celebrates 15 November as Independence Day
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab 16 August 1960; negotiations to create the basis for a new or revised constitution to govern the island and to better relations between Greek and Turkish Cypriots have been held intermittently; in 1975 Turkish Cypriots created their own Constitution and governing bodies within the "Turkish Federated State of Cyprus," which was renamed the "Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus" in 1983; a new Constitution for the Turkish area passed by referendum on 5 May 1985
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab based on common law, with civil law modifications
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 18 years of age; universal
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state and head of government}
\par \tab President Glafcos CLERIDES (since 28 February 1993); election last held 14 February 1993 (next to be held February 1998); results - Glafkos CLERIDES 50.3%, George VASSILIOU 49.7%
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Council of Ministers; appointed jointly by the president and vice-president
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab Rauf R. DENKTASH has been president of the Turkish area since 13 February 1975; Hakki ATUN has been prime minister of the Turkish area since 1 January 1994; there is a Council of Ministers (cabinet) in the Turkish area; elections last held 15 and 22 April 1995 (next to be held April 2000); results - Rauf R. DENKTASH 62.5%, Dervis EROGLU 37.5%
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab unicameral
\par \tab {\b Greek area: House of Representatives (Vouli Antiprosopon)}
\par \tab elections last held 19 May 1991 (next to be held NA); results - DISY 35.8%, AKEL (Communist) 30.6%, DIKO 19.5%, EDEK 10.9%; others 3.2%; seats - (56 total) DISY 20, AKEL (Communist) 18, DIKO 11, EDEK 7
\par \tab {\b Turkish area: Assembly of the Republic (Cumhuriyet Meclisi)}
\par \tab elections last held 12 December 1993 (next to be held NA); results - UBP 29.9%, DP 29.2%, CTP 24.2% TKP 13.3%, others 3.4%; seats - (50 total) UBP (conservative) 15, DP 16, CTP 13, TKP 5, UDP 1
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Supreme Court; note - there is also a Supreme Court in the Turkish area
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab {\b Greek area}
\par \tab Progressive Party of the Working People (AKEL, Communist Party), Dimitrios CHRISTOFIAS; Democratic Rally (DISY), John MATSIS; Democratic Party (DIKO), Spyros KYPRIANOU; United Democratic Union of the Center (EDEK), Vassos LYSSARIDIS; Socialist Democratic Renewal Movement (ADISOK), Mikhalis PAPAPETROU; Liberal Party, Nikos ROLANDIS; Free Democrats, George VASSILIOU
\par \tab {\b Turkish area}
\par \tab National Unity Party (UBP), Dervis EROGLU; Communal Liberation Party (TKP), Mustafa AKINCI; Republican Turkish Party (CTP), Ozker OZGUR; New Cyprus Party (YKP), Alpay DURDURAN; Free Democratic Party (HDP), Ismet KOTAK; National Justice Party (MAP), Zorlu TORE; Unity and Sovereignty Party (BEP), Arif Salih KIRDAG; Democratic Party (DP), Hakki ATUN; Fatherland Party (VP), Orhan UCOK; National Birth Party (UDP); the HDP, MAP, and VP merged under the label National Struggle Unity Party (MMBP) to compete in the 12 December 1993 legislative election
{\b Other political or pressure groups}
\par \tab United Democratic Youth Organization (EDON, Communist controlled); Union of Cyprus Farmers (EKA, Communist controlled); Cyprus Farmers Union (PEK, pro-West); Pan-Cyprian Labor Federation (PEO, Communist controlled); Confederation of Cypriot Workers (SEK, pro-West); Federation of Turkish Cypriot Labor Unions (Turk-Sen); Confederation of Revolutionary Labor Unions (Dev-Is)
\par \tab Representative of the Turkish area in the US is Namik KORMAN, office at 1667 K Street NW, Washington, DC, telephone [1] (202) 887-6198
{\b US diplomatic representation}
\par \tab {\b chief of mission}
\par \tab Ambassador Richard A. BOUCHER
\par \tab {\b embassy}
\par \tab corner of Metochiou and Ploutarchou Streets, Engomi, Nicosia
\par \tab {\b mailing address}
\par \tab P. O. Box 4536 APO AE 09836
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [357] (2) 476100
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [357] (2) 465944
{\b Flag}
\par \tab white with a copper-colored silhouette of the island (the name Cyprus is derived from the Greek word for copper) above two green crossed olive branches in the center of the flag; the branches symbolize the hope for peace and reconciliation between the Greek and Turkish communities
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab the Turkish Cypriot flag has a horizontal red stripe at the top and bottom between which is a red crescent and red star on a white field{\b Names}
\par \tab {\b conventional long form}
\par \tab Czech Republic
\par \tab {\b conventional short form}
\par \tab Czech Republic
\par \tab {\b local long form}
\par \tab Ceska Republika
\par \tab {\b local short form}
\par \tab Cechy
{\b Digraph}
\par \tab EZ
{\b Type}
\par \tab parliamentary democracy
{\b Capital}
\par \tab Prague
{\b Administrative divisions}
\par \tab 8 regions (kraje, kraj - singular); Jihocesky, Jihomoravsky, Praha, Severocesky, Severomoravsky, Stredocesky, Vychodocesky, Zapadocesky
{\b Independence}
\par \tab 1 January 1993 (from Czechoslovakia)
{\b National holiday}
\par \tab National Liberation Day, 9 May; Founding of the Republic, 28 October
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab ratified 16 December 1992; effective 1 January 1993
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab civil law system based on Austro-Hungarian codes; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction; legal code modified to bring it in line with Organization on Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) obligations and to expunge Marxist-Leninist legal theory
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 18 years of age; universal
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state}
\par \tab President Vaclav HAVEL (since 26 January 1993); election last held 26 January 1993 (next to be held NA January 1998); results - Vaclav HAVEL elected by the National Council
\par \tab {\b head of government}
\par \tab Prime Minister Vaclav KLAUS (since NA June 1992); Deputy Prime Ministers Ivan KOCARNIK, Josef LUX, Jan KALVODA (since NA June 1992)
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Cabinet; appointed by the president on recommendation of the prime minister
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab bicameral National Council (Narodni rada)
\par \tab {\b Senate}
\par \tab elections not yet held; seats (81 total)
\par \tab {\b Chamber of Deputies}
\par \tab elections last held 5-6 June 1992 (next to be held NA 1996); results - percent of vote by party NA given breakup and realignment of all parliamentary opposition parties since 1992; seats - (200 total) governing coalition: ODS 65, KDS 10, ODA 16, KDU-CSL 15, opposition: CSSD 18, LB 25, KSCM 10, LSU 9, LSNS 5, CMSS 9, SPR-RSC 6, independents 12
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Supreme Court, Constitutional Court
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab {\b governing coalition}
\par \tab Civic Democratic Party (ODS), Vaclav KLAUS, chairman; Christian Democratic Party (KDS), Ivan PILIP, chairman; Civic Democratic Alliance (ODA), Jan KALVODA, chairman; Christian Democratic Union/Czech People's Party (KDU-CSL), Josef LUX, chairman
\par \tab {\b opposition}
\par \tab Czech Social Democrats (CSSD - left opposition), Milos ZEMAN, chairman; Left Bloc (LB - left opposition), Marie STIBOROVA, chairman; Communist Party (KSCM - left opposition), Miroslav GREBENICEK, chairman; Liberal Social Union (LSU - left opposition), Frantisek TRNKA, chairman; Liberal National Social Party (LSNS - center party), Pavel HIRS, chairman; Bohemian-Moravian Center Party (CMSS - center party), Jan KYCER, chairman; Assembly for the Republic (SPR-RSC - right radical) , Miroslav SLADEK, chairman
{\b Other political or pressure groups}
\par \tab Czech-Moravian Chamber of Trade Unions; Civic Movement
\par \tab 3900 Spring of Freedom Street NW, Washington, DC 20008
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [1] (202) 363-6315, 6316
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [1] (202) 966-8540
{\b US diplomatic representation}
\par \tab {\b chief of mission}
\par \tab Ambassador Adrian A. BASORA
\par \tab {\b embassy}
\par \tab Trziste 15, 11801 Prague 1
\par \tab {\b mailing address}
\par \tab Unit 1330; APO AE 09213-1330
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [42] (2) 2451-0847
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [42] (2) 2451-1001
{\b Flag}
\par \tab two equal horizontal bands of white (top) and red with a blue isosceles triangle based on the hoist side (almost identical to the flag of the former Czechoslovakia){\b Names}
\par \tab see separate entries for the Faroe Islands and Greenland, which are part of the Danish realm and self-governing administrative divisions
{\b Independence}
\par \tab 1849 (became a constitutional monarchy)
{\b National holiday}
\par \tab Birthday of the Queen, 16 April (1940)
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab 5 June 1953
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab civil law system; judicial review of legislative acts; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction, with reservations
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 18 years of age; universal
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state}
\par \tab Queen MARGRETHE II (since NA January 1972); Heir Apparent Crown Prince FREDERIK, elder son of the Queen (born 26 May 1968)
\par \tab {\b head of government}
\par \tab Prime Minister Poul Nyrup RASMUSSEN (since NA January 1993)
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Cabinet; appointed by the monarch
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab unicameral
\par \tab {\b Parliament (Folketing)}
\par \tab elections last held 21 September 1994 (next to be held by December 1998); results - Social Democrats 34.6%, Liberals 23.3%, Conservatives 15.0%, Social People's Party 7.3%, Progress Party 6.4%, Radical Liberals 4.6%, Unity Party 3.1%, Center Democrats 2.8%, Christian People's Party 1.8%; seats - (179 total) Social Democrats 63, Liberals 44, Conservatives 28, Social People's Party 13, Progress Party 11, Radical Liberals 8, Unity Party 6, Center Democrats 5, independent 1
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Supreme Court
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab Social Democratic Party, Poul Nyrup RASMUSSEN; Conservative Party, Hans ENGELL; Liberal Party, Uffe ELLEMANN-JENSEN; Socialist People's Party, Holger K. NIELSEN; Progress Party, Group Chairman Kim BEHNKE and Policy Spokesman Jan Kopke CHRISTENSEN; Center Democratic Party, Mimi Stilling JAKOBSEN; Radical Liberal Party, Marianne JELVED; Christian People's Party, Jann SJURSEN; Common Course, Preben Moller HANSEN; Danish Workers' Party; Unity Party
\par \tab Ambassador Peter Pedersen DYVIG (Knud-Erik TYGESEN is Ambassador Elect for 1995)
\par \tab {\b chancery}
\par \tab 3200 Whitehaven Street NW, Washington, DC 20008
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [1] (202) 234-4300
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [1] (202) 328-1470
\par \tab {\b consulate(s) general}
\par \tab Chicago, Los Angeles, and New York
{\b US diplomatic representation}
\par \tab {\b chief of mission}
\par \tab Ambassador Edward E. ELSON
\par \tab {\b embassy}
\par \tab Dag Hammarskjolds Alle 24, 2100 Copenhagen O
\par \tab {\b mailing address}
\par \tab APO AE 09716
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [45] (31) 42 31 44
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [45] (35) 43 02 23
{\b Flag}
\par \tab red with a white cross that extends to the edges of the flag; the vertical part of the cross is shifted to the hoist side, and that design element of the DANNEBROG (Danish flag) was subsequently adopted by the other Nordic countries of Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden{\b Names}
\par \tab {\b conventional long form}
\par \tab Republic of Djibouti
\par \tab {\b conventional short form}
\par \tab Djibouti
\par \tab {\b former}
\par \tab French Territory of the Afars and Issas French Somaliland
\par \tab multiparty constitution approved in referendum 4 September 1992
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab based on French civil law system, traditional practices, and Islamic law
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab universal adult at age NA
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state}
\par \tab President HASSAN GOULED Aptidon (since 24 June 1977); election last held 7 May 1993 (next to be held NA 1999); results - President Hassan GOULED Aptidon was reelected
\par \tab {\b head of government}
\par \tab Prime Minister BARKAT Gourad Hamadou (since 30 September 1978)
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Council of Ministers; responsible to the president
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab unicameral
\par \tab {\b Chamber of Deputies (Chambre des Deputes)}
\par \tab elections last held 18 December 1992; results - RPP (the ruling party) dominated; seats - (65 total) RPP 65
\par \tab Suite 515, 1156 15th Street NW, Washington, DC 20005
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [1] (202) 331-0270
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [1] (202) 331-0302
{\b US diplomatic representation}
\par \tab {\b chief of mission}
\par \tab Ambassador Martin L. CHESHES
\par \tab {\b embassy}
\par \tab Plateau du Serpent, Boulevard Marechal Joffre, Djibouti
\par \tab {\b mailing address}
\par \tab B. P. 185, Djibouti
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [253] 35 39 95
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [253] 35 39 40
{\b Flag}
\par \tab two equal horizontal bands of light blue (top) and light green with a white isosceles triangle based on the hoist side bearing a red five-pointed star in the center{\b Names}
\par \tab {\b conventional long form}
\par \tab Commonwealth of Dominica
\par \tab {\b conventional short form}
\par \tab Dominica
{\b Digraph}
\par \tab DO
{\b Type}
\par \tab parliamentary democracy
{\b Capital}
\par \tab Roseau
{\b Administrative divisions}
\par \tab 10 parishes; Saint Andrew, Saint David, Saint George, Saint John, Saint Joseph, Saint Luke, Saint Mark, Saint Patrick, Saint Paul, Saint Peter
{\b Independence}
\par \tab 3 November 1978 (from UK)
{\b National holiday}
\par \tab Independence Day, 3 November (1978)
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab 3 November 1978
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab based on English common law
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 18 years of age; universal
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state}
\par \tab President Crispin Anselm SORHAINDO (since 25 October 1993) election last held 4 October 1993 (next to be held NA October 1998); results - President Crispin Anselm SORHAINDO was elected by the House of Assembly to a five-year term
\par \tab {\b head of government}
\par \tab Prime Minister Edison JAMES
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Cabinet; appointed by the president on the advice of the prime minister
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab unicameral
\par \tab {\b House of Assembly}
\par \tab elections last held 28 May 1990 (next to be held by October 1995); results - percent of vote by party NA; seats - (30 total; 9 appointed senators and 21 elected representatives) DFP 11, UWP 6, DLP 4
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Eastern Caribbean Supreme Court
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab Dominica Freedom Party (DFP), Brian ALLEYNE; Dominica Labor Party (DLP), Rosie DOUGLAS; United Workers Party (UWP), Edison JAMES
{\b Other political or pressure groups}
\par \tab Dominica Liberation Movement (DLM), a small leftist group
\par \tab no official presence since the Ambassador resides in Bridgetown (Barbados), but travels frequently to Dominica
{\b Flag}
\par \tab green with a centered cross of three equal bands - the vertical part is yellow (hoist side), black, and white - the horizontal part is yellow (top), black, and white; superimposed in the center of the cross is a red disk bearing a sisserou parrot encircled by 10 green five-pointed stars edged in yellow; the 10 stars represent the 10 administrative divisions (parishes){\b Names}
\par \tab {\b conventional long form}
\par \tab Dominican Republic
\par \tab {\b conventional short form}
\par \tab none
\par \tab {\b local long form}
\par \tab Republica Dominicana
\par \tab {\b local short form}
\par \tab none
{\b Digraph}
\par \tab DR
{\b Type}
\par \tab republic
{\b Capital}
\par \tab Santo Domingo
{\b Administrative divisions}
\par \tab 29 provinces (provincias, singular - provincia) and 1 district* (distrito); Azua, Baoruco, Barahona, Dajabon, Distrito Nacional*, Duarte, Elias Pina, El Seibo, Espaillat, Hato Mayor, Independencia, La Altagracia, La Romana, La Vega, Maria Trinidad Sanchez, Monsenor Nouel, Monte Cristi, Monte Plata, Pedernales, Peravia, Puerto Plata, Salcedo, Samana, Sanchez Ramirez, San Cristobal, San Juan, San Pedro de Macoris, Santiago, Santiago Rodriguez, Valverde
{\b Independence}
\par \tab 27 February 1844 (from Haiti)
{\b National holiday}
\par \tab Independence Day, 27 February (1844)
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab 28 November 1966
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab based on French civil codes
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 18 years of age; universal and compulsory or married persons regardless of age
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab members of the armed forces and police cannot vote
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state and head of government}
\par \tab President Joaquin BALAGUER Ricardo (since 16 August 1986, sixth elected term began 16 August 1994); Vice President Jacinto PEYNADO (since 16 August 1994) election last held 16 May 1994 (next to be held May 1996); results - Joaquin BALAGUER (PRSC) 42.6%, Juan BOSCH Gavino (PLD) 13.2%, Jose Francisco PENA Gomez (PRD) 41.9%, Jacobo MAJLUTA (PRI) 2.3%
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Cabinet; nominated by the president
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab bicameral National Congress (Congreso Nacional)
\par \tab {\b Senate (Senado)}
\par \tab elections last held 16 May 1994 (next to be held May 1998); results - percent of vote by party NA; seats - (30 total) PRSC 15, PLD 1, PRD 14
\par \tab {\b Chamber of Deputies (Camara de Diputados)}
\par \tab elections last held 16 May 1994 (next to be held May 1998); results - percent of vote by party NA; seats - (120 total) PLD 13, PRSC 50, PRD 57
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Supreme Court (Corte Suprema)
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab {\b major parties}
\par \tab Social Christian Reformist Party (PRSC), Joaquin BALAGUER Ricardo; Dominican Liberation Party (PLD), (vacant following retirement of Juan BOSCH Gavino); Dominican Revolutionary Party (PRD), Jose Franciso PENA Gomez; Independent Revolutionary Party (PRI), Jacobo MAJLUTA
\par \tab {\b minor parties}
\par \tab National Veterans and Civilian Party (PNVC), Juan Rene BEAUCHAMPS Javier; Liberal Party of the Dominican Republic (PLRD), Andres Van Der HORST; Democratic Quisqueyan Party (PQD), Elias WESSIN Chavez; National Progressive Force (FNP), Marino VINICIO Castillo; Popular Christian Party (PPC), Rogelio DELGADO Bogaert; Dominican Communist Party (PCD), Narciso ISA Conde; Dominican Workers' Party (PTD), Ivan RODRIGUEZ; Anti-Imperialist Patriotic Union (UPA), Ignacio RODRIGUEZ Chiappini; Alliance for Democracy Party (APD), Maximilano Rabelais PUIG Miller, Nelsida MARMOLEJOS, Vicente BENGOA; Democratic Union (UD), Fernando ALVAREZ Bogaert
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab in 1983 several leftist parties, including the PCD, joined to form the Dominican Leftist Front (FID); however, they still retain individual party structures
{\b Other political or pressure groups}
\par \tab Collective of Popular Organzations (COP), leader NA
\par \tab 1715 22nd Street NW, Washington, DC 20008
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [1] (202) 332-6280
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [1] (202) 265-8057
\par \tab {\b consulate(s) general}
\par \tab Boston, Chicago, Los Angeles, Mayaguez (Puerto Rico), Miami, New Orleans, New York, Philadelphia, San Francisco, and San Juan (Puerto Rico)
\par \tab {\b consulate(s)}
\par \tab Charlotte Amalie (Virgin Islands), Detroit, Houston, Jacksonville, Minneapolis, Mobile, and Ponce (Puerto Rico)
{\b US diplomatic representation}
\par \tab {\b chief of mission}
\par \tab Ambassador Donna Jean HRINAK
\par \tab {\b embassy}
\par \tab corner of Calle Cesar Nicolas Penson and Calle Leopoldo Navarro, Santo Domingo
\par \tab {\b mailing address}
\par \tab Unit 5500, Santo Domingo; APO AA 34041
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [1] (809) 541-2171, 8100
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [1] (809) 686-7437
{\b Flag}
\par \tab a centered white cross that extends to the edges, divides the flag into four rectangles - the top ones are blue (hoist side) and red, the bottom ones are red (hoist side) and blue; a small coat of arms is at the center of the cross{\b Names}
\par \tab Independence Day, 10 August (1809) (independence of Quito)
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab 10 August 1979
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab based on civil law system; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 18 years of age; universal, compulsory for literate persons ages 18-65, optional for other eligible voters
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state and head of government}
\par \tab President Sixto DURAN-BALLEN Cordovez (since 10 August 1992); Vice President Alberto DAHIK Garzoni (since 10 August 1992); election runoff election held 5 July 1992 (next to be held NA 1996); results - Sixto DURAN-BALLEN elected as president and Alberto DAHIK elected as vice president
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Cabinet; appointed by the president
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab unicameral
\par \tab {\b National Congress (Congreso Nacional)}
\par \tab elections last held 1 May 1994 (next to be held 1 May 1996); results - percent of vote by party NA; seats - (77 total) PSC 25, PRE 11, MPD 8, ID 7, DP 7, PCE 7, PUR 2, CFP 2, APRE 2, PSE 1, FRA 1, PLRE 1, LN 1, independents 2
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Supreme Court (Corte Suprema)
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab {\b Center-Right parties}
\par \tab Social Christian Party (PSC), Jaime NEBOT Saadi, president; Republican Unity Party (PUR), President Sixto DURAN-BALLEN, leader; Ecuadorian Conservative Party (PCE), Vice President Alberto DAHIK, president
\par \tab {\b Center-Left parties}
\par \tab Democratic Left (ID), Andres VALLEJO Arcos, Rodrigo BORJA Cevallos, leaders; Popular Democracy (DP), Rodrigo PAZ, leader; Ecuadorian Radical Liberal Party (PLRE), Medardo MORA, leader; Radical Alfarista Front (FRA), Jaime ASPIAZU Seminario, director
\par \tab {\b populist parties}
\par \tab Roldista Party (PRE), Abdala BUCARAM Ortiz, director; Concentration of Popular Forces (CFP), Rodolfo BAQUERIZO Nazur, leader; Popular Revolutionary Action (APRE), Frank VARGAS Passos, leader
\par \tab {\b Far-Left parties}
\par \tab Popular Democratic Movement (MPD), Juan Jose CASTELLO, leader; Ecuadorian Socialist Party (PSE), Leon ROLDOS, leader; Broad Leftist Front (FADI), Rene Mauge MOSQUERA, chairman; Ecuadorian National Liberation (LN), Alfredo CASTILLO, director
\par \tab {\b Communists}
\par \tab Communist Party of Ecuador (PCE, pro-North Korea), Rene Mauge MOSQUERA, Secretary General; Communist Party of Ecuador/Marxist-Leninist (PCMLE, Maoist)
\par \tab 2535 15th Street NW, Washington, DC 20009
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [1] (202) 234-7200
\par \tab {\b consulate(s) general}
\par \tab Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, Miami, New Orleans, New York, and San Francisco
\par \tab {\b consulate(s)}
\par \tab Newark
{\b US diplomatic representation}
\par \tab {\b chief of mission}
\par \tab Ambassador Peter F. ROMERO
\par \tab {\b embassy}
\par \tab Avenida 12 de Octubre y Avenida Patria, Quito
\par \tab {\b mailing address}
\par \tab APO AA 34039-3420
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [593] (2) 562-890, 561-624, 561-749
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [593] (2) 502-052
\par \tab {\b consulate(s) general}
\par \tab Guayaquil
{\b Flag}
\par \tab three horizontal bands of yellow (top, double width), blue, and red with the coat of arms superimposed at the center of the flag; similar to the flag of Colombia that is shorter and does not bear a coat of arms{\b Names}
\par \tab {\b conventional long form}
\par \tab Arab Republic of Egypt
\par \tab {\b conventional short form}
\par \tab Egypt
\par \tab {\b local long form}
\par \tab Jumhuriyat Misr al-Arabiyah
\par \tab {\b local short form}
\par \tab none
\par \tab {\b former}
\par \tab United Arab Republic (with Syria)
{\b Digraph}
\par \tab EG
{\b Type}
\par \tab republic
{\b Capital}
\par \tab Cairo
{\b Administrative divisions}
\par \tab 26 governorates (muhafazat, singular - muhafazah); Ad Daqahliyah, Al Bahr al Ahmar, Al Buhayrah, Al Fayyum, Al Gharbiyah, Al Iskandariyah, Al Isma'iliyah, Al Jizah, Al Minufiyah, Al Minya, Al Qahirah, Al Qalyubiyah, Al Wadi al Jadid, Ash Sharqiyah, As Suways, Aswan, Asyu't, Bani Suwayf, Bur Sa'id, Dumyat, Janub Sina, Kafr ash Shaykh, Matruh, Qina, Shamal Sina, Suhaj
{\b Independence}
\par \tab 28 February 1922 (from UK)
{\b National holiday}
\par \tab Anniversary of the Revolution, 23 July (1952)
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab 11 September 1971
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab based on English common law, Islamic law, and Napoleonic codes; judicial review by Supreme Court and Council of State (oversees validity of administrative decisions); accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction, with reservations
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 18 years of age; universal and compulsory
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state}
\par \tab President Mohammed Hosni MUBARAK (sworn in as president on 14 October 1981, eight days after the assassination of President SADAT); national referendum held 4 October 1993 validated Mubarak's nomination by the People's Assembly to a third 6-year presidential term
\par \tab {\b head of government}
\par \tab Prime Minister Atef Mohammed Najib SEDKY (since 12 November 1986)
\par \tab elections last held 29 November 1990 (next to be held NA November 1995); results - NDP 86.3%, NPUG 1.3%, independents 12.4%; seats - (454 total, 444 elected, 10 appointed by the president) NDP 383, NPUG 6, independents 55; note - most opposition parties boycotted; NDP figures include NDP members who ran as independents and other NDP-affiliated independents
\par \tab {\b Advisory Council (Majlis al-Shura)}
\par \tab functions only in a consultative role; elections last held 8 June 1989 (next to be held NA June 1995); results - NDP 100%; seats - (258 total, 172 elected, 86 appointed by the president) NDP 172
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Supreme Constitutional Court
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab National Democratic Party (NDP), President Mohammed Hosni MUBARAK, leader, is the dominant party; legal opposition parties are; New Wafd Party (NWP), Fu'ad SIRAJ AL-DIN; Socialist Labor Party, Ibrahim SHUKRI; National Progressive Unionist Grouping (NPUG), Khalid MUHYI-AL-DIN; Socialist Liberal Party (SLP), Mustafa Kamal MURAD; Democratic Unionist Party, Mohammed 'Abd-al-Mun'im TURK; Umma Party, Ahmad al-SABAHI; Misr al-Fatah Party (Young Egypt Party), Gamal RABIE; Nasserist Arab Democratic Party, Dia' al-din DAWUD; Democratic Peoples' Party, Anwar AFIFI; The Greens Party, Kamal KIRAH; Social Justice Party, Muhammad 'ABD-AL-'AL
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab formation of political parties must be approved by government
{\b Other political or pressure groups}
\par \tab despite a constitutional ban against religious-based parties, the technically illegal Muslim Brotherhood constitutes MUBARAK's potentially most significant political opposition; MUBARAK tolerated limited political activity by the Brotherhood for his first two terms, but has moved more aggressively in the past year to block its influence; trade unions and professional associations are officially sanctioned
\par \tab 3521 International Court NW, Washington, DC 20008
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [1] (202) 895-5400
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [1] (202) 244-4319, 5131
\par \tab {\b consulate(s) general}
\par \tab Chicago, Houston, New York, and San Francisco
{\b US diplomatic representation}
\par \tab {\b chief of mission}
\par \tab Ambassador Edward S. WALKER, Jr.
\par \tab {\b embassy}
\par \tab (North Gate) 8, Kamel El-Din Salah Street, Garden City, Cairo
\par \tab {\b mailing address}
\par \tab APO AE 09839-4900
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [20] (2) 3557371
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [20] (2) 3573200
{\b Flag}
\par \tab three equal horizontal bands of red (top), white, and black with the national emblem (a shield superimposed on a golden eagle facing the hoist side above a scroll bearing the name of the country in Arabic) centered in the white band; similar to the flag of Yemen, which has a plain white band; also similar to the flag of Syria that has two green stars and to the flag of Iraq, which has three green stars (plus an Arabic inscription) in a horizontal line centered in the white band{\b Names}
\par \tab {\b conventional long form}
\par \tab Republic of El Salvador
\par \tab {\b conventional short form}
\par \tab El Salvador
\par \tab {\b local long form}
\par \tab Republica de El Salvador
\par \tab {\b local short form}
\par \tab El Salvador
{\b Digraph}
\par \tab ES
{\b Type}
\par \tab republic
{\b Capital}
\par \tab San Salvador
{\b Administrative divisions}
\par \tab 14 departments (departamentos, singular - departamento); Ahuachapan, Cabanas, Chalatenango, Cuscatlan, La Libertad, La Paz, La Union, Morazan, San Miguel, San Salvador, Santa Ana, San Vicente, Sonsonate, Usulutan
{\b Independence}
\par \tab 15 September 1821 (from Spain)
{\b National holiday}
\par \tab Independence Day, 15 September (1821)
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab 20 December 1983
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab based on civil and Roman law, with traces of common law; judicial review of legislative acts in the Supreme Court; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction, with reservations
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 18 years of age; universal
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state and head of government}
\par \tab President Armando CALDERON SOL (since 1 June 1994); Vice President Enrique BORGO Bustamante (since 1 June 1994) election last held 20 March 1994 (next to be held March 1999); results - Armando CALDERON SOL (ARENA) 49.03%, Ruben ZAMORA Rivas (CD/FMLN/MNR) 24.09%, Fidel CHAVEZ Mena (PDC) 16.39%, other 10.49%; because no candidate received a majority, a run-off election was held 24 April 1994; results - Armando CALDERON SOL (ARENA) 68.35%, Ruben ZAMORA Rivas (CD/FMLN/MNR) 31.65%
\par \tab elections last held 20 March 1994 (next to be held March 1997); results - ARENA 46.4%, FMLN 25.0%, PDC 21.4%, PCN 4.8%, other 2.4%; seats - (84 total) ARENA 39, FMLN 21, PDC 18, PCN 4, other 2
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Supreme Court (Corte Suprema)
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab National Republican Alliance (ARENA), Juan Jose DOMENECH, president; Farabundo Marti National Liberation Front (FMLN), Salvador SANCHEZ Ceren (aka Leonel GONZALEZ), general coordinator; Christian Democratic Party (PDC), Ronal UMANA, secretary general; National Conciliation Party (PCN), Ciro CRUZ Zepeda, secretary general; Democratic Convergence (CD), Juan Jose MARTEL, secretary general; Unity Movement, Jorge MARTINEZ Menendez, president
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab newly formed parties not yet officially recognized by the Supreme Electoral Tribunal: Liberal Democratic Party (PLD), Kirio Waldo SALGADO, founder; Social Democratic Party (breakaway from FMLN), Joaquin VILLALOBOS, founder; Social Christian Renovation Movement (MRSC) (breakaway from PDC), Abraham RODRIGUEZ, founder
{\b Other political or pressure groups}
\par \tab {\b labor organizations}
\par \tab Salvadoran Communal Union (UCS), peasant association; General Confederation of Workers (CGT), moderate; United Workers Front (FUT)
\par \tab {\b business organizations}
\par \tab Productive Alliance (AP), conservative; National Federation of Salvadoran Small Businessmen (FENAPES), conservative
\par \tab 2308 California Street NW, Washington, DC 20008
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [1] (202) 265-9671, 9672
\par \tab {\b consulate(s) general}
\par \tab Chicago, Dallas, Houston, Los Angeles, Miami, New Orleans, New York, and San Francisco
{\b US diplomatic representation}
\par \tab {\b chief of mission}
\par \tab Ambassador Alan H. FLANIGAN
\par \tab {\b embassy}
\par \tab Final Boulevard, Station Antiguo Cuscatlan, San Salvador
\par \tab {\b mailing address}
\par \tab Unit 3116, San Salvador; APO AA 34023
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [503] 78-4444
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [503] 78-6011
{\b Flag}
\par \tab three equal horizontal bands of blue (top), white, and blue with the national coat of arms centered in the white band; the coat of arms features a round emblem encircled by the words REPUBLICA DE EL SALVADOR EN LA AMERICA CENTRAL; similar to the flag of Nicaragua, which has a different coat of arms centered in the white band - it features a triangle encircled by the words REPUBLICA DE NICARAGUA on top and AMERICA CENTRAL on the bottom; also similar to the flag of Honduras, which has five blue stars arranged in an X pattern centered in the white band{\b Names}
\par \tab {\b conventional long form}
\par \tab Republic of Equatorial Guinea
\par \tab {\b conventional short form}
\par \tab Equatorial Guinea
\par \tab {\b local long form}
\par \tab Republica de Guinea Ecuatorial
\par \tab {\b local short form}
\par \tab Guinea Ecuatorial
\par \tab {\b former}
\par \tab Spanish Guinea
{\b Digraph}
\par \tab EK
{\b Type}
\par \tab republic in transition to multiparty democracy
{\b Capital}
\par \tab Malabo
{\b Administrative divisions}
\par \tab 7 provinces (provincias, singular - provincia); Annobon, Bioko Norte, Bioko Sur, Centro Sur, Kie-Ntem, Litoral, Wele-Nzas
{\b Independence}
\par \tab 12 October 1968 (from Spain)
{\b National holiday}
\par \tab Independence Day, 12 October (1968)
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab new constitution 17 November 1991
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab partly based on Spanish civil law and tribal custom
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab universal adult at age NA
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state}
\par \tab President Brig. Gen. (Ret.) Teodoro OBIANG NGUEMA MBASOGO (since 3 August 1979); election last held 25 June 1989 (next to be held 25 June 1996); results - President Brig. Gen. (Ret.) Teodoro OBIANG NGUEMA MBASOGO was reelected without opposition
\par \tab {\b head of government}
\par \tab Prime Minister Silvestre SIALE BILEKA (since 17 January 1992); Vice Prime Minister Anatolio NDONG MBA (since November 1993)
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Council of Ministers; appointed by the president
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab unicameral
\par \tab {\b House of People's Representatives}
\par \tab (Camara de Representantes del Pueblo) elections last held 21 November 1993; seats - (82 total) PDGE 72, various opposition parties 10
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Supreme Tribunal
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab {\b ruling party}
\par \tab Democratic Party for Equatorial Guinea (PDGE), Brig. Gen. (Ret.) Teodoro OBIANG NGUEMA MBASOGO, party leader
\par \tab {\b opposition parties}
\par \tab Progressive Democratic Alliance (ADP), Antonio-Ebang Mbele Abang, president; Popular Action of Equatorial Guinea (APGE),Casiano Masi Edu, leader; Liberal Democratic Convention (CLD), Alfonso Nsue MOKUY, president; Convergence for Social Democracy (CPDS),Santiago Obama Ndong, president; Social Democratic and Popular Convergence (CSDP), Secundino Oyono Agueng Ada, general secretary; Party of the Social Democratic Coalition (PCSD), Buenaventura Moswi M'Asumu, general coordinater; Liberal Party (PL), leaders unknown; Party of Progress (PP), Severo MOTO Nsa, president; Social Democratic Party (PSD), Benjamin-Gabriel Balingha Balinga Alene, general secretary; Socialist Party of Equatorial Guinea (PSGE), Tomas MICHEBE Fernandez, general secretary; National Democratic Union (UDENA), Jose MECHEBA Ikaka, president; Democratic Social Union (UDS), Jesus Nze Obama Avomo, general secretary; Popular Union (UP), Juan Bitui, president
\par \tab (vacant); Charge d'Affaires ad interim Teodoro Biyogo NSUE
\par \tab {\b chancery}
\par \tab (temporary) 57 Magnolia Avenue, Mount Vernon, NY 10553
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [1] (914) 738-9584, 667-6913
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [1] (914) 667-6838
{\b US diplomatic representation}
\par \tab {\b chief of mission}
\par \tab Charge d'Affaires Joseph P. O'NEILL
\par \tab {\b embassy}
\par \tab Calle de Los Ministros, Malabo
\par \tab {\b mailing address}
\par \tab P.O. Box 597, Malabo
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [240] (9) 21-85, 24-06, 25-07
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [240] (9) 21-64
{\b Flag}
\par \tab three equal horizontal bands of green (top), white, and red with a blue isosceles triangle based on the hoist side and the coat of arms centered in the white band; the coat of arms has six yellow six-pointed stars (representing the mainland and five offshore islands) above a gray shield bearing a silk-cotton tree and below which is a scroll with the motto UNIDAD, PAZ, JUSTICIA (Unity, Peace, Justice){\b Names}
\par \tab {\b conventional long form}
\par \tab State of Eritrea
\par \tab {\b conventional short form}
\par \tab Eritrea
\par \tab {\b local long form}
\par \tab none
\par \tab {\b local short form}
\par \tab none
\par \tab {\b former}
\par \tab Eritrea Autonomous Region in Ethiopia
{\b Digraph}
\par \tab ER
{\b Type}
\par \tab transitional government
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab on 29 May 1991 ISAIAS Afworke, secretary general of the Peoples' Front for Democracy and Justice (PFDJ), which then served and still serves as the country's legislative body, announced the formation of the Provisional Government in Eritrea (PGE) in preparation for the 23-25 April 1993 referendum on independence for the autonomous region of Eritrea; the result was a landslide vote for independence which was proclaimed on 27 April 1993
\par \tab 27 May 1993 (from Ethiopia; formerly the Eritrea Autonomous Region)
{\b National holiday}
\par \tab National Day (independence from Ethiopia), 24 May (1993)
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab transitional "constitution" decreed 19 May 1993
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab NA
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab NA
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state and head of government}
\par \tab President ISAIAS Afworke (since 22 May 1993)
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab State Council; the collective executive authority
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab election to be held before 20 May 1997
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab unicameral
\par \tab {\b National Assembly}
\par \tab PFDJ Central Committee serves as the country's legislative body until country-wide elections are held (before 20 May 1997)
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Judiciary
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab People's Front for Democracy and Justice (PFDJ), ISAIAS Afworke, PETROS Solomon (the only party recognized by the government)
{\b Other political or pressure groups}
\par \tab Eritrean Islamic Jihad (EIJ); Islamic Militant Group; Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF), ABDULLAH Muhammed; Eritrean Liberation Front - United Organization (ELF-UO), Mohammed Said NAWUD; Eritrean Liberation Front - Revolutionary Council (ELF-RC), Ahmed NASSER
\par \tab Suite 400, 910 17th Street NW, Washington, DC 20006
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [1] (202) 429-1991
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [1] (202) 429-9004
{\b US diplomatic representation}
\par \tab {\b chief of mission}
\par \tab Ambassador Robert G. HOUDEK
\par \tab {\b embassy}
\par \tab 34 Zera Yacob St., Asmara
\par \tab {\b mailing address}
\par \tab P.O. Box 211, Asmara
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [291] (1) 120004
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [291] (1) 127584
{\b Flag}
\par \tab red isosceles triangle (based on the hoist side) dividing the flag into two right triangles; the upper triangle is green, the lower one is blue; a gold wreath encircling a gold olive branch is centered on the hoist side of the red triangle{\b Names}
\par \tab {\b conventional long form}
\par \tab Republic of Estonia
\par \tab {\b conventional short form}
\par \tab Estonia
\par \tab {\b local long form}
\par \tab Eesti Vabariik
\par \tab {\b local short form}
\par \tab Eesti
\par \tab {\b former}
\par \tab Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic
{\b Digraph}
\par \tab EN
{\b Type}
\par \tab republic
{\b Capital}
\par \tab Tallinn
{\b Administrative divisions}
\par \tab 15 counties (maakonnad, singular - maakond): Harju maakond (Tallinn), Hiiu maakond (Kardla), Ida-Viru maakond (Johvi), Jarva maakond (Paide), Jogeva maakond (Jogeva), Laane maakond (Haapsalu), Laane-Viru maakond (Rakvere), Parnu maakond (Parnu), Polva maakond (Polva), Rapla maakond (Rapla), Saare maakond (Kuessaare), Tartu maakond (Tartu), Valga maakond (Valga), Viljandi maakond (Viljandi), Voru maakond (Voru)
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab county centers are in parentheses
{\b Independence}
\par \tab 6 September 1991 (from Soviet Union)
{\b National holiday}
\par \tab Independence Day, 24 February (1918)
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab adopted 28 June 1992
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab based on civil law system; no judicial review of legislative acts
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 18 years of age; universal
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state}
\par \tab President Lennart MERI (since 21 October 1992); election last held 20 September 1992; (next to be held fall 1996); results - no candidate received majority; newly elected Parliament elected Lennart MERI (21 October 1992)
\par \tab {\b head of government}
\par \tab Prime Minister Tiit VAHI
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Council of Ministers; appointed by the prime minister, authorized by the legislature
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab unicameral
\par \tab {\b Parliament (Riigikogu)}
\par \tab elections last held 5 March 1995 (next to be held NA 1998); results - KMU 32.22%, RE 16.18%, K 14.17%, Pro Patria and ERSP 7.85%, M 5.98%, Our Home is Estonia and Right-Wingers 5.0%; seats - (101 total) KMU 41, RE 19, K 16, Pro Patria 8, Our Home is Estonia 6, M 6, Right-Wingers 5
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Supreme Court
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab Coalition Party and Rural Union (KMU) made up of 4 parties: Coalition Party, Country People's Party, Farmer's Assembly, and Pensioners' and Families' League; Coalition Party, Tiit VAHI, chairman; Country People's Party, Arnold RUUTEL, chairman; Farmer's Assembly, Jaak-Hans KUKS, chairman; Pensioners' and Families' League; Reform Party-Liberals (RE), Siim KALLAS, chairman; Center Party (K), Edgar SAVISAAR, chairman; Union of Pro Patria (Isaama of Fatherland), Mart LAAR, chairman; National Independence Party (ERSP), Kelam TUNNE, chairman; Our Home is Estonia made up of 2 parties: United Peoples Party and the Russian Party in Estonia; United Peoples Party, Viktor ANDREJEV, chairman; Russian Party in Estonia, Sergei KUZNETSOV, chairman; Moderates (M) made up of 2 parties: Social Democratic Party and Rural Center Party; Social Democratic Party, Eiki NESTOR, chairman; Rural Center Party, Vambo KAAL, chairman; Right-Wingers, Ulo NUGIS, chairman
\par \tab 1030 15th Street NW, Washington, DC 20005, Suite 1000
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [1] (202) 789-0320
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [1] (202) 789-0471
\par \tab {\b consulate(s) general}
\par \tab New York
{\b US diplomatic representation}
\par \tab {\b chief of mission}
\par \tab (vacant); Charge d'Affaires Keith SMITH
\par \tab {\b embassy}
\par \tab Kentmanni 20, Tallinn EE 0001
\par \tab {\b mailing address}
\par \tab use embassy street address
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [372] (2) 312-021 through 024
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [372] (2) 312-025
{\b Flag}
\par \tab pre-1940 flag restored by Supreme Soviet in May 1990 - three equal horizontal bands of blue (top), black, and white{\b Names}
\par \tab {\b conventional long form}
\par \tab none
\par \tab {\b conventional short form}
\par \tab Ethiopia
\par \tab {\b local long form}
\par \tab none
\par \tab {\b local short form}
\par \tab Ityop'iya
{\b Digraph}
\par \tab ET
{\b Type}
\par \tab transitional government
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab on 28 May 1991 the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) toppled the authoritarian government of MENGISTU Haile-Mariam and took control in Addis Ababa; a new constitution was promulgated in December 1994 and national and regional elections are scheduled for May 1995; the administrative regions will elect regional assemblies by popular vote; the National Assembly will have two chambers - one elected by popular vote and the other selected as representatives by the regional assemblies; the lower house of the National Assembly will select or confirm the president, the prime minister and the cabinet officers and judges; the prime minister will be the chief executive officer and the duties of the president will be mostly ceremonial
\par \tab the following named four administrative regions may have been abolished and their territories distributed among the remaining ten regions: Kefa, Omo, Sidama, and Wolayta
{\b Independence}
\par \tab oldest independent country in Africa and one of the oldest in the world - at least 2,000 years
{\b National holiday}
\par \tab National Day, 28 May (1991) (defeat of Mengistu regime)
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab new constitution promulgated in December 1994
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab NA
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 18 years of age; universal
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state}
\par \tab President NEGASSO Gidada (since May 1995)
\par \tab {\b head of government}
\par \tab Prime Minister MELES Zenawi (since May 1995)
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Council of Ministers; presently designated by the chairman of the Council of Representatives; under the new constitution and following the elections in May 1995 the cabinet officers will be selected by the prime minister
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab {\b Constituent Assembly}
\par \tab elections were held on 5 June 1994; results - government parties swept almost all seats; in December 1994 the Constituent Assembly ratified the new constitution with few changes; the new constitution prescribes two chambers for the new National Assembly - one which is elected by popular vote and one which represents the ethnic interests of the regional governments
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Supreme Court
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF), MELES Zenawi;
{\b Other political or pressure groups}
\par \tab Oromo Liberation Front (OLF); All Amhara People's Organization; Southern Ethiopia People's Democratic Coalition; numerous small, ethnic-based groups have formed since Mengistu's resignation, including several Islamic militant groups
\par \tab 2134 Kalorama Road NW, Washington, DC 20008
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [1] (202) 234-2281, 2282
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [1] (202) 328-7950
{\b US diplomatic representation}
\par \tab {\b chief of mission}
\par \tab Ambassador Irvin HICKS
\par \tab {\b embassy}
\par \tab Entoto Street, Addis Ababa
\par \tab {\b mailing address}
\par \tab P. O. Box 1014, Addis Ababa
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [251] (1) 550666
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [251] (1) 552191
{\b Flag}
\par \tab three equal horizontal bands of green (top), yellow, and red; Ethiopia is the oldest independent country in Africa, and the colors of her flag were so often adopted by other African countries upon independence that they became known as the pan-African colors{\b Names}
\par \tab {\b conventional long form}
\par \tab Colony of the Falkland Islands
\par \tab {\b conventional short form}
\par \tab Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas)
{\b Digraph}
\par \tab FA
{\b Type}
\par \tab dependent territory of the UK
{\b Capital}
\par \tab Stanley
{\b Administrative divisions}
\par \tab none (dependent territory of the UK)
{\b Independence}
\par \tab none (dependent territory of the UK)
{\b National holiday}
\par \tab Liberation Day, 14 June (1982)
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab 3 October 1985
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab English common law
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 18 years of age; universal
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state}
\par \tab Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952)
\par \tab {\b head of government}
\par \tab Governor David Everard TATHAM (since August 1992)
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Executive Council; 3 members elected by the Legislative Council, 2 ex-officio members (chief executive and the financial secretary), and the governor
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab unicameral
\par \tab {\b Legislative Council}
\par \tab elections last held 11 October 1989 (next to be held October 1994); results - percent of vote by party NA; seats - (10 total, 8 elected) independents 8
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Supreme Court
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab NA
{\b Member of}
\par \tab ICFTU
{\b Diplomatic representation in US}
\par \tab none (dependent territory of the UK)
{\b US diplomatic representation}
\par \tab none (dependent territory of the UK)
{\b Flag}
\par \tab blue with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and the Falkland Island coat of arms in a white disk centered on the outer half of the flag; the coat of arms contains a white ram (sheep raising is the major economic activity) above the sailing ship Desire (whose crew discovered the islands) with a scroll at the bottom bearing the motto DESIRE THE RIGHT{\b Names}
\par \tab {\b conventional long form}
\par \tab Republic of Fiji
\par \tab {\b conventional short form}
\par \tab Fiji
{\b Digraph}
\par \tab FJ
{\b Type}
\par \tab republic
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab military coup leader Maj. Gen. Sitiveni RABUKA formally declared Fiji a republic on 6 October 1987
{\b Capital}
\par \tab Suva
{\b Administrative divisions}
\par \tab 4 divisions and 1 dependency*; Central, Eastern, Northern, Rotuma*, Western
{\b Independence}
\par \tab 10 October 1970 (from UK)
{\b National holiday}
\par \tab Independence Day, 10 October (1970)
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab 10 October 1970 (suspended 1 October 1987); a new Constitution was proposed on 23 September 1988 and promulgated on 25 July 1990; the 1990 Constitution is under review; the review is scheduled to be complete by 1997
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab based on British system
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 21 years of age; universal
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state}
\par \tab President Ratu Sir Kamisese MARA (since 12 January 1994); First Vice President Ratu Sir Josaia TAIVAIQIA (since 12 January 1994); Second Vice President Ratu Inoke TAKIVEIKATA (since 12 January 1994); note - President GANILAU died on 15 December 1993 and Vice President MARA became acting president; MARA was elected president by the Great Council of Chiefs on 12 January 1994
\par \tab {\b head of government}
\par \tab Prime Minister Sitiveni RABUKA (since 2 June 1992)
\par \tab {\b Presidential Council}
\par \tab appointed by the governor general
\par \tab {\b Great Council of Chiefs}
\par \tab highest ranking members of the traditional chiefly system
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Cabinet; appointed by prime minister from members of Parliament and responsible to Parliament
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab the bicameral Parliament was dissolved following the coup of 14 May 1987
\par \tab {\b Senate}
\par \tab nonelective body containing 34 seats, 24 reserved for ethnic Fijians, 9 for Indians and others, 1 for the island of Rotuma; appointed by President
\par \tab {\b House of Representatives}
\par \tab elections last held 18-25 February 1994 (next to be held NA 1999); results - percent of vote by party NA; seats - (70 total, with ethnic Fijians allocated 37 seats, ethnic Indians 27 seats, and independents and other 6 seats) number of seats by party SVT 31, NFP 20, FLP 7, FA 5, GVP 4, independents 2, ANC 1
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Supreme Court
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab Fijian Political Party (SVT - primarily Fijian), leader Maj. Gen. Sitivini RABUKA; National Federation Party (NFP; primarily Indian), Jai Ram REDDY; Fijian Nationalist Party (FNP), Sakeasi BUTADROKA; Fiji Labor Party (FLP), Mahendra CHAUDHRY; General Voters Party (GVP), Bill SORBY; Fiji Conservative Party (FCP), Isireli VUIBAU; Conservative Party of Fiji (CPF), Jolale ULUDOLE and Viliame SAVU; Fiji Indian Liberal Party, Swami MAHARAJ; Fiji Indian Congress Party, Ishwari BAJPAI; Fiji Independent Labor (Muslim), leader NA; Four Corners Party, David TULVANUAVOU; Fijian Association (FA), leader NA; General Electors' Association, leader NA
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab in early 1995, ethnic Fijian members of the All National Congress (ANC) merged with the Fijian Association (FA); the new FA is scheduled to hold its first meeting in April 1995 at which time the leaders of the party will be chosen; it is likely that Josevata KAMIKAMICA, the leader of the FA before the merger, will be elected leader and Adi Kuini Bavadra SPEED, the leader of the ANC before the merger, will be elected deputy leader; the remaining members of the ANC have renamed their party the General Electors' Association
\par \tab Suite 240, 2233 Wisconsin Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20007
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [1] (202) 337-8320
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [1] (202) 337-1996
\par \tab {\b consulate(s)}
\par \tab New York
{\b US diplomatic representation}
\par \tab {\b chief of mission}
\par \tab (vacant); Charge d'Affaires Michael W. MARINE
\par \tab {\b embassy}
\par \tab 31 Loftus Street, Suva
\par \tab {\b mailing address}
\par \tab P. O. Box 218, Suva
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [679] 314466
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [679] 300081
{\b Flag}
\par \tab light blue with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and the Fijian shield centered on the outer half of the flag; the shield depicts a yellow lion above a white field quartered by the cross of Saint George featuring stalks of sugarcane, a palm tree, bananas, and a white dove{\b Names}
\par \tab {\b conventional long form}
\par \tab Republic of Finland
\par \tab {\b conventional short form}
\par \tab Finland
\par \tab {\b local long form}
\par \tab Suomen Tasavalta
\par \tab {\b local short form}
\par \tab Suomi
{\b Digraph}
\par \tab FI
{\b Type}
\par \tab republic
{\b Capital}
\par \tab Helsinki
{\b Administrative divisions}
\par \tab 12 provinces (laanit, singular - laani); Ahvenanmaa, Hame, Keski-Suomi, Kuopio, Kymi, Lappi, Mikkeli, Oulu, Pohjois-Karjala, Turku ja Pori, Uusimaa, Vaasa
{\b Independence}
\par \tab 6 December 1917 (from Soviet Union)
{\b National holiday}
\par \tab Independence Day, 6 December (1917)
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab 17 July 1919
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab civil law system based on Swedish law; Supreme Court may request legislation interpreting or modifying laws; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction, with reservations
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 18 years of age; universal
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state}
\par \tab President Martti AHTISAARI (since 1 March 1994); election last held 31 January-6 February 1994 (next to be held January 2000); results - Martti AHTISAARI 54%, Elisabeth REHN 46%
\par \tab {\b head of government}
\par \tab Prime Minister Paavo LIPPONEN (since 13 April 1995); Deputy Prime Minister Sauli NIINISTO (since 13 April 1995)
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Council of State (Valtioneuvosto); appointed by the president, responsible to Parliament
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab unicameral
\par \tab {\b Parliament (Eduskunta)}
\par \tab elections last held 19 March 1995 (next to be held March 1999); results - Social Democratic Party 28.3%, Center Party 19.9%, National Coalition (Conservative) Party 17.9%, Leftist Alliance (Communist) 11.2%, Swedish People's Party 5.1%, Green League 6.5%, Ecology Party 0.3%, Rural 1.3%, Finnish Christian League 3.0%, Liberal People's Party 0.6%, Young Finns 2.8%; seats - (200 total) Social Democratic Party 63, Center Party 44, National Coalition (Conservative) Party 39, Leftist Alliance (Communist) 22, Swedish People's Party 11, Green League 9, Ecology Party 1, Rural 1, Finnish Christian League 7, Young Finns 2, Aaland Islands 1
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Supreme Court (Korkein Oikeus)
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab {\b government coalition}
\par \tab Social Democratic Party, Paavo LIPPONEN; National Coalition (conservative) Party, Sauli NIINISTO; Leftist Alliance (Communist) People's Democratic League and Democratic Alternative, Claes ANDERSON; Swedish People's Party, (Johan) Ole NORRBACK; Green League, Pekka HAAVISTO
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab Center Party, Esko AHO; Finnish Christian League, Toimi KANKAANNIEMI; Rural Party, Tina MAKELA; Liberal People's Party, Tuulikki UKKOLA; Greens Ecological Party (EPV); Young Finns
{\b Other political or pressure groups}
\par \tab Finnish Communist Party-Unity, Yrjo HAKANEN; Constitutional Rightist Party; Finnish Pensioners Party; Communist Workers Party, Timo LAHDENMAKI
\par \tab 3301 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [1] (202) 298-5800
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [1] (202) 298-6030
\par \tab {\b consulate(s) general}
\par \tab Los Angeles and New York
{\b US diplomatic representation}
\par \tab {\b chief of mission}
\par \tab Ambassador Derek N. SHEARER
\par \tab {\b embassy}
\par \tab Itainen Puistotie 14A, FIN-00140, Helsinki
\par \tab {\b mailing address}
\par \tab APO AE 09723
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [358] (0) 171931
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [358] (0) 174681
{\b Flag}
\par \tab white with a blue cross that extends to the edges of the flag; the vertical part of the cross is shifted to the hoist side in the style of the DANNEBROG (Danish flag){\b Names}
\par \tab {\b conventional long form}
\par \tab French Republic
\par \tab {\b conventional short form}
\par \tab France
\par \tab {\b local long form}
\par \tab Republique Francaise
\par \tab {\b local short form}
\par \tab France
{\b Digraph}
\par \tab FR
{\b Type}
\par \tab republic
{\b Capital}
\par \tab Paris
{\b Administrative divisions}
\par \tab 22 regions (regions, singular - region); Alsace, Aquitaine, Auvergne, Basse-Normandie, Bourgogne, Bretagne, Centre, Champagne-Ardenne, Corse, Franche-Comte, Haute-Normandie, Ile-de-France, Languedoc-Roussillon, Limousin, Lorraine, Midi-Pyrenees, Nord-Pas-de-Calais, Pays de la Loire, Picardie, Poitou-Charentes, Provence-Alpes-Cote d'Azur, Rhone-Alpes
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab the 22 regions are subdivided into 96 departments; see separate entries for the overseas departments (French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Martinique, Reunion) and the territorial collectivities (Mayotte, Saint Pierre and Miquelon)
{\b Dependent areas}
\par \tab Bassas da India, Clipperton Island, Europa Island, French Polynesia, French Southern and Antarctic Lands, Glorioso Islands, Juan de Nova Island, New Caledonia, Tromelin Island, Wallis and Futuna
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab the US does not recognize claims to Antarctica
{\b Independence}
\par \tab 486 (unified by Clovis)
{\b National holiday}
\par \tab National Day, Taking of the Bastille, 14 July (1789)
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab 28 September 1958, amended concerning election of president in 1962, amended to comply with provisions of EC Maastricht Treaty in 1992; amended to tighten immigration laws 1993
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab civil law system with indigenous concepts; review of administrative but not legislative acts
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 18 years of age; universal
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state}
\par \tab President Jacques CHIRAC (since May 1995)
\par \tab {\b head of government}
\par \tab Prime Minister Alain JUPPE
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Council of Ministers; appointed by the president on the suggestion of the prime minister
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab bicameral Parliament (Parlement)
\par \tab {\b Senate (Senat)}
\par \tab elections last held 27 September 1992 (next to be held September 1995; nine-year term, elected by thirds every three years); results - percent of vote by party NA; seats - (321 total; 296 metropolitan France, 13 for overseas departments and territories, and 12 for French nationals abroad) RPR 91, UDF 142, PS 66, PCF 16, independents 2, other 4
\par \tab {\b National Assembly (Assemblee Nationale)}
\par \tab elections last held 21 and 28 March 1993 (next to be held NA 1998); results - percent of vote by party NA; seats - (577 total) RPR 247, UDF 213, PS 67, PCF 24, independents 26
\par \tab Rally for the Republic (RPR), Alain JUPPE, interim head; Union for French Democracy (UDF, coalition of PR, CDS, RAD, PSD), Valery Giscard d'ESTAING; Republican Party (PR), Gerard LONGUET; Center for Social Democrats (CDS), Francois BAYROU; Radical (RAD), Yves GALLAND; Socialist Party (PS), Henri EMMANUELLI; Left Radical Movement (MRG), Jean-Francois HORY; Communist Party (PCF), Robert HUE; National Front (FN), Jean-Marie LE PEN; The Greens, Antoine WAECHTER, Jean-Louis VIDAL, Guy CAMBOT; Generation Ecology (GE), Brice LALONDE
{\b Other political or pressure groups}
\par \tab Communist-controlled labor union (Confederation Generale du Travail - CGT) nearly 2.4 million members (claimed); Socialist-leaning labor union (Confederation Francaise Democratique du Travail or CFDT) about 800,000 members (est.); independent labor union (Force Ouvriere) 1 million members (est.); independent white-collar union (Confederation Generale des Cadres) 340,000 members (claimed); National Council of French Employers (Conseil National du Patronat Francais - CNPF or Patronat)
\par \tab 4101 Reservoir Road NW, Washington, DC 20007
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [1] (202) 944-6000
\par \tab {\b consulate(s) general}
\par \tab Atlanta, Boston, Chicago, Honolulu, Houston, Los Angeles, Miami, New Orleans, New York, San Francisco, and San Juan (Puerto Rico)
{\b US diplomatic representation}
\par \tab {\b chief of mission}
\par \tab Ambassador Pamela C. HARRIMAN
\par \tab {\b embassy}
\par \tab 2 Avenue Gabriel, 75382 Paris Cedex 08
\par \tab {\b mailing address}
\par \tab Unit 21551, Paris; APO AE 09777
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [33] (1) 42 96 12 02, 42 61 80 75
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [33] (1) 42 66 97 83
\par \tab {\b consulate(s) general}
\par \tab Bordeaux, Marseille, Strasbourg
{\b Flag}
\par \tab three equal vertical bands of blue (hoist side), white, and red; known as the French Tricouleur (Tricolor); the design and colors are similar to a number of other flags, including those of Belgium, Chad, Ireland, Cote d'Ivoire, and Luxembourg; the official flag for all French dependent areas{\b Names}
\par \tab {\b conventional long form}
\par \tab Department of Guiana
\par \tab {\b conventional short form}
\par \tab French Guiana
\par \tab {\b local long form}
\par \tab none
\par \tab {\b local short form}
\par \tab Guyane
{\b Digraph}
\par \tab FG
{\b Type}
\par \tab overseas department of France
{\b Capital}
\par \tab Cayenne
{\b Administrative divisions}
\par \tab none (overseas department of France)
{\b Independence}
\par \tab none (overseas department of France)
{\b National holiday}
\par \tab National Day, Taking of the Bastille, 14 July (1789)
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab 28 September 1958 (French Constitution)
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab French legal system
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 18 years of age; universal
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state}
\par \tab President Francois MITTERRAND (since 21 May 1981)
\par \tab {\b head of government}
\par \tab Prefect Jean-Francois CORDET (since NA 1992); President of the General Council Elie CASTOR (since NA); President of the Regional Council Antoine KARAM (22 March 1993)
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Council of Ministers
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab unicameral General Council and a unicameral Regional Council
\par \tab {\b General Council}
\par \tab elections last held 25 September and 8 October 1988 (next to be held NA); results - percent of vote by party NA; seats - (19 total) PSG 12, URC 7
\par \tab {\b Regional Council}
\par \tab elections last held 22 March 1992 (next to be held NA); results - percent of vote by party NA; seats - (31 total) PSG 16, FDG 10, RPR 2, independents 3
\par \tab {\b French Senate}
\par \tab elections last held 24 September 1989 (next to be held September 1998); results - percent of vote by party NA; seats - (1 total) PSG 1
\par \tab {\b French National Assembly}
\par \tab elections last held 21 and 28 March 1993 (next to be held NA 1998); results - percent of vote by party NA; seats - (2 total) RPR 1, independent 1
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Court of Appeals (highest local court based in Martinique with jurisdiction over Martinique, Guadeloupe, and French Guiana)
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab Guianese Socialist Party (PSG), Elie CASTRO; Conservative Union for the Republic (UPR), Leon BERTRAND; Rally for the Center Right (URC); Rally for the Republic (RPR); Guyana Democratic Front (FDG), Georges OTHILY; Walwari Committee, Christine TAUBIRA-DELANON
{\b Member of}
\par \tab FZ, WCL, WFTU
{\b Diplomatic representation in US}
\par \tab none (overseas department of France)
{\b US diplomatic representation}
\par \tab none (overseas department of France)
{\b Flag}
\par \tab the flag of France is used{\b Names}
\par \tab {\b conventional long form}
\par \tab Territory of French Polynesia
\par \tab {\b conventional short form}
\par \tab French Polynesia
\par \tab {\b local long form}
\par \tab Territoire de la Polynesie Francaise
\par \tab {\b local short form}
\par \tab Polynesie Francaise
{\b Digraph}
\par \tab FP
{\b Type}
\par \tab overseas territory of France since 1946
{\b Capital}
\par \tab Papeete
{\b Administrative divisions}
\par \tab none (overseas territory of France); there are no first-order administrative divisions as defined by the US Government, but there are 5 archipelagic divisions named Archipel des Marquises, Archipel des Tuamotu, Archipel des Tubuai, Iles du Vent, and Iles Sous-le-Vent
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab Clipperton Island is administered by France from French Polynesia
{\b Independence}
\par \tab none (overseas territory of France)
{\b National holiday}
\par \tab National Day, Taking of the Bastille, 14 July (1789)
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab 28 September 1958 (French Constitution)
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab based on French system
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 18 years of age; universal
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state}
\par \tab President Francois MITTERRAND (since 21 May 1981); High Commissioner of the Republic Paul RONCIERE (since 8 August 1994)
\par \tab {\b head of government}
\par \tab President of the Territorial Government of French Polynesia Gaston FLOSSE (since 10 May 1991); Deputy to the French Assembly and President of the Territorial Assembly Jean JUVENTIN (since NA November 1992); Territorial Vice President and Minister of Health Michel BUILLARD (since 12 September 1991)
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Council of Ministers; president submits a list of members of the Assembly for approval by them to serve as ministers
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab unicameral
\par \tab {\b Territorial Assembly}
\par \tab elections last held 17 March 1991 (next to be held March 1996); results - percent of vote by party NA; seats - (41 total) People's Rally for the Republic (Gaullist) 18, Polynesian Union Party 12, New Fatherland Party 7, other 4
\par \tab {\b French Senate}
\par \tab elections last held 24 September 1989 (next to be held September 1998); results - percent of vote by party NA; seats - (1 total) party NA
\par \tab {\b French National Assembly}
\par \tab elections last held 21 and 28 March 1993 (next to be held NA March 1998); results - percent of vote by party NA; seats - (2 total) People's Rally for the Republic (Gaullist) 2
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Court of Appeal, Court of the First Instance, Court of Administrative Law
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab People's Rally for the Republic (Tahoeraa Huiraatira), Gaston FLOSSE; Polynesian Union Party (includes Te Tiarama), Alexandre LEONTIEFF; Here Ai'a Party, Jean JUVENTIN; New Fatherland Party (Ai'a Api), Emile VERNAUDON; Polynesian Liberation Front (Tavini Hviraatira No Te Ao Maohi), Oscar TEMARU; Independent Party (Ia Mana Te Nunaa), Jacques DROLLET; other small parties
\par \tab Renovation Day, 12 March (1968) (Gabonese Democratic Party established)
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab adopted 14 March 1991
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab based on French civil law system and customary law; judicial review of legislative acts in Constitutional Chamber of the Supreme Court; compulsory ICJ jurisdiction not accepted
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 21 years of age; universal
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state}
\par \tab President El Hadj Omar BONGO (since 2 December 1967); election last held on 5 December 1993 (next to be held 1998); results - President Omar BONGO was reelected with 51% of the vote
\par \tab {\b head of government}
\par \tab Prime Minister Paulin OBAME Nguema (since 9 December 1994)
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Council of Ministers; appointed by the prime minister in consultation with the president
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab unicameral
\par \tab {\b National Assembly (Assemblee Nationale)}
\par \tab elections last held on 5 December 1993 (next to be held by 1998); results - percent of vote by party NA; seats - (120 total) PDG 62, Morena-Bucherons/RNB 19, PGP 18, National Recovery Movement (Morena-Original) 7, APSG 6, USG 4, CRP 1, independents 3
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Supreme Court (Cour Supreme)
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab Gabonese Democratic Party (PDG, former sole party), Jaques ADIAHENOT, Secretary General; National Recovery Movement - Lumberjacks (Morena-Bucherons/RNB), Fr. Paul M'BA-ABESSOLE, leader; Gabonese Party for Progress (PGP), Pierre-Louis AGONDHO-OKAWE, President; National Recovery Movement (Morena-Original), Pierre ZONGUE-NGUEMA, Chairman; Association for Socialism in Gabon (APSG), leader NA; Gabonese Socialist Union (USG), leader NA; Circle for Renewal and Progress (CRP), leader NA; Union for Democracy and Development (UDD), leader NA; Rally of Democrats (RD), leader NA; Forces of Change for Democratic Union, leader NA
\par \tab three equal horizontal bands of green (top), yellow, and blue{\b Names}
\par \tab {\b conventional long form}
\par \tab Republic of The Gambia
\par \tab {\b conventional short form}
\par \tab The Gambia
{\b Digraph}
\par \tab GA
{\b Type}
\par \tab republic under multiparty democratic rule
{\b Capital}
\par \tab Banjul
{\b Administrative divisions}
\par \tab 5 divisions and 1 city*; Banjul*, Lower River, MacCarthy Island, North Bank, Upper River, Western
{\b Independence}
\par \tab 18 February 1965 (from UK; The Gambia and Senegal signed an agreement on 12 December 1981 that called for the creation of a loose confederation to be known as Senegambia, but the agreement was dissolved on 30 September 1989)
{\b National holiday}
\par \tab Independence Day, 18 February (1965)
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab 24 April 1970
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab based on a composite of English common law, Koranic law, and customary law; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction, with reservations
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 21 years of age; universal
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state and head of government}
\par \tab Chairman of the Armed Forces Provisional Ruling Council Capt. Yahya A. J. J. JAMMEH (since the military coup of 22 July 1994); Vice Chairman of the Armed Forces Provisional Ruling Council Capt. Edward SINGHATEH (since March 1995); election last held on 29 April 1992; results - Sir Dawda JAWARA (PPP) 58.5%, Sherif Mustapha DIBBA (NCP) 22.2%, Assan Musa CAMARA (GPP) 8.0% (prior to the 22 July 1994 coup, next election was scheduled for April 1997)
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Cabinet; appointed by the president from members of the House of Representatives (present cabinet appointed by Chairman of the Armed Forces Provisional Ruling Council)
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab unicameral
\par \tab {\b House of Representatives}
\par \tab elections last held on 29 April 1992 (next to be held April 1997); results - PPP 58.1%; seats - (43 total, 36 elected) PPP 30, NCP 6
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Supreme Court
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab People's Progressive Party (PPP), Dawda K. JAWARA (in exile), secretary general; National Convention Party (NCP), Sheriff DIBBA (in exile); Gambian People's Party (GPP), Hassan Musa CAMARA; United Party (UP), leader NA; People's Democratic Organization of Independence and Socialism (PDOIS), leader NA; People's Democratic Party (PDP), Jabel SALLAH
\par \tab Suite 1000, 1155 15th Street NW, Washington, DC 20005
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [1] (202) 785-1399, 1379, 1425
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [1] (202) 785-1430
{\b US diplomatic representation}
\par \tab {\b chief of mission}
\par \tab Ambassador Andrew J. WINTER
\par \tab {\b embassy}
\par \tab Fajara, Kairaba Avenue, Banjul
\par \tab {\b mailing address}
\par \tab P. M. B. No. 19, Banjul
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [220] 392856, 392858, 391970, 391971
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [220] 392475
{\b Flag}
\par \tab three equal horizontal bands of red (top), blue with white edges, and green{\b Note}
\par \tab Under the Israeli-PLO Declaration of Principles on Interim Self-Government Arrangements ("the DOP"), Israel agreed to transfer certain powers and responsibilities to the Palestinian Authority, and subsequently to an elected Palestinian Council, as part of interim self-governing arrangements in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. A transfer of powers and responsibilities for the Gaza Strip and Jericho has taken place pursuant to the Israel-PLO 4 May 1994 Cairo Agreement on the Gaza Strip and the Jericho Area. The DOP provides that Israel will retain responsibility during the transitional period for external security and for internal security and public order of settlements and Israelis. Final status is to be determined through direct negotiations within five years.
\par \tab the administrative centers of the autonomous republics are included in parentheses; there are no oblasts - the rayons around T'bilisi are under direct republic jurisdiction
{\b Independence}
\par \tab 9 April 1991 (from Soviet Union)
{\b National holiday}
\par \tab Independence Day, 26 May (1991)
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab adopted 21 February 1921; currently amending constitution for Parliamentary and popular review by late 1995
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab based on civil law system
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 18 years of age; universal
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state}
\par \tab Chairman of Parliament Eduard Amvrosiyevich SHEVARDNADZE (Chairman of the Government Council since 10 March 1992; elected Chairman of Parliament in 11 October 1992; note - the Government Council has since been disbanded); election last held 11 October 1992 (next to be held October 1995); results - Eduard SHEVARDNADZE 95%
\par \tab {\b head of government}
\par \tab Prime Minister Otar PATSATSIA (since September 1993); Deputy Prime Ministers Avtandil MARGIANI, Zurab KERVALISHVILI (since 25 November 1992), Tamaz NADAREISHVILI (since September 1993), Temur BASILIA (since 17 March 1994), Bakur GULA (since NA)
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Council of Ministers
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab unicameral
\par \tab {\b Georgian Parliament (Supreme Soviet)}
\par \tab elections last held 11 October 1992 (next to be held October 1995); results - percent of vote by party NA; seats - (225 total) number of seats by party NA
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Supreme Court
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab Citizens Union (CU), Eduard SHEVARDNADZE, Zurab SHVANIA, general secretary; National Democratic Party (NDP), Georgi (Gia) CHANTURIA, Ivane GIORGADZE; United Republican Party, umbrella organization for parties including the GPF and the Charter 1991 Party, cochairmen Bakhtand DZABIRADZE, Notar NATADZE, and Theodor PAATASHVILI; Georgian Popular Front (GPF), Nodar NATADZE, chairman; Charter 1991 Party, Thedor PAATASHVILI; Georgian Social Democratic Party (GSDP), Guram MUCHAIDZE, secretary general; National Reconstruction and Rebirth of Georgia Union, Valerian ADVADZE; Christian Democratic Union (CDU), Irakli SHENGELAYA; Democratic Georgia Union (DGU), El'dar SHENGELAYA; National Independence Party (NIP), Irakliy TSERETELI, chairman; Georgian Monarchists' Party (GMP), Temur ZHORZHOLIANI; Green Party, Zurab ZHVANIA; Republican Party (RP), Ivliane KHAINDRAVA; Workers' Union of Georgia (WUG), Vakhtang GABUNIA; Agrarian Party of Georgia (APG), Roin LIPARTELIANI; Choice Society (Archevani), Jaba IOSELIANI, chairman; Georgian Workers Communist Party, Panteleimon GIORGADZE, chairman; National Liberation Front, Tengiz SIGULA, chairman
{\b Other political or pressure groups}
\par \tab supporters of ousted President Zviad GAMSAKHURDIA (deceased 1 January 1994) boycotted the October elections and remain a source of opposition
\par \tab (temporary) Suite 424, 1511 K Street NW, Washington, DC 20005
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [1] (202) 393-6060, 5959
{\b US diplomatic representation}
\par \tab {\b chief of mission}
\par \tab Ambassador Kent N. BROWN
\par \tab {\b embassy}
\par \tab #25 Antoneli Street, T'bilisi 380026
\par \tab {\b mailing address}
\par \tab use embassy street address
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [7] (8832) 98-99-67, 93-38-03
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [7] (8832) 93-37-59
{\b Flag}
\par \tab maroon field with small rectangle in upper hoist side corner; rectangle divided horizontally with black on top, white below{\b Names}
\par \tab {\b conventional long form}
\par \tab Federal Republic of Germany
\par \tab {\b conventional short form}
\par \tab Germany
\par \tab {\b local long form}
\par \tab Bundesrepublik Deutschland
\par \tab {\b local short form}
\par \tab Deutschland
{\b Digraph}
\par \tab GM
{\b Type}
\par \tab federal republic
{\b Capital}
\par \tab Berlin
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab the shift from Bonn to Berlin will take place over a period of years with Bonn retaining many administrative functions and several ministries
\par \tab 18 January 1871 (German Empire unification); divided into four zones of occupation (UK, US, USSR, and later, France) in 1945 following World War II; Federal Republic of Germany (FRG or West Germany) proclaimed 23 May 1949 and included the former UK, US, and French zones; German Democratic Republic (GDR or East Germany) proclaimed 7 October 1949 and included the former USSR zone; unification of West Germany and East Germany took place 3 October 1990; all four power rights formally relinquished 15 March 1991
{\b National holiday}
\par \tab German Unity Day (Day of Unity), 3 October (1990)
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab 23 May 1949, known as Basic Law; became constitution of the united German people 3 October 1990
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab civil law system with indigenous concepts; judicial review of legislative acts in the Federal Constitutional Court; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 18 years of age; universal
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state}
\par \tab President Roman HERZOG (since 1 July 1994)
\par \tab {\b head of government}
\par \tab Chancellor Dr. Helmut KOHL (since 4 October 1982)
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Cabinet; appointed by the president upon the proposal of the chancellor
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab bicameral chamber (no official name for the two chambers as a whole)
\par \tab {\b Federal Assembly (Bundestag)}
\par \tab last held 16 October 1994 (next to be held by NA 1998); results - CDU 34.2%, SPD 36.4%, Alliance 90/Greens 7.3%, CSU 7.3%, FDP 6.9%, PDS 4.4%, Republicans 1.9% ; seats - (662 total, but number can vary) CDU 244, SPD 252, Alliance 90/Greens 49, CSU 50, FDP 47, PDS 30; elected by direct popular vote under a system combining direct and proportional representation; a party must win 5% of the national vote or 3 direct mandates to gain representation
\par \tab {\b Federal Council (Bundesrat)}
\par \tab State governments are directly represented by votes; each has 3 to 6 votes depending on size and are required to vote as a block; current composition: votes - (68 total) SPD-led states 37, CDU-led states 31
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Federal Constitutional Court (Bundesverfassungsgericht)
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab Christian Democratic Union (CDU), Helmut KOHL, chairman; Christian Social Union (CSU), Theo WAIGEL, chairman; Free Democratic Party (FDP), Klaus KINKEL, chairman; Social Democratic Party (SPD), Rudolf SCHARPING, chairman; Alliance '90/Greens, Krista SAGER, Juergen TRITTIN, cochairpersons; Party of Democratic Socialism (PDS), Lothar BISKY, chairman; Republikaner, Rolf SCHLIERER, chairman; National Democratic Party (NPD), Guenter DECKERT; Communist Party (DKP), Rolf PRIEMER
\par \tab based on English common law and customary law; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 18 years of age; universal
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state and head of government}
\par \tab President Jerry John RAWLINGS (since 3 November 1992) election last held 3 November 1992 (next to be held November 1996); results - opposition boycotted the election, the National Democratic Congress won 198 of the total 200 seats and 2 seats were won by independents
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Cabinet; president nominates members subject to approval by the Parliament
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab unicameral
\par \tab {\b National Assembly}
\par \tab elections last held 29 December 1992 (next to be held December 1996); results - opposition boycotted the election; the National Democratic Congress won 198 0f 200 total seats and independents won 2
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Supreme Court
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab National Democratic Congress, Jerry John RAWLINGS; New Patriotic Party, Albert Adu BOAHEN; People's Heritage Party, Alex ERSKINE; various other smaller parties
\par \tab three equal horizontal bands of red (top), yellow, and green with a large black five-pointed star centered in the gold band; uses the popular pan-African colors of Ethiopia; similar to the flag of Bolivia, which has a coat of arms centered in the yellow band{\b Names}
\par \tab {\b conventional long form}
\par \tab none
\par \tab {\b conventional short form}
\par \tab Gibraltar
{\b Digraph}
\par \tab GI
{\b Type}
\par \tab dependent territory of the UK
{\b Capital}
\par \tab Gilbraltar
{\b Administrative divisions}
\par \tab none (dependent territory of the UK)
{\b Independence}
\par \tab none (dependent territory of the UK)
{\b National holiday}
\par \tab Commonwealth Day (second Monday of March)
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab 30 May 1969
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab English law
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 18 years of age; universal, plus other UK subjects resident six months or more
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state}
\par \tab Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952), represented by Governor and Commander in Chief Gen. Sir John CHAPPLE (since NA March 1993)
\par \tab {\b head of government}
\par \tab Chief Minister Joe BOSSANO (since 25 March 1988)
\par \tab {\b Gibraltar Council}
\par \tab advises the governor
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Council of Ministers; appointed from the elected members of the Assembly by the governor in consultation with the chief minister
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab unicameral
\par \tab {\b House of Assembly}
\par \tab elections last held on 16 January 1992 (next to be held January 1996); results - SL 73.3%; seats - (18 total, 15 elected) number of seats by party NA
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Supreme Court, Court of Appeal
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab Gibraltar Socialist Labor Party (SL), Joe BOSSANO; Gibraltar Labor Party/Association for the Advancement of Civil Rights (GCL/AACR), leader NA; Gibraltar Social Democrats, Peter CARUANA; Gibraltar National Party, Joe GARCIA
{\b Other political or pressure groups}
\par \tab Housewives Association; Chamber of Commerce; Gibraltar Representatives Organization
{\b Member of}
\par \tab INTERPOL (subbureau)
{\b Diplomatic representation in US}
\par \tab none (dependent territory of the UK)
{\b US diplomatic representation}
\par \tab none (dependent territory of the UK)
{\b Flag}
\par \tab two horizontal bands of white (top, double width) and red with a three-towered red castle in the center of the white band; hanging from the castle gate is a gold key centered in the red band{\b Names}
\par \tab {\b conventional long form}
\par \tab Hellenic Republic
\par \tab {\b conventional short form}
\par \tab Greece
\par \tab {\b local long form}
\par \tab Elliniki Dhimokratia
\par \tab {\b local short form}
\par \tab Ellas
\par \tab {\b former}
\par \tab Kingdom of Greece
{\b Digraph}
\par \tab GR
{\b Type}
\par \tab presidential parliamentary government; monarchy rejected by referendum 8 December 1974
\par \tab Independence Day, 25 March (1821) (proclamation of the war of independence)
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab 11 June 1975
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab based on codified Roman law; judiciary divided into civil, criminal, and administrative courts
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 18 years of age; universal and compulsory
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state}
\par \tab President Konstantinos (Kostis) STEPHANOPOULOS (since 10 March 1995) election last held 10 March 1995 (next to be held by NA 2000); results - Konstantinos STEPHANOPOULOS was elected by Parliament
\par \tab {\b head of government}
\par \tab Prime Minister Andreas PAPANDREOU (since 10 October 1993)
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Cabinet; appointed by the president on recommendation of the prime minister
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab unicameral
\par \tab {\b Chamber of Deputies (Vouli ton Ellinon)}
\par \tab elections last held 10 October 1993 (next to be held by NA October 1997); results - PASOK 46.88%, ND 39.30%, Political Spring 4.87%, KKE 4.54%, and Progressive Left (replaced by Coalition of the Left and Progress) 2.94%; seats - (300 total) PASOK 170, ND 111, Political Spring 10, KKE 9
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Supreme Judicial Court, Special Supreme Tribunal
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab New Democracy (ND; conservative), Miltiades EVERT; Panhellenic Socialist Movement (PASOK), Andreas PAPANDREOU; Communist Party (KKE), Aleka PAPARIGA; Ecologist-Alternative List, leader rotates; Political Spring, Antonis SAMARAS; Coalition of the Left and Progress (Synaspismos), Nikolaos KONSTANTOPOULOS
\par \tab nine equal horizontal stripes of blue alternating with white; there is a blue square in the upper hoist-side corner bearing a white cross; the cross symbolizes Greek Orthodoxy, the established religion of the country{\b Names}
\par \tab {\b conventional long form}
\par \tab none
\par \tab {\b conventional short form}
\par \tab Greenland
\par \tab {\b local long form}
\par \tab none
\par \tab {\b local short form}
\par \tab Kalaallit Nunaat
{\b Digraph}
\par \tab GL
{\b Type}
\par \tab part of the Danish realm; self-governing overseas administrative division
\par \tab none (part of the Danish realm; self-governing overseas administrative division)
{\b National holiday}
\par \tab Birthday of the Queen, 16 April (1940)
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab 5 June 1953 (Danish constitution)
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab Danish
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 18 years of age; universal
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state}
\par \tab Queen MARGRETHE II (since 14 January 1972), represented by High Commissioner Steen SPORE (since NA 1993)
\par \tab {\b head of government}
\par \tab Home Rule Chairman Lars Emil JOHANSEN (since 15 March 1991)
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Landsstyre; formed from the Landsting on basis of strength of parties
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab unicameral
\par \tab {\b Parliament (Landsting)}
\par \tab elections last held on 4 March 1995 (next to be held 5 March 1999); results - Siumut 38.5%, Inuit Ataqatigiit 20.3%, Atassut Party 29.7%; seats - (31 total) Siumut 12, Atassut Party 10, Inuit Ataqatigiit 6, conservative splinter grouping 2, independent 1
\par \tab {\b Danish Folketing}
\par \tab last held on 21 September 1994 (next to be held by September 1998); Greenland elects two representatives to the Folketing; results - percent of vote by party NA; seats - (2 total) Liberals 1, Social Democrats 1; note - Greenlandic representatives are affiliated with Danish political parties
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab High Court (Landsret)
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab two-party ruling coalition; Siumut (Forward Party, a moderate socialist party that advocates more distinct Greenlandic identity and greater autonomy from Denmark), Lars Emil JOHANSEN, chairman; Inuit Ataqatigiit (IA) (Eskimo Brotherhood, a Marxist-Leninist party that favors complete independence from Denmark rather than home rule), Josef MOTZFELDT; Atassut Party (Solidarity, a more conservative party that favors continuing close relations with Denmark), Daniel SKIFTE; AKULLIIT, Bjarne KREUTZMANN; Issituup (Polar Party), Nicolai HEINRICH
{\b Diplomatic representation in US}
\par \tab none (self-governing overseas administrative division of Denmark)
{\b US diplomatic representation}
\par \tab none (self-governing overseas administrative division of Denmark)
{\b Flag}
\par \tab two equal horizontal bands of white (top) and red with a large disk slightly to the hoist side of center - the top half of the disk is red, the bottom half is white{\b Names}
\par \tab {\b conventional long form}
\par \tab none
\par \tab {\b conventional short form}
\par \tab Grenada
{\b Digraph}
\par \tab GJ
{\b Type}
\par \tab parliamentary democracy
{\b Capital}
\par \tab Saint George's
{\b Administrative divisions}
\par \tab 6 parishes and 1 dependency*; Carriacou and Petit Martinique*, Saint Andrew, Saint David, Saint George, Saint John, Saint Mark, Saint Patrick
{\b Independence}
\par \tab 7 February 1974 (from UK)
{\b National holiday}
\par \tab Independence Day, 7 February (1974)
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab 19 December 1973
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab based on English common law
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 18 years of age; universal
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state}
\par \tab Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952), represented by Governor General Reginald Oswald PALMER (since 6 August 1992)
\par \tab {\b head of government}
\par \tab Prime Minister Keith MITCHELL
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Cabinet; appointed by the governor general on advice of the prime minister
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab bicameral Parliament
\par \tab {\b Senate}
\par \tab consists of a 13-member body, 10 appointed by the government and 3 by the Leader of the Opposition
\par \tab {\b House of Representatives}
\par \tab elections last held on 13 March 1990 (next to be held by NA July 1995); results - percent of vote by party NA; seats - (15 total) NDC 7, GULP 4, TNP 2, NNP 2
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Supreme Court
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab National Democratic Congress (NDC), George BRIZAN; Grenada United Labor Party (GULP), Sir Eric GAIRY; The National Party (TNP), Ben JONES; New National Party (NNP), Keith MITCHELL; Maurice Bishop Patriotic Movement (MBPM), Terrence MARRYSHOW
\par \tab 1701 New Hampshire Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20009
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [1] (202) 265-2561
{\b US diplomatic representation}
\par \tab {\b chief of mission}
\par \tab (vacant); Charge d'Affaires Ollie P. ANDERSON, Jr.
\par \tab {\b embassy}
\par \tab Point Salines, Saint George's
\par \tab {\b mailing address}
\par \tab P. O. Box 54, Saint George's, Grenada, W.I.
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [1] (809) 444-1173 through 1178
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [1] (809) 444-4820
{\b Flag}
\par \tab a rectangle divided diagonally into yellow triangles (top and bottom) and green triangles (hoist side and outer side) with a red border around the flag; there are seven yellow five-pointed stars with three centered in the top red border, three centered in the bottom red border, and one on a red disk superimposed at the center of the flag; there is also a symbolic nutmeg pod on the hoist-side triangle (Grenada is the world's second-largest producer of nutmeg, after Indonesia); the seven stars represent the seven administrative divisions{\b Names}
\par \tab {\b conventional long form}
\par \tab Department of Guadeloupe
\par \tab {\b conventional short form}
\par \tab Guadeloupe
\par \tab {\b local long form}
\par \tab Departement de la Guadeloupe
\par \tab {\b local short form}
\par \tab Guadeloupe
{\b Digraph}
\par \tab GP
{\b Type}
\par \tab overseas department of France
{\b Capital}
\par \tab Basse-Terre
{\b Administrative divisions}
\par \tab none (overseas department of France)
{\b Independence}
\par \tab none (overseas department of France)
{\b National holiday}
\par \tab National Day, Taking of the Bastille, 14 July (1789)
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab 28 September 1958 (French Constitution)
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab French legal system
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 18 years of age; universal
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state}
\par \tab President Francois MITTERRAND (since 21 May 1981)
\par \tab {\b head of government}
\par \tab Prefect Franck PERRIEZ (since NA 1992); President of the General Council Dominique LARIFLA (since NA); President of the Regional Council Lucette MICHAUX-CHEVRY (since 22 March 1992)
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Council of Ministers
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab unicameral General Council and unicameral Regional Council
\par \tab {\b General Council}
\par \tab elections last held NA March 1992 (next to be held by NA 1996); results - percent of vote by party NA; seats - (43 total) FRUI.G 13, RPR/DUD 13, PPDG 8, FGPS 3, PCG 3, UPLG 1, PSG 1, independent 1
\par \tab {\b Regional Council}
\par \tab elections last held on 31 January 1993 (next to be held by 16 March 1998); results - RPR/DUD 48.30%, FGPS 17.09%, FRUI.G 7.44%, PPDG 8.90%, UPLG 7.75% PCG 6.05%; seats - (41 total) seats by party NA
\par \tab {\b French Senate}
\par \tab elections last held in September 1986 (next to be held September 1995); Guadeloupe elects two representatives; results - percent of vote by party NA; seats - (2 total) PCG 1, FGPS 1
\par \tab {\b French National Assembly}
\par \tab elections last held on 21 and 28 March 1993 (next to be held March 1998); Guadeloupe elects four representatives; results - percent of vote by party NA; seats - (4 total) FGPS 1, RPR 1, PPDG 1, independent 1
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Court of Appeal (Cour d'Appel) with jurisdiction over Guadeloupe, French Guiana, and Martinique
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab Rally for the Republic (RPR), Aldo BLAISE; Communist Party of Guadeloupe (PCG), Christian Medard CELESTE; Socialist Party (FGPS), Georges LOUISOR; Popular Union for the Liberation of Guadeloupe (UPLG), Lucien PERATIN; FGPS Dissidents (FRUI.G); Union for French Democracy (UDF), Simon BARLAGNE; Progressive Democratic Party (PPDG), Henri BANGOU
{\b Other political or pressure groups}
\par \tab Popular Union for the Liberation of Guadeloupe (UPLG); Movement for Independent Guadeloupe (MPGI); General Union of Guadeloupe Workers (UGTG); General Federation of Guadeloupe Workers (CGT-G); Christian Movement for the Liberation of Guadeloupe (KLPG)
{\b Member of}
\par \tab FZ, WCL, WFTU
{\b Diplomatic representation in US}
\par \tab none (overseas department of France)
{\b US diplomatic representation}
\par \tab none (overseas department of France)
{\b Flag}
\par \tab the flag of France is used{\b Names}
\par \tab {\b conventional long form}
\par \tab Territory of Guam
\par \tab {\b conventional short form}
\par \tab Guam
{\b Digraph}
\par \tab GQ
{\b Type}
\par \tab organized, unincorporated territory of the US with policy relations between Guam and the US under the jurisdiction of the Office of Territorial and International Affairs, US Department of the Interior
{\b Capital}
\par \tab Agana
{\b Administrative divisions}
\par \tab none (territory of the US)
{\b Independence}
\par \tab none (territory of the US)
{\b National holiday}
\par \tab Guam Discovery Day (first Monday in March) (1521); Liberation Day, 21 July
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab Organic Act of 1 August 1950
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab modeled on US; federal laws apply
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 18 years of age; universal; US citizens, but do not vote in US presidential elections
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state}
\par \tab President William Jefferson CLINTON (since 20 January 1993); Vice President Albert GORE, Jr. (since 20 January 1993)
\par \tab {\b head of government}
\par \tab Governor Carl GUTIERREZ (since 8 November 1994); Lieutenant Governor Madeleine BORDALLO (since 8 November 1994); election last held 8 November 1994 (next to be held NA November 1998); results - Carl GUTIERREZ (Democrat) was elected Governor and Madeleine BORDALLO (Democrat) was elected Lieutenant Governor
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab executive departments; heads appointed by the governor with the consent of the Guam legislature
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab unicameral
\par \tab {\b Legislature}
\par \tab elections last held 8 November 1994 (next to be held NA November 1996); results - percent of vote by party NA; seats - (21 total) Democrats 14, Republican 7
\par \tab {\b US House of Representatives}
\par \tab elections last held 8 November 1994 (next to be held NA November 1996); Guam elects one delegate; results - Robert UNDERWOOD was reelected as delegate; seats - (1 total) Democrat 1
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Federal District Court, Territorial Superior Court
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab Democratic Party (controls the legislature); Republican Party (party of the Governor)
\par \tab territorial flag is dark blue with a narrow red border on all four sides; centered is a red-bordered, pointed, vertical ellipse containing a beach scene, outrigger canoe with sail, and a palm tree with the word GUAM superimposed in bold red letters; US flag is the national flag{\b Names}
\par \tab {\b conventional long form}
\par \tab Republic of Guatemala
\par \tab {\b conventional short form}
\par \tab Guatemala
\par \tab {\b local long form}
\par \tab Republica de Guatemala
\par \tab {\b local short form}
\par \tab Guatemala
{\b Digraph}
\par \tab GT
{\b Type}
\par \tab republic
{\b Capital}
\par \tab Guatemala
{\b Administrative divisions}
\par \tab 22 departments (departamentos, singular - departamento); Alta Verapaz, Baja Verapaz, Chimaltenango, Chiquimula, El Progreso, Escuintla, Guatemala, Huehuetenango, Izabal, Jalapa, Jutiapa, Peten, Quetzaltenango, Quiche, Retalhuleu, Sacatepequez, San Marcos, Santa Rosa, Solola, Suchitepequez, Totonicapan, Zacapa
{\b Independence}
\par \tab 15 September 1821 (from Spain)
{\b National holiday}
\par \tab Independence Day, 15 September (1821)
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab 31 May 1985, effective 14 January 1986
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab suspended 25 May 1993 by President SERRANO; reinstated 5 June 1993 following ouster of president
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab civil law system; judicial review of legislative acts; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 18 years of age; universal
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state and head of government}
\par \tab President Ramiro DE LEON Carpio (since 6 June 1993); Vice President Arturo HERBRUGER (since 18 June 1993); election runoff held on 11 January 1991 (next to be held November 1995); results - Jorge SERRANO Elias (MAS) 68.1%, Jorge CARPIO Nicolle (UCN) 31.9%
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab President SERRANO resigned on 1 June 1993 shortly after dissolving Congress and the judiciary; on 6 June 1993, Ramiro DE LEON Carpio was chosen as the new president by a vote of Congress; he will finish off the remainder of SERRANO's term which expires 14 January 1996
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Council of Ministers; named by the president
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab unicameral
\par \tab {\b Congress of the Republic (Congreso de la Republica)}
\par \tab by agreement of 11 November 1993, a special election was held on 14 August 1994 to select 80 new congressmen (next election to be held in November 1995 for full four year terms); results - percent of vote by party; FRG 40%, PAN 31.25%, DCG 15%, UCN 10%, MLN 2.5%, UD 1.25%; seats - (80 total) FRG 32, PAN 25, DCG 12, UCN 8, MLN 2, UD 1
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab on 11 November 1993 the congress approved a procedure that would reduce its membership from 116 seats to 80; the procedure provided for a special election in mid-1994 to elect an interim congress of 80 members to serve until replaced in a general election in November 1995; the plan was approved in a general referendum in January 1994 and the special election was held on 14 August 1994
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Supreme Court of Justice (Corte Suprema de Justicia); additionally the Court of Constitutionality is presided over by the President of the Supreme Court
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab National Centrist Union (UCN), (vacant); Solidarity Action Movement (MAS), Oliverio GARCIA Rodas; Christian Democratic Party (DCG), Alfonso CABRERA Hidalgo; National Advancement Party (PAN), Alvaro ARZU Irigoyen; National Liberation Movement (MLN), Mario SANDOVAL Alarcon; Social Democratic Party (PSD), Mario SOLORZANO Martinez; Revolutionary Party (PR), Carlos CHAVARRIA Perez; Guatemalan Republican Front (FRG), Efrain RIOS Montt; Democratic Union (UD)
{\b Other political or pressure groups}
\par \tab Coordinating Committee of Agricultural, Commercial, Industrial, and Financial Associations (CACIF); Mutual Support Group (GAM); Agrarian Owners Group (UNAGRO); Committee for Campesino Unity (CUC); leftist guerrilla movement known as Guatemalan National Revolutionary Union (URNG) has four main factions - Guerrilla army of the Poor (EGP); Revolutionary Organization of the People in Arms (ORPA); Rebel Armed Forces (FAR); Guatemalan Labor Party (PGT/O)
\par \tab Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, Miami, New York, and San Francisco
{\b US diplomatic representation}
\par \tab {\b chief of mission}
\par \tab Ambassador Marilyn McAFEE
\par \tab {\b embassy}
\par \tab 7-01 Avenida de la Reforma, Zone 10, Guatemala City
\par \tab {\b mailing address}
\par \tab APO AA 34024
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [502] (2) 311541
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [502] (2) 318885
{\b Flag}
\par \tab three equal vertical bands of light blue (hoist side), white, and light blue with the coat of arms centered in the white band; the coat of arms includes a green and red quetzal (the national bird) and a scroll bearing the inscription LIBERTAD 15 DE SEPTIEMBRE DE 1821 (the original date of independence from Spain) all superimposed on a pair of crossed rifles and a pair of crossed swords and framed by a wreath{\b Names}
\par \tab Anniversary of the Second Republic, 3 April (1984)
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab 23 December 1990 (Loi Fundamentale)
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab based on French civil law system, customary law, and decree; legal codes currently being revised; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 18 years of age; universal
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state and head of government}
\par \tab President Lansana CONTE, elected in the first multi-party election 19 December 1993; prior to the election he had ruled as head of military government since 5 April 1984
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Council of Ministers; appointed by the president
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab unicameral
\par \tab {\b People's National Assembly (Assemblee Nationale Populaire)}
\par \tab the People's National Assembly was dissolved after the 3 April 1984 coup; framework established in December 1991 for a new National Assembly with 114 seats; legislative elections, tentatively scheduled for 1994, were not held and are now rescheduled for 11 June 1995
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Court of Appeal (Cour d'Appel)
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab political parties were legalized on 1 April 1992
\par \tab {\b pro-government}
\par \tab Party for Unity and Progress (PUP)
\par \tab {\b other}
\par \tab Rally for the Guinean People (RPG), Alpha CONDE; Union for a New Republic (UNR), Mamadou BAH; Party for Renewal and Progress (PRP), Siradiou DIALLO; Movement of Patriotic Democrats (MDP), Ahmed Tidiane CISSE
\par \tab 2112 Leroy Place NW, Washington, DC 20008
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [1] (202) 483-9420
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [1] (202) 483-8688
{\b US diplomatic representation}
\par \tab {\b chief of mission}
\par \tab Ambassador Joseph A. SALOOM III
\par \tab {\b embassy}
\par \tab 2nd Boulevard and 9th Avenue, Conakry
\par \tab {\b mailing address}
\par \tab B. P. 603, Conakry
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [224] 44 15 20 through 44 15 23
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [224] 44 15 22
{\b Flag}
\par \tab three equal vertical bands of red (hoist side), yellow, and green; uses the popular pan-African colors of Ethiopia; similar to the flag of Rwanda, which has a large black letter R centered in the yellow band{\b Names}
\par \tab {\b conventional long form}
\par \tab Republic of Guinea-Bissau
\par \tab {\b conventional short form}
\par \tab Guinea-Bissau
\par \tab {\b local long form}
\par \tab Republica de Guine-Bissau
\par \tab {\b local short form}
\par \tab Guine-Bissau
\par \tab {\b former}
\par \tab Portuguese Guinea
{\b Digraph}
\par \tab PU
{\b Type}
\par \tab republic, formerly highly centralized, multiparty since mid-1991
\par \tab 16 May 1984, amended 4 May 1991 (currently undergoing revision to liberalize popular participation in the government)
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab NA
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 15 years of age; universal
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state}
\par \tab President of the Republic of Guinea-Bissau Joao Bernardo VIEIRA (assumed power 14 November 1980); election last held August 1994 (next to be held 1999); results - Joao Bernardo VIEIRA 52%, Kumba YALLA 48%
\par \tab {\b head of government}
\par \tab Prime Minister Manuel SATURNINO, since 5 November 1994
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Council of Ministers; appointed by the president
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab unicameral
\par \tab {\b National People's Assembly}
\par \tab (Assembleia Nacional Popular) elections last held 3 July and 7 August 1994 (next to be held 1999); results - percent of vote by party NA; seats - (100 total) PAIGC 62, RGB 19, PRS 12, Union for Change Coalition 6, FLING 1
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab none; there is a Ministry of Justice in the Council of Ministers
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab African Party for the Independence of Guinea-Bissau and Cape Verde (PAIGC), President Joao Bernardo VIEIRA, leader; Guinea-Bissau Resistance (RGB); Democratic Front (FD), Aristides MENEZES, leader; Social Renovation Party (PRS); Union for Change Coalition; Front for the Liberation and Independence of Guinea (FLING); Democratic Social Front (FDS), Rafael BARBOSA, leader; Bafata Movement, Domingos Fernandes GARNER, leader; Guinea-Bissau Resistance (RGB); Union for Change Coalition; Front for the Liberation and Independence of Guinea (FLING)
\par \tab two equal horizontal bands of yellow (top) and green with a vertical red band on the hoist side; there is a black five-pointed star centered in the red band; uses the popular pan-African colors of Ethiopia; similar to the flag of Cape Verde, which has the black star raised above the center of the red band and is framed by two corn stalks and a yellow clam shell{\b Names}
\par \tab based on English common law with certain admixtures of Roman-Dutch law; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 18 years of age; universal
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state}
\par \tab Executive President Cheddi JAGAN (since 5 October 1992); election last held 5 October 1992; results - Cheddi JAGAN was elected president since he was leader of the party with the most votes in the National Assembly elections
\par \tab {\b head of government}
\par \tab Prime Minister Sam HINDS (since 5 October 1992)
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Cabinet of Ministers; appointed by the president, responsible to the legislature
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab unicameral
\par \tab {\b National Assembly}
\par \tab elections last held on 5 October 1992 (next to be held in 1997); results - PPP 53.4%, PNC 42.3%, WPA 2%, TUF 1.2%; seats - (65 total, 53 elected) PPP 36, PNC 26, WPA 2, TUF 1
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Supreme Court of Judicature
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab People's Progressive Party (PPP), Cheddi JAGAN; People's National Congress (PNC), Hugh Desmond HOYTE; Good and Green Georgetown (GGG), Hamilton GREEN; Working People's Alliance (WPA), Eusi KWAYANA, Rupert ROOPNARINE; Democratic Labor Movement (DLM), Paul TENNASSEE; People's Democratic Movement (PDM), Llewellyn JOHN; National Democratic Front (NDF), Joseph BACCHUS; The United Force (TUF), Manzoor NADIR; United Republican Party (URP), Leslie RAMSAMMY; National Republican Party (NRP), Robert GANGADEEN; Guyana Labor Party (GLP), Nanda GOPAUL
{\b Other political or pressure groups}
\par \tab Trades Union Congress (TUC); Guyana Council of Indian Organizations (GCIO); Civil Liberties Action Committee (CLAC)
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab the latter two organizations are small and active but not well organized
\par \tab 2490 Tracy Place NW, Washington, DC 20008
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [1] (202) 265-6900, 6901
\par \tab {\b consulate(s) general}
\par \tab New York
{\b US diplomatic representation}
\par \tab {\b chief of mission}
\par \tab Ambassador George F. JONES
\par \tab {\b embassy}
\par \tab 99-100 Young and Duke Streets, Kingston, Georgetown
\par \tab {\b mailing address}
\par \tab P. O. Box 10507, Georgetown
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [592] (2) 54900 through 54909, 57960 through 57969
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [592] (2) 58497
{\b Flag}
\par \tab green with a red isosceles triangle (based on the hoist side) superimposed on a long yellow arrowhead; there is a narrow black border between the red and yellow, and a narrow white border between the yellow and the green{\b Names}
\par \tab approved March 1987, suspended June 1988, most articles reinstated March 1989; October 1991, government claims to be observing the Constitution
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab based on Roman civil law system; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 18 years of age; universal
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state}
\par \tab President Jean-Bertrand ARISTIDE (since 7 February 1991), ousted in a coup in September 1991 but, with US military support, returned to power on 15 October 1994; election last held 16 December 1990 (next to be held by December 1995); results - Rev. Jean-Bertrand ARISTIDE 67.5%, Marc BAZIN 14.2%, Louis DEJOIE 4.9%
\par \tab {\b head of government}
\par \tab Prime Minister Claudette WERLEIGH
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Cabinet; chosen by prime minister in consultation with the president
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab bicameral National Assembly (Assemblee Nationale)
\par \tab {\b Senate}
\par \tab elections last held 18 January 1993, widely condemned as illegitimate (next to be held 25 June 1994); results - percent of vote by party NA; seats - (27 total) FNCD 12, MIDH-PANPRA 8, PAIN 2, MRN 1, RDNP 1, PNT 1, independent 2
\par \tab {\b Chamber of Deputies}
\par \tab elections last held 16 December 1990, with runoff held 20 January 1991 (next to be held 25 June 1995); results - percent of vote by party NA; seats - (83 total) FNCD 27, MIDH-PANPRA 17, PDCH 7, PAIN 6, RDNP 6, MDN 5, PNT 3, MKN 2, MODELH 2, MRN 1, independents 5, other 2
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Court of Appeal (Cour de Cassation)
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab National Front for Change and Democracy (FNCD), Evans PAUL, including National Cooperative Action Movement (MKN), Volvick Remy JOSEPH; National Congress of Democratic Movements (CONACOM), Victor BENOIT; Movement for the Installation of Democracy in Haiti (MIDH), Marc BAZIN; National Progressive Revolutionary Party (PANPRA), Serge GILLES; National Patriotic Movement of November 28 (MNP-28), Dejean BELIZAIRE; National Agricultural and Industrial Party (PAIN), Louis DEJOIE; Movement for National Reconstruction (MRN), Rene THEODORE; Haitian Christian Democratic Party (PDCH), Joseph DOUZE; Assembly of Progressive National Democrats (RDNP), Leslie MANIGAT; National Party of Labor (PNT), Thomas DESULME; Mobilization for National Development (MDN), Hubert DE RONCERAY; Democratic Movement for the Liberation of Haiti (MODELH), Francois LATORTUE; Haitian Social Christian Party (PSCH), Gregoire EUGENE; Movement for the Organization of the Country (MOP), Gesner COMEAU and Jean MOLIERE; Democratic Unity Confederation (KID), Evans PAUL; National Lavalas Political Organization (OPL), Gerard PIERRE/CHARLES
{\b Other political or pressure groups}
\par \tab Roman Catholic Church; Confederation of Haitian Workers (CTH); Federation of Workers Trade Unions (FOS); Autonomous Haitian Workers (CATH); National Popular Assembly (APN); Revolutionary Front for Haitian Advancement and Progress (FRAPH)
\par \tab two equal horizontal bands of blue (top) and red with a centered white rectangle bearing the coat of arms, which contains a palm tree flanked by flags and two cannons above a scroll bearing the motto L'UNION FAIT LA FORCE (Union Makes Strength){\b Names}
\par \tab {\b conventional long form}
\par \tab Republic of Honduras
\par \tab {\b conventional short form}
\par \tab Honduras
\par \tab {\b local long form}
\par \tab Republica de Honduras
\par \tab {\b local short form}
\par \tab Honduras
{\b Digraph}
\par \tab HO
{\b Type}
\par \tab republic
{\b Capital}
\par \tab Tegucigalpa
{\b Administrative divisions}
\par \tab 18 departments (departamentos, singular - departamento); Atlantida, Choluteca, Colon, Comayagua, Copan, Cortes, El Paraiso, Francisco Morazan, Gracias a Dios, Intibuca, Islas de la Bahia, La Paz, Lempira, Ocotepeque, Olancho, Santa Barbara, Valle, Yoro
{\b Independence}
\par \tab 15 September 1821 (from Spain)
{\b National holiday}
\par \tab Independence Day, 15 September (1821)
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab 11 January 1982, effective 20 January 1982
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab rooted in Roman and Spanish civil law; some influence of English common law; accepts ICJ jurisdiction, with reservations
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 18 years of age; universal and compulsory
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state and head of government}
\par \tab President Carlos Roberto REINA Idiaquez (since 27 January 1994); election last held 28 November 1993 (next to be held November 1997); results - Carlos Roberto REINA Idiaquez (PLH) 53%, Oswaldo RAMOS Soto (PNH) 41%, other 6%
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Cabinet
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab unicameral
\par \tab {\b National Congress (Congreso Nacional)}
\par \tab elections last held on 27 November 1993 (next to be held November 1997); results - PNH 53%, PLH 41%, PDCH 1.0%, PINU-SD 2.5%, other 2.5%; seats - (134 total) PNH 55, PLH 77, PINU-SD 2
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Supreme Court of Justice (Corte Suprema de Justica)
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab Liberal Party (PLH), Rafael PINEDA Ponce, president; National Party of Honduras (PNH), Oswaldo RAMOS Soto, president; National Innovation and Unity Party (PINU), Olban VALLADARES, president; Christian Democratic Party (PDCH), Efrain DIAZ Arrivillaga, president
{\b Other political or pressure groups}
\par \tab National Association of Honduran Campesinos (ANACH); Honduran Council of Private Enterprise (COHEP); Confederation of Honduran Workers (CTH); National Union of Campesinos (UNC); General Workers Confederation (CGT); United Federation of Honduran Workers (FUTH); Committee for the Defense of Human Rights in Honduras (CODEH); Coordinating Committee of Popular Organizations (CCOP)
\par \tab 3007 Tilden Street NW, Washington, DC 20008
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [1] (202) 966-7702, 2604, 5008, 4596
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [1] (202) 966-9751
\par \tab {\b consulate(s) general}
\par \tab Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, Miami, New Orleans, New York, San Francisco, and San Juan (Puerto Rico)
\par \tab {\b consulate(s)}
\par \tab Boston, Detroit, and Jacksonville
{\b US diplomatic representation}
\par \tab {\b chief of mission}
\par \tab Ambassador William T. PRYCE
\par \tab {\b embassy}
\par \tab Avenida La Paz, Apartado Postal No 3453, Tegucigalpa
\par \tab {\b mailing address}
\par \tab American Embassy, APO AA 34022, Tegucigalpa
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [504] 36-9320, 38-5114
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [504] 36-9037
{\b Flag}
\par \tab three equal horizontal bands of blue (top), white, and blue with five blue five-pointed stars arranged in an X pattern centered in the white band; the stars represent the members of the former Federal Republic of Central America - Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua; similar to the flag of El Salvador, which features a round emblem encircled by the words REPUBLICA DE EL SALVADOR EN LA AMERICA CENTRAL centered in the white band; also similar to the flag of Nicaragua, which features a triangle encircled by the word REPUBLICA DE NICARAGUA on top and AMERICA CENTRAL on the bottom, centered in the white band{\b Names}
\par \tab {\b conventional long form}
\par \tab none
\par \tab {\b conventional short form}
\par \tab Hong Kong
{\b Abbreviation}
\par \tab HK
{\b Digraph}
\par \tab HK
{\b Type}
\par \tab dependent territory of the UK scheduled to revert to China in 1997
{\b Capital}
\par \tab Victoria
{\b Administrative divisions}
\par \tab none (dependent territory of the UK)
{\b Independence}
\par \tab none (dependent territory of the UK; the UK signed an agreement with China on 19 December 1984 to return Hong Kong to China on 1 July 1997; in the joint declaration, China promises to respect Hong Kong's existing social and economic systems and lifestyle)
{\b National holiday}
\par \tab Liberation Day, 29 August (1945)
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab unwritten; partly statutes, partly common law and practice; new Basic Law approved in March 1990 in preparation for 1997
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab based on English common law
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab direct election 21 years of age; universal for permanent residents living in the territory of Hong Kong for the past seven years; indirect election limited to about 100,000 professionals of electoral college and functional constituencies
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state}
\par \tab Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952)
\par \tab {\b head of government}
\par \tab Governor Chris PATTEN (since 9 July 1992); Chief Secretary Anson CHAN Fang On-Sang (since 29 November 1993)
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Executive Council; appointed by the governor
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab unicameral
\par \tab {\b Legislative Council}
\par \tab indirect elections last held 12 September 1991 and direct elections were held for the first time 15 September 1991 (next to be held 17 September 1995 when the number of directly-elected seats increases to 50); results - percent of vote by party NA; seats - (60 total; 21 indirectly elected by functional constituencies, 18 directly elected, 18 appointed by governor, 3 ex officio members); indirect elections - number of seats by functional constituency NA; direct elections - UDHK 12, Meeting Point 3, ADPL 1, other 2
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Supreme Court
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab Democratic Party, Martin LEE, chairman; Democratic Alliance for the Betterment of Hong Kong, TSANG Yuk-shing, chairman; Hong Kong Democratic Foundation, Dr. Patrick SHIU Kin-ying, chairman
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab in April 1994, the United Democrats of Hong Kong (UDHK) and Meeting Point merged to form the Democratic Party; the merger became effective in October 1994
{\b Other political or pressure groups}
\par \tab Liberal Party, Allen LEE, chairman; Association for Democracy and People's Livelihood (ADPL), Frederick FUNG Kin Kee, chairman; Liberal Democratic Federation, HU Fa-kuang, chairman; Federation of Trade Unions (pro-China), LEE Chark-tim, president; Hong Kong and Kowloon Trade Union Council (pro-Taiwan); Confederation of Trade Unions (pro-democracy), LAU Chin-shek, chairman; Hong Kong General Chamber of Commerce; Chinese General Chamber of Commerce (pro-China); Federation of Hong Kong Industries; Chinese Manufacturers' Association of Hong Kong; Hong Kong Professional Teachers' Union, CHEUNG Man-kwong, president; Hong Kong Alliance in Support of the Patriotic Democratic Movement in China, Szeto WAH, chairman
\par \tab PSC 464, Box 30, Hong Kong, or FPO AP 96522-0002
\par \tab {\b telephone}
\par \tab [852] 523-9011
\par \tab {\b FAX}
\par \tab [852] 845-4845
{\b Flag}
\par \tab blue with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant with the Hong Kong coat of arms on a white disk centered on the outer half of the flag; the coat of arms contains a shield (bearing two junks below a crown) held by a lion (representing the UK) and a dragon (representing China) with another lion above the shield and a banner bearing the words HONG KONG below the shield{\b Names}
\par \tab St. Stephen's Day (National Day), 20 August (commemorates the founding of Hungarian state circa 1000 A.D.)
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab 18 August 1949, effective 20 August 1949, revised 19 April 1972; 18 October 1989 revision ensured legal rights for individuals and constitutional checks on the authority of the prime minister and also established the principle of parliamentary oversight
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab in process of revision, moving toward rule of law based on Western model
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 18 years of age; universal
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state}
\par \tab President Arpad GONCZ (since 3 August 1990; previously interim president from 2 May 1990); election last held 3 August 1990 (next to be held NA 1995); results - President GONCZ elected by parliamentary vote; note - President GONCZ was elected by the National Assembly with a total of 295 votes out of 304 as interim President from 2 May 1990 until elected President
\par \tab {\b head of government}
\par \tab Prime Minister Gyula HORN (since 15 July 1994)
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Council of Ministers; elected by the National Assembly on recommendation of the president
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab unicameral
\par \tab {\b National Assembly (Orszaggyules)}
\par \tab elections last held on 8 and 29 May 1994 (next to be held spring 1998); results - percent of vote by party NA; seats - (386 total) MSzP 209, SzDSz 70, MDF 37, FKgP 26, KDNP 22, FiDeSz 20, other 2
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Constitutional Court
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab Hungarian Democratic Forum (MDF), Lajos FUR, chairman; Independent Smallholders (FKgP), Jozsef TORGYAN, president; Hungarian Socialist Party (MSzP), Gyula HORN, president; Christian Democratic People's Party (KDNP), Dr. Lazlo SURJAN, president; Federation of Young Democrats (FiDeSz), Viktor ORBAN, chairman; Alliance of Free Democrats (SzDSz), Ivan PETO, chairman
\par \tab {\b note}
\par \tab the Hungarian Socialist (Communist) Workers' Party (MSzMP) renounced Communism and became the Hungarian Socialist Party (MSzP) in October 1989; there is still a small MMP
\par \tab Anniversary of the Establishment of the Republic, 17 June (1944)
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab 16 June 1944, effective 17 June 1944
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab civil law system based on Danish law; does not accept compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 18 years of age; universal
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state}
\par \tab President Vigdis FINNBOGADOTTIR (since 1 August 1980); election last held on 29 June 1988 (next scheduled for June 1996); results - there was no election in 1992 as President Vigdis FINNBOGADOTTIR was unopposed
\par \tab {\b head of government}
\par \tab Prime Minister David ODDSSON (since 30 April 1991)
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Cabinet; appointed by the president
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab unicameral
\par \tab {\b Parliament (Althing)}
\par \tab elections last held on 8 April 1995 (next to be held by April 1999); results - Independence Party 37.1%, Progressive Party 23.3%, Social Democratic Party 11.4%, Socialists 14.3%, People's Movement 7.2%, Women's Party 4.9%; seats - (63 total) Independence 25, Progressive 15, Social Democratic 7, Socialists 9, People's Movement 4, Women's Party 3
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Supreme Court (Haestirettur)
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab Independence Party (conservative), David ODDSSON; Progressive Party, Halldor ASGRIMSSON; Social Democratic Party, Jon Baldvin HANNIBALSSON; People's Alliance (left socialist), Olafur Ragnar GRIMSSON; Women's Party; People's Movement (moderate left); National Awakening, Johanna SIGURDARDOTTIR
\par \tab blue with a red cross outlined in white that extends to the edges of the flag; the vertical part of the cross is shifted to the hoist side in the style of the Dannebrog (Danish flag){\b Names}
\par \tab {\b conventional long form}
\par \tab Republic of India
\par \tab {\b conventional short form}
\par \tab India
{\b Digraph}
\par \tab IN
{\b Type}
\par \tab federal republic
{\b Capital}
\par \tab New Delhi
{\b Administrative divisions}
\par \tab 25 states and 7 union territories*; Andaman and Nicobar Islands*, Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Chandigarh*, Dadra and Nagar Haveli*, Daman and Diu*, Delhi*, Goa, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Karnataka, Kerala, Lakshadweep*, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Orissa, Pondicherry*, Punjab, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal
{\b Independence}
\par \tab 15 August 1947 (from UK)
{\b National holiday}
\par \tab Anniversary of the Proclamation of the Republic, 26 January (1950)
{\b Constitution}
\par \tab 26 January 1950
{\b Legal system}
\par \tab based on English common law; limited judicial review of legislative acts; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction, with reservations
{\b Suffrage}
\par \tab 18 years of age; universal
{\b Executive branch}
\par \tab {\b chief of state}
\par \tab President Shankar Dayal SHARMA (since 25 July 1992); Vice President Kicheril Raman NARAYANAN (since 21 August 1992)
\par \tab {\b head of government}
\par \tab Prime Minister P. V. Narasimha RAO (since 21 June 1991)
\par \tab {\b cabinet}
\par \tab Council of Ministers; appointed by the president on recommendation of the prime minister
{\b Legislative branch}
\par \tab bicameral Parliament (Sansad)
\par \tab {\b Council of States (Rajya Sabha)}
\par \tab body consisting of not more than 250 members, up to 12 appointed by the president, the remainder chosen by the elected members of the state and territorial assemblies
\par \tab {\b People's Assembly (Lok Sabha)}
\par \tab elections last held 21 May, 12 and 15 June 1991 (next to be held by 1996); results - percent of vote by party NA; seats - (545 total, 543 elected, 2 appointed) Congress (I) Party 245, BJP 119, Janata Dal Party 39, Janata Dal (Ajit Singh) 20, CPI/M 35, CPI 14, Telugu Desam 13, AIADMK 11, Samajwadi Janata Party 5, Shiv Sena 4, RSP 4, BSP 1, Congress (S) Party 1, other 23, vacant 9; note - the distribution of seats as of 18 January 1995 is as follows: Congress (I) Party 260, BJP 117, CPI/M 36, Janata Dal Party 24, Samta Party 14, CPI 14, AIADMK 12, Janata Dal (Ajit) 7, Telugu Desam 7, RSP 4, Janata Dal (Ex-Ajit) 3, Samajwadi Party 3, BSP 3, AIFB 3, Shiv Sena 2, Congress (S) Party 1, Kerala Congress (Mani faction) 1, Bihar Peoples Party 1, India National League 1, other 14, vacant 16
{\b Judicial branch}
\par \tab Supreme Court
{\b Political parties and leaders}
\par \tab Congress (I) Party, P. V. Narasimha RAO, president; Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), L.K. ADVANI; Janata Dal Party, S.R. BOMMAI; Janata Dal (Ajit), Ajit SINGH; Janata Dal (Ex-Ajit), leader NA; Communist Party of India/Marxist (CPI/M), Harkishan Singh SURJEET; Communist Party of India (CPI), Indrajit GUPTA; Telugu Desam (a regional party in Andhra Pradesh), N. T. Rama RAO; All-India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazagham (AIADMK; a regional party in Tamil Nadu), Jayaram JAYALALITHA; Samajwadi Party (SP), Mulayam Singh YADAV (President), Om Prakash CHAUTALA, Devi LAL; Shiv Sena, Bal THACKERAY; Revolutionary Socialist Party (RSP), Tridip CHOWDHURY; Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP), Kanshi RAM; Congress (S) Party, leader NA; Communist Party of India/Marxist-Leninist (CPI/ML), Vinod MISHRA; Dravida Munnetra Kazagham (a regional party in Tamil Nadu), M. KARUNANIDHI; Akali Dal factions representing Sikh religious community in the Punjab; National Conference (NC; a regional party in Jammu and Kashmir), Farooq ABDULLAH; Bihar Peoples Party, Lovely ANAND; Samta Party (formerly Janata Dal members), Natish KUMAR; Indian National League, Suliaman SAIT; Kerala Congress (Mani faction), K.M. MANI; All Ind
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