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\par \tab The mountainous country of Afghanistan lies in south-central Asia. It is bordered by Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Iran, and Pakistan. A panhandle on the northeast, the Wakhan Corridor, connects it with China. Its southernmost part is separated from the nearest sea, the Arabian Sea, by 300 miles (480 kilometers) of Pakistani territory.
\par \tab Afghanistan has been known as a crossroads between East and West. Isolated and landlocked, it clung to traditional ways of life. By the mid-1900s the Afghans began to accept the ideas, methods, and machines of modern industrial societies.
\par \tab Afghanistan is approximately 252,000 square miles (652,000 square kilometers) in area. In the early 1990s the country's population was estimated at about 15.5 million. Kabul, the capital and largest city, had more than 1 million inhabitants.
\par {\b Land and Climate}
\par \tab Mountains cover about four fifths of Afghanistan. From the Pamir Mountains in the northeast, the giant Hindu Kush range stretches westward across the country. The range is highest in the Wakhan Corridor, where Nowshak Peak rises to 24,557 feet (7,485 meters) above sea level. Narrow river valleys and broad plains spread from the central highlands to barren desert country in the west.
\par \tab Afghanistan's rivers are fed by melting snow and glaciers in the mountains. Northern streams flow toward the Amu Darya, which forms part of the country's northern border. The Amu Darya is Afghanistan's largest river; but the Helmand in the southwest is longer. The Kabul River provides water for the fertile valleys and basins around Kabul and Jalalabad.
\par \tab In winter and spring Afghanistan receives most of its meager rain- and snowfalls. Temperatures drop below 0░ F (-18░ C) in the windswept uplands. The lowlands have milder winters. But the summer sun may raise desert temperatures to 115░ F (46░ C) or higher. Frontal winds sweeping in from the west may bring huge sandstorms or dust storms. The desert regions receive less than 4 inches (10 centimeters) of rain a year; the high mountains receive more than 40 inches (100 centimeters) of precipitation, most of which falls as snow.
\par {\b Plant and Animal Life}
\par \tab Like its climate, Afghanistan's plant life is diverse. In the southern deserts, few trees grow. Spring rains may bring flowering grasses and herbs. Farther north, plant life becomes richer; at the higher altitudes it may be almost luxuriant. Plants, shrubs, and herbs include camel thorn, locoweed, spiny restharrow, mimosa, and common wormwood. In addition to stands of conifers, trees include wild walnut, oak, alder, hazel, wild peach, and others. North of the Hindu Kush are pistachio trees, which yield nuts for export.
\par \tab Afghanistan has more than a hundred mammal species, some of which are nearing extinction. They include the leopard, snow leopard, goitered gazelle, markhor goat, and Bactrian deer. Other wild animals that survive in the country's subtropical Temperate Zone include wolves, foxes, hyenas, jackals, and mongooses. Grazing animals include ibex, wild goats, and sheep. Wild boar, jerboa, hedgehogs, shrews, hares, mouse hares, bats, and various rodents also occur. More than 380 bird species have been identified in Afghanistan; 200 of them breed there. Birds are widely hunted, and some species are becoming rare. Few Siberian cranes, for example, survive. Snakes, lizards, skinks, salamanders, and frogs are also common to the country. There are many varieties of freshwater fish in the rivers, streams, and lakes, trout being the most common.
\par \tab Desertification, in which human intervention causes good land to turn into desert, is far advanced in Afghanistan. Because many Afghans are poor, they collect dung, uproot shrubs, and cut trees for fuel. Domestic animals overgraze the ranges. Improper irrigation adds salt to fields. Ancient records and archaeology show that once-rich areas have become barren stretches of rock and sand.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab Afghanistan's people reflect their country's location astride historic migration and invasion routes. Most Afghans belong to the Pashtun (Pathan), Tajik, Uzbek, Hazara, Turkmen, and Aimak ethnic groups. Constituting about 50 percent of the population, the Pashtuns claim to be related to the Hebrews. The Turkish-descended Uzbeks and Turkmens farm the plains north of the Hindu Kush. The Tajiks, who live near Iran, are of Persian descent. The Hazaras, a Mongol people who remained after the invasion of Genghis Khan, live in the central highlands.
\par \tab Islam, the official religion, pervades all aspects of Afghan life. Religious codes provide standards of conduct and means of settling legal disputes. About 99 percent of the population is Muslim, and of these about 84 percent belong to the Sunnah sect. Most of the Hazaras are Shi'ites. The country also has small numbers of Hindus, Sikhs, Jews, and Parsis (Zoroastrians).
\par \tab The official languages of Afghanistan are Pashto and Dari, which are spoken by 80 percent of the people. Pashto, or Pushtu, is the native tongue of the Pashtuns; Dari is a Persian dialect. Turkmen and Uzbek are spoken widely in the north. In the isolated eastern mountain valleys, the smaller Kafir, or Nuristani, tribes speak a variety of languages.
\par \tab About 19 percent of Afghanistan's people live in cities. The remainder are farmers or nomads. Living mainly in small villages, farmers cultivate land irrigated by rivers. In the highlands, seminomadic farmers may move their herds to upland pastures, remaining all summer and returning to their villages in the fall. Nomadic groups, mainly Pashtuns, move repeatedly, taking their families, belongings, and animals with them.
\par \tab Kabul forms the focal point of Afghanistan's artistic and cultural life. The city has theaters, concert halls, and libraries. Other cities offer historic, cultural, and artistic attractions to a lesser extent. A revival of the arts took place in the 1960s, bringing renewed interest in traditional and Western-style art forms.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab About two thirds of Afghanistan's people are farmers or herdsmen, but only about 12 percent of the land is cultivated. The remainder is either too rugged or too dry for farming. The country has extensive natural gas, coal, and iron deposits. About 4 percent of the total land area is irrigated. Farmers use terrace, tunnel, and well methods to irrigate their land.
\par \tab In the early 1990s about half of Afghanistan's land area was being used for grazing. Afghanistan has vast herds of sheep, goats, cattle, horses, donkeys, and camels--as many as 20 million head. Of these, sheep number about 14 million; cattle, 1.5 million; and goats, 2 million. The sheep provide wool and skins for clothing and flesh for meat.
\par \tab The farmers live in the fertile valleys or on the plain, wherever water is available for irrigation. Wheat, corn (maize), grapes, and rice are the chief crops. Industrial crops include cotton, sugar beets, and sugarcane. Oilseed, nuts, and fruits, particularly grapes, are also important, and large quantities of vegetables, especially potatoes, are grown. Agriculture contributes more than half of the gross domestic product.
\par \tab Aided by loans and grants from the World Bank and other sources, Afghanistan's government has tried since World War II to improve economic conditions.
\par \tab The Helmand Valley project, undertaken with aid from the United States, was designed to supply water for 1,000 square miles (2,600 square kilometers) of desert. With aid from the Soviet Union, the Afghan government built the Nangarhar Canal near Jalalabad in the south.
\par \tab Afghanistan has little industry. By estimate, only about 20,000 persons make up the industrial labor force; most of them are employed in the cotton-textile industry. Others work in the cement, sugar, vegetable oil, woolen and artificial-silk textile, and fruit-processing industries. Handworkers in cottage industries produce woven, embroidered, metal, pottery, and wooden goods and utensils. Cottage industries account for some 8 percent of the gross domestic product, while manufacturing industries account for only about 4 percent. The yearly income per person in Afghanistan was about 230 dollars in the mid-1980s.
\par \tab Natural gas accounts for nearly half of the country's exports. Fruits and nuts, cotton, carpets, and karakul skins are also exported. Leading imports include textiles, machinery, vehicles, and petroleum.
\par {\b Transportation and Communication}
\par \tab In the 1980s Afghanistan still lacked railways. But the country has more than 11,000 miles (17,700 kilometers) of roads and highways. The most important roads connect Kabul with Shir Kahn, on the Tajik border in the north, and with Peshawar in Pakistan in the east. Paved roads also link Kabul with Qandahar (the country's second largest city), Herat, and Mazar e Sharif.
\par \tab Other forms of transportation range from the very primitive to the very advanced. Camels and donkeys serve as draft animals in many parts of the country. Jet-age airports, however, have been built in Kabul, Qandahar, Shindand, and Baghram, near Kabul. Airports of varying quality are located in more remote parts of the country.
\par \tab Government-operated telephone, telegraph, and postal facilities form the heart of the communications system. The facilities serve only the principal cities and some towns, however. People's Television Afghanistan transmits over one station at Kabul. Radio programs are broadcast in a variety of languages, including English and Russian.
\par {\b Education and Health}
\par \tab Afghanistan's 1964 constitution provided for free and compulsory education at all levels. Regardless, relatively few children attended school, and literacy was near only 20 percent in the early 1980s. Some 30 percent of the country's children now attend the more than 3,700 schools. In the mid-1980s the country had more than 300 general secondary schools and about 800 primary schools. Kabul University has an enrollment of about 6,500 students. To earn their degrees some Afghan students go abroad, now mostly to Communist countries.
\par \tab Afghanistan's public health services have long been handicapped by a lack of doctors, hospitals, and sanitary facilities. Neglect of the rules of health and hygiene has also been a problem. Diseases such as malaria, smallpox, and cholera had been eliminated in the early 1980s, but the country had fewer than 60 hospitals and only 1,500 doctors. An estimated 38 percent of all newborn children do not survive beyond their first birthday--one of the world's highest infant mortality rates.
\par {\b Government and History}
\par \tab On July 17, 1973, a military coup overturned the two-century-old Afghan kingdom and established a republic. From 1964 to 1973 the country had been run as a true constitutional monarchy, with royalty barred from high public office. A prime minister appointed by the shah directed the government. This constitution was abolished in 1973 after a military coup overthrew the shah and established the Republic of Afghanistan. The Democratic Republic of Afghanistan was set up in 1978, after which the Afghan Revolutionary Council ruled by decree. A new constitution was approved in November 1987. The word Democratic was dropped from the republic's name.
\par \tab The remains of buried cities indicate that settled peoples lived in Afghanistan more than 5,000 years ago. The land was invaded repeatedly by nomads and conquering armies. Historic figures who passed through Afghanistan included Darius I of Persia, Alexander the Great, the Muslim invaders, Genghis Khan, Timur Lenk (Tamerlane), and Baber (Babur). Through Afghanistan's mountain passes, China's trade flowed westward and southward on the ancient silk route.
\par \tab The modern Afghan kingdom dates from 1747, when Ahmad Shah Durrani freed the country from Persian domination. To preserve their independence, the Afghans shut off the outside world.
\par \tab In the 19th century Afghanistan was caught in the rivalries of great empires. Russia, to the north, threatened Britain's domination of India to the east. Britain waged two bloody wars, from 1839 to 1842 and from 1878 to 1880, to gain control over Afghanistan. Defeated in the first war but victorious in the second, Britain bought Afghanistan's cooperation by paying a large annual subsidy to 'Abdor Rahman Khan and supporting his rule.
\par \tab When Amanollah Khan ascended the Afghan throne in 1919, he declared war on Britain. The third Afghan War ended that year with no clear-cut winner, but Afghanistan gained its independence. Amanollah turned to internal reform and tried to modernize the country. The mullahs--religious teachers and leaders--incited a revolt against him, and he abdicated in 1929. Mohammad Zahir Shah became king in 1933.
\par \tab The Westernization policy begun by Amanollah made significant advances. Under the 1964 constitution, women voted and ran for office for the first time in 1965. The separation of the state's executive, legislative, and judicial powers was completed when a supreme court was established in 1967.
\par \tab In 1973 the country was taken over by a military regime, which was overthrown in 1978. A Revolutionary Council with leanings toward the Soviet Union was then established. A treaty of friendship was signed with that country in December 1978. The new government oppressed the Islamic majority, and civil war broke out. In December 1979, as the military regime weakened, the Soviet Union claimed Western interference, invaded the country, and joined government forces against Muslim rebels. The council president was killed in the invasion, and the Soviets installed Babrak Karmal in his place. Soviet advisers were sent into Afghanistan to aid the government. Opposition spread; demonstrations and violence increased. In 1986 Karmal was replaced by Mohammad Najibullah. The Soviet Union, honoring a 1988 agreement to withdraw all of its troops, completed its pullout on Feb. 15, 1989. More than 15,000 Soviet soldiers were killed during the nine-year occupation.
\par \tab Three days after the Soviet troops pulled out, Najibullah declared a state of emergency and replaced the non-Communists in the cabinet with Communists. A March 1990 coup attempt failed to bring down Najibullah. The Communist party was urged to surrender its constitutional monopoly on power; in June of that year the Homeland party was created, though with essentially no political power. The United States and the Soviet Union agreed in late 1991 to end military aid to the Kabul government and the rebels. In April 1992 the rebels closed in on Kabul, forcing Najibullah out of power. Ethnic and political rivals vied for power.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by John F. Shroder, Jr., Professor of Geography, University of Nebraska.\par \tab There are more than 50 independent countries in Africa and on the islands off its coasts. Together, they make up more than one third of the membership of the United Nations. In 1991 Egyptian Deputy Prime Minister Boutros Boutros-Ghali became the first African and the first Arab to serve as secretary-general of the United Nations.
\par \tab After the conclusion of World War II, the African people gained their independence from European countries that had controlled most of the continent since the 19th century. France and the United Kingdom had the largest colonial empires, though Spain, Portugal, Belgium, Germany, and Italy also had African possessions. By the end of 1990, only South Africa remained under the control of a white minority government; even there, President F.W. de Klerk in 1990 took steps toward clearing away obstacles to negotiations for a new constitution.
\par \tab The African countries have developed political and economic relations with nations throughout the world. Many of the world's essential minerals, including copper, gold, and uranium, are mined in Africa. The continent's extensive river system represents one of the world's major potential sources of hydroelectric power.
\par \tab Long before the colonial period, there were great African kingdoms whose rulers presided over magnificent courts. Their merchants traded in gold, salt, and other goods with faraway countries, often traveling vast distances over caravan routes across the plains and deserts. The art, language, and, especially, the music of the Western world have been affected by African culture. Jazz has its root in Central and West African rhythms.
{\b NATURAL ENVIRONMENT}
\par {\b The Land}
\par \tab The continent of Africa lies astride the equator, extending beyond 35░ N. latitude and reaching almost 35░ S., or about as far north as Washington, D.C., and about as far south as Uruguay. It is the second largest landmass in the world, after Eurasia, and its area is more than three times that of the United States. Its population in 1990 was estimated at 648 million, increasing at a rate of 3 percent a year. The average population density is only 55.5 per square mile (21.4 per square kilometer), but this is misleading because much of the land is almost uninhabitable desert or rain forest. Roughly one third of Africa's total land area is devoted to agriculture, but in nearly half the countries less than 6 percent of the land is cultivated.
\par \tab Geologically, Africa is one of the oldest continents. It formed the core of the ancient landmass of Gondwanaland, from which the Southern Hemisphere continents are said to have drifted. Because of its age, Africa has undergone erosion for hundreds of millions of years. Most of the mountains have been worn away, and today much of the continent is a rolling plateau ranging between 500 and 4,500 feet (150 and 1,400 meters) above sea level. While Africa has no massive mountain ranges like the Rocky Mountains or the Himalayas, it does have the Atlas Mountains in the northwest, the Ahaggar and Tibesti ranges in the Sahara, and the East African Highlands stretching from Ethiopia to Tanzania.
\par \tab The highest mountain in Africa, snow-capped Mount Kilimanjaro at 19,340 feet (5,895 meters) high, is in the Eastern Highlands.
\par \tab Running the length of the highlands is the Great Rift Valley. This deep, narrow break in the Earth's surface has a number of branches in which long, narrow lakes such as Tanganyika, Nyasa, and Rudolf are located. The valley is about 4,000 miles (6,400 kilometers) long with an average width of 30 and 40 miles (50 and 65 kilometers). Of several island nations off the coast of Africa, Madagascar is the largest. Others include Cape Verde, Comoros, Mauritius, and Seychelles.
\par {\b Climate and Vegetation}
\par \tab The climate and vegetation reflect the continent's position astride the equator. A sequence of ecological zones extends north and south from the equator: the equatorial forest, the savanna grasslands, the desert, and the area of mild, Mediterranean-type climate. Where highlands occur within these zones, conditions are cooler and wetter. The rainfall of these zones is associated with the movement of air masses, caused by the seasonal warming and cooling of different parts of the Earth as it rotates around the sun.
\par \tab In the Northern Hemisphere, or north of the equator, rain falls from April to September. In the Southern Hemisphere, it rains from October to March. The exceptions are the equatorial regions, which have year-round rainfall; the extreme north and south of the continent, which have only winter rainfall (Mediterranean climate); and parts of West and East Africa, where the climate is affected by the seasonal monsoon winds. The heaviest rainfall occurs in the equatorial regions. The savanna areas receive moderate rainfall. In the deserts rainfall is extremely rare, but when it does occur it usually comes in the form of heavy downpours. In the savanna and desert areas rain falls mainly in the summer months; winters are almost completely dry.
\par \tab Because of the differences in rainfall between various parts of the continent, the vegetation is also widely varied. In the areas around the equator, where it rains the year around, are dense rain forests that may contain as many as 3,000 different tree and plant species per square mile. The rain forest usually consists of three layers: a ground cover of shrubs and ferns between 6 and 10 feet (2 and 3 meters) high; a woody layer of trees and climbers reaching about 60 feet (18 meters); and a canopy of broad-leaved evergreen trees growing as high as 150 feet (46 meters).
\par \tab Between the equatorial rain forests and the great deserts to the north and south are the savanna areas. These are open grasslands scattered with trees such as acacias and baobabs. Farmers and herders live in the savanna. In the eastern and southern regions of Africa, certain savanna areas contain large numbers of wild animals. A serious problem for the people of the savanna is that the vegetation is being used up, leaving the land bare. The population in these areas has grown rapidly since the 1950s, creating a rising demand for pasture and for wood used as fuel and for construction. There is concern among conservationists that the removal of vegetation may cause the savanna to become more desertlike.
\par \tab Another problem is that the summer rains are unpredictable in amount, duration, and distribution. Occasionally the monsoons fail and drought results. Between 1970 and 1974 a drought occurred over much of the African savanna. It was particularly severe in West Africa, where it is estimated that 250,000 people and 6 million head of livestock died.
\par \tab Beyond the savanna, where the annual rainfall is less than 16 inches (40 centimeters), are the Sahara, the Namib, and the Kalahari deserts. The deserts cannot support large populations. In the Sahara there are a few nomadic herders, such as the Tuareg and the Gabbra. A number of countries extract minerals, notably petroleum in Algeria and Libya.
\par \tab While the rain forest, savanna, and deserts cover most of the continent, there are smaller areas of mountain and Mediterranean environments. The mountain environments are found in such highland areas as the Atlas Mountains and the Ethiopian Highlands. The Mediterranean climatic zones are restricted to two narrow bands, one in Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia and one in South Africa.
\par {\b Animal Life}
\par \tab Africa is the home of some of the largest and most varied wildlife populations in the world, from the rare mountain gorillas in the highlands of Rwanda and Zaire to the lemurs of Madagascar. In the savanna regions there were once vast populations of zebras, wildebeest, and antelopes and their predators--the lions, cheetahs, and leopards--as well as hyenas, jackals, rhinoceroses, hippopotamuses, and elephants.
\par \tab The wildlife of Africa has been greatly reduced in the past 50 years, partly as a result of overhunting and poaching and partly because large areas of their natural habitats have been taken over for farming. Today many species are threatened with extinction. To protect wildlife, several countries have set aside land for the exclusive use of wild animals. These areas, called national parks, have tourist facilities that permit visitors to watch the animals in a natural setting. Among the countries that have established such parks are Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Kenya, Tanzania, Zimbabwe, and South Africa. Besides providing greater protection for the animals and promoting tourism, the parks make it possible for scientists to study animal behavior in the wild.
\par \tab While scientists, tourists, and animal lovers praise the national parks, the creation of these areas has led to conflict with people who would like to use the land for other purposes. The population of Africa is growing rapidly, and where there is a shortage of land for herders and farmers, the parks are seen as depriving people of land. The conflict is a difficult one, and it appears that it could continue for decades.
\par \tab One place where this problem is particularly serious is Kenya. There the government deals with the conflict by paying money earned from tourism as compensation for the loss of land to people who live next to the parks. It also spends money on projects that will directly benefit these people. The Kenyan government hopes that if people see and share in the economic benefits of the parks, they will be more willing to accept their presence. Although many people associate Africa with big game, the most important animals are the cattle, poultry, goats, and pigs that are raised for food. There are far more domestic farm animals in Africa than there are wild ones.
\par \tab Insects are another important form of African animal life. One common ant in the southern part of Africa builds high anthills. The clay mud from these anthills is very good for making bricks for houses and farm buildings. Most insects, however, are not helpful. The Anopheles mosquito is a carrier of malaria and other diseases. The tsetse fly, which transmits sleeping sickness, has made large tracts of land in East and Central Africa uninhabitable for people or cattle. Rodents are also a problem. They eat grain and can carry diseases, such as cholera. Even the beautiful birds of Africa can be destructive to grain crops.
{\b PEOPLE AND CULTURES}
\par {\b The People}
\par \tab The people and cultures of Africa are as diverse as its geography. North of the Sahara the inhabitants are a mixture of Arab stock with indigenous peoples such as the Berbers. Egypt, Libya, and the Maghreb (Arabic for "west," comprising Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco) have strong cultural and ethnic ties with the Arabic Middle East. In many ways they are more a part of that world than of Africa south of the Sahara.
\par \tab Arab influence is also strong in East Africa, where intermarriage of Arabs with the local Bantu produced the distinctive Swahili culture, and in Western and Central Africa just south of the Sahara. Hamito-Semitic peoples are found in the Horn of Africa (Ethiopia and Somalia), as well as in Egypt, while the extreme southwestern part of the continent is the home of certain Khoisan peoples--the Bushmen and Hottentots. Most of the rest of the continent is dominated by black peoples of various ethnic groups. Anthropologists have identified almost 3,000 different ethnic groups or peoples in Africa, speaking approximately 1,000 different languages.
\par \tab During the colonial period, many Europeans went to Africa to live, and some remained permanently. Most gravitated to the possessions of their respective countries. Many people from Lebanon, Syria, India, and Palestine also immigrated to Africa. Some went to work for the colonial governments and then became involved in business and trade. Asians still live in a number of African countries and are still employed as shopkeepers and traders.
\par \tab For the most part, Europeans who planned to settle in Africa went to the southern parts of the continent. The Dutch arrived in South Africa as early as the mid-17th century, settling first in the Cape and then moving north, where they fought a series of wars with the Africans. Later, the British also settled in South Africa, principally in Natal, as well as in Northern and Southern Rhodesia (now Zambia and Zimbabwe) and in the Eastern Highlands. The Germans went to South-West Africa (Namibia) and the Portuguese to Angola and Mozambique.
\par \tab The presence of these white settler populations, which usually controlled the local government and economy, complicated the arrangements made at independence. In most parts of Africa, however, people of different races have learned to live together peacefully. Most African nations have official policies of equal rights under the law regardless of race, color, or creed. Even Zimbabwe, where the whites fought a bitter rearguard action for 15 years, became independent in 1980 under black leadership with an official multiracial policy. Most white settlers in Kenya and Zambia have been accepted by the native peoples of those two countries.
\par \tab The major exception is South Africa. Whites make up less than one fifth of the South African population. If the so-called Bantu homelands are included, the percentage is even smaller. (These black homelands have been granted independence by South Africa but are not recognized by any other country.) Nevertheless, the whites continue to maintain control over the African and Asian people in South Africa. Racial segregation has been an official government policy, but starting in 1990 many legal pillars of apartheid were toppled. Securing racial equality in South Africa has been a major aim of all other African countries. Another aim was freedom for Namibia, Africa's last colony. Accords for its independence from South Africa were finally signed in late 1988.
\par \tab {\b Traditional societies.}
\par \tab Usually foreigners refer to African people who speak the same language as members of the same "tribe." Although the family is the most important social unit in Africa, non-Africans mistakenly overemphasize the "tribe." Indeed, the use of the term is inappropriate; African peoples should instead be referred to as belonging to different societies.
\par \tab Six major types of societies developed in Africa before colonial rule in the 19th century. They were: hunting and gathering societies; cattle-herding societies; forest dwellers; fishermen; grain-raising societies; and city, or urban, societies.
\par \tab The hunting and gathering societies were those whose livelihood was based on hunting wild game. When game was scarce, they relied on roots, herbs, and berries. Few of these societies still exist, though the Khoisan of the Kalahari Desert are an example.
\par \tab Cattle-herding societies still live on the savanna, in areas where there are no cattle-killing tsetse flies. These groups have developed around the herding and trading of beef cattle. Cattle herders include, among others, the Fulani of northern Nigeria, the Masai of Kenya, and the Zulu of South Africa. They have a division of labor: men herd and hunt, while women garden and build houses. Such societies require a great deal of land for grazing cattle because there is little grass on the plain.
\par \tab The tropical forest societies related to nature in a different way. Because the land was relatively more fertile, large populations could be supported in these areas. Most often, people lived in scattered villages. This scattering prevented overuse of the land. With axes and hoes, these people cut away at the dense brush, piled and burned it, and used the ashes for fertilizer (slash-and-burn agriculture). Their crops included cassavas (plants with tuberous roots that taste like potatoes), sweet potatoes, bananas, plantains (hard, green fruits of the banana family), and some cereal grains. The villagers were bound to one another in tightly knit, dependent groups. Together they cleared the dense forest, and in times of trouble they assisted one another.
\par \tab On the coasts and along the rivers, the societies of fishermen found good sources of protein for their diet. Their life centered around fishing, usually with nets. They traded the fishes for animal skins and other necessities produced by the people of the interior forests. Some members of the village were specialists in boatbuilding or netmaking, but all the work required cooperation. The high quality of these people's diet was a major factor in their producing large and dense populations.
\par \tab The granary societies developed on the open plateau and in areas infested with tsetse flies. These people used the slash-and-burn technique to clear land in order to grow millet, sorghum, cassava, rice, and corn. Unlike the cattle herders who moved from place to place, the granary societies had more settled life-styles that required order and stability. Stable systems of land use guaranteed each family adequate land for growing grain and other crops.
\par \tab Before European colonization large urban societies had flourished for centuries in West Africa along the edge of the forest-savanna areas. Successful cattle herding and grain agriculture created agricultural surpluses that supported these societies. As the cities grew wealthy, trade became possible, and long trade routes developed southward into the Congo region (now largely Zaire) and northeastward across the Sahara to the Arab societies of the Mediterranean. Leather, ivory, gold, animal skins, feathers, timber, metal artwork, and other trade goods were sold. Bureaucracies were established to control taxes, trade, and land. Great urban centers developed in the kingdoms of Ghana, Mali, and Songhai. The influence of these urban trading societies can still be seen in Kano and Zaria in Nigeria, Ouagadougou in Burkina Faso, and Timbuktu in Mali, as well as in the lakeside and port cities that are located in Central and East Africa.
\par \tab {\b Contemporary societies.}
\par \tab Today, these different types of societies have become mixed in regions, cities, and even rural areas. Intermarriage among different groups has made it difficult to identify people according to these categories. Herding societies now have gardens, and grain-growing people keep milk and beef cattle or goats and pigs. Some traditional hunting and gathering peoples have become soldiers, traders, farmworkers, and other types of laborers.
\par \tab Once the people living in the same geographic area tended to have work and life-styles in common, but now there are many differences. People's work and standards of living vary not only according to where they live but also according to the opportunities they have had to go to school, to better themselves, and to find better jobs. As these changes occur, the people learn to identify with many different groups, not just their geographic roots. Thus, Africans, like other peoples, have many loyalties: to their family, neighborhood, school, social class, state, and nation. People in the large cities share a way of life and cultures similar to those of urban people in other parts of the world.
\par \tab Although nearly 70 percent of the people of Africa still live in rural areas, African cities and towns are growing more rapidly than those of any other continent. More than in any other continent, people in Africa are moving to urban areas. From 1950 to 1990, as much as 15 to 20 percent of some rural populations moved to cities and towns. In Zambia, for example, more than 40 percent of the population now lives in urban areas and mining towns. This is still much lower than in the United States, where about 75 percent of the people live in cities and towns. However, urbanization in African countries continues to grow.
\par \tab The establishment of independent national governments in Africa after the end of colonial rule led to the growth of cities, as well as regional and district administrative towns. New towns have arisen and old cities have expanded near mines, industries, ports, and markets. Even though the urban areas in any given African country generally contain less than one fourth of the population, they are exceedingly important. They include the centers of government and education and the headquarters of businesses and industry.
\par {\b Religions}
\par \tab Three major forms of religion exist in Africa: Christianity, Islam, and African traditional religions. The African traditional religions vary from society to society, but most share certain common beliefs and practices. For example, there is a strong tradition of a belief in animism among Africans. Most Africans who follow traditional religions believe in a supreme creator god or spirit. Other "lesser gods" or spirits work and speak through the ancestors of the community. Most traditional religions also practice rituals of celebration through dance and song that involve the entire community. The belief in a supreme being and in spirits that reveal themselves through ancestors is somewhat similar to the Roman Catholic belief in one god and many saints.
\par \tab Christianity first came to Africa, according to tradition, when the holy family of Jesus, Mary, and Joseph fled to Egypt from Bethlehem. Later, Christianity spread across North Africa through the work of early missionaries such as St. Augustine of Hippo, an African. The 6-million-member Coptic church in Egypt and the Ethiopian church are the direct heirs of that long Christian history. In sub-Saharan Africa, Christianity was introduced by Roman Catholic and Protestant missionaries from Europe and North America. Portuguese Catholic missionaries arrived as early as the late 15th century, at about the same time that Columbus sailed to North America. However, most missionaries came after 1880.
\par \tab Today, it is estimated that more than 25 percent of Africa is Christian. Christian churches are growing rapidly in the nations south of the Sahara and especially in southern Africa. Indeed, some statisticians think that by the year AD 2000 there will be more Christians in the Southern Hemisphere than in the Northern Hemisphere, which is the traditional stronghold of Christianity.
\par \tab Islam, a monotheistic religion related to the Jewish and Christian traditions, originated in Arabia in the 7th century AD when Muhammad proclaimed himself as the prophet of Allah, the one god. After the death of Muhammad in AD 632, it swept across North Africa in the wake of conquering Arab armies. Like Christianity, Islam is making many African converts. Today, Muslims, the followers of Islam, number about 146 million in all of Africa and probably constitute more than 25 percent of the population. The largest Muslim populations are found in Egypt, Nigeria, Algeria, Sudan, and Morocco, but there are Muslims as far south as Malawi, Zambia, and Mozambique. Most African Muslims belong to the Sunni branch of Islam.
\par {\b Art and Literature}
\par \tab African art is as diverse as the cultures and languages of the continent. The artistic styles of the countries of North Africa have been strongly influenced by Islamic art and are, in large measure, part of the Middle Eastern tradition. South of the Sahara there exists a rich diversity of artistic forms that Westerners have begun to appreciate only recently.
\par \tab One artistic activity common to all African cultures consists of crafts or cottage industries, where specialists make objects needed by other members of the society. In the case of textiles, these specialists include spinners, weavers, dyers of cloth, tailors, and seamstresses. Others work in leather, wood, clay, or metal. Another branch of art consists of wood and metal sculpture used in religious and cultural ceremonies. Craftsmen and craftswomen are called upon to fashion objects to be worn as part of a costume at a New Year festival, a dance in hope of the first rains, or a harvest ceremony where the guardian spirits are thanked for providing food. Many of these objects have found their way into art exhibitions and museums in Europe and North America, where they have influenced Western arts and crafts.
\par \tab Another branch of the arts can be called court art. This consists of objects made at the courts of the kingdoms that dominated many parts of Africa before colonial rule. The artists were full-time professionals maintained at the court, where they fashioned clay, wood, and metal sculptures in honor of the king, the queen mother, and various officials. Often they produced naturalistic or realistic art as they tried to capture the expression of a person. The bronze and terra-cotta sculptures of Ife and Benin City, two very old cities in Nigeria, are the best-known objects in this category. Power and authority were expressed through other arts, as well. Kente cloth, for example, was only made for the political leaders of the Ashanti state (now southern Ghana). This brightly colored cloth includes threads laced with gold.
\par \tab Every African community has its own music, which is intertwined with everyday life. Traditional music and dance form an important part of the festivals, rites, and religious celebrations of the community. Work songs accompany such activities as hoeing and threshing, often with a leader singing different phrases and the others singing the refrain, in the manner of a Western sea chantey. Although Westerners tend to associate African music with drums, a wide variety of stringed instruments, wind instruments, and vibrating instruments such as xylophones, rattles, and clappers are used. In recent years African musicians, especially in urban areas, have tended to adopt Western harmonies and instruments. On the other hand, through the music brought to America by African slaves, elements of traditional African music have entered the mainstream of the music of the West.
\par \tab Africa also has a strong literary tradition. For centuries specialists in the kingdoms composed chronicles and epics, some written and others transmitted orally from one generation to another. The epic of Sundiata, who founded the kingdom of Mali in West Africa in the 13th century, is one of the best examples of this "oral literature." Since the 19th century, many Africans have been writing poetry, novels, and a variety of nonfiction works in European languages. Chinua Achebe of Nigeria and Ngugi Wa Thiong'o of Kenya are two of Africa's most brilliant contemporary authors. These African writers--Wole Soyinka of Nigeria, Naguib Mahfouz of Egypt, and Nadine Gordimer of South Africa--have been awarded the Nobel prize for literature in 1986, 1988, and 1991, respectively.
\par \tab Contemporary art takes many other forms. One is cinema, a field in which the Senegalese filmmaker Ousmane SembΦne is especially noteworthy. African drama builds on a long tradition of dance dramas and dramatic presentations. Painters, weavers of tapestry, photographers, and a variety of musicians and dancers are at work all over the continent, often without workshops, good materials, or much recognition from the larger society. Many have achieved a new synthesis of older traditions and contemporary styles.
\par {\b Education and Health}
\par \tab A majority of the African population cannot read or write, but African governments are well aware that an educated population is necessary for economic development. Literacy drives are given a high priority in many countries, and national budgets usually allot more money to education than to military expenditures. The people, too, realize the importance of education in attaining better jobs and higher social status. Schools and colleges across the continent are crowded with students. Thousands of Africans also are enrolled in European, Asian, and North American colleges and universities. Most African governments support these overseas students.
\par \tab Even though literacy is still at a low level by Western standards, modern communications media such as television and, especially, radio have spread information about the rest of the world. Through them, Africans have learned about Europe, Japan, and North America where the standards of living for most people are higher. They hear about people whose lives are made easier through good health care, efficient transportation systems, well-equipped schools, and time-saving conveniences in their homes. Some scholars describe the resulting attitude as a "revolution of rising expectations"--the demand of increasing numbers of Africans for a quality of life that North Americans and Europeans enjoy.
\par \tab Africa has the highest death rate of any continent, reflecting the poor level of health care, sanitation, and, more basically, protein and caloric deficiencies in many African countries. The United Nations estimates the death rates in some very poor African nations at more than 18 deaths per 1,000 population, compared with approximately 11 for the world as a whole and 7 to 12 for most Western countries. An even more dramatic figure is the infant mortality rate, or number of deaths of infants under one year of age per 1,000 live births. In the late 1980s this was estimated at more than 100 for many less developed African nations, compared with less than 10 in the West. Expectation of life at birth in these countries ranges between about 40 and 50 years of age; in the United States it is over 70. Even so, the population of Africa is growing rapidly because of extremely high birthrates and the introduction of modern medical treatment and techniques.
\par \tab Because much of Africa is near the equator, large areas suffer from fatal or debilitating tropical diseases such as malaria, sleeping sickness, schistosomiasis, and river blindness, or onchoceriasis. Many of these diseases are caused by parasites that are extremely difficult to eradicate. Malaria, for example, is caused by a protozoan that is transmitted to humans by the bite of the female Anopheles mosquito. Despite a long and expensive World Health Organization campaign to exterminate the mosquito carrier, the disease has not been eliminated; in some areas it appears to be staging a comeback.
\par \tab The blood fluke that causes schistosomiasis, a painful and debilitating disease that afflicts millions in the tropics, spends part of its life cycle in certain species of freshwater snail. Ironically, the snails and the disease have been introduced into previously free areas--including parts of Egypt and Ghana--by irrigation projects that were meant to better the lot of the people. Conquering these diseases requires vast sums of money and immense efforts in medical research and education in better hygiene.
\par \tab Another cause of poor health in Africa is malnutrition. Large parts of the continent, especially marginal areas such as the region just south of the Sahara, are subject to crop failures resulting from droughts, locust plagues, and other natural disasters. Wars and revolutions have driven refugees into countries where the people have difficulty feeding themselves, much less the newcomers. One of the most severe health problems in Africa in the late 20th century was the prevalence of Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) throughout the population. By 1991 two thirds of the world's AIDS cases were in Africa.
\par \tab As with education, the African governments recognize these problems, and national budgets typically reflect high expenditures on health care. In addition to training doctors and nurses and building hospitals and clinics, some governments are experimenting with the use of paramedical helpers who can provide everyday health care and teach the people improved methods of sanitation and hygiene. Traditional medicines, utilizing native plants and herbs, are being examined for possible useful properties. Unfortunately, resources for health care are frequently inadequate.
{\b ECONOMY}
\par \tab Because most African nations have inherited economic problems from the colonial period and because the prices for African products on world markets have been low, the governments of these nations are finding it very difficult to fulfill the hopes and demands of their people. Although living standards have improved since independence, they are still below expectations.
\par \tab At the time of independence, many African countries relied on a single crop or mineral to export for sale in other countries, a pattern that had been encouraged by the colonial powers. This was their only source of national income, and as a result they were highly exposed to the fluctuations of international prices for their products. Since independence, African governments have tried to diversify their exports so their income does not depend on just one item. They also have begun to sell their goods to more countries to avoid being dependent on only one foreign buyer.
\par \tab Senegal is an example of a country that has been relatively successful in changing its export pattern. At the time of independence in 1960, peanut products made up 83 percent of Senegal's exports and France bought more than three fourths of Senegal's produce. Three decades later peanuts had been reduced to about 25 percent of exports and France's portion of the market was less than a third of the total. Not all countries have done as well, and trade in a single product remains a problem for certain countries, among them Zambia (copper), The Gambia (peanuts), and Mauritius (sugar).
\par {\b Agriculture}
\par \tab Even though Africa is wealthy in minerals and other raw materials, agriculture continues to be the economic base of life for most people. Since independence, African farmers have greatly increased the cultivation of cash crops, such as cacao, coffee, tea, and bananas, for export. However, small-scale or subsistence farming to meet the daily needs of the family continues to be the most common rural life-style. Sixty percent of Africa's farmlands and nearly three fourths of the working population are involved in subsistence agriculture.
\par \tab The biggest problem facing Africa today is the failure of agricultural production to keep pace with the very rapid increase in population. Food production per person declined in most African countries, and even in Nigeria, Africa's most populous and resource-rich nation, the growth in population outpaces the growth in agricultural output.
\par \tab To overcome the food crisis, African governments must give more attention to the rural areas. Some governments have recognized this and have put special emphasis on agriculture, generally with positive results; Senegal, C⌠te d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast), Tanzania, and Malawi are examples. On the other hand, at one time Nigeria spent only 1 percent of the government budget on agriculture. African governments also require cooperation from the rest of the global community to help keep down the costs of farm equipment, fertilizers, and imported oil, all needed to improve food production.
\par \tab In the forest areas of Africa, subsistence farming is carried out under a form of land use known as shifting agriculture. A farmer clears a plot in the forest, grows crops such as bananas and yams until the soil fertility declines, then abandons the area to let the soil recover (lie fallow), and moves on to a new plot. Where population growth is rapid, the land often is not left fallow long enough to allow the soil to regain its fertility.
\par \tab Over the years large areas of forest have been cleared by this process. Land has also been cleared for plantation crops, such as rubber in Liberia, cacao in Ghana, and oil palm in C⌠te d'Ivoire.
\par \tab Farmers can cultivate crops in the wetter parts of the savanna. They grow grains such as millet, sorghum, and corn (maize), often in the same field as other crops such as beans, cassava, and sweet potatoes. Many also produce crops for sale, such as cotton, peanuts, and soybeans. These crops must be grown during the short rainy season, but in some areas along rivers it has been possible to build irrigation projects that allow farmers to grow crops over a longer period of time.
\par \tab Herders also live in the savanna, moving their herds of camels, cattle, sheep, and goats from place to place to find water and pasture. During the dry season they go to the hills, swamps, and river valleys that have water and grasses all year round. When the rains arrive, the herders spread out over the savanna, grazing their herds on the grasses and shrubs that grow during the wet season.
\par {\b Forestry and Fishing}
\par \tab Lumbering is an important activity in the forest areas. Countries such as Gabon, Ghana, Liberia, and C⌠te d'Ivoire have lumbering industries that exploit such valuable tree species as mahogany. Together with agriculture and mining, lumbering has contributed to the deforestation that is becoming a serious problem in some areas. Removal of the vegetation cover increases soil erosion, ultimately reducing agricultural productivity.
\par \tab The long coastline and large number of rivers and lakes provide Africa with ample fish resources. Fishes are caught by spear and net from dugout canoes, from motorboats, and in some countries such as Senegal and Morocco by fleets of trawlers. Fish farming is being developed in low-lying areas of the savanna where water can be retained for the entire year.
\par \tab Among African nations, South Africa, Nigeria, Tanzania, Namibia, Senegal, Morocco, Ghana, and Uganda account for the greatest catches, but even larger amounts are caught by Japan, Russia, and the United States fishing in African waters. Fishing agreements, such as that between Kenya and Japan, regulate this exploitation of Africa's fishing grounds. To help protect African waters, proposals have been made to extend territorial waters from 12 to 200 miles (19 to 320 kilometers) offshore and to strengthen national naval forces to control illegal fishing.
\par {\b Mining}
\par \tab Africa has tremendous mineral wealth. Many different minerals are found in large deposits of high quality. The continent produces 70 percent of the world's diamonds (Zaire, South Africa, Botswana, Namibia, Ghana, Angola), 55 percent of its gold (South Africa, Ghana, Zimbabwe, Zaire), and at least 25 percent of its chromite for hardening steel (South Africa, Zimbabwe), phosphate for fertilizer (Morocco, Tunisia, South Africa), beryllium for hardening copper or nickel (Rwanda, Zimbabwe, Mozambique), and copper (Zambia, Zaire, South Africa). It is also an important producer of oil (Nigeria, Libya, Algeria, Egypt), uranium (South Africa, Namibia, Niger, Gabon), tin (Zaire, South Africa, Nigeria), and iron ore (South Africa, Liberia, Mauritania, Algeria). Cobalt is mined in Zaire, Zambia, and Morocco and bauxite in Guinea, Sierra Leone, and Ghana. Almost all of the mining and petroleum operations are managed by foreigners, though African governments are committed to increasing their share of ownership.
\par {\b Manufacturing}
\par \tab At independence, most African countries had little industry. Under colonial rule, African raw materials were exported to Europe to be manufactured into finished goods, some of which were exported back to Africa and sold at very high prices. To change this pattern, many African leaders have encouraged industrial expansion in their countries so that they will not need to depend on imported textiles, automobile tires, canned goods, and other manufactured products. But economic independence is often more difficult to achieve than political independence. Despite some successes in industrial expansion, manufacturing still accounts for only a small fraction of the total economic activity in most countries.
\par \tab Generally, manufacturing is concentrated in the areas of textiles, building materials, and the processing of fish, fruits, and other agricultural crops. Most of these industries are owned by foreign companies. However, some African private businesses and governments have become partners with foreign businesses in building new enterprises.
\par {\b Africanization}
\par \tab As in the case of mining, African governments are committed to becoming more involved in "Africanizing" their countries' businesses and industry. One thing that Africanization does is place African people in leadership positions in these enterprises. Thus, for example, Zambian businessmen and women would make decisions affecting other Zambians, rather than leaving those decisions to foreigners who may not even consider Zambia their home. The East African countries of Kenya and Tanzania have taken the lead in limiting the role and power of foreigners in their economies. The effects of this drive on African living standards have been mixed. Africanization in some countries, such as Kenya and Nigeria, has made a few people very rich while the others remain poor. In other countries, such as Angola and Tanzania, most people are better off than before, but the total increase in economic development has been small.
\par \tab The sharp increases in the world price of oil that began in the 1970s created serious problems for oil-importing African countries seeking to expand their industrial base. However, the countries of Africa possess a tremendous potential source of energy in the hydroelectric power of their many rivers, and as oil prices rise, African nations are actively exploiting hydroelectric power. Some rivers, like the Nile, Congo, and Niger, are very long and are navigable over much of the interior but not at the coast. While this limits their use as transport links to the coast, they have the potential to produce 23 percent of the world's hydroelectric power. At present only about 2 percent is used. Among the largest hydroelectric dams are the Kariba Dam on the Zambezi River between Zambia and Zimbabwe, the Aswan High Dam on the Nile in Egypt, the Akosombo Dam on the Volta River in Ghana, and Cabora Bassa Dam in Mozambique.
\par {\b Transportation and Communications}
\par \tab Africa had extensive transportation networks long before the colonial period. Camel caravans crossed the Sahara carrying goods between Africa and Europe. In eastern and southern Africa traders brought goods to the coast, where they were exchanged for products brought by Arab traders from as far away as China. Boats carried trade goods on the major rivers.
\par \tab The colonial period brought major changes in the transportation systems of the continent, in terms of both technology and the pattern of routes. Since 1900 railways have been built and roads improved to allow motor transport. Steamboats are found on rivers and lakes, and aircraft fly internationally.
\par \tab These modern modes of transport required large investments. They were justified by the colonial powers as a means to exploit the mineral and agricultural resources of Africa. Since independence, few changes have been made in the old transportation systems.
\par \tab The transportation systems within most African countries tend to be treelike, with a major rail line or road fed by a few branches. These routes were built to connect mines and plantations with the coast, so minerals and crops could be exported to the colonial country. Only a few countries have integrated systems designed for people rather than goods.
\par \tab The countries that do not have direct access to the sea require road and rail links to a port if they are to engage in trade. Some landlocked countries do have good transportation systems. These are the countries whose mineral or agricultural resources were valuable enough to make a heavy investment in transport facilities worthwhile for the colonial powers. Countries without such resources were neglected, however. Many of these countries are among the poorest in the world, and their lack of transportation facilities and landlocked positions contribute to their poverty.
\par \tab Another consequence of the colonial transportation pattern is that communications among African countries are not well developed. The highest priority was given to linking areas that produced export goods with the port in each country. Furthermore, the colonial powers themselves were often at odds with one another, and they had no interest in improving communications between their own colonies and those of rival powers. This is changing to some extent. New railroads have been built, such as the Tanzam Railway between Tanzania and Zambia, and others are proposed between Cameroon and Chad and between Benin and Niger. Transcontinental highways from Cairo to the Cape of Good Hope and from Kenya to Nigeria are under construction. Communications among African nations are being steadily improved, even though the systems of most of the countries are still oriented toward Europe.
\par \tab Improved transportation and communications are important if Africa is to achieve a measure of unity and integration in its economic, social, and political development. Regional economic associations among African countries exist, and their continued success depends to a large degree on better communications.
{\b INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS}
\par \tab Contemporary Africa is marked by a great variety of political and economic systems. There are, however, certain common themes that most African countries share. Many of these arise from the fact that almost all of the African countries have been independent from European colonial rule only since the 1960s or early 1970s. The arrival of the Europeans in Africa, and the political and economic ideas they brought with them, deeply affected the way of life of the local inhabitants and greatly influenced the thinking of important segments of the African population. The colonial legacy has created serious problems for the independent African governments.
\par {\b The Colonial Legacy}
\par \tab Perhaps the most important legacy of colonialism is the division of Africa into more than 50 states whose boundaries were set without regard for where the people lived or how they organized their own political divisions. The present boundaries often divide single African ethnic communities among two or more nation-states. For example, although most of the Somali people live in Somalia, there are significant minorities in Kenya and Ethiopia, many of whom would like to become citizens of Somalia. This has led to tension, and on occasion to border warfare, among Kenyan, Ethiopian, and Somali governments. Similarly, the Bakongo people of central Africa were colonized by three different European powers--Belgium, Portugal, and France--and now live in three different independent African nations--Zaire, Angola, and the Congo.
\par \tab A second important legacy of colonialism was its effect on the economic life of the African people. All the colonial systems disrupted existing economic patterns, though the extent of the disruption varied from area to area. The change from food-crop to cash-crop production is an example. Colonialism also linked Africa economically to the European colonial powers. The benefits of these new patterns usually went to the European countries rather than to the African colonies. This history of economic exploitation has played an important role in shaping the way independent African governments have attempted to develop their own economies. Some countries, such as C⌠te d'Ivoire, have built on the export-oriented economic base created by colonial rule. Others, such as Tanzania, have attempted to redirect their economies away from the production of exports and toward producing crops and goods needed by the Tanzanian people. Julius Nyerere, the first president of Tanzania, described this approach as "Self-Reliance."
\par \tab The third important legacy of colonialism was the introduction of ideas of European racial and cultural superiority. The colonial powers attempted to convince Africans that effective participation in the modern world required them to discard their own identities and cultures and become more like Europeans. Schools in colonial Africa taught African children about European history and European literature, while neglecting the history and cultural heritage of Africa itself.
\par \tab The experience of colonialism in Africa, as in the 13 American Colonies, also generated a powerful desire among the colonized to be free. This feeling was strengthened after thousands of African soldiers fought for France and Britain in World Wars I and II. They returned home with a renewed spirit of freedom and desire to build independent countries that would take their proper place among the global community of nations. While the colonial authorities first resisted these notions, by the late 1950s they had become too strong to be denied.
\par {\b Government}
\par \tab {\b European political systems.}
\par \tab At independence, the new African nations inherited European forms of government. Most former British colonies had a parliamentary system that included a legislature and competing political parties. The head of government was a prime minister chosen by the legislature rather than directly by the people, and the prime minister and his Cabinet of ministers could be dismissed by the legislature. Former French colonies generally inherited governments that were modeled on the French presidential system. These countries also had political parties competing for legislative office, but the president was elected directly by the people, as is the case in France. By and large, these European-style political systems have not lasted. In the decades after 1960, when most of Africa became independent, African countries have moved away from the forms of government left by the Europeans, and their political systems have become more diverse.
\par \tab One noteworthy feature of the African political scene has been the importance of individual political leaders, "fathers" of their countries, like Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana, Nyerere of Tanzania, and Jomo Kenyatta of Kenya. As the African countries gained independence, their leaders felt that they themselves could become symbols that would bring together the various regions and peoples and create a sense of nationhood and loyalty. They proposed strong leadership to achieve national unity and to begin the difficult tasks of economic and social development. In order to be successful, however, the new national leaders had to recognize the continuing strength of the traditional African political systems. The authority of the traditional leaders, especially over the rural population, had not been destroyed by colonial rule. Some of the new leaders, like Nyerere and President FΘlix Houphouδt-Boigny of C⌠te d'Ivoire, worked with them successfully. President Nkrumah of Ghana and President Milton Obote of Uganda, on the other hand, failed to take them into account. Their governments lost support and were overthrown.
\par \tab {\b One-party states.}
\par \tab Another important general feature of African political life has been the emergence of states with only one political party. At the time of independence, most African governments had competitive party systems, but the parties usually did not function as they do in Europe and the United States. African political parties were often based on regional or ethnic loyalties, and this led to conflict and instability rather than to compromise and stability. In response, many African countries attempted to create broad-based, single-party political systems in order to build a strong basis for national unity and development. Some single-party states became authoritarian with no political choice, but others--notably Tanzania, Mozambique, Kenya, and Zambia--encouraged political competition and choice.
\par \tab Eventually, some countries became disillusioned with single-party systems and military governments and began experimenting with a return to competitive party politics. These included Senegal, Sierra Leone, Nigeria, and Uganda. Starting in 1990 the call to multiparty democracy was heard in more and more countries, including Benin, Algeria, and Zambia.
\par \tab {\b Military governments.}
\par \tab Until the early 1990s in most African countries, political power has become more centralized at the top, and the influence of representative legislatures had decreased. However, as nonmilitary or civilian leaders centralized their authority and attempted to build single-party states, their governments often became more fragile. These leaders sought help from the military. In many cases, the military became so discouraged with civilian government that they took over political power directly. In a one-year period during the mid-1960s, military coups that overthrew civilian governments were especially evident. They occurred in eight African countries, including the most populous nation, Nigeria. There are many reasons why African military leaders lost confidence in civilian governments and why military intervention was accepted by the people. Some civilian governments did not manage economic development well, and in many cases political corruption had been widespread, causing unrest and rebellion. In general, however, the governments that came to power in military takeovers or "coups" did not prove any better at the tasks of governing than the civilian governments they replaced. Military regimes also were usually reluctant to step down from power, though there have been several exceptions. Most notably, Nigeria returned to civilian rule within a democratic political framework.
\par \tab One important cause of political instability in Africa is the inability of governments to meet the rapidly growing demands for more schools, roads, hospitals, and other expensive services that were denied by the colonial powers. The people thought that political freedom would bring quick changes in their standard of living. When such hopes are not fulfilled, these people lose faith in their government.
\par {\b Regional and Continental Organizations}
\par \tab Many Africans have long dreamed of unifying their continent into a giant "United States of Africa." After World War II, along with the rise of nationalism in colonial territories, there emerged a continent-wide Pan-African movement. While the dream of a United States of Africa remains distant, African governments have participated in several international and regional organizations designed to promote African cooperation and unity.
\par \tab The most important of these organizations is the Organization of African Unity (OAU), founded in 1963. The goals of the OAU are to promote unity and solidarity among African states; coordinate efforts to improve living standards; defend the territorial integrity and independence of African states; eradicate all forms of colonialism; and promote international cooperation in keeping with the United Nations Charter. In 1991 the OAU adopted a 51-nation treaty to establish the African Economic Community. The OAU has played an important role in the struggle to end colonialism and racial domination in southern Africa and has been generally successful in settling disputes between African nations.
\par \tab African governments also have established regional organizations for economic and political cooperation. In recent years these organizations have achieved some success in strengthening the economic and political positions of their members. The two most important regional organizations in Africa today are the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) and the Southern African Development Coordination Conference (SADCC).
\par \tab ECOWAS is comprised of 16 West African nations that are trying to expand trade and economic cooperation among the member countries and to promote self-reliance. Currently, only 10 percent of West African trade is within the region. The ECOWAS countries encompass a vast area with almost 150 million people and a wide range of agricultural, mineral, and petroleum resources. Their chances of developing trade within the region are good.
\par \tab SADCC is comprised of nine independent African-ruled countries in southern Africa. SADCC has two major goals: to expand and coordinate the economic and transportation ties among member countries and to decrease the power and influence of white-ruled South Africa within the region. Both ECOWAS and SADCC have sought and received support from non-African nations, including the United States, to assist them in their efforts at regional economic and political development.
{\b HISTORY}
\par \tab It has been generally agreed that the first human beings evolved on the African continent more than one million years ago. Archaeological excavations at various sites in eastern and southern Africa have produced evidence for this theory. If this is correct, all human history began with a series of migrations from Africa to other world regions.
\par \tab Settled agriculture and iron working are two important developments in human history. The first known instance of settled agriculture was in the Middle East around 7000 BC, although Africans in various regions also were experimenting with wild plants at about the same time. These Africans adapted Middle Eastern agricultural techniques to the African context and produced local food crops.
\par \tab Iron working also has a long history on the African continent. Archaeologists have found iron objects in Nigeria that were constructed by the people of Nok more than two thousand years ago. Agricultural tools made of iron helped African societies bring more land into cultivation and, at the same time, expand the process of agricultural experimentation.
\par \tab Agricultural production in Africa has been dominated by people organized into small groups or societies. The Africans in these small societies usually identified themselves as the descendants of an important ancestor, often the leader of a migration. These societies treated everyone equally, although special respect was shown to elders who were considered wise and experienced leaders of the community. Elders were assisted by others in governing the community; together they discussed the common problems of the people and sought solutions that would bring the most good to the greatest number. The purpose of their decisions was to help the community remain peaceful and prosperous. Under this system everyone in the community shared in the wealth as well as the hardships of their common life.
\par \tab Most people in these societies were engaged in agricultural production. After the harvest season, people had time to produce useful household objects, such as kitchen utensils, and to practice other arts and crafts. Societies that had a particularly skillful group of ironsmiths or other specialized craftsmen traded their products to societies that specialized in other products. Such local systems of trade and specialization developed in several regions. If an area had a particularly valuable resource, such as fertile land or rich iron deposits, a small chiefdom or state often emerged to control that resource.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was prepared by the African Studies Center, Michigan State University under the direction of Dr. David Wiley and Marylee Crofts.
\par \tab {\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR AFRICA}
\par \tab {\b Books for Children}
\par \tab Aardema, Verna. Bimwili and the Zimwi: A Tale from Zanzibar (Dial, 1988).
\par \tab Lewin, Arthur. Africa Is Not a Country--It's a Continent! (Clarendon, 1990).
\par \tab Linfield, Esther. The Secret of the Mountain (Greenwillow, 1986).
\par \tab Poland, Marguerite. The Mantis and the Moon: Stories for the Children of Africa (Ohio Univ. Press, 1983.)
\par \tab Stevenson, William. The Bushbabies (Peter Smith, 1984).
\par \tab {\b Books for Young Adults}
\par \tab Addison, John. Traditional Africa (Greenhaven, 1980).
\par \tab Ayittey, G.B.N. Africa Betrayed (St. Martin's, 1992).
\par \tab Bentley, Judith. Archbishop Tutu of South Africa (Enslow, 1988).
\par \tab Boamah-Wiafe, Daniel. Africa Today: Its Peoples and Contemporary Cultures, 2nd ed. (Kendall-Hunt, 1988).
\par \tab Dinesen, Isak. Isak Dinesen's Africa: Images of the Wild Continent from the Writer's Life and Words (Harrison House, 1987).
\par \tab Fetner, P.J. The African Safari (St. Martin's, 1987).
\par \tab Harden, Blaine. Africa: Dispatches from a Fragile Continent (Norton, 1990).
\par \tab Harris, E.L. Native Stranger: A Black American's Journey into the Heart of Africa (Simon & Schuster, 1992).
\par \tab Lye, Keith. Africa (Gloucester Press, 1987).
\par \tab Rowell, Trevor. The Scramble for Africa (B.T. Batsford, 1986).
\par \tab Vail, J.J. Nelson and Winnie Mandela (Chelsea House, 1989).\par \tab The tiny Republic of Albania is located on the Balkan Peninsula. It is bordered on the south by Greece and on the north by Yugoslavia. The Adriatic Sea washes its western shore. Albania became a Communist state in 1946. In succeeding decades it became the poorest country of Europe. In the 1990s, like its Eastern European neighbors, it rejected Communism. The Communist party itself was voted out of office in March 1992.
\par \tab Albania is the smallest country on the Balkan Peninsula, with an area of only 11,100 square miles (28,749 square kilometers). The country is largely mountainous, with some peaks reaching over 8,000 feet (2,500 meters) in height. The highest mountain is Korab at 9,026 feet (2,751 meters). The only lowland area, which is located along the coast, occupies about a quarter of the total area of the country and contains about half the population.
\par \tab The country has a Mediterranean climate, with hot, dry summers and mild, wet winters. The seasonal nature of the rainfall affects the flow of the rivers. In winter they become torrents and cause severe flooding, while in summer they are reduced to mere trickles. The longest river is the Drin, which begins in Yugoslavia and flows for 174 miles (280 kilometers) through northern Albania. The major rivers of the south are the Shkumbin, the Mat, and the Vijosδ.
\par \tab Soils in general are poor, and even in the plains they are infertile and poorly drained. Only about 20 percent of the country's area is used for farming.
\par {\b Plant and Animal Life}
\par \tab Much of Albania was once forested, but little of the original vegetation remains, due to centuries of clearing and livestock grazing; many areas are covered with only bushes and scrub. The remaining forests in the mountains are mainly of oak, beech, and pine. Mountain meadows are found above the timberline. Reforestation is a primary government goal.
\par \tab Because hunting was unrestricted, few wild animals remain in Albania except in the remote forests. Among the animals are wolves, wild hogs, bears, deer, and a few chamois (small goatlike antelopes). Wild birds are plentiful, however. Hunting laws to preserve the country's wildlife have now been enacted.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab The people of Albania belong to two major groups, the Ghegs, to the north of the Shkumbin River, and the Tosks, to the south. Each group speaks its own dialect of the Albanian language. In 1972 a unified literary (written) language was created, incorporating elements of both dialects. Minority groups are small and consist mainly of Gypsies, some Greeks in the south, and the Vlachs, a Romanian-speaking people. These groups together make up only about 3 percent of the population.
\par \tab Under the Communist regime religion was discouraged and Albania became officially an atheistic nation, but religion-based cultural differences remain among the population. Of those professing a faith the most numerous are Muslim, Roman Catholic, and Greek Orthodox.
\par \tab Albania has the smallest population of the Balkan countries. Only about 3.3 million people live there. However, in the late 1980s Albania had the highest rate of population increase of any European country--about 2 percent per year. The Albanian people are traditionally divided into clans or tribes, each of which traces its ancestry back to a single individual. Disputes or crimes involving other clans often resulted in blood feuds between males in the clans.
\par \tab As a result of almost five centuries of Turkish rule the Albanians adopted a way of life (including clothing, building styles, and art forms) which was similar to that of western Asia. This was especially true of the Muslim population. In the late 20th century, however, the way of life has become increasingly Western in style.
\par \tab About two thirds of the population live in rural areas, with the rest in a few cities that lie mainly in the lowlands. The largest city is the capital, Tiranδ, with more than 200,000 inhabitants. Durrδs has about 83,000 inhabitants, while Vlorδ, Shkodδr, Korτδ and Elbasan are smaller. Many of these cities are of ancient origin, and most have architectural features that reveal Turkish influence.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab The Albanian economy is one of the poorest in Europe. It relies largely on agriculture. When the Communists took control after World War II, they abolished private land ownership. About 80 percent of agricultural land was put into cooperatives and the rest was farmed directly by the state.
\par \tab The Albanians were traditionally herders who took their herds of sheep and goats to mountain pastures during summer. Herding is still important, but at present crops account for two thirds of the farm products. The chief grain crop is wheat, followed closely by corn (maize). Other important farm products include rice, cotton, sugar beets, potatoes, vegetables, and fodder crops. The warm summers permit the growing of olives, grapes, tobacco, and citrus fruits.
\par \tab Albania has substantial reserves of several industrial minerals. There is sufficient oil to meet the country's requirements and permit some export. A pipeline leads from the oil fields at Qytet Stalin to the port of Vlorδ, and the nation also has several refineries. Some natural gas is produced. There are scattered deposits of lignite (brown coal) suitable for electric-power production. Most of the electric power of the country is, however, obtained from hydroelectric-power stations. Among metallic minerals chromite is the most important and is exported in substantial quantities. Other exports of Albania include copper, iron ore, asphalt, tobacco, fruit and vegetables, and wine. Imports are restricted generally to the country's equipment requirements.
\par \tab The development of industry, especially oil and chemicals, is being given the highest priority in Albania. A small iron and steel plant at Elbasan opened in 1976, and there are several small chemical plants. Large textile combines operate at Tiranδ and Berat.
\par {\b Transportation, Communication, and Education}
\par \tab The first railroad line in Albania was built in 1948 linking Tiranδ with Durrδs on the coast and Elbasan in the interior. The main ports are Durrδs, Vlorδ, Shδngjin, and Sarandδ.
\par \tab Albania has a somewhat limited telephone network. There is a fairly extensive broadcasting service, however, and television programming began in 1971. Newspaper circulation is quite limited. There is a state university at Tiranδ.
\par {\b Government}
\par \tab From 1946 until 1990 political power rested entirely in the hands of Albania's Labor (Communist) party. The party was the government, and it made all decisions about social, economic, political, and religious matters. Multiparty rule began and a transitional constitution was adopted in 1991, after the fall of Communism in the rest of Eastern Europe. There are a People's Assembly and a Presidential Council, respectively the highest legislative and executive bodies in the country.
\par {\b History}
\par \tab Before the Roman invasion in the 2nd century BC, the present territory of Albania was inhabited by the Illyrians, an Indo-European people. After the collapse of the Roman Empire in the west, Albania first came under the control of the Byzantine Empire and later of Bulgaria and Serbia.
\par \tab When the Ottoman Turks invaded the Balkans in the late 14th century, Albania became part of the Ottoman Empire. In spite of the fierce resistance of the Albanians, led by their national hero Skanderbeg, the Turks ruled the country for almost 500 years. Albania did not gain its independence from the Turks until 1912. At that time, however, the country was too weak to resist the pressures exerted by the major European powers, which awarded to Serbia a large area with an Albanian population.
\par \tab During World War I Albania was occupied by the warring powers, including Italy. Although these troops ultimately withdrew, the Italians retained an interest in the country. In 1922 Ahmed Bey Zogu became the premier. He then became president, and in 1928 he declared himself King Zog I. After the Italians invaded in April 1939, Zog fled the country.
\par \tab During World War II the country was also occupied by the Germans. When they retreated in 1944, a leader of the Communist-led resistance movement, Enver Hoxha, became head of the Albanian government. In 1946 a people's republic was declared; private land was confiscated and industry nationalized. After the war Yugoslavia virtually controlled Albania. When Yugoslavia left the Soviet bloc in 1948, Albania broke its ties with that country and became an ally of the Soviet Union, joining the Warsaw Pact in 1955. Albania broke with the Soviet Union and became an ally of China in 1961; these ties to China were severed in 1978 but were renewed in 1991.
\par \tab At his death in 1985 Hoxha was the longest-serving head of a Communist country. Under his successor, Ramiz Alia, Albania slowly emerged from the isolation that had marked the Hoxha era. Diplomatic relations were established with many countries, and Albania began to take an active role in Balkan affairs. In December 1990 the Democratic party was established, and in March 1991 the first multiparty elections in 68 years were held. A non-Communist multiparty regime took control in June 1991 as a result of a successful strike, but amid nationwide food shortages and general inefficiency this regime fell in December 1991. Thousands of Albanian refugees fled to Italy in August 1991, but only a handful were allowed to remain there. In April 1992 Sali Berisha, a heart surgeon, was elected Albania's first non-Communist president since World War II.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab Ian Matley\par \tab Situated on the north coast of Africa, Algeria is the second largest country of the continent. It covers more than 900,000 square miles (2,300,000 square kilometers), about four fifths of which is in the Sahara Desert. The country's Mediterranean coastline extends about 620 miles (1,000 kilometers). Algeria is bordered by Tunisia, Libya, Niger, Mali, Mauritania, Western Sahara, and Morocco.
\par \tab Eighty percent of Algeria's inhabitants live in the agricultural lands and cities of the north, called the Tell. An independent republic since it won freedom from France in 1962, Algeria has links to Europe across the Mediterranean Sea and to southern Africa via the Sahara. History, language, and the Muslim religion make the country a part of the Arab world.
\par \tab Northern Algeria is divided into five distinctive physical regions. Three are in the far north: the arable coastal strip, the plains just to the south, and the Tell Atlas Mountains running east and west along the plains. Farther south, the High Plateaus form another east-west barrier. The fifth region is the Saharan Atlas Mountains, which extend into the desert.
\par \tab The region of the Tell Atlas Mountains is geologically young and unstable, and earthquakes are common. It has a Mediterranean climate, with warm, wet winters and hot, dry summers. Rainfall averages 28 inches (71 centimeters); mean temperatures range from 50░ F (10░ C) in January to 80░ F (27░ C) in July. Hot, dry winds from the Sahara intensify summer drought, which may severely damage crops.
\par \tab The semiarid lands of the High Plateaus area form a wide, almost featureless plain in the southern part of the country. Annual rainfall ranges from 16 inches (41 centimeters) in the north to 8 inches (20 centimeters) in the south. Temperatures range from 48░ F (9░ C) in January to 80░ F in July. The High Plateaus region has no permanent streams.
\par \tab The Saharan Atlas Mountains are rugged and vegetation is sparse. The northern edge of the mountains receives about 8 inches of rain yearly. Farther south, precipitation decreases.
\par \tab The arid Sahara region consists of several large, saucer-shaped basins, plateaus, and highlands. Some of the basins contain extensive fields of sand, called ergs. To the south are large heavily eroded volcanic massifs (mountain blocks). The Ahaggar is the largest, with Algeria's highest peak, Mount Tahat, at 9,573 feet (2,918 meters). At the desert's northern edge, the annual rainfall is about 7 inches (18 centimeters). Average temperatures range from 45░ F (7░ C) in January to 85░ F (29░ C) in July. The central Sahara has less than 1 inch (2.5 centimeters) of rainfall annually; average temperatures range from 57░ F (14░ C) in January to 99░ F (37░ C) in July.
\par {\b Plant and Animal Life}
\par \tab Plant and animal life relate to the patterns of rainfall. The amount of rainfall increases from west to east but decreases from north to south. The Saharan Atlas Mountains roughly divide the country into two principal agricultural and vegetation zones. North of the mountains, dry farming is possible, and fine forests and abundant vegetation are found. Cork oaks grow, along with grapes, olives, citrus fruits, grain, tobacco, and cotton. Other trees include Aleppo pines, evergreen oaks, and thugas. To the south, vegetation common to steppe regions, including esparto grass or wormwood, appears. Some plants grow quickly after a rain and disappear almost at once. Grasses, stunted shrubs, athels, acacia, jujube trees, and other plants can survive despite meager rainfalls.
\par \tab Vegetation on the High Plateaus consists mainly of scattered bushes and clumps of grasses. Seasonal pastures are used for grazing livestock. Depending on the amount of rainfall, the cultivation of grain crops may be possible. In 1975 the government began to plant a belt of trees just south of the Saharan Atlas chain. Some 930 miles (1,500 kilometers) long, it was designed to keep the desert from drifting northward.
\par \tab Elephants, hippopotamuses, and crocodiles once lived in Algeria. Today, few species are found, mainly because the sparse vegetation will not support diverse animal life. Hyenas and jackals, monkeys, hawks, and desert snakes are native to the region; so are some antelope, gazelles, hares, jerboa, and wild boars.
\par {\b The People}
\par \tab Two ethnic strains, the Arab and the Berber, predominate in Algeria. Many of the country's inhabitants are of mixed Arab and Berber descent. The Berbers originally lived in the region and today form an important element of the population; the Arabs came later, during the 600s, and today make up about 90 percent of the population.
\par \tab Islam, the religion of the Muslims, helps to unify Algeria's peoples. About 99 percent of the population is Muslim; the great majority belongs to the Sunni sect of Islam. Most of the others are Roman Catholics of French descent.
\par \tab Both Berber and Arabic are spoken in Algeria. But most Berbers also speak Arabic, the official language. Even though most of the French residents left after 1962, French continued to be used as a second lan-guage. Efforts have been made to increase the use of Arabic. At the same time the Berbers have struggled to keep their own language and culture.
\par \tab Algeria's peoples follow ways of life that vary from region to region. In the capital, Algiers, and other cities many people maintain a modern lifestyle. In the northern plains, farmers lead simple lives while seminomadic and nomadic groups range the highlands and deserts.
\par \tab In 1968 the National Institute of Music began programs to encourage traditional music and dances and preserve folklore. Many of these forms developed from Arabian and Spanish Andalusian styles. The Algerian National Theater has presented the Arabic-language works of Algerian playwrights. In painting, the themes of revolution and socialism have been widely used. Craft workers produce inlaid furniture, rugs, earthenware, camel-skin products, jewelry, and a variety of other goods.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab The Algerian government controls the nation's economy. Since independence, Algeria has nationalized most foreign-owned companies and properties. The government also runs all heavy industry and controls the production and distribution of petroleum, natural gas, and minerals.
\par \tab Most Algerians work in agriculture, but less than 5 percent of the arable land is permanently cultivated. On the coastal plains, cereal grains, grapes, olives, and citrus fruits are the principal crops. Cereal growing and livestock herding take place in the Tell Atlas and the High Plateaus. Permanent meadows and pastures support goats, sheep, and cattle.
\par \tab The Algerian government has enacted several land-reform programs since independence. In 1971, for example, large farms were redistributed to landless peasants who were organized into agricultural cooperatives. The government also nationalized 6.7 million acres (2.7 million hectares) of pastureland.
\par \tab Petroleum and natural gas are Algeria's main exports. The major oil fields are located in the northeastern Sahara and on the Libyan border. Algeria has petroleum reserves of 9 billion barrels (1985 estimate). Natural gas reserves are the fourth largest in the world (1988 estimate). Most of the reserves are at Hassi R'Mel, 250 miles (400 kilometers) south of Algiers. Gas is piped to the coast in liquefied form. Throughout the 1980s the government invested in new pipelines, liquefaction plants, and tankers.
\par \tab Algeria also produces minerals. It mines and exports high-grade iron ore, mercury, and phosphate rock. Most of the iron ore is produced at the Ouenza open-pit mine.
\par \tab Manufacturing accounts for only a small part of Algeria's income. The major industries are iron, steel, and petroleum refining. The production of fertilizers and the manufacture of industrial vehicles and farm machinery are also significant. The country's growing industries include paper, textiles, electrical goods, and flour milling.
\par {\b Transportation, Communication, and Education}
\par \tab Two thirds of Algeria's roads and railroad tracks are located in the northern half of the country. Main roads link towns and large cities and extend to the petroleum and natural gas fields. The trans-Saharan Road of African Unity has been completed to Tamenghest. Algeria has some 2,300 miles (3,700 kilometers) of railway.
\par \tab Algiers is the country's main port. Other major ports are Annaba and Oran (Wahren). Houari Boumedienne, near Algiers, is a modern airport. Annaba, Qacentina (Constantine), and Oran have smaller modern airports. Air AlgΘrie (Air Algeria) provides domestic and international service.
\par \tab Throughout the 1970s and 1980s the country's postal, telephone, and telegraph services were expanding. The official Algerian Press Service reported local and international news for radio, television, and newspapers. Several Arabic-language and French-language newspapers are published. Founded in 1962, the Algerian Radio and Television System broadcasts throughout the country. Programs are produced in both Arabic and French.
\par \tab Education is compulsory for children between the ages of 6 and 15. Arabic is the language of instruction. From a literacy rate below 20 percent in 1954, Algeria's population became 50 percent literate by 1985. Eighty percent of all school-age children were receiving educations in the late 1980s. Ten major universities serve thousands of students, and more are planned.
\par {\b Government and History}
\par \tab Since becoming independent in 1962 Algeria has been controlled by the National Liberation Front (Front de Liberation Nationale, or FLN) party. The president is the head of state. He must be more than 40 years old, of Algerian birth, and a Muslim. The president is nominated by the FLN party; he is elected by popular vote for a five-year term. He may be reelected for any number of consecutive terms. The president presides over a Council of Ministers, all of whom he appoints. The National People's Assembly passes all national laws.
\par \tab Berbers made up the majority of ancient Algeria's population. The country was called Numidia by the Romans. The Berbers were conquered by successive waves of invaders--Phoenicians, Carthaginians, Romans, and Vandals. Arab armies conquered Algeria in the 7th and 8th centuries. Mass Arab migrations to Algeria followed in the 11th century. Although the Berbers converted to Islam, they later resisted Arab rule and joined radical Islamic sects.
\par \tab The Ottoman Turks gained control of northern Algeria in 1518. By the 17th century, Algiers maintained diplomatic relations with European states and yet, ironically, profited by piracy in the Mediterranean Sea. Piracy flourished relatively unchallenged until 1815, when an American fleet defeated the Barbary Coast pirates. The Berbers maintained their independence under Turkish rule.
\par \tab France conquered Algiers in 1830. The country was not wholly subdued until 1857, at which time the last Berbers surrendered. The French confiscated most of the best land. By 1961, some 1.5 million Europeans, about half of them Algerian-born, controlled the country's economy, politics, and foreign policy.
\par \tab The Algerian nationalist movement began after World War I. The promises of the new constitution of 1947 went unfulfilled, and a war of independence was begun by the FLN in 1954. After Charles de Gaulle came to power in France in 1958, he agreed that Algeria should be independent. A truce was signed in March 1962, and Algeria became independent on July 3. Ahmed Ben Bella became premier of the new republic in September and president the following year. Economic reconstruction was the major government goal. War and the departure of the Europeans after 1962 left most of the labor force unemployed and unskilled.
\par \tab In 1965 Col. Houari Boumedienne deposed Ben Bella in a military coup. Boumedienne installed a revolutionary regime dedicated to socialism and political and economic independence. Boumedienne died in 1978, and Col. Chadli Bendjedid was elected president. He was reelected in 1984 and 1988. After bloody rioting in October 1988 against the FLN Bendjedid proposed constitutional reforms that would separate the FLN from the government. Voters approved initial reforms in November 1988 and, on Feb. 23, 1989, a new constitution that had no references to socialism and allowed free speech and a multiparty political system.
\par \tab Algeria's first multiparty elections were held in December 1991, and the fundamentalist Islamic Salvation Front won a large number of seats. A military group took power in January 1992 and created a council to run the country for two years. Gen. Lamine Zeroual was appointed president in January 1994, replacing the five-member High State Council.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab William Keefe
\par \tab {\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR ALGERIA}
\par \tab Entelis, J.P. Algeria: The Revolution Institutionalized (Westview, 1986).
\par \tab Horne, Alistair. A Savage War of Peace: Algeria, 1954-1962 (Penguin, 1987).
\par \tab Wolf, J.B. The Barbary Coast: Algeria Under the Turks (Norton, 1982).\par \tab One of the smallest countries in the world, Andorra has been independent for more than 1,000 years and was an autonomous coprincipality for more than seven centuries. Despite the transformations that neighboring European countries have undergone over the centuries, Andorra has managed to preserve its mountain tranquillity and medieval traditions as well as a stable political system.
\par {\b Landscape}
\par \tab Andorra's 179 square miles (464 square kilometers) comprise an alpine landscape of high peaks and deep valleys on the southern slopes of the Pyrenees, bounded on the south and west by Spain and on the north and east by France. The physical setting prohibits air transportation. No railway system exists, but good roads link Andorra with France and Spain and permit access by car to the most secluded spots.
\par \tab The climate is generally dry, with heavy rainfall in spring and autumn and abundant snow that remains for several months in the highlands. Temperature varies greatly, depending on altitude. In the highlands are typical small Andorran villages, with their houses of granite, wood, and slate. In the valleys are the larger villages, where economic growth has brought modern buildings that contrast sharply with the traditional architecture.
\par \tab The largest villages are Andorra la Vella, the capital, and Escaldes, which has a hydroelectric station and sulfur springs. The Andorrans, mostly of Spanish origin, are predominantly Roman Catholic. Catalan is the official language.
\par {\b Public Services}
\par \tab The French and Spanish governments shared jurisdiction over the coprincipality from 1278 to 1993. They provided some public services, including postal, telegraph, and schools. Catalan-speaking children are taught in both foreign languages. No national monetary unit existed; however, the French franc and the Spanish peseta currencies were used. In 1969 mandatory social insurance went into effect, covering illness, disability, and old-age pensions. A new constitution adopted in 1993 changed the coprincipality status. This change gave new obligations and powers of taxation to Andorran officials.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab Andorra's principal agricultural products are potatoes, cereal, and tobacco. Minerals include iron, lead, and alum. Sheep and other livestock are raised.
\par \tab Since the 1950s the country has been affected greatly by a profound change from the traditional pastoral and farming economy to one of commerce and year-round tourism. With the economic expansion, several banks have been established in association with French and Spanish investment firms. The population has increased dramatically, but only about 12,000 of the 59,000 inhabitants are citizens. Most of the others have moved there to escape onerous taxes in their home countries. In addition, Andorra gets about 12 million tourists each year.
\par {\b History and Government}
\par \tab Andorra has survived as an independent state since the earliest period of European history. In the year 819 Louis the Pious, a son of the emperor Charlemagne, gave the land belonging to the counts of Urgel, in Spain, to the bishop of Urgel. Andorra's independence traditionally has been attributed to this grant. In 1278 the principality was placed under joint control of the French count of Foix and the Spanish bishop of the See of Urgel. This dual allegiance was interrupted only during the French Revolution in the late 18th century. From the late 13th century, although Andorra was governed jointly by the Spanish bishop of Urgel and the president of France, the state has maintained its original status of neutrality. In March 1993 the citizens voted to adopt a new constitution that greatly reduced the power of French and Spanish authorities.
\par \tab The government is administered by the General Council of the Valleys, or parliament. Its 28 members are elected for four-year terms. Suffrage has been universal since 1970, when women received the right to vote, but the noncitizen majority cannot vote. Population (1992 estimate), 57,100.\par \tab After almost 500 years of Portuguese rule, Angola became an independent nation in 1975. Angola, which is the seventh largest country in Africa, has an area of 481,351 square miles (1,246,700 square kilometers). The nation's estimated population is more than 9 million. Angola was Portugal's largest and richest African colony.
\par \tab Angola lies on the southwestern coast of Africa. Most of the country consists of a plateau covered by open grasslands and small bushes. It also has lowlands along the coast and in the north near the Congo River. In the north a small area of Angola called Cabinda is separated from the rest of the country by the Congo River and the nation of Zaire, which also borders on the northeast. Angola is bordered by Zambia on the southeast and Namibia (formerly South-West Africa) on the south. Angola has a tropical climate, with a rainy season from October to mid-May.
\par \tab Bantu peoples make up most of Angola's native population. Several tribes of Bushmen live in the southeast. Angolan farmers raise sugarcane and cotton on lowland plantations and also grow beans, rice, and corn (maize). On the Central Plateau of Angola coffee, sisal, and beeswax are produced for export. Some cattle are raised in the plateau areas, where disease-carrying tsetse flies do not threaten them. Angola has valuable diamond deposits and also produces petroleum and natural gas.
\par \tab The Angolan government has expanded the number of schools, hospitals, medical clinics, and community centers, as well as many social services. The government supplies water in some rural areas, and irrigation projects provide water for farmers. Roads have been built to remote areas.
\par \tab During Angola's war for independence, all but 30,000 of the 335,000 Portuguese left the country. Many were mechanics, doctors, chemists, and others with special skills. Few trained technicians remained to run the economy. This problem, combined with repeated South African military attacks and local political difficulties, kept the economy in crisis. Only petroleum production prevented economic collapse.
\par {\b History}
\par \tab Before Europeans gained control of Africa during the colonial period, various societies in the Angola area established powerful kingdoms that traded iron and other products. Their economies were based on farming, raising cattle, hunting and fishing, and producing tools and household goods.
\par \tab The Angolan coast was one of the first areas in Africa settled by Portuguese traders after their ships sailed the coastal waters near the end of the 15th century. Angola's capital, Luanda, was founded in 1576.
\par \tab Until the end of the 19th century, Portugal actually ruled only parts of the coastal area and a small section of the interior of Angola. But through the slave trade, military penetration into the interior, and trading in textiles, guns, and other imported goods, the Portuguese had an impact on the entire region. They took about 7 million people from the Congo-Angola area away into slavery, and the area prospered through its slave trade with Brazil, another Portuguese possession. Some Angolan leaders tried to stop the slave trade in the 16th century, but could not.
\par \tab Other Angolan leaders, including Queen Nzinga in the 17th century, fought the Portuguese. Some Angolans cooperated with the Portuguese. By the time World War I began in 1914, Portugal had finally conquered all of Angola through a series of bloody wars. The Portuguese officially abolished slavery, but many Africans remained in forced labor.
\par \tab Under colonial rule Portuguese farmers and businessmen controlled the Angolan economy, which depended largely on the production of coffee, cotton, and other crops. Large companies from South Africa, Europe, and the United States administered Angola's diamond and iron mines and the production of its petroleum, which was discovered in the 1950s.
\par \tab Many African colonies became self-governing nations during the 1960s, but the Portuguese dictator, Ant≤nio Salazar, did not grant Angola independence. Angola went to war against Portugal in 1961 to gain its freedom, and violent guerrilla fighting lasted for 14 years. Such organizations as the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) and the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) fought for independence. South Africa and the United States provided military aid to UNITA, but with the help of Cuban troops and arms from the Soviet Union the MPLA forces won the war. Angola became independent on Nov. 11, 1975, and the country was plunged into civil war when the two groups proclaimed two rival republics. The MPLA gained control of the government, and its leader, Agostinho Neto, took office as Angola's first president. After his death in 1979, he was succeeded by JosΘ Eduardo dos Santos. From 1975 Angolans and Cubans fought the UNITA rebels. In 1988 South Africa agreed to grant independence to Namibia in exchange for the phased withdrawal of Cuban troops from Angola. The withdrawal began in January 1989.
\par \tab Because the agreement did not resolve Angola's internal problems, fighting continued between the MPLA and UNITA. Attempts to end the civil war failed until the end of the Cold War brought together United States and Soviet officials at talks between MPLA and UNITA mediated by Portugal. On May 25, 1991, the withdrawal of Cuban troops was completed. On May 31 the MPLA government and UNITA signed a cease-fire. The elections of September 1992 were won by the MPLA. Refusing to accept defeat, Jonas Savimbi's UNITA renewed the civil war, bringing any chance of economic development to a halt. About one fifth of the population had become displaced persons by 1994. Population (1993 estimate), 10,916,000.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab William M. Minter and David S. Wiley\par \tab Anguilla, island of West Indies, in Saint Kitts-Nevis group, Leeward Islands; 34 sq mi (88 sq km); withdrew from island federation and declared independence 1967, a move not recognized by United Kingdom; reverted to colonial status 1971; became self-governing British dependency 1976; formally separated from St. Kitts and Nevis 1980; new constitution in effect 1982; pop. 7,000\par \tab The icy continent surrounding the South Pole is called Antarctica. This region is larger in area than Europe. It is a cold and forbidding land that has no permanent human population and is almost devoid of animal or plant life. However, the oceans adjoining Antarctica teem with life.
\par \tab Ice and stormy seas kept anyone from seeing Antarctica until about 1820. In 1950 more than half the continent still had not been seen. Now airplanes and tractors have taken people to most parts of Antarctica, and satellite photographs have revealed the rest. But Antarctica remains a frontier, and much is yet to be learned about it.
\par \tab Almost no one goes to Antarctica except scientists and some adventurous tourists. The continent has natural resources that someday may be used, but the harsh environment of the continent makes them difficult to exploit. Nations interested in Antarctica have signed a treaty that reserves the region for science and other peaceful purposes.
\par {\b The Land}
\par \tab An ice sheet covers nearly all of Antarctica. At its thickest point the ice sheet is 15,670 feet (4,776 meters) deep--almost 3 miles (5 kilometers). It averages 7,000 to 8,000 feet (2,100 to 2,400 meters) thick, making Antarctica the continent with the highest mean elevation. This ice sheet contains 90 percent of the world's ice and 70 percent of the world's fresh water.
\par \tab The Antarctic ice was formed from the snows of millions of years that fell on the land, layer on layer. The weight of new snow squeezes the old snow underneath until it turns to a substance called firn, then ice. As the ice piles up, it moves toward the coast like batter spreading on a pan. The moving ice forms into glaciers, rivers of ice that flow into the sea. Pieces of the floating glaciers break off from time to time, a process called calving. These icebergs float north until they reach warm water, break into pieces, and melt. Icebergs as large as 40 by 30 miles (64 by 48 kilometers) have been sighted, but most are smaller. In some places the floating glaciers stay attached to the land and continue to grow until they become ice shelves. The Ross Ice Shelf alone is bigger than France and averages 1,000 feet (300 meters) thick.
\par \tab The Transantarctic Mountains extend across the continent, dividing the ice sheet into two parts. The larger, eastern part rests on land that is mostly above sea level. The sheet has been there at least 14 million years, and scientists doubt that it will ever melt. The smaller, western part is on land that is mostly below sea level. Scientists think that if global warming continues, the western part could melt--perhaps in as little as a one-hundred-year period. The melted ice would raise sea level throughout the world by about 20 feet (6 meters).
\par \tab Other mountain ranges include the Prince Charles Mountains and smaller ranges near the coasts. The Antarctic Peninsula has many mountains. The Ellsworth Mountains are Antarctica's highest, the Vinson Massif rising 16,066 feet (4,897 meters) above sea level. Mountains with only their peaks showing through the ice (called nunataks) are found in some areas. Several active volcanoes on the continent provide spectacular and scenic landforms at many places and are located near the Antarctic Peninsula and in the Transantarctic Mountains.
\par \tab About 2 percent of Antarctica is ice-free. These unusual land areas, called oases, generally are near the coast and include the dry valleys of southern Victoria Land and the Bunger Oasis in Wilkes Land. High rims at the end of the valleys prevent entry of large glaciers. The warm local climate melts the ends of smaller glaciers extending into the valleys.
\par \tab Surrounding Antarctica are the southern parts of the Pacific, the Atlantic, and the Indian oceans. The Antarctic Convergence, which encircles Antarctica roughly 1,000 miles (1,600 kilometers) off the coast, divides the cold southern water masses and the warmer northern waters. The Antarctic Circumpolar Current, the world's largest ocean current, moves eastward around the continent at an average speed of about half a knot (1 kilometer per hour). Sea ice up to 10 feet (3 meters) thick forms outward from the continent every winter, making a belt 300 to 1,000 miles (500 to 1,600 kilometers) wide. Even in summer the sea ice belt is 100 to 500 miles (160 to 800 kilometers) wide in most places.
\par \tab Antarctica has three points that are called south poles. The best known is the geographic South Pole, at 90░ S. latitude on the axis of the Earth's rotation. The geomagnetic south pole is at about 78░ S. 110░ E., in East Antarctica; it is the center of the Southern Hemisphere auroras. The magnetic south pole is the area toward which compasses point; it is just off the AdΘlie Coast at about 65░ S. 140░ E.
\par \tab Antarctica does not have 24-hour periods broken into days and nights. At the South Pole the sun rises on about September 21 and moves in a circular path upward until December 21, when it reaches about 23.5░ above the horizon. Then it circles downward until it sets on about March 22. This "day," or summer, is six months long. From March 22 until September 21 the South Pole is dark, and Antarctica has its long "night," or winter.
\par \tab According to theory, some 200 million years ago Antarctica was joined to South America, Africa, India, and Australia in a single large continent called Gondwanaland. There was no ice sheet, and trees and large animals flourished. Today, only geological formations, coal beds, and fossils remain as clues to Antarctica's warm past.
\par {\b Climate}
\par \tab Antarctica is the coldest continent. The world's record low temperature of -128.6░ F (-89.2░ C) was recorded there. The mean annual temperature of the interior is -70░ F (-57░ C). The coast is warmer. Monthly mean temperatures at McMurdo Station range from -18░ F (-28░ C) in August to 27░ F (-3░ C) in January. Along the Antarctic Peninsula temperatures have been as high as 59░ F (15░ C).
\par \tab Because it is such a large area of extreme cold, Antarctica plays an important role in global atmospheric circulation. In the tropics the sun warms the air, causing it to rise and move toward the poles. When these air masses arrive over Antarctica, they cool, become heavier, and fall from the high interior of the continent toward the sea, making some Antarctic coasts the windiest places in the world. Winds on the AdΘlie Coast in the winter of 1912 to 1913 averaged 40 miles (64 kilometers) per hour 64 percent of the time, and gusts of nearly 200 miles (320 kilometers) per hour have been recorded.
\par \tab Antarctica's interior is one of the world's major cold deserts. Precipitation (if melted) averages only 1 to 2 inches (2.5 to 5 centimeters) a year.
\par {\b Plant and Animal Life}
\par \tab The severe climate has kept nearly all of Antarctica almost devoid of life. Nevertheless, botanists have found bacteria and yeast growing just 183 miles (295 kilometers) from the geographic South Pole. A lichen was found in a sunny canyon 266 miles (428 kilometers) from the pole, and a blue-green alga in a frozen pond 224 miles (360 kilometers) from the pole. Microbes related to lichens colonize in green and brown layers just beneath the surface of rocks facing the sun. Mosses and liverworts grow in some ice-free areas along the coast. Two species of flowering plants--a grass and an herb--grow on the peninsula.
\par \tab The native land animals are limited to arthropods (such as insects), of which 76 species have been discovered. Nearly all of the species are found only in Antarctica. These springtails, midges, and mites live generally along the coast among plant colonies. The southernmost known animal, the mite, has been found 315 miles (507 kilometers) from the South Pole.
\par \tab The immense numbers of birds and seals that live in Antarctica are, properly speaking, sea animals. They spend most of their time in or over the water, where they get their food. These animals come ashore only to establish rookeries and breed.
\par \tab About 45 species of birds live south of the Antarctic Convergence. Two penguin species--the emperor and the AdΘlie--are distributed widely around the entire coastline. Gentoo and chinstrap penguins occupy Antarctic Peninsula coasts and some islands. Penguins, fine swimmers, catch their food--mostly krill (a shrimplike animal) and fishes--underwater.
\par \tab Four species of seals breed almost exclusively in the Antarctic. They are the Weddell seal, which ranges as far south as the sea does and can dive as deep as 2,000 feet (600 meters) for nearly an hour; the crabeater seal, which spends most of its time around pack ice (sea ice); the leopard seal, which favors penguins as its food; and the Ross seal, rarely seen. Other Antarctic species include the fur seal and the huge elephant seal. Most populous is the crabeater, whose numbers are estimated at 50 to 75 million. Leopard and Weddell seals by comparison number only 250,000 to 500,000 each. The others exist in even smaller numbers.
\par \tab Fishes peculiar to the Antarctic include the Antarctic cod and the icefish. These and other Antarctic fish have developed blood that enables them to live in seawater as cold as 28░ F (-2░ C).
\par \tab The most important single member of the Antarctic marine food chain is the krill. This crustacean looks like a small shrimp and exists in huge numbers; one vast swarm stretching several miles in length was observed from ships, and some biologists think the total population may be 5 billion tons or more. Krill eat small marine plants (phytoplankton) and animals (zooplankton) and in turn are eaten in great numbers by squid, birds, seals, and whales.
\par {\b Economic Development}
\par \tab Antarctica is so far from world markets, and its environment is so hostile, that little economic development has taken place. Also, little is known about the amounts of natural resources that exist there. But, if world shortages of food and energy products become severe enough, Antarctica may be more intensely explored. In anticipation of such a need, 15 nations have signed a convention for the conservation of living marine resources on the Antarctic continent.
\par \tab The first people to make money by going to Antarctica were whalers and sealers, who first crossed the Antarctic Convergence in 1778. Seal hunters began catching Antarctic seals for their oil and fur in the early 1790s. Fur seals and then elephant seals were reduced almost to extinction by the mid-1800s, at which point the sealers finally stopped their Antarctic hunts. The populations of fur and elephant seals once again are growing.
\par \tab In 1978 the nations interested in Antarctica agreed to prohibit the taking of fur, elephant, and Ross seals. This pact also limits the annual catch of crabeater, leopard, and Weddell seals. But no seal hunting has taken place in Antarctica since 1964.
\par \tab Whaling began in Antarctic waters in the 19th century. The industry enlarged greatly in the early 1900s, when steamships, harpoon guns, and shore processing stations (notably at South Georgia) were introduced. During the 1912-13 season 10,760 whales were caught. After that time nearly all the whales caught in the world were caught in Antarctic waters. In 1931, a peak year, 40,199 whales were caught in the Antarctic, while only 1,124 were caught in the rest of the world. So many whales were caught that their numbers declined, just as had those of the seals. The industry declined after 1960. In the 1980-81 season fewer than 6,000 whales were caught in the Antarctic; all were minke whales, a relatively small-sized species also called the lesser rorqual.
\par \tab Commercial fishing was begun by the Soviet Union in 1967. In 1971 a Soviet fleet of 40 trawlers and support ships in the southern ocean landed an estimated 300,000 tons--mostly cod, herring, and whiting. Today fleets of other nations, mainly Japan and Norway, also fish the waters.
\par \tab Krill fishing began in the early 1970s, and by 1980 the Soviet Union and Japan were taking about 100,000 tons a year for use as a shrimp substitute and animal feed. Some scientists believe that huge amounts of krill could be harvested from the Antarctic, enough to double the worldwide catch of seafood. But much remains to be learned about the biology and population of krill to know how much damage would be done by huge harvests.
\par \tab In 1982 the nations that were interested in Antarctica set up a scientific committee to study the Antarctic ecosystem and a commission to set catch limits. The nations wanted to protect the unique ecosystem and to avoid any activities that had already reduced the numbers of whales and seals in the area.
\par \tab Petroleum and minerals have never been exploited in Antarctica. Minerals have been found in great variety but almost always in small amounts. Large mineral deposits probably exist, but the chances of finding them are small. Manganese nodules on the ocean floor, geothermal energy, coal, petroleum, and natural gas are potential resources that could perhaps be exploited in the future. Only two large mineral deposits have been found: iron ore in the Prince Charles Mountains and coal in the Transantarctic Mountains. But it would cost too much to get these materials to market to make them economically attractive.
\par \tab Some authorities think that there may be large reserves of oil and natural gas in Antarctica, simply because the continental shelf is so large. However, very little exploration has been done, and even if they are found, extraction will be difficult. The edge of the Antarctic continental shelf is 1,000 to 3,000 feet (300 to 900 meters) deep, much deeper than the world average continental shelf depth of about 600 feet (200 meters), and Antarctica's huge icebergs would threaten drill rigs. Also, the environmental impact of spills would be greater in Antarctica than elsewhere because the low temperatures retard the growth of biological organisms that reduce crude oil to environmentally harmless components.
\par \tab Some people have devised ingenious schemes for towing Antarctic icebergs north to warm, dry lands as a cheap source of fresh water. But many scientists and engineers believe that an iceberg, even if protected by the best possible means, would break and melt before it got to the place where it would be used.
\par \tab Commercial tourist visits to Antarctica began in the 1950s. Between 1958 and 1980 an estimated 16,640 passengers on 80 ship cruises visited places along the Antarctic Peninsula and in the Ross Sea. Between 1977 and 1980 airliners from New Zealand and Australia carrying some 11,145 passengers made about 45 sight-seeing flights over portions of the Antarctic continent.
\par {\b Political and International Relations}
\par \tab Because it has never had permanent human settlements, Antarctica has had an unusual political history. Seven nations have claimed pie-shaped sectors of territory centering on the South Pole. Three of the claimed sectors overlap on the Antarctic Peninsula. One sector is unclaimed. Most other nations do not recognize these claims. The United States policy, for example, is that the mere discovery of lands does not support a valid claim unless the discovery is followed by actual settlement. Also, like many other nations, the United States reserves all rights resulting from its explorations and discoveries.
\par \tab This unsettled situation might have continued had it not been for a surge of scientific interest in Antarctica that developed in the middle 1950s. At that time scientists of 12 nations decided to make research in Antarctica the major portion of a large investigation, the International Geophysical Year. The 12 nations were Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Chile, France, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, South Africa, the United Kingdom, the United States, and the Soviet Union. When this program was completed in 1958, these nations decided to continue their research programs in Antarctica.
\par \tab Much of the research had been achieved through international cooperation, and the 12 nations carried their new, friendly ties from science into politics. They met in Washington, D.C., in 1959 to write the Antarctic Treaty. The treaty reserves the region for peaceful purposes, especially scientific research. It prohibits nuclear weapons and disposal of radioactive waste, and it does not allow military activities except to support science and other peaceful pursuits. The treaty does not recognize or dispute the territorial claims of any nation, but it also does not allow any new claims to be made. It allows members to inspect each others' installations, encourages the exchange of personnel, and requires each nation to report to the others on its plans and results.
\par \tab The treaty does not include anything about sharing Antarctica's natural resources, but it does provide for meetings every other year to further its objectives. At these meetings the treaty nations have agreed on conservation plans and on responsible collection and sharing of resources. Other nations later joined the Antarctic Treaty, and by 1982 there were 26 that had signed it.
\par {\b Scientific Research}
\par \tab Every year about a dozen nations send scientists to Antarctica to do research. In the Antarctic summer about 2,500 people are in the region for this work. They operate research stations and camps; travel in airplanes, helicopters, and snowmobiles to the areas that they need to study; and operate ships for resupply and oceanic research. In winter fewer than 1,000 people remain to operate about 30 research stations scattered around the continent. The winter inhabitants are isolated for several months at a time because it is too cold for anyone to get to them, even in airplanes. Biologists, geologists, oceanographers, physicists, astronomers, glaciologists, and meteorologists conduct experiments here that cannot be duplicated anywhere else. In the 1970s researchers began taking measurements of the protective ozone layer in the atmosphere over Antarctica. A seasonal hole (thinning) was reported over the region in 1985. By the 1990s the ozone depletion had reached alarming proportions and the effects had spread beyond Antarctica.
\par {\b Exploration and History}
\par \tab The first expedition to come close to Antarctica took place from 1772 through 1775. The English navigator James Cook sailed around the continent and came within 100 miles (160 kilometers) of it. Land was seen in about 1820, when British and United States seal hunters and a Russian exploring expedition reached the Antarctic Peninsula. In the Antarctic summer of 1839-40 a United States Navy expedition headed by Charles Wilkes mapped 1,500 miles (2,400 kilometers) along the coast of East Antarctica. The next summer James Clark Ross of Great Britain sailed into the Ross Sea, traveling as far south as a ship can go. The first recorded landing on Antarctica was on Cape Adare in 1895, and the first group to spend a winter on the continent did so at Cape Adare during the period from March 1898 to March 1899.
\par \tab The struggle inland and toward the geographic South Pole began with the first expedition by Robert F. Scott of Great Britain in 1901-04. But the first person to reach the pole was Roald Amundsen of Norway on Dec. 14, 1911. On another Antarctic expedition Scott arrived at the pole just a month later; he died on March 29, 1912, trying to return to the coast.
\par \tab These early expeditions relied on sail power, dog power, and human power for their transportation. The mechanical age arrived on Nov. 26, 1928, when George Hubert Wilkins, leading an American expedition, made an airplane flight from Deception Island. On Nov. 29, 1929, Richard E. Byrd of the United States flew a three-motor Ford plane over the South Pole. Byrd also explored parts of Antarctica by air and on the surface in 1933-35 and 1939-41 and commanded the largest single expedition ever made to Antarctica--the United States Navy's Operation High Jump in 1946-47. Thirteen ships, many airplanes and helicopters, and thousands of men made surveys almost all the way around the continent. In 1990 a six-man international expedition led by an American named Will Steger completed a 221-day trek across Antarctica from west to east using dogsleds. At more than 3,700 miles (6,000 kilometers), it was the longest dogsled trek, as well as the first unmechanized passage through the South Pole. The team members were from the United States, the Soviet Union, France, China, Japan, and Great Britain.
\par \tab The International Geophysical Year (IGY), 1957-58, was a major scientific effort that established 50 year-round stations, including one at the geographic South Pole and one at the south geomagnetic pole. In 1988 the IGY nations that had signed the Antarctic Treaty agreed on a convention to permit strictly controlled mining in Antarctica--probably by the end of the 20th century. There are no known mineral deposits of value, however, and the harsh climate does not encourage offshore oil exploration. Both the Antarctic Treaty and the new convention avoided the issue of sovereignty, claimed by seven nations over various parts of the region.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by Guy G. Guthridge, Manager of the Polar Information Program at the National Science Foundation.
\par \tab Stewart, John. Antarctica: An Encyclopedia, 2 vols. (McFarland, 1990).\par \tab An island nation of the Lesser Antilles, Antigua and Barbuda lies at the southern end of the Leeward Islands. Located in the eastern Caribbean Sea, the independent state includes Redonda, an uninhabited rock. The total area of the three islands is about 171 square miles (443 square kilometers).
\par \tab The main island of Antigua, unlike the other Leeward Islands, has no forests, mountains, or rivers and few springs. Prolonged droughts occur; rainfall averages only about 40 inches (100 centimeters) per year. The mean average temperature in this tropical climate is 81░ F (27░ C). Rainwater catchments and a desalinization plant supplement the water supply.
\par \tab Barbuda, formerly known as Dulcina, lies 25 miles (40 kilometers) north of Antigua. A game reserve, it is a coral island, flat and well wooded. Although planned as a slave-breeding colony, it instead developed a unique system of communal landownership.
\par \tab The major source of national income is tourism, which accounts for about 70 percent of the gross domestic product. Basic education is compulsory, and both teacher and technical training are offered at State Island College. The official language is English.
\par \tab Antigua's major crop is sugarcane, though mangoes, melons, limes, eggplant, pumpkin, and sweet potatoes are also grown. Industries include manufacturing rum and assembling garments and appliances. The government operates a fish-processing corporation and a petroleum refinery.
\par \tab In 1493 Christopher Columbus landed on Antigua, which was named after a church in Seville, Spain. The island was colonized in 1632 by English settlers, who grew tobacco there. Later in the century sugarcane proved to be a more profitable crop, and slaves were brought to the islands to work on the sugarcane estates. The slaves were emancipated in 1834. A fire in 1841, an earthquake in 1843, and a hurricane in 1847 were severe blows to the economy. The naval dockyard, closed in 1854, was reopened in 1961 as a historic monument and yachting center.
\par \tab Until 1956 Antigua was administered by the British under the governor of the Leeward Islands. During the years 1958 to 1962, it was a member of the West Indies Federation. In 1967 it became an associated state in the Commonwealth. The neighboring Barbuda and Redonda were dependencies of Antigua. In November 1981 the three-island nation became independent as Antigua and Barbuda. Barbuda had been seeking separate independence. The capital and principal city is St. John's, on Antigua. The main settlement on Barbuda is Codrington. Population (1992 estimate), 64,000.\par \tab By far the smallest of the world's oceans, with an area of 5,440,000 square miles (14,090,000 square kilometers), the Arctic Ocean covers the northern polar region of the Earth. The North Pole is located approximately at its center.
\par \tab Russia, Canada, Greenland, Iceland, Norway, and the United States (Alaska) border on the Arctic Ocean. There are islands around the ocean's outer edges but none in its central region.
\par \tab In the center of the Arctic Ocean is an immense area of floating pack ice several hundred miles in diameter. The pack ice moves slowly in a clockwise direction, making a complete revolution around the top of the world every ten years. It consists of countless gigantic islands of ice that crash and grind together as they move. There are many small areas of open water. People and animals regularly travel across the pack ice, but they do so in constant peril from the ice itself and from the region's brutally cold climate.
\par \tab The pack ice restricts the amount of sunlight that can penetrate to the waters beneath it. This reduces the occurrence of photosynthesis, which is fundamental to plant growth. As a result, few of the microscopic plants called phytoplankton grow beneath the ice cap. Since phytoplankton, directly or indirectly, provide the food for all oceanic life, the number of fishes is also limited. Overall, the Arctic Ocean has less than 10 percent as much marine life as the other oceans. It is a kind of frigid, watery desert.
\par \tab At the ocean's borders, however, where its waters mix with those of the Atlantic and Pacific, animals thrive. Fishes and birds are numerous. Mammals common to the area include seals, walruses, and the most famous Arctic animal of all--the polar bear.
\par \tab The major circulation of water into and out of the Arctic Ocean takes place through a single deep channel between Greenland and the Norwegian islands of Svalbord. Only 2 percent of this water leaves the ocean as ice--pieces broken loose from the pack--but this tiny amount creates great problems. The channel is one major source of icebergs in the North Atlantic. Although their movements are constantly monitored by satellites and radar, these huge floating masses of ice have destroyed innumerable ships.
\par \tab Despite the inroads of modern civilization, many of the native peoples of the Arctic regions still follow their traditional ways of life as reindeer herders (primarily in Eurasia) or hunters. Some Inuit, or Eskimo, live near the edge of the pack ice and spend most of their lives hunting and fishing.
\par \tab Early European explorers tried to find a Northwest Passage--a sea route through the Arctic Ocean from Europe to the Orient. Modern explorers have conducted climatic and other scientific research.
\par \tab The discovery of oil, gas, and other minerals in the lands bordering the Arctic Ocean and beneath its floor greatly increased economic activity there after the 1960s. Russia, which has the longest coast on the Arctic Ocean, estimates that 70 percent of its untapped oil resources are located under its northern continental shelf.
\par \tab Canada, which also has a long Arctic coast, can give only rough estimates of the oil, gas, coal, and other mineral resources in its northernmost territories, but they are thought to be substantial. After finding huge oil reserves on the Arctic coast of Alaska, the United States constructed a pipeline across that state from Prudhoe Bay in the north to the ice-free port of Valdez in the south. The Arctic Ocean floor may someday be mined as well. There are indications that valuable metals may be present.
\par \tab The increased economic activity in the Arctic Ocean area has caused considerable environmental concern. Habitats and living patterns of wildlife and sea life have been disturbed. The potential dangers from oil spills and other forms of pollution are immense. The Arctic ecosystem is fragile, with comparatively few species; therefore any disruption has far-reaching effects. Because of the harsh Arctic cold, many areas that border the pack ice are open for shipping and construction of drilling platforms for only a few weeks each year. When this "summer" season is over, the ocean freezes and becomes impassable. This raises the danger that an oil leak might continue for months before it could be stopped and the spill cleaned up. Also, in the frigid Arctic climate, the rate at which crude petroleum and other pollutants decompose into environmentally harmless components is extremely slow. The effects of such pollution on wildlife and sea life could be catastrophic.
\par \tab So far the Arctic Ocean has survived increased human activity. Scientists are seeking ways to exploit its abundant resources without damaging the fragile environment.\par \tab Within Latin America the nation of Argentina is second in area only to Brazil and fourth in population only to Brazil, Mexico, and Colombia. This large land covers more than 1 million square miles (2.7 million square kilometers), in the southern part of South America east of the Andes Mountains. It extends from the Tropic of Capricorn south to the tip of the continent--within about 700 miles (1,100 kilometers) of Antarctica. Argentina claims a portion of that continent as well as the Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas) and several other islands of the South Atlantic Ocean. The country is bounded by Chile on the west and south, Bolivia and Paraguay on the north, and Brazil, Uruguay, and the Atlantic Ocean on the east.
\par \tab The official language of Argentina is Spanish, and more than 90 percent of the population is Roman Catholic. The country was settled from the 16th through the 18th centuries by colonists from Spain and other parts of South America. Emmigrants from many European countries, including Italy and Germany, settled in the central plains and south during the 19th century. Agriculture, based on grain and livestock, became the dominant factor in the Argentine economy and accounts for most of its exports. Industry in general has not kept pace with the country's population growth. A United States-style constitution was adopted in 1853, but military government and political instability have been the norm.
\par {\b The Land}
\par \tab The Argentine landscape slopes downward from the Andes Mountains in the west to the Atlantic coast in the east. The western border with Chile follows the crest of the Andes, where heights of peaks range from more than 20,000 feet (6,000 meters) in the north to less than 5,000 feet (1,500 meters) in Tierra del Fuego at the southern tip of the continent. One of these peaks, Aconcagua (22,831 feet; 6,959 meters) is South America's highest mountain. The highest part of the Andean area lies in Argentina's Northwest region, which tapers from a width of nearly 350 miles (560 kilometers) in the north to about 200 miles (320 kilometers) in the south. In the northern Andes is a dry altiplano, or high plain, surrounded by mountains. A string of artesian oases lies along the eastern foothills.
\par \tab Eastward from the northern Andes lies an arid plateau called the Gran Chaco. It is a region of scrub woodland mixed with grassy savannas. Farther to the east, between the Paranß and Uruguay rivers, is the region called Mesopotamia. It has extensive subtropical pine forests and fertile plains on which are grown rice, oranges, and flax. Gran Chaco and Mesopotamia together form the Northeast region of the Argentine Republic.
\par \tab The next region to the south is the Pampa, a low, flat plain interrupted only by low hills or sierras. Over millions of years the Pampa has been covered by a fertile wind-borne soil known as loess, and by waterborne alluvium eroded from the Andes. The pampas, or plains, are the homeland of the famous Argentine gaucho, or cowboy.
\par \tab South of the Colorado River is Patagonia, the largest region of Argentina. It extends from the Pampa to Tierra del Fuego and was named in 1520 by the Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan, while sailing for Spain, on his trip around the world. The landscape is dominated by the Andes in the west and plateaus that stretch eastward to the Atlantic, forming cliffs along much of the shoreline. The climate is dry and windy.
\par \tab Sizable rivers flow across Argentina. The Northeast is drained by the Paraguay and Paranß rivers, which originate in the Central Plateau of Brazil. The Upper Paranß is the site of the famous Iguaz· (Iguaτu) Falls, where the river plunges over the plateau edge. Also in the Northeast is the Uruguay River, which forms Argentina's border with both Uruguay and Brazil. These three north-south flowing rivers and their Andean tributaries, such as the Pilcomayo, the Bermejo, and the Salado, empty into the so-called Rφo de la Plata, an estuary between Argentina and Uruguay. The most important rivers of central and southern Argentina are the Colorado, Negro, Chubut, Deseado, Chico, and Santa Cruz. They all originate high in the Andes.
\par {\b Climate, Soil, and Vegetation}
\par \tab The climate of Argentina is marked by seasonal change characteristic of the temperate middle latitudes. In Argentina, because it is in the Southern Hemisphere, the seasons are reversed from those in North America, winter occurring during June, July, and August and summer extending from January through March. Because most of Argentina is close to the Atlantic Ocean, seasonal temperature extremes are moderated. Only in the Northwest do continental extremes similar to those in North America occasionally occur.
\par \tab Argentina's very great north-south distance covering 33 degrees of latitude also influences the climate of the country. In the Northwest, for example, only the Andean peaks that rise above 20,000 feet (6,000 meters) high are covered by snow, whereas at the southern tip of the nation the snow line is below 1,500 feet (500 meters). Glaciers can be found in mountain lake valleys, such as that of Lago Argentino, as far to the north as 50░ S. latitude.
\par \tab Moist mid-latitude winds rise from the Pacific Ocean to bring rain and snow to the higher slopes of the Andes. Winter snow cover has made the area near San Carlos de Bariloche a world famous ski resort known as the Argentine Switzerland. As the prevailing westerly winds descend the eastern slopes of the Andes, they become warmer and increase their capacity to absorb moisture. Consequently, few clouds form and precipitation is minimal throughout the western plateau of Argentina. Locally these drying winds are called the zondas.
\par \tab In addition to the presence of the zondas a cold offshore ocean current in the Atlantic contributes to the dryness of the climate. Moist air over the Atlantic cools over the frigid waters of the current and loses its moisture as fog or rain before it can move inland.
\par \tab The two conditions described combine to keep most of Patagonia dry. There, precipitation of less than 10 inches (250 millimeters) falls per year. More than two thirds of Argentina does not receive soil moisture sufficient for nonirrigated agriculture. As is typical of such regions occasional short-lived heavy rains produce flash floods. At other times dust storms cover extensive areas. In central north Argentina the precipitation is not sufficient to sustain the flow of rivers, especially during the warm summers when evaporation is highest. Many end in salt lakes, like the Mar Chiquita, or in large saltwater swamps. Storms moving in the westerly wind belt across Patagonia occasionally become diverted to the northeast and may bring frost and even light snow to Buenos Aires. Such storms are usually accompanied by strong south winds and are called pamperos. They occur several times a century and cause crop damage in the Gran Chaco and Misiones.
\par \tab In the extreme south of Patagonia precipitation once again increases because the Andes are lower. There the climate is cool and moist throughout the year and much of the land is forested. In Ushuaia, Argentina's southernmost city, winter snows are sometimes heavy, and, because of the high latitude of nearly 55░ S., the sun in June and July barely rises above the mountainous horizon even at noon.
\par \tab Another notable weather condition is caused by an Atlantic storm called the sudestada that passes over northeastern Argentina. This storm produces heavy rains that cause the sudden flooding of rivers.
\par \tab The Pampa can be divided into two climatic zones, the coastal humid pampa, or pampa h·meda, and the dry pampa, or pampa seca. The pampa h·meda receives abundant precipitation and is Argentina's major grain and livestock region. In the pampa seca, precipitation is less abundant and crops grown there must be irrigated.
\par \tab The soils of Argentina's two main agricultural zones, the Pampa and the Northeast, differ greatly. In the Pampa sufficient moisture and grass cover have combined with sedimentary and windblown material to form brown-black phaeozems, which have considerable organic matter at the surface, and deep, fertile prairie soil sometimes called chernozem. In certain areas alfalfa roots penetrate 15 feet (4.5 meters) into this soft, easily crumbled soil.
\par \tab In northeastern Argentina deep red soils that are derived from basaltic (volcanic) rocks of the Paranß plateau extend over most of Misiones Province. These red soils are unlike many similar-looking ones that are found elsewhere in the tropics and the subtropics in that they are only slightly acidic, possess some plant nutrients, and are well-drained. Consequently, such crops as citrus fruits, sugarcane, and matΘ can be grown well in them, especially when fertilizers are used.
\par \tab Relatively intensive settlement in the most habitable parts of Argentina has decimated the formerly abundant animal life. The two most notable remaining forms are members of the wildcat family in Misiones Province, and the rhea, the American three-toed ostrichlike bird of the pampas. Some ranches feature rides for children on the backs of rheas.
\par {\b The People}
\par \tab The first people to live in what is now Argentina were American Indians. The most important groups belonged to the Guaranφ tribes in the Northeast. They were farming Indians among whom the Roman Catholic Society of Jesus (Jesuits) during the colonial era established Utopia-like missions (Misiones Province). A group of nomadic Indians lived on the pampas. When they obtained horses from Spanish invaders, they became highly successful military opponents of the Europeans and were not finally conquered until the 20th century. Scattered tribes inhabited the Andean zone from north to south. Most of the native peoples died in warfare and from diseases following the Spanish invasion, which began in 1516. Today only 3 percent of the people of Argentina are Indians and mestizos (mixed). The rest of the people are of European descent.
\par \tab Modern Argentina is inhabited by many people of European descent and by a few American Indians. Although various estimates have been made for the Indian population before the Spanish conquest, a conservative number might be 300,000 for the present national area. After the various phases of discovery, exploration, and settlement, the Indian population had been drastically cut. About 40,000 live in Argentina today, primarily in remote Andean valleys and in the Gran Chaco. However, their physical features are sometimes apparent in many gauchos--the Pampa cowboys descended from Spanish fathers and Indian mothers and who are, therefore, mestizos.
\par \tab It should be noted that African slaves were never important in Argentina because neither mining nor plantation agriculture played a significant role in the colonial economy. Consequently, as European settlers arrived, a white population soon became dominant. By the time Argentina achieved its independence in 1824, the vast majority of the populace had been born in South America.
\par \tab After independence was gained, political chaos prevented unification of the country. However, the idea of planned pioneer settlement for the purpose of inhabiting the country's vast empty spaces was carried forward from time to time. In 1856, for example, Swiss and German settlers were invited to found new colonies in the provinces of Buenos Aires and Santa Fe. Other small European groups went to Misiones Territory far to the northeast on the Brazilian border. Then a great wave of foreign immigration began in the early 1880s and lasted for a decade. At that time Italians along with some Spaniards arrived to open the pampas. This marked the beginning of change in the Argentine economy, as European demand for wool, tallow, mutton, and hides increased rapidly until the end of the century. Domestic sheep flocks replaced wild cattle on the plains, and cattle breeding from new European stock began.
\par \tab Another immigration wave occurred from 1904 to 1913. Prosperity brought about the construction of a railroad network, which began to stretch across the pampas, and the blossoming of the city of Buenos Aires with its international port. Everything was paid for by the productivity of agriculture on the rich soils of the immediate hinterland. By the time World War I began 30 percent of the Argentine population was foreign-born.
\par \tab Another period of immigration between the two world wars marked the onset of the modern development of Misiones Territory by many groups from Europe, especially Germans. A more recent immigration between 1947 and 1955 brought tens of thousands of Italians and Spaniards to the country. Thereafter, immigration from Europe ceased because of the improved economic conditions there. Moreover, the Argentine economy began to falter seriously at the same time.
\par \tab Though immigration from Europe stopped in recent years, Argentina at this time began to attract migrants from other South American countries. This resulted in such oddities as the largest population of urban Paraguayans not being in Asunci≤n, Paraguay, but in Buenos Aires. In northwestern Argentina Bolivians cross the border in sizable and growing numbers, and a small but steady migration from Chile has influenced the population in Patagonia since the early 1900s.
\par \tab In addition to immigration there is also a seasonal movement of foreign labor into various parts of Argentina. This is due largely to the lack of mechanization for harvesting crops in much of the nation. For instance, thousands of Paraguayans cross the border to work during the matΘ harvests in Misiones between December and March. Others come from Bolivia and Chile to help with grape picking in Cuyo and Mendoza from April to July and following that for the sugarcane, cotton, and tobacco harvests in the northern sections of Argentina.
\par \tab In the early 1900s the Argentine population structure reflected a growing rural element with the majority of the people less than 20 years of age. In more recent years, especially in the cities, the 30- to 50-year olds have emerged as the dominant group. These data reflect the composition of the capital city of Buenos Aires, in which more than 10 million people live--more than one third of the country's population. By the early 1980s there were 17 other cities in the country of more than 100,000, reflecting a trend that shows the nonurban population of Argentina steadily declining.
\par {\b The Economy}
\par \tab Argentina has traditionally been one of the more prosperous Latin American countries. Unlike many of its neighbors, the country has developed a strong manufacturing industry and has become less dependent on agriculture. Today the country is largely self-sufficient in consumer goods. However, the Argentine economy in the late 20th century, like that of many countries, suffered from severe inflation. This condition has been complicated by an unstable government and continuing domestic and international political problems.
\par \tab {\b Agriculture and livestock.}
\par \tab Argentina is one of the world's chief exporters of food and other agricultural products. Wheat, the chief crop, occupies about one seventh of the nation's cropland and is raised mainly in the Pampa. Corn (maize) covers less land, but the crop yields are high. Flax, grown for linseed oil, and rye, barley, and oats, used mainly for livestock feed, are also important. Sunflower seeds are a major source of the nation's cooking oil.
\par \tab Cotton is raised in the Chaco for use in the nation's textile factories. Near Tucumßn, in the Northwest, stretch Argentina's principal sugarcane fields. Vineyards and fruit orchards thrive farther south around Mendoza and San Juan.
\par \tab The country has vast pasturelands to match its grainfields. The first cattle, horses, and sheep were introduced by the early Spanish settlers. The cattle were stringy animals used chiefly for hides and jerked beef. After the 1880s fields were fenced and high-grade breeds were introduced. The construction of railways by foreign, mainly English, investors made it possible to ship stock and crops to markets and ports. Refrigerating plants and refrigerator ships permitted the meat to be exported.
\par \tab Today Argentina is a world leader in the raising of livestock. Animal products such as fresh and canned meat, wool, and hides rank high among the country's exports.
\par \tab {\b Mining and lumbering.}
\par \tab Argentina does not have adequate mineral resources. The leading minerals produced are petroleum, lead, and zinc. From the Northwest come tungsten, beryllium, and manganese. The country has little iron ore or other ores necessary to modern industry. It is poorly supplied with coal, especially high-grade coking coal for steel manufacture. Natural gas is piped to more than a million homes and factories, but more is needed.
\par \tab Lumbering is limited mostly to the quebracho forests of the Gran Chaco and the pine and broadleaf forests of northern Mesopotamia and, especially, Misiones Province. One variety of quebracho is cut for telephone poles, railway ties, and fence posts. Another is a source of tannin, used in making leather.
\par \tab {\b Manufacturing.}
\par \tab Argentina is one of the leading manufacturing countries of Latin America. It has been following a trend of breaking away from dependence on food processing and consumer goods and placing greater emphasis on heavy industry. A large integrated iron-and-steel plant, for example, has been constructed at San Nicolßs. The petrochemical, plastics, synthetic rubber and fiber, and motor vehicle industries are all developing.
\par \tab Food processing, however, is the leading industry. Meat-packing, flour milling, sugar refining, and vegetable and fruit canning are principal activities. The processing of linseed oil and the production of wine, beer, and soft drinks are also extensive. Other manufactures include textiles, metal goods (excluding machinery), chemicals, drugs, vehicles and machinery, wood and lumber, clay, glass, and stone products. The publishing business is also significant.
\par \tab In recent decades the Argentine government has played a strong role in the development of industry. It has assisted with the production of aircraft at C≤rdoba, steel at San Nicolßs, and petroleum-based industry at Comodoro Rivadavia.
\par \tab {\b Trade.}
\par \tab More than 90 percent of Argentina's exports are made up of crops, especially wheat, and livestock products. Countries that usually buy extensively from Argentina include the United States, Russia and other Eastern European countries, The Netherlands, Brazil, Germany, China, and Italy.
\par \tab The largest quantity of imports comes from the United States. Germany, the United Kingdom, Venezuela, and Brazil are other major suppliers. The chief imports are iron and steel products, fuels, chemicals, nonferrous metal products, lumber, and paper.
\par \tab {\b Transportation and communication.}
\par \tab Argentina's airlines, railways, and bus and ship lines constitute the most extensive transportation system in Latin America. The rail network is the most complete on the continent, fanning out from Buenos Aires in all directions. Rail lines are government owned. Roads are extensive and link all parts of the nation with the capital. Telephone and telegraph networks are mainly government owned.
\par {\b Architecture and the Arts}
\par \tab In colonial times Argentina's culture was mainly adopted from Spain. Churches and public buildings in such cities as C≤rdoba and Salta reflect Spanish architectural styles. Development of a national culture based on Argentine life came about in the 19th century. Foremost among artists was Prilidiano Pueyrred≤n, who is noted for his paintings of the Pampa region and of gaucho life.
\par \tab Melancholy songs sung to the accompaniment of a guitar formed the basis of Argentine folk music. This music figured prominently in the rise of Argentina's major contribution to popular music, the tango. In 19th-century literature the gaucho's decline is mourned in the popular gaucho poem 'Martφn Fierro' by JosΘ Hernßndez.
\par \tab French, Spanish, and Italian influences have been strong in art, music, and literature. Argentina has about 100 art museums, many with schools. Numerous painters and sculptors reside in the picturesque La Boca district on the waterfront of Buenos Aires. The large Italian population helps account for the strong support of grand opera. There are symphony orchestras in many of the country's cities. The Teatro Col≤n in Buenos Aires is one of the world's largest performing arts centers and attracts many famous artists during its regular June to August season. It is also the headquarters of the national ballet and national symphony.
\par {\b Education}
\par \tab Argentina has one of the highest literacy rates in South America. Public schools were built by government subsidies, especially under the leadership of President Domingo F. Sarmiento from 1868 to 1874. Primary education is compulsory and free, but further training is expensive. Vocational schools offer commercial, agricultural, and industrial instruction.
\par \tab The first university in the country was established at C≤rdoba in 1613. Other national universities were founded in Buenos Aires (1821), La Plata (1884), San Miguel de Tucumßn (1914), Santa Fe (1919), Mendoza (1939), Bahφa Blanca (1956), Corrientes (1957), and Santa Rosa (1959).
\par {\b The Government}
\par \tab The constitution of Argentina was adopted in 1853 and has been amended several times. It established Argentina as a federal republic with separate executive, legislative, and judicial branches. The constitution calls for an executive branch to be headed by a president, who is elected directly by the people for a term of four years and who may not succeed himself. The president and the vice-president must both be Roman Catholics and at least 30 years old. The president also serves as commander in chief of the armed forces.
\par \tab According to the constitution the legislature--the Argentine National Congress--is to consist of two houses, the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies. The Senate is to be composed of a minimum of two members from each of Argentina's provinces and from the Federal District. Provincial senators must be 30 years of age and are elected by their local legislatures for nine-year terms. Members of the Chamber of Deputies must be at least 25 years old and are elected directly by the people for four-year terms. The number of deputies is based on population. Voting is compulsory for all citizens between the ages of 18 and 70 with exceptions based on such conditions as health and distance from a polling place. Some people have also been deprived of the right to vote for legal reasons.
\par \tab The judiciary consists of a Supreme Court and a series of lower courts. The nine justices of the Supreme Court are appointed for life by the president with the consent of the Senate. Federal court jurisdiction includes those cases that involve the constitution and laws and treaties of the nation.
\par \tab In 1976 the elected civilian government was deposed by the armed forces, an event that has often occurred in Argentine history. A military junta then took control of Argentina under a revised constitution that called for the president to be a retired army officer in addition to the other requirements. All activity by political parties was suspended by the regime established by the junta. With the return to civilian rule in 1983, the constitution of 1853 was restored.
\par \tab In international affairs Argentina is a member of the United Nations, the World Bank, and the General Agreement on Tariff and Trade. To participate in regional matters it belongs to the Organization of American States.
\par {\b History}
\par \tab The level of Indian civilization before the arrival of the Europeans in the early 16th century did not approach that of the Aztecs, Mayas, and Incas farther north. Some of the Indians in what is now Argentina were nomadic hunters, while others grew crops.
\par \tab Initial attempts by the Spaniards, the first Europeans to arrive, in 1516, in Argentina, to found settlements on the south bank of the Rφo de la Plata as well as on the Paranß River failed because of Indian attacks. The original colony of Buenos Aires, which was founded in 1536 by Pedro de Mendoza, was abandoned four years later, and a new settlement was established in safer territory far upstream at Asunci≤n. The Spaniards first succeeded at Asunci≤n because the more sedentary Guaranφ Indians living there were friendlier than the nomadic types farther south. Finally, working downstream from Asunci≤n, the Spaniards founded Santa Fe in 1573. They resettled Buenos Aires in 1580, and this time it became a permanent settlement.
\par \tab The Spaniards hoped to establish an inland trade route leading from Buenos Aires to the silver mines located at Potosφ, Bolivia. Transport of silver and supplies over this route never succeeded because of flooding during the wet season and low water in the Pilcomayo River region of the Gran Chaco during the dry season. As a result of their interest in the silver trade and also because of hostile Indians to the south the Spaniards did not settle the fertile pampas until the 19th century.
\par \tab Before the Spaniards tried to open the northwest trade route to Bolivia, other conquistadores had crossed the Andes in Chile and Peru and founded a line of cities stretching from north to south along the east side of the mountains. Their purpose was to supply the Bolivian mining region with food and mules for transport and to secure the region for trade. The latter was important to Buenos Aires, which received supplies from Spain via Panama, the Pacific Ocean, and Chile rather than directly across the Atlantic. The whole La Plata region was a subdivision of the viceroyalty of Peru and did not carry on direct trade with Spain until after 1776, when it was made a separate viceroyalty.
\par \tab Because of this enforced isolation the inhabitants of what is now Argentina had to develop their own production. For example, escaped horses that roamed wild on the pampas were periodically hunted for their hides and tallow and were also used in the transport of cargo and for riding. There quickly arose a gaucho tradition much like the cowboy tradition once found in the western United States. Indians who captured wild horses became formidable enemies who were not conquered easily. They were the basic reason that forts had to be built near Buenos Aires and that horses were obtained from hunting expeditions rather than raised by breeding ranches, or estancias. These horse ranches were not even developed until after the Indian threat had ended.
\par \tab As local agriculture and industry grew in the La Plata region, surplus products such as hides, vicu±a (a small llama-like animal) wool, and silver were used to trade for smuggled European goods. The long Pacific trade route with Spain was time-consuming and expensive, and so Spanish settlers bargained with the Portuguese who sold merchandise in Colonia, a town they had built on the left bank of the Rφo de la Plata opposite Buenos Aires. However, after the creation of the Rφo de la Plata viceroyalty in 1776 Buenos Aires traded directly with Spain. Hides and meat preserved by salting were shipped to Spain and became the most important trade items. The interior Andean towns declined in importance after the center of trade became focused on the Atlantic coast.
\par \tab In 1806 British troops occupied Buenos Aires. Deserted by the Spanish viceroy, the people (porte±os) ousted the British by themselves. After Napoleon I conquered Spain, colonial resistance to Spanish rule spread in Latin America. The porte±os set up a revolutionary government on May 25, 1810. The formal independence of the new United Provinces of the Rφo de la Plata was declared on July 9, 1816. Several years of fighting followed before the Spanish royalists were finally defeated. The hero of the war was Gen. JosΘ de San Martφn. Rival parties sought control of the new government. The resulting chaos permitted Juan Manuel de Rosas to seize power in 1829. He maintained a cruel and repressive dictatorship until it was overthrown in 1852. In 1853 Argentina became a federal republic.
\par \tab During the next several decades the nation's economy expanded. As Indian tribes were defeated on the pampas, tracts of their land were given away by the government. In 1880 Gen. Julio Roca, hero of the Indian wars, became president. Other presidents of that era were BartolomΘ Mitre (1862-68) and Domingo Faustino Sarmiento (1868-74), who fostered educational reforms. Roque Sßenz Pe±a (1910-14) established the secret ballot and allowed adult males to vote. Hip≤lito Irigoyen (1916-22 and 1928-30) instituted advanced labor laws.
\par \tab Argentina remained neutral during World War I. The postwar economic depression and growing corruption in government led in 1930 to a military coup, after which Gen. JosΘ FΘlix Uriburu was installed as president. A gradual return to democratic government in the 1930s was countered by a strong dicta torial trend. Argentina remained neutral in World War II until 1945, when it finally declared war on Germany.
\par \tab Colonel Juan Per≤n emerged after the war as Argentina's new strongman. Promising a better living for the urban workers, Per≤n was elected president in 1946. He repressed demands for democratic government, but, aided by his popular actress-wife, Eva, was reelected by an overwhelming majority in 1951. He was determined to make Argentina industrially self-sufficient. Supported by constitutional reforms adopted in 1949, he nationalized railways, utilities, and other foreign-owned properties. Per≤n's downfall came when students, bankers, industrialists, and other groups turned against him. In 1952 the death of his wife, who had her own political following, also weakened his support. In September 1955 the armed forces rebelled, and Per≤n fled the country. After Per≤n's ouster, the country suffered from high unemployment, high inflation, and a series of military dictatorships.
\par \tab Political unrest brought Per≤n back to leadership for a short time. He died in 1974, and he was succeeded by his third wife, Marφa Estela (Isabel) Martφnez de Per≤n, the first woman head of state in South America. In 1976 she was forced by the military to resign because she was unable to curb the extreme inflation rate. The military took over, and Gen. Jorge RafaΘl Videla assumed the presidency. During the so-called dirty war that followed, thousands of leftists and other political opponents were killed or imprisoned or simply disappeared. The Argentine government, maintaining that it was fighting a civil war, was subject to much criticism at home and abroad for civil rights violations.
\par \tab In 1982 a military conflict took place between Argentina and Great Britain over control of the Falkland Islands, known in Argentina as the Islas Malvinas. Although the islands lie about 300 miles (480 kilometers) off the east coast of Argentina, they have been controlled by Britain since 1833. Argentina also claimed the Falklands, and in 1982 Argentine troops invaded East Falkland. A British naval force counterattacked soon after the Argentine occupation, and the British quickly regained control over the islands.
\par \tab The defeat caused Lieut. Gen. Leopoldo Galtieri to resign as president of Argentina; his successor, Maj. Gen. Reynaldo Bignone, promised a return to civilian rule. In October 1983 a lawyer, Ra·l Alfonsφn of the centrist Radical Civic Union, was elected president. His victory ended the military regime and the domination the Peronist party had held since the 1940s. In 1987 and 1988 there were uprisings by military officers who opposed Alfonsφn's government. In 1989 the country faced its worst energy crisis in 40 years and continued to be plagued by severe inflation. In May 1989 Carlos Sa·l Menem of the Peronist party was elected president. Alfonsφn resigned at the end of June, and Menem was inaugurated on July 8, five months ahead of schedule, so he could tackle the huge economic problems of the country. Menem reversed five decades of state control of the economy by planning a free-market economy, with lower tariffs based on wage-price pacts between labor, business, and government, and by declaring that all major state-owned industries would be privatized by 1993. He also sought to quell the military's discontent by pardoning those involved in the dirty war of the 1970s, a move for which he was strongly criticized.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab Robert C. Eidt
\par \tab {\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR ARGENTINA}
\par \tab Crawley, Eduardo. A House Divided: Argentina 1880-1980 (St. Martin, 1984).
\par \tab Hintz, Martin. Argentina (Children's, 1985).
\par \tab Lye, Keith. Take a Trip to Argentina (Watts, 1986).
\par \tab Waisman, C.H. Reversal of Development in Argentina (Princeton Univ. Press, 1987).\par \tab One of the world's oldest centers of civilization and once the smallest republic of the Soviet Union, Armenia is an independent republic in the Caucasus Mountains.
\par \tab Armenia covers an area of 11,500 square miles (29,800 square kilometers). It is situated in the southern part of the Caucasus, the region between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea. Armenia borders on Azerbaijan, Georgia, Turkey, and Iran. Yerevan, near the Turkish border, is the capital and chief city, with a population of about 1.2 million.
\par \tab The land is a lofty plateau, crossed by mountain ridges and cut by valleys. The highest peak is Mount Aragats, an extinct volcano 13,418 feet (4,090 meters) high. The climate is cool in the highlands and warm in the lowlands.
\par \tab About 90 percent of the people are ethnic Armenians. The remainder of the population is made up primarily of Azerbaijanis and Russians, with a small number of Kurds, Ukrainians, and other groups. The Armenians belong mainly to the Armenian Apostolic church or the Armenian Catholic church.
\par \tab The chief agricultural and industrial region is the Araks River valley. Irrigated fields produce wine grapes--the most important crop--figs, olives, pomegranates, cotton, and fruits. In higher altitudes grains, sugar beets, tobacco, potatoes, and hay are grown and cattle, sheep, and goats are pastured. Mineral resources include metal ores.
\par \tab The development of hydroelectric power transformed ancient Yerevan into a major industrial city. Its chief products are chemicals, clothing, precision instruments, and machinery. Other Armenian industries include food processing and textiles.
\par \tab {\b History.}
\par \tab In ancient times Armenia was conquered by Assyria and by Persia, but it continued to be governed by native kings. Following conquest by Alexander the Great, it was ruled by a Greek dynasty.
\par \tab In AD 300 the Armenian king Tiridates III was converted to Christianity. He at once made Christianity the state religion and took steps to stamp out the old Persian religion, Zoroastrianism. In the 5th century a separate Christian church was established. In 653 Armenia fell to the Arabs, who were spreading their new Islamic religion. Persia took Armenia again in 1502, but the Turks soon wrested most of it from them and brought it into the Ottoman Empire. Both the Persians and the Turks oppressed their Christian subjects. The Armenians began to leave their homeland and scattered over Asia and Africa.
\par \tab In 1828 Russia took from Persia the region later known as Russian Armenia. In 1878, at the Congress of Berlin that followed the Russo-Turkish War, Russia gained part of Turkish Armenia. Kurds, who had been resettled on Armenian land, massacred thousands of Armenians in 1894, 1895, 1896, and 1909. During World War I the Turkish government systematically began to annihilate the Armenians. Many fled and immigrated to Russia, Syria, Egypt, the Balkans, Western Europe, and the United States.
\par \tab The Treaty of SΦvres (1920) between Turkey and the victorious Allies recognized the independence of Armenian territories in both the Soviet Union and Turkey. In December 1920, however, the Soviets sent troops to Yerevan and set up a Soviet government over Russian Armenia. In 1922 Russian Armenia became part of the Transcaucasian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic. In 1936 the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic was made a separate constituent republic of the Soviet Union.
\par \tab Since 1988 violent ethnic riots and armed demonstrations have been common between Armenians and Azerbaijanis. The unrest followed a vote in 1988 by the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast, which is mostly populated by ethnic Armenians but is part of Azerbaijan, to secede and be united with Armenia. Soviet troops were sent to restore order in the disputed region and in Yerevan. Azerbaijanis blockaded Armenia's rail lines to the region, and fighting continued to break out along the border even though the Supreme Soviet voted to return control of the region to Azerbaijan.
\par \tab A massive earthquake, measuring 6.9 on the Richter scale, devastated a widespread area near the Turkish border on Dec. 7, 1988. About 25,000 people were killed and more than 500,000 left homeless. The cities of Spitak, Kirovakan, and Leninakan were partially or totally destroyed.
\par \tab Armenia was one of six republics that boycotted a referendum on March 17, 1991, on continuing the union. Armenia, Georgia, Moldavia, Latvia, Lithuania, and Estonia declared their intention to secede from the Soviet Union, and refused in May to sign a union treaty that would fundamentally change the structure and formal name of the Soviet Union. The union treaty collapsed after the August 1991 attempted coup to oust Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev. Armenia declared its sovereignty and its independence in late August, and proclaimed its independence again in September. On Dec. 21, 1991, with ten other former Soviet republics, Armenia joined the Commonwealth of Independent States, which was to be an alliance of fully independent states. Population (1991 estimate), 3,376,000.\par \tab A self-governing island of The Netherlands, Aruba is approximately 50 miles (80 kilometers) west of Curaτao and 15 miles (24 kilometers) north of Venezuela. The island is mostly flat and covers an area of about 75 square miles (194 square kilometers).
\par \tab Tourism benefits from Aruba's deepwater harbors for cruise ships, its international airport, long stretches of white sandy beaches, and a favorable climate. The Lago Oil refining complex was the main source of employment until it closed in 1985. Two plants produce low-sulfur fuel oil, and a petrochemical plant produces ammonia.
\par \tab More than half the people are of Indian ancestry; the rest are European or other immigrants. The official language is Dutch, but the native language used in daily life is Papiamento, a mixture of Portuguese, Dutch, Spanish, and African origin.
\par \tab Aruba's earliest inhabitants were Arawak Indians. Aruba was claimed by Spain in 1499. The Dutch West India Company garrisoned the island in 1634, and it has remained under Dutch control, except for 13 years of intermittent British rule in the early 1800s.
\par \tab On Jan. 1, 1986, Aruba seceded from the Netherlands Antilles. All local affairs are handled by an island government. The Netherlands, however, still controls the island's defense and foreign affairs. Aruba is expected to gain complete independence in 1996. Population (1991 estimate), 66,000.\par \tab A land of extremes and contrasts, Asia is the largest and the most populous continent. It has the highest mountains and most of the longest rivers, highest plateaus, and largest deserts and plains of all the continents. Asia is also home to some of the world's oldest cultures. It has some of the poorest as well as some of the richest nations in the world. It contains a major share of the world's largest cities, yet most of Asia's people are rural dwellers. Because of its size, age, population, and rich resources Asia has long been of great interest to the rest of the world. During much of Asia's history, outsiders, principally Europeans, have tried to exploit and control it and its people. In the 20th century, however, Asia has been the scene of great change. Many of the undeveloped countries of the region are taking various approaches to modernizing their economies and societies, some under Communism. Progress has often been slow because of physical and cultural barriers, but there have been some notable advances and the efforts to upgrade living standards continue.
\par {\b Two Definitions of Asia: Classical and Modern}
\par \tab Asia is actually just one part of the Eurasian landmass, the largest body of land on Earth. Through time, a division of Eurasia into two parts, Europe and Asia, became generally accepted. The dividing line started with the Ural Mountains in Russia and then continued south to the Caspian Sea, turning west to follow the boundary between today's Iran and Turkey and Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan. Turkey thus was the westernmost part of Asia. Asia then, in the classical sense, extends east as far as the Pacific Ocean, north to the Arctic Ocean, and south to the Indian Ocean and the islands of Southeast Asia. Europeans called Asia the Orient, meaning "east," and the Western world was referred to as the Occident, meaning "west." These old terms are seldom used anymore.
\par \tab Some geographers prefer to define Asia in a narrower sense. This smaller Asia is based on the region's more recent political, cultural, and economic changes. Thus, modern Asia would exclude two subregions, Russian Asia (Siberia) and Southwest Asia. Remaining in the modern version of Asia are three subregions: South Asia, Southeast Asia, and East Asia. Although this article on Asia uses the classical, larger definition of the continent, some recognition is given to the modern interpretation of Asia.
{\b THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT}
\par {\b Land and Population}
\par \tab Even the modern, smaller definition of Asia would make it the largest and most populous of the continents. Classical Asia is even larger. Its area of more than 17 million square miles (44 million square kilometers) accounts for almost one third of the Earth's land surface, or an area greater than the two Americas or Europe and Africa combined. From a population perspective, Asia leads the world even more. There are about 2.6 billion people in Asia, 60 percent of the world total. Most of those people, some 2.2 billion, are concentrated within the modern limitations of Asia (South, Southeast, and East), which is one reason for trying to confine the study of Asia.
\par \tab Regardless, the share of the world's people living in Asia is increasing steadily. By the year 2000, Asia's share should reach about 3.8 billion or about 61 percent of the world total. This fact alone demonstrates the importance of Asia. Asia's population density thus is high, about 151 persons per square mile (58 per square kilometer), compared to around 40 per square mile (15 per square kilometer) in North America. Moreover, Asia's population is unevenly distributed, so that in some of the most populous countries of the continent, the densities are far higher. In Japan, for example, the density is about 850 per square mile (330 per square kilometer).
\par {\b Seas and Islands}
\par \tab One of the major characteristics of Asia is that most of the population is crowded onto a broad fringe extending to the ocean; an area that is relatively fertile, level, and well-watered. This can be pictured as an arc extending through the three subregions of East, Southeast, and South Asia. The association with the sea is strong. Three oceans border Asia, the Arctic, Pacific, and Indian, but the latter two are by far the most important to the people of Asia. Within the areas where these oceans touch the continent are many of the world's largest and most important islands and archipelagoes.
\par \tab On its eastern side Asia is strung with island arcs that enclose many seas. In the northeast, Asia comes closest to North America, where the Alaskan mainland lies only 53 miles (85 kilometers) from Siberia. The Aleutian Island chain encloses the Bering Sea. The Kamchatka Peninsula and the Kuril Islands fence off the Sea of Okhotsk in Siberia. Sakhalin Island and the main islands of Japan bend in another arc toward the Korean Peninsula to set off the Sea of Japan. The Ryukyu Islands arc southward to the island of Taiwan, enclosing the Yellow Sea and East China Sea. From Taiwan south, the Philippine archipelago picks up the pattern, blending into the island of Borneo to delimit the South China Sea. Much of Southeast Asia is a complex mix of islands and seas.
\par \tab This distinctive pattern of island arcs is the result of the so-called Ring of Fire that largely encloses the Pacific Ocean. In this area the land is geologically young and still developing. The islands along the ring are thus rugged, and volcanoes and earthquakes are common in this region.
\par \tab In South Asia, the pattern of seas and islands is not so striking, and the region is dominated by the mass of the Indian Ocean fronting directly on the mainland. The largest island, Sri Lanka (formerly Ceylon) lies off the tip of the Indian subcontinent. The Bay of Bengal directly to the east is separated from the Andaman Sea by the Andaman and Nicobar islands that trail southward toward Sumatra. To the west of India there is a sprinkling of mostly coral atolls in the Laccadive Islands and Maldives, running south out of the Arabian Sea. Southwest Asia is distinctly shaped by the peninsulas of Arabia and Turkey and the seas that surround them, particularly the Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea, Red Sea, and Persian Gulf.
\par {\b Continent of Extremes}
\par \tab Asia's great expanse from the equatorial tropics to the arctic (6,000 miles; 9,650 kilometers) and from the Pacific Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea (5,900 miles; 9,500 kilometers) results in a continent of extreme contrasts. Asia contains virtually every kind of natural landscape. Roughly half the continent consists of highlands, and about 8 percent is more than 10,000 feet (3,000 meters) above sea level. Asia's average elevation exceeds that of all the other continents except Antarctica.
\par {\b Mountainous Center}
\par \tab Dominating the Asian landscape is the huge Tibetan-Qinghai Highlands, which occupy much of western China. This plateau is the highest and largest in the world. According to some geologists it was created by movements of the Earth's crust between India and Tibet that forced the plateau upward. Geologists say it is still rising.
\par \tab In the western part of this plateau are the Pamir Mountains, called the Roof of the World, where China, Tajikistan, Pakistan, and Afghanistan meet. From this mountain knot, lofty ranges spread outward in many directions. The Hindu Kush runs southwest through Afghanistan. To the northeast extends the Tian Shan. The Karakoram runs southeast and merges into the Himalayas, the highest mountain range in the world. Mount Everest, the tallest peak (29,023 feet; 8,846 meters), is located there, as are the other eight highest peaks of the world. The Himalayas are a favorite challenge for mountain climbers.
\par \tab The largest area of highlands in Asia thus is connected with the Tibetan plateau. Most of western and northern China, as well as all of Mongolia and much of southern Siberia, is dominated by mountains and plateaus.
\par \tab To the north is the great plain of Siberia that rims the Arctic Ocean and stretches west, with few physical barriers, to European Russia. The Caspian Sea and the Ural Mountains mark the traditional western limit of Asia. South, southwest, and east of the highland core of Asia, the landscape is a mix of lower mountain ranges, hills, plains, and valleys, which blends into the island arcs of the east and southeast.
\par {\b Great Rivers and Their Basins}
\par \tab The drainage pattern of Asia is also dominated by the central highland core. With the exception of Southwest Asia, all the great rivers of Asia flow out of this central highland region. Eight of the twenty longest rivers in the world are found in Asia. Those that flow to the Arctic through Siberia include the Ob, Yenisey, and Lena. The valleys they form are largely uninhabited because of the harsh climate.
\par \tab The rivers that flow to the east and south, however, have been home to millions of people since the beginning of history. Their valleys have the combination of warmth and moisture that was favorable to early civilizations. These rivers include the eastward flowing Amur (or Heilongjiang), the Huang He, the Yangtze, and the Hsi, all in China. Southeast Asia has the great rivers of the Mekong, Chao Phraya, Salween, and Irrawaddy. In South Asia are located the Ganges-Brahmaputra and Indus rivers. Southwest Asia is arid and has few major rivers. The most important are the Tigris and Euphrates, which flow out of the highlands of Turkey.
\par \tab Not all of Asia's rivers reach the sea. From the Caspian Sea eastward through parts of the central mountain core of western China is a region of interior drainage. Here rivers flow from the mountains across arid lands and disappear into salty lakes or swamps. This is a rugged land and is among the least populated parts of Asia.
\par {\b Extremes of Climate}
\par \tab Asia has every type of climate found in the world. The major factors that influence Asia's climate pattern are its huge land area, its location between the tropics and the arctic, and its great range in elevations from sea level to high plateaus and mountains. The dominant climatic pattern over most of the inhabited part of Asia is the monsoon, the seasonal shift in wind patterns between winter and summer. Most of Asia's people live in what is sometimes called "monsoon Asia." This includes the subregions of East, Southeast, and South Asia. During winter, cold, dry air moves southward out of the Mongolian Plateau, giving northern Asia little precipitation in winter. In summer the pattern reverses, with warm, moist air moving northward from the tropics. Rainfall is heaviest at this time, especially in the coastal band of the three subregions. By the time the air masses reach farther north, most of the moisture is gone. Precipitation is therefore heaviest in southern and eastern Asia where most of the people live.
\par \tab To the north, in Siberia, the climate is cold and dry. The extreme northern fringe, as well as much of the Tibetan-Qinghai Plateau, has a tundra climate, sometimes also called a cold desert because the land is dry like a desert but with cold temperatures. Most of the remainder of Siberia has a subarctic climate. In this area stands a vast evergreen forest known as the taiga. There, some of the world's coldest temperatures have been recorded.
\par \tab Steppe and desert climates dominate the regions just south of the subarctic; they affect most of north and west China, Russia, and virtually all of Southwest Asia and western South Asia. These are regions of low precipitation and hot summers. Because of the dryness and lack of sources of fresh water, large parts of the steppe and desert regions are uninhabited.
\par \tab Parts of northern China, plus North and South Korea and part of Japan, have a continental warm summer climate. Winters are fairly cold, but summers warm and humid, and thus the land is well-suited for agriculture and human settlement. To the south a large humid subtropical climate zone prevails. It stretches from southern Japan through all of southern China and parts of northern Southeast Asia and South Asia. Because of the mild climate of this region, it is one of the most densely populated parts of Asia the world. Nearly 1 billion people live in this hospitable climate zone of Asia.
\par \tab Farther south are the tropical humid climate zones of South and Southeast Asia. They have high year-round temperatures and heavy precipitation, which have given rise to some of the world's densest tropical rain forests. On the mainland, where the winter monsoon effect is felt, precipitation is concentrated in summer and there is a winter dry season, producing a savanna climate. Particularly in a high population density region such as India, the timely arrival of the summer monsoon is critical to millions of people who depend on the rains for agriculture.
\par {\b Plant and Animal Life}
\par \tab The distribution of Asia's natural vegetation and wildlife is directly related to the continent's climate patterns. Thus, the types of plant and animal life are as various as the climate. Wherever humans have been present in large numbers for a long time, such as India and China, the need for land for agriculture and settlement has meant the destruction of wildlife and natural vegetation. In Southeast Asia the once extensive tropical rain forest is rapidly disappearing because of logging operations, population growth, and agricultural expansion. China has barely 12 percent of its land under natural forest cover, the lowest proportion of any major country in the world. Only in Siberia, where the population is small, has the natural landscape survived relatively unchanged. To a lesser extent that is also true in the steppes and deserts.
\par \tab Asia was once the range for countless species of wildlife, including some found only in Asia. Now many species have been drastically reduced in numbers, some close to the point of extinction. The governments of most nations in Asia have not had strong policies for protecting wildlife, and uncontrolled hunting has often been allowed. Nevertheless, some unique animal species that are found only in parts of Asia still survive, including the yak, giant panda, Siberian tiger, Bactrian camel, Bengal tiger, Indian leopard, Indian elephant, Indian rhinoceros, Malay tapir, gibbon, and orangutan.
\par {\b Asia's Geographic Regions}
\par \tab The five major regions, or realms, into which classical Asia is divided are distinguished primarily by culture, history, political development, and, to some extent, natural environment. The five regions, as stated earlier, are: Russian Asia, Southwest Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia, and East Asia.
\par \tab {\b Russian Asia.}
\par \tab Russian Asia (largely Siberia) accounts for about three fourths of the territory of the former Soviet Union. It includes Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan. This region was controlled by Imperial Russia during the 17th to 19th centuries. A vast, largely barren land, it has always resisted human settlement because of severe cold in the north and dryness in the south. Only a small proportion of Russia's people live there today despite the area's size. The population is denser in a narrow band running east and west along the southern border of the region, just north of Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Mongolia, China, and North Korea. This is the route of the Trans-Siberian Railroad.
\par \tab Russian Asia extends all the way to the Bering Strait, which separates it from North America. The principal economic activities in Russian Asia are mining of the region's rich mineral wealth, particularly coal and oil, and logging in the taiga, the world's largest forest. Heavy industrial activities include petroleum and gas refining, chemical and metal production, machine building, and construction. The harsh climate and vast area hamper greater development.
\par \tab {\b Southwest Asia.}
\par \tab Like Russian Asia, Southwest Asia is a subregion that is not regarded as part of the modern concept of Asia. The area extends from Asian Turkey and Iran in the north, south through Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Jordan, and Saudi Arabia and the other states of the Arabian Peninsula. This is a regiondominated by a dry climate, and thus the total population has never been large. Of the more than 134 million people in the region, Iran and Turkey account for more than half. Culturally, the region is the easternmost extension of the Middle East-North Africa realm, that area dominated by the Arabic-Islamic culture. Although Southwest Asia has had long historical associations with the rest of Asia to the east, its main economic and political ties have been to the West, with North Africa and Europe.
\par \tab Southwest Asia was the site of some of the earliest civilizations. This was in the Fertile Crescent, starting in the Tigris-Euphrates valleys in present-day Iraq and curving down through the valley of the Jordan River and the Dead Sea in present-day Jordan and Israel. Although economically limited by the arid climate, Southwest Asia has been fortunate during the 20th century because of the vast oil deposits found there, especially around the Persian Gulf. The wealth earned from oil exports has economically transformed much of the region and made some of the nations among the richest in the world. Oil has made Southwest Asia a region of vital importance to the world's industrial countries. In the 20th century Southwest Asia has been the focus of numerous world crises, both because of cultural conflicts and the attempts of industrial nations to influence and control the oil-rich region.
\par \tab {\b South Asia.}
\par \tab South Asia is sometimes referred to as the Indian subcontinent. It consists of modern India, plus the smaller nations of Pakistan and Afghanistan to the west, Bangladesh to the east, Nepal and Bhutan to the north, and the island nations of Sri Lanka and the Maldives to the south. The northern boundary of South Asia is the great Himalayan mountain chain, which forms the southern border of Tibet, a part of China. South Asia is about half the size of the United States and has a great range of natural features and climates. Nepal and Bhutan are landlocked mountain states with limited agricultural potential. The same is true of Afghanistan, though it has a much larger territory.
\par \tab Afghanistan's strategic location near Russian Asia has made it a crossroads and the target of numerous invasions including one by the Soviet Union in 1979. Most of western South Asia, including parts of Pakistan and western India, is extremely arid. Irrigation, mainly from the Indus River, has long been vital to agriculture there. In the east, Bangladesh shares the valleys of the Ganges and Brahmaputra with India. This is the heartland of South Asia, with the most humid climate and best conditions for agriculture. More than half of South Asia's 1 billion people live in these valleys. South of the Ganges Valley the land slopes to the Indian plateau and the climate is subtropical to tropical. With the development of irrigation and hydroelectric projects, the region has made industrial progress.
\par \tab All of South Asia was controlled by the British, as part of their worldwide colonial empire, until independence was granted in the late 1940s. The British left a legacy of many economic improvements, including an extensive railway system, and a strong political and cultural imprint on the traditional societies of the region. However, the great diversity of peoples, languages, and religions in South Asia, combined with overpopulation and extensive poverty, left the region with many problems of national development.
\par \tab Since independence, there have been many improvements characterized by growth of industry, mechanization of agriculture, urbanization, and an increase in literacy. The South Asian nations are still poor, but they are developing.
\par \tab {\b Southeast Asia.}
\par \tab Southeast Asia consists of two main parts: mainland and insular (largely the island area). The mainland is composed of parallel mountain ranges and river valleys that run south and southeast out of the Tibetan plateau and surrounding highlands. Thus, the mainland nations of Myanmar (formerly Burma), Thailand, Laos, Cambodia (Kampuchea), and Vietnam consist of river valley cores in which most of the people live. These cores are surrounded by less populous highlands. In Myanmar the core is the Irrawaddy Valley. In Thailand it is the Chao Phraya. In Laos, Cambodia, and southern Vietnam, the cores center along the Mekong River. In northern Vietnam the core is in the Red River valley. Insular Southeast Asia consists of the Malay peninsula and the many islands that make up the nations of Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Brunei, and the Philippines. Indonesia alone has about 13,000 islands. People on these islands live largely along coastal plains and short river valleys that flow out of the mountainous interiors of the islands. Most of the islands are mountainous, and many are of volcanic origin. The most famous and important of the islands is Java in Indonesia.
\par \tab Southeast Asia's population of about 440 million is much smaller than that of South or East Asia, but the land area of Southeast Asia is also smaller. The population is unevenly distributed, and population densities in parts of the region range among the world's highest. Indonesia alone has more than 181 million people, more than half of them on the island of Java. All of Southeast Asia was under colonial rule or influence until after World War II. Independent civilizations, such as the Khmer and Thai, flourished in the region long before the colonial rule of the British, French, Dutch, Spanish, and Portuguese was imposed starting in the 16th and 17th centuries. Since independence these countries have struggled to develop their natural resources and industries. For example, Singapore and Jakarta have become modern industrial centers. Indonesia is a major petroleum producer, and Malaysia is a major tin producer. Throughout the region new techniques are being used to increase production of rice and other grain crops. Plantation crops such as rubber, bananas, coconuts, sugarcane, tea, palm oil, and spices are also important.
\par \tab The Indochina conflict that raged from World War II until the mid-1970s hampered progress in the states of Indochina, of which Vietnam has become perhaps the most powerful. Turmoil has continued in the region, especially in Cambodia, further complicating economic growth.
\par \tab {\b East Asia.}
\par \tab East Asia consists of the nations of Japan, North and South Korea, China, Taiwan, and Mongolia, and the colonies of Macao and Hong Kong. An old term for the region is the Far East, dating from earlier history when the area was "far" from Europe and "east" of Europe in terms of traveling time and direction. It lies mostly within the Temperate Zone, and thus the climatic patterns and natural environment are similar in many ways to those of Europe and southern North America.
\par \tab China, with its huge size and population, dominates East Asia physically. The remaining much smaller states are located along the eastern side of the region, which includes the peninsula of Korea, divided today into the two nations of North Korea and South Korea. The island nation of Japan is also there. In the southeast is the island of Taiwan (formerly Formosa), where the Republic of China government rules in exile as a legacy of the Chinese Revolution. The government of the People's Republic of China also claims control of Taiwan. Hong Kong, on China's southeast coast, is still administered as a British colony. There is also the tiny Portuguese colony of Macao just across the bay from Hong Kong. Both Portugal and Britain agreed in the 1980s to transfer control over these colonies to China in the 1990s. Culturally, the Republic of Mongolia is also part of East Asia. However, Mongolia was politically tied to the Soviet Union for much of the 20th century and plays no significant role in current East Asian affairs.
\par \tab East Asia is the most populous region in the world, with about 1.4 billion people, or more than one fourth of the world total. More than 1 billion of those people are in China alone. Most of these people are concentrated in the eastern fringe of the region, where there are extensive lowlands and the most favorable climate. In this area population densities are among the highest in the world.
\par \tab China was the first great civilization in East Asia and strongly influenced the cultural development of the other peoples in the region. For this reason, East Asia is also sometimes referred to as the Sinic (meaning "Chinese") culture realm. During the 19th and early 20th centuries, China was gravely weakened by internal political and economic problems, which were aggravated by Western and Japanese colonial efforts to exploit the country. The Chinese Revolution, which started in 1911, resulted finally in the Communists seizing power in 1949. Since then China has struggled to overcome its problems of overpopulation and lack of technology in order to develop as a modern industrial nation. Progress has been gradual but slow. Although much smaller in size and population, Japan is the economic giant of the region and one of the most powerful industrial nations in the world. South Korea, Taiwan, and Hong Kong are rapidly industrializing, following the Japanese model.
{\b PEOPLES AND CULTURES}
\par \tab The racial pattern of Asia is extremely complex. The three main racial groups are found there: Caucasoid, Mongoloid, and Negroid. The Caucasoid dominates in South and Southwest Asia, and the Mongoloid in East and Southeast Asia, as well as in Siberia. The Negroid peoples, much fewer in numbers, are found mainly in South Asia. The Aryo-Dravidians of India are also sometimes regarded as a separate main racial group. Among these racial families are many variations, commonly based on language and culture differences. On the one hand, there has been considerable mixing of the races. On the other hand, many groups have been isolated because of physical barriers, such as mountains, deserts, and seas. This isolation has influenced the development of special ethnic characteristics among certain groups.
\par {\b Languages}
\par \tab The language patterns of Asia reflect the great diversity of peoples. Ural-Altaic languages are predominant in Siberia. In East Asia and parts of Southeast Asia various Sino-Tibetan languages are spoken. Korean and Japanese are unique variations derived from both the Ural-Altaic and Sino-Tibetan groups. The peoples of insular Southeast Asia speak various Malay languages. In South Asia the Dravidian and Indo-Aryan are the main language families. In Southwest Asia, Arabic and Irano-Armenian languages are the most common. These are the broadest patterns. Actually, the language situation in Asia is far more complex, because there are often dozens of variations in each language family. South and Southeast Asia are especially complex in their language patterns. Indeed, the great variety of spoken and written languages is often one of the main obstacles to developing a sense of national unity in the countries of these regions. In some places, inhabitants share a common written language but are unable to understand the spoken dialects of their neighbors.
\par \tab To overcome problems of communication, most Asian countries have adopted a national or official language. Often this is the language spoken by a large segment of the population. Hindi spoken in India and Bahasa Indonesia (Javanese) in Indonesia are examples. In China the spoken dialect of the Beijing region of northern China has been the national language for decades. As a result of past colonialism, European languages, especially English and French, are widely used in Asia. Throughout Asia most schoolchildren study English for at least a few years. Most educated people in Asia know more than one language. English remains the unofficial national language of India and a number of other former British colonies. Dutch, Spanish, and French may also still be heard in other former colonies.
\par {\b Religions}
\par \tab Asia was the birthplace for most of the great world religions, including Christianity, Judaism, Islam, Hinduism, and Buddhism. The first three emerged out of the ancient Middle East (Southwest Asia). These three faiths share the belief that there is but one God. There are other similarities, but there are also some fundamental differences among the three. Such differences have often been among the causes that led to bloody conflict between followers of the faiths, beginning with the Crusades of the Middle Ages and most recently in the Israeli-Arab struggle. Fierce internal struggles have also taken place between factions within each religion. Of these three religions Islam has become the most widespread on the Asian continent. Muslims are the dominating group in the countries of Southwest Asia and in parts of South and Southeast Asia.
\par \tab Hinduism and Buddhism developed in South Asia. The latter was carried to East and Southeast Asia where it is still significant. Buddhism, however, is no longer a major religion in South Asia itself. Sikhism, a combination of Islamic and Hindu elements, also grew out of South Asia. Confucianism emerged in China more than 2,000 years ago. Not a true religion, Confucianism is more of a social-ethical system, and it profoundly influenced China's development. Many elements of Confucianism still play important roles in Chinese society, even under Communism, which discourages religion.
\par \tab Other religions confined to East Asia include Taoism in China and Shintoism in Japan. These are also not considered true religions. In Southeast Asia, Buddhism dominated the mainland area and Islam spread through most of the insular area. As a result of Spanish colonialism, many of the peoples of the Philippines were converted to Catholicism. That country has one of the only dominant Christian populations in all of Asia today, though there are notable Christian minorities in many Asian countries. Christian missionaries worked throughout much of Asia during the colonial era, trying to convert people. Their religious impact was slight in terms of numbers of converts, but they sometimes made contributions to health and education, especially among rural people. Christian missionaries are still active throughout Asia.
\par \tab Religious divisions, often related to language and cultural differences, have been the source of many social and political problems. For example, the partition of British India after World War II was mainly the result of the inability of the Muslims (believers in Islam) and Hindus to live peaceably together. Thus, a Muslim Pakistan was created in two sections on the subcontinent, leaving a mostly Hindu India in between. The two nations have frequently feuded since. In Southeast Asia, religious and cultural differences between Muslim Malays and nonreligious Chinese have been a source of tension in some of the countries there. In Iran, after the overthrow of the shah in 1979, a militantly orthodox Shiah Muslim government attempted to suppress other religious faiths. Islamic militancy has marked much of Asia's history and has continued in the 20th century.
\par \tab As the nations of Asia have modernized, the hold of traditional religions has weakened. This is particularly true in East Asia. During the era of Mao Zedong in China, from 1949 to 1976, for example, religion was officially discouraged. Some religious freedom, however, has been restored. In non-Communist East Asia social and technological modernization has tended to weaken the role of religion in society. Through Southeast, South, and Southwest Asia, where there is less economic development, religion still plays an important role in the daily life of millions of people.
\par \tab In addition, there are many other Asians who practice various forms of animism. These are tribal religious beliefs concerned with spiritual beings that can help or harm the believer. Animistic peoples are generally isolated and have little contact with others.
\par {\b Arts and Literature}
\par \tab The richness of Asia's cultures is reflected in its arts and literature. China, for example, developed one of the world's most distinctive cultures over a period of some 3,000 years. The Chinese developed unique forms of art, such as painting, ceramics, and bronzeware, as well as architecture, literature, and music. These profoundly influenced the cultures of Korea and Japan. The Indian civilization of South Asia also developed distinctive art forms, different from those of East Asia and in many ways related to the arts of the Middle East. Islamic art and architecture have also had a major influence on world culture. The art, architecture, and literature of Asia have long been highly appreciated by Westerners.
\par {\b Education and Health}
\par \tab In the more developed countries, especially Japan, there are high standards for education and health care. Most of the developing nations of Asia face major problems in improving education and health care for their large populations. Overpopulation remains the chief obstacle to improving the lives of the people. This is not only because of the large populations within each nation. It is also because such a large proportion of the population is young. In China, for example, more than 60 percent of the people are under 30 years old. In most of the region it is not uncommon for 40 to 50 percent of the population to be under 21. Subsequently there is an enormous demand for education, and the demand for health care and various other social services is growing continually.
\par \tab Most Asian countries, however, do not have economies strong enough to provide adequate services. Young people often receive only a primary school education. Many get no education at all and remain illiterate. A lucky few go on to high school, and even fewer to college. The labor forces thus tend to be poorly trained. Combined with low incomes and poor nutrition, this means that millions of Asians have shortened life-spans and suffer from chronic illnesses, untreated diseases, and reduced energy levels. Population control is generally recognized as a major requirement in solving these health and education problems in Asia's poorer countries.
{\b THE ECONOMY}
\par \tab Great poverty contrasted with great wealth characterizes Asia's economies. Parts of Asia, such as Japan, Singapore, and some of the Middle East oil-rich nations, have standards of living equal to that of most Western countries. Other parts of Asia, such as Indonesia, Myanmar, Indochina, and Bangladesh, have much lower standards of living. Many of the people live in poverty. Within many of the countries of Asia, there are great gaps in income levels, with a relatively small and wealthy elite living beside large masses of people who struggle to survive. Many factors account for this inequality; probably one of the most important is that Asia's people still depend largely on agriculture for their living; so a middle class has not been able to develop through industrial growth. What limited industrialization there is in most Asian countries tends to be concentrated in a few large cities. The wealth produced by such urban-centered industry tends not to spread evenly throughout the countries. Asia's traditional societies, reluctant to change customs, also foster inequality.
\par \tab The situation caused by these conditions is that of dual economies. In many of the smaller countries this means there is a small, relatively modern industrialized economy concentrated in the largest city, which is often the national capital. A small proportion of the people live there, but their average income tends to be higher than that of the majority of the people living in rural areas, where most of the people work in agriculture. There is little industry, and income levels are low. Society changes slowly in these areas. Because of this gap between rural areas and the large cities, millions of rural people have been moving from the countryside to the cities to seek a better life. This migration burdens the large cities with too many people, who often cannot find jobs, adequate housing, and other social services. The rural areas also suffer because most of the migrants are young men. This trend is one of the major problems facing Asian nations that are still largely agricultural.
\par {\b Agriculture}
\par \tab Most of Asia's peoples are farmers who struggle just to produce enough food to survive. Throughout the continent, the average person consumes only about 2,000 calories a day, which is just barely enough for minimum nutrition. Moreover, those calories tend to be high in starches and low in protein. Meat is a luxury for most Asians, eaten only on special occasions. The diet tends to consist mostly of rice or other grains, plus small amounts of vegetables and fruits, and protein from nonanimal sources, such as beans. In many countries fish is another source of protein.
\par \tab {\b Subsistence farming.}
\par \tab The type of agriculture practiced by most farmers is called subsistence farming. The whole family works hard in farming; there are few if any farm machines, and little surplus is produced for market. Farms tend to be small, an average of no more than two to three acres (about one hectare). Farming thus tends to be intensive; that is, the farmer must get a small land area to produce the highest possible yields. Fortunately, much of Asia lies in the tropics and warmer climates, so that double-cropping, or growing two crops each year, is possible. Rice is preferred in the warmer, wetter places; wheat and other dry grains are grown in the cooler and drier areas. The farmers often raise a little poultry or livestock as well, usually for the market.
\par \tab In hilly and mountainous areas farmers practice slash and burn cultivation, which is the crudest form of subsistence agriculture. This kind of agriculture consists of cutting down the forest cover, then burning it. Seed is then planted in the ground among the tree stumps; nothing more is done to help the plants grow until harvesttime. Yields are low, and after a few harvests the farmer must abandon the land and move on to a new forest area, where he starts the process again.
\par \tab {\b Commercial agriculture.}
\par \tab Commercial agriculture, in the form of plantations and small holdings, is also widespread in Asia, especially in the countries of Southeast and South Asia. European colonial rulers began this type of agriculture. The Europeans first acquired control over huge estates of land all over Asia and then planted them with a single crop, such as rubber, sugarcane, coffee, tea, or bananas. Labor was supplied by local peasants who worked for small wages. Most of the profits were returned to Europe.
\par \tab Plantation farming has declined greatly since the early 1950s, because most of the nations in which it was practiced regained independence. A few countries, such as Malaysia and Sri Lanka, have encouraged plantation farming in order to increase exports. Some countries have encouraged local farmers to produce commercial export crops on their small holdings. Most commercial production now comes from small holdings, and these crops provide a major source of export income for a number of Asian countries.
\par \tab {\b Nomadic herding.}
\par \tab In the drier parts of Asia, especially Southwest Asia, most rural people make a living by raising livestock. Many are nomads who move with their herds of animals over large territories, constantly seeking good supplies of grass and water. The people live simply and carry their tents and belongings with them. Such animals as goats, sheep, camels, and yaks, raised by these herders, are able to withstand dry climates.
\par \tab {\b Collectivized agriculture.}
\par \tab In the Communist nations of Asia, particularly China and the Soviet Union before its dissolution, agriculture has been collectivized. Governments ordered the farmers to pool their land and other resources with their neighbors to make large farms. In China these are called communes. The farmers work the land together and share the income produced. The government's goal is to produce more than was possible on the traditional small subsistence farms of the past. With more-efficient farming, surpluses would be produced to help feed the huge Chinese population. The commune system, however, did not meet expectations. In the era after Chairman Mao Zedong's death in 1976, the government determined that the commune system might not be providing enough incentives for farmers.
\par \tab To encourage farmers to produce more, China experimented with changes in the commune system. For example, in some areas families are given free use (but not ownership) of a plot of land. They can grow what they want on the land, as long as they turn over a fixed quota to the commune after the harvest.
\par \tab {\b Fisheries.}
\par \tab Much of the Asian population has traditionally relied upon fishing as an occupation and fishes as a source of protein in the diet. Most of the fishing is traditional and is done in small boats that stay close to shore. Japan and Russia have Asia's largest and most highly developed oceangoing fishing industries. They send large, modern fleets throughout the world in search of sea products, including whales. Aquaculture, or sea farming, is also common in Asia. This consists of raising shellfishes and other seafood, such as oysters, clams, shrimp, and seaweed, in offshore shallow waters. Freshwater fishes are also raised in ponds or caught in rivers in inland areas. This practice is widespread in warm, humid areas.
\par \tab {\b Forestry.}
\par \tab Timber for construction, firewood, and many other uses is widely harvested in Asia. In wetter, warmer areas, especially in the Southeast, bamboo plays a vital role in some traditional societies because of its many uses. The young bamboo shoots are even an important source of food. Commercial logging is most developed in Southeast Asia, where large areas are still covered with tropical and subtropical forests. Teak and mahogany are two notable wood products of this area. However, the demand for forest products for local use and for export has resulted in abuse of the forest cover. One of the main threats to the forest is that the people must use wood as cooking fuel. In parts of South Asia, such as India and Nepal, for example, the forest cover is rapidly disappearing for this reason. Soil erosion and other problems commonly result from this stripping of the forests. Increased conservation programs are sought, but they are difficult to implement where people depend on forest products for survival.
\par {\b Minerals and Power}
\par \tab Asia contains some of the richest mineral deposits in the world. The mining industry, however, is still poorly developed in many areas, and both total output and per capita output are low. The extent of mineral resources is still not fully known, and discoveries made since the early 1950s have improved projections for the future. Other natural resources that would serve as the basis for industrial growth, such as waterpower, are also plentiful.
\par {\b Energy Resources}
\par \tab The development of cheap energy for industrial growth is essential to the improvement of most Asian economies. Asia's energy resources are among the world's largest, but still only partially tapped. China, for example, contains the world's third largest coal deposits. Large coalfields are found in Siberia as well. India and Southeast Asia also have notable deposits.
\par \tab The richest oil reserves in the world are in Asia, mainly in Southwest Asia around the Persian Gulf. Most of the world's oil is produced there. But China and Russia have also become major petroleum producers, and Indonesia is the largest producer in Southeast Asia. Much of Russia's oil comes from Siberia. Oil exploration is being carried out all along the perimeter of Asia, from the waters off Korea and China south to Indonesia and west to the Persian Gulf. Oil exports have become important sources of income for an increased number of Asian nations. China and Malaysia now enjoy wealth from petroleum, and prospects for further finds are promising. Russia is the continent's chief producer of natural gas.
\par \tab Asia has the greatest waterpower potential of all the continents, but only a tiny fraction of this power has been developed. China has enormous quantities of undeveloped waterpower, especially along the Yangtze River. With so many of the world's major rivers located in Asia, it is understandable that the continent has such great potential power. However, the obstacles to development of this resource are many, including the cold climate in Siberia and the lack of capital in other areas. Dams for tapping waterpower are extremely expensive to build. A number of nations have been involved for decades trying to develop the waterpower of the Mekong River in Southeast Asia. Unfortunately, the Indochina conflict delayed that cooperative effort. Although hydroelectric power is continuing to grow, thermal power is generally a more widely used source for producing electricity.
\par \tab Another growing power source in Asia is nuclear energy. Nuclear power plants are operating in a number of Asian countries, but especially Japan, which is probably the largest producer and user of power in Asia. India, Pakistan, South Korea, and Russia are other places served by nuclear power, and many more plants are planned.
\par \tab {\b Metals and Other Minerals for Industry.}
\par \tab Among the mined metallic minerals useful to industry, iron ore is one of the most important because it is the basis of steelmaking. India and China are the largest iron ore producers in Asia. Accordingly, those two countries have the largest iron and steel industries in Asia, using their abundant coal supplies as fuel. Other iron ore deposits are located in North Korea, Malaysia, and Siberia. Bauxite, for aluminum production, is found in large amounts in India and Indonesia. Copper is mined in the Philippines and in other parts of Southeast Asia. Much of the world's tin comes from the tin belt that stretches from South China through Thailand and the Malay Peninsula to Indonesia. There are deposits of most of the other metallic minerals in Asia as well. Nonmetallic minerals are also abundant, but unevenly distributed, as are the metals. Sulfur, one of the most important, is produced in Japan, Korea, and China, as well as parts of Southwest Asia and Siberia. North and South Korea and China produce a large share of the world's graphite.
\par \tab Most of Asia's nations are not major consumers of minerals, because of their low levels of industrial development. One of the primary exceptions is Japan, which largely lacks the most important minerals but is highly industrialized. Japan must buy minerals from other parts of Asia and the rest of the world. Japan is one of the largest world importers of mineral products. European powers started mining industries in many of the former colonial states of Asia. Foreign investment in mining is still common throughout the region, especially in oil prospecting and drilling.
\par {\b Manufacturing}
\par \tab Asia has some of the most highly industrialized countries in the world, like Japan, and some of the least, such as Bangladesh, Laos, Nepal, and Afghanistan. Between these extremes are found all levels of industrial development, from countries just beginning to develop modern manufacturing to those that have already made some marked progress. The latter are sometimes referred to as the NICs (newly industrialized countries). Three of the most successful NICs--Hong Kong, Taiwan, and South Korea--are in East Asia and one--Singapore--is in Southeast Asia. Malaysia has also achieved considerable progress. Overall, East Asia ranks as the most heavily industrialized of the five subregions of Asia, followed in order by Russian Asia, Southeast Asia, Southwest Asia, and lastly South Asia.
\par \tab Throughout Asia there is a strong movement to change traditional agrarian societies into modern industrial societies. Various economic plans have been used to accomplish industrialization in socialist and nonsocialist countries. Some countries have used features of both socialist and nonsocialist programs.
\par \tab In Communist lands--notably China, North Korea, Vietnam, most of the rest of Indochina, and the Soviet Union before its dissolution--largely socialist programs of industrial development have been followed. Generally in this approach there is no private ownership of industry. Everything is owned by the state, and workers are employed by the state. The system is highly centralized, with decisions made by the central government. Orders are then sent out to the various regions and factories to produce specific products in specific quantities. The emphasis tends to be on heavy industry rather than consumer goods or light industry, though this trend has shifted somewhat. These countries have made progress in manufacturing, especially China. One of the main problems in socialized industry is the difficulty of balancing supply and demand. It is difficult to avoid frequent critical shifts in shortages of some goods and surpluses of others. This, of course, is a problem to some degree in any industrialized society. Some economists also feel that the lack of an incentive system, like those in capitalist countries, also affects production. Some socialist countries have begun to introduce incentive systems as a result. Since the late 1970s, for instance, China has experimented with economic reforms. It is decentralizing management and using wage bonuses to encourage production. China is also stressing production of consumer goods to meet the needs of its huge population. Some small private enterprise is also being permitted. Since 1991 Russia and the other former Soviet republics have been in transition between socialism and capitalism.
\par \tab Various forms of the free enterprise, or capitalist, system are being used to develop manufacturing in much of Asia. Private ownership of businesses and factories is encouraged. Governments primarily are involved in regulating and planning and sometimes investment in expensive manufacturing, such as iron and steel or transportation.
\par \tab Some of the manufacturing developed since the early 1950s followed that first established by the former colonial rulers. In India, for example, the British established the still important modern textile industry. The Japanese began much of the industrialization in Taiwan, South Korea, and northeastern China (Manchuria) when they ruled those territories. For the most part, however, colonial rulers in Asia were interested in extracting the mineral resources and agricultural products of Asia. Manufactured products were mostly imported from the colonial mother countries. Today the former colonial countries are developing industries that will turn out products for their own needs and, perhaps, for export.
\par \tab By the 1980s Japan was by far the most successful Asian country in industrialization. It was also the first Asian nation to industrialize, starting in the late 19th century. By World War I Japan was already a highly developed nation. However, its greatest growth as an industrial power has been since World War II. Japan has been so successful that it now has the second largest industrial production in the world, even greater than that of much larger Russia, and it is rapidly gaining on the United States. Japan is one of the leading world producers of many important manufactured products, such as automobiles and electronics. Unlike most other Asian countries it is a major exporter of manufactured goods.
\par \tab China has the potential to become a great industrial power, if it can solve its vast problems of overpopulation and develop more-productive economic policies. In the late 1980s its value added to the economy by manufacturing was at the level of Canada. Perhaps the greatest potential for industrial development is in some of the oil-rich nations of the Middle East. Many of them, such as Saudi Arabia, are using their vast earnings from oil exports to undertake industrialization programs. However, money alone is not enough. These countries are critically short of skilled labor, managers, and technology. Environmental limitations, such as the shortage of fresh water, and political problems have also hampered their progress. India has made considerable progress in industrialization, but is also beset with severe problems of overpopulation and political and social instability. Indeed, these problems afflict many nations of Asia.
\par {\b Transportation and Communications}
\par \tab Efficient networks of transportation and communications are a key requirement for industrial development. Goods, people, and ideas must move quickly and efficiently. The pattern throughout Asia is still uneven and closely parallels the level of industrial development. Thus, at one extreme there is Japan, with its highly sophisticated railway, superhighway, and airline systems plus the latest in telecommunications, equal to the best found in the Western world. At the other extreme there are parts of Asia that are still virtually as isolated and cut off from the modern world as they were centuries ago. In most Asian countries most people spend their entire lives without ever traveling more than a few miles from their village or farm. Their extremely limited knowledge of the outside world is learned primarily from word of mouth or occasional radio broadcasts. Extensive transportation and broadcast facilities are being developed throughout the Asian continent as a means of improving this condition.
\par \tab Asia's vast space and enormous physical barriers have hindered progress in transportation. Traditionally travel and trade have moved largely around the edges of the continent rather than inland. Until the 19th century, caravans on land routes, supplemented by oceangoing vessels, were the chief means of transportation. After the mid-19th century oceangoing vessels continued to be important and rail transport significantly improved overland travel.
\par \tab Road and rail systems continue to improve, but slowly. One of the more notable advances was the completion in 1915 of the Trans-Siberian Railroad in Russian Asia. A massive highway network begun in the 1960s was designed to link Istanbul, Turkey, with Singapore in Southeast Asia. China joined the system in 1989. The development of air transport in the 20th century has played a key role, especially in such landlocked countries as Afghanistan, Nepal, and Laos. In some of the less advanced countries, however, animal transport remains the main method for moving goods from farm to market.
\par \tab Inland waterways provide transportation routes in some countries and are especially important in South, Southeast, and East Asia. Bangladesh, the Indochinese countries, and China all have well-developed inland water transport systems.
{\b INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS}
\par \tab Since ancient times, Asia has had contact with the rest of the world. This began with caravans carrying the silks, spices, and other exotic products of Asia westward to Europe. This trade benefited Asian economies, and it also brought knowledge about Asia to Europe. Unfortunately, that knowledge led eventually to the colonial takeover of much of Asia by the 19th century. Colonialism is now virtually gone, but the economic and political linkages established by colonialism remain strong. Since World War II Eastern and Western powers have competed to be the dominant influence in Asia.
\par \tab Many of Asia's trade links are with former colonial rulers, because those tend to be industrialized nations that still need the mineral resources and agricultural products of Asia. Although most Asian nations are trying to industrialize, the industry that has developed produces goods primarily for the domestic market, not for export. Thus, in order to buy abroad what they need, Asian nations must still rely upon exports of their traditional primary products.
\par \tab Since the 1950s important trade relations have developed between Japan and the rest of Asia, and between the United States and Asia. Those two nations account for the major share of exports and imports in most of Asia's world trade. They are also the major source of foreign-investment capital that has flowed into Asia. In 1967 the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) was formed by Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand. Brunei joined in 1984. In 1991 ASEAN signed an agreeement to start a regional common market within the next 15 years. The policies of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) created a series of energy crises that seriously affected economic development in the region during the 1970s.
\par \tab The political ties of the past have also been maintained in many parts of Asia. One important development since World War II was the expansion of United States political and military influence in Asia. This influence resulted from the defeat of Japan in World War II and the emergence of the United States as a chief world military power. With the outbreak of the Cold War in the late 1940s, followed by the Communist victory in China and the Korean War, the United States assumed a policy of combating Communist influence in Asia. The growing dependence of the Western world, especially the United States, on petroleum supplies from the Middle East has made that area highly valued, especially since the world energy shortages that developed in the 1970s.
\par \tab After its failure in the mid-1970s to prevent Communist control of Indochina, the United States changed the emphasis of its role in Asia. One of the most significant developments has been the dramatic change in relations with China that ended in United States recognition of the Beijing government in 1979. Because of its difficulties in relations with the Soviet Union and a desire to modernize more rapidly, China became a major economic and political partner with the United States. Not wanting to jeopardize that relationship with the United States, China agreed to a summit with the Soviet Union in 1989 as the first step in normalizing relations, which had been suspended in 1960. In 1989 Vietnam announced the final withdrawal of troops from Cambodia that had been deployed there since 1979. Some 160 nations were represented in a gathering of world unity at the funeral of Japanese Emperor Hirohito in Tokyo in 1989.
{\b HISTORY}
\par \tab Humans have lived in Asia since prehistoric times, when they roamed large stretches of the continent in quest of food and shelter. As they began to organize together into societies, three of the earliest civilizations for which there are historic records emerged in parts of Asia. These were the ancient cultures of Mesopotamia in the Tigris-Euphrates River valley, beginning in about 10,000 BC; the early cultures in the Indus River valley, beginning in about 3500 BC; and the early Chinese civilization in the Huang He valley, beginning in about 2000 BC.
\par \tab Asia's long history can be divided into three major periods. The first and longest period was from earliest times until around AD 1500, when the Europeans began to arrive. During this long period, many empires and kingdoms rose and fell, and distinctive cultures evolved in certain regions. Those cultures came to dominate Asia in spite of periodic political upheavals and wars through the centuries.
\par \tab The development of those cultures provides a basis for dividing Asia into three subregions. In East Asia the Chinese civilization emerged first, and from it the Korean and Japanese cultures evolved. China is renowned for the splendor and extraordinary continuity of its civilization. In South Asia the Indian civilization, with its complex mix of Hindu, Muslim, and other influences, came to dominate. In Southwest Asia, the Arabic-Muslim culture spread widely beginning in the 7th century AD.
\par \tab These three cultures achieved high levels of development within the traditional agricultural economies on which they depended. As already noted, there were brilliant achievements in art, architecture, language and literature, as well as early science and technology. Many of the devices that Europeans later came to depend on originated in Asia, such as gunpowder, paper, the wheel, and the compass.
\par \tab While European civilization was slow developing during the Middle Ages, Asia's great civilizations flowered in unmatched brilliance and prosperity. When Marco Polo traveled to China in the 13th century, he marveled at the magnificence of China's great civilization, already 3,000 years old. Less famous Europeans were to echo him later.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was written by Jack F. Williams, Professor of Geography, Michigan State University, and author of numerous publications on China and other Asian subjects.
\par \tab {\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR ASIA}
\par \tab Chapman, William. Inventing Japan (Prentice, 1991).
\par \tab Fairbank, John K. China: A New History (Belknap, 1992).
\par \tab Horsley, W., and Buckley, R. Nippon: New Superpower (BBC Books, l990).
\par \tab Mansfield, Peter. A History of the Middle East (Viking, 1991).
\par \tab Naipaul, V.S. An Area of Darkness (Viking-Penguin, 1992).
\par \tab Rees, David. A Short History of Modern Korea (Hippocrene, 1988).
\par \tab Salisbury, H.E. The New Emperors: China in the Era of Mao and Deng (Little, Brown, 1992).
\par \tab Stewart, Gail B. India (Crestwood House, 1992).
\par \tab Tweddell, C.E. Introduction to the Peoples and Cultures of Asia (Prentice, 1985).
\par \tab Ulam, Adam B. The Communists: The Story of Power and Lost Illusions 1948-1991 (Scribner's, 1992).
\par \tab Vogel, Ezra F. The Four Little Dragons (Harvard, 1991).
\par \tab Williams, L.E. Southeast Asia: A History (Oxford, 1987).
\par \tab Winchester, Simon. Pacific Rising (Prentice, 1991).\par \tab The vast body of water that separates Europe and Africa from North and South America is the Atlantic Ocean. Its name, which comes from the Greek, may refer to Atlantis, the legendary island continent said to have been the site of a great, lost civilization before the island sank.
\par \tab Extending from the Arctic Ocean in the north to Antarctica in the south, the Atlantic Ocean is divided by the equator into two parts, the North Atlantic and the South Atlantic. Its area is about 31,831,000 square miles (82,442,000 square kilometers), which is about one sixth of the Earth's total area.
\par \tab Although the South Atlantic is bigger than the North Atlantic, the North Atlantic has a much longer coastline, and large marginal seas and bays adjoin it. On the American side the largest bodies of water are the Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean Sea, and Hudson Bay. On the European side the largest are the Mediterranean, North, and Baltic seas. More than half of the total land area of the world is drained by rivers that flow into the Atlantic Ocean and its adjoining seas. The large quantities of dissolved minerals carried from this huge area make the Atlantic the saltiest of the world's oceans.
\par \tab The Atlantic is also the youngest ocean. Its origin and development can be accounted for by the theory of continental drift
\par \tab The outstanding feature of the Atlantic's floor, the Mid-Atlantic Ridge is an immense, volcanic mountain range that stretches its entire length. It covers the central third of the ocean bed and is up to 1,000 miles (1,600 kilometers) wide. On either side of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge are broad mud- and clay-covered abyssal plains and basins. An underwater extension of a continental landmass is called a continental shelf.
\par \tab In some places the Mid-Atlantic Ridge protrudes to create islands such as the Azores and Iceland. Most islands, however, are isolated portions of the continental shelf, such as Great Britain, Newfoundland, and the Falkland Islands. The deepest point on the Atlantic's ocean floor--27,498 feet (8,381 meters)--is in the Puerto Rico Trench located about 90 miles (145 kilometers) northwest of Puerto Rico.
\par {\b Climate and Currents}
\par \tab Weather over the ocean is largely determined by the prevailing winds and ocean currents. In the North Atlantic, especially during winter, frequent storms occur along fronts, or zones of great temperature contrast. The prevailing westerly winds of the middle latitudes carry cold air masses from Canada over the ocean, where they are met by warm air masses originating over the Gulf of Mexico or associated with a current known as the Gulf Stream. An area of low atmospheric pressure develops where the warm air is forced to rise over the cold air. Storms quickly develop around such a frontal zone.
\par \tab Hurricanes originate in the tropical latitudes of the North Atlantic. During the hottest part of the year large amounts of water vapor enter the atmosphere from the ocean. When the vapor condenses as rain, heat energy is released. Massive hurricanes can develop around large concentrations of such heat.
\par \tab In the South Atlantic the weather patterns are more regular than in the North Atlantic because there are no adjacent, large land areas in the middle latitudes over which cold or hot air masses can form. However, the prevailing westerly winds frequently carry storms across the South Atlantic creating dangerous gales and heavy winds that are a notorious shipping hazard.
\par \tab Circulation of the main water currents of the Atlantic Ocean is clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and counterclockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. In the tropical latitudes the currents of both hemispheres flow generally from east to west, and their temperature becomes relatively warm.
\par \tab In the North Atlantic the warm current known as the Gulf Stream flows northward along the coast of North America. It continues northward and eastward across the ocean as the somewhat cooler North Atlantic Current and warms the climate of northwestern Europe. After turning southward along the coast of Europe and northwestern Africa, it becomes the relatively cold Canary Current. In the South Atlantic the southward flowing warm current along the east coast of South America is called the Brazil Current, and the northward flowing cold current along the west coast of southern Africa is the Benguela Current.
\par {\b Marine Life}
\par \tab The Atlantic Ocean can be divided into five water layers, or zones, each of which supports a different type of marine life. From top to bottom these zones are the littoral, euphotic, mesopelagic, bathypelagic, and benthic.
\par \tab The littoral, or tidal, zone is the area along the shore between the high-tide and low-tide levels. It is the habitat for such sea life as clams, oysters, mussels, seaweed, sea moss, and brown algae.
\par \tab The euphotic zone is the ocean's surface layer into which sunlight can penetrate in sufficient amounts to support photosynthesis. It extends to a depth of about 600 feet (180 meters) and contains most of the sea's organisms. These range from microscopic sea animals (zooplankton) and plants (phytoplankton) to the largest fishes and whales.
\par \tab The mesopelagic, or midocean, zone extends from about 600 feet to 3,000 feet (180 meters to 900 meters). It contains organic debris from the euphotic zone above and supports such animals as the sperm whale and giant squid.
\par \tab The bathypelagic, or deep-ocean, zone extends from 3,000 feet (900 meters) to the bottom. About two thirds of the fishes that inhabit this zone are bioluminescent, or capable of producing their own light.
\par \tab The benthic zone occurs at the bottom of the ocean--from shallow waters to deep-sea trenches--and supports the greatest range of animal and plant life. At depths of 12,000 feet (3,700 meters) or more, fishes are not common on the bottom, but less developed life forms such as tube worms, crinoids (sea lilies), and glass sponges can exist. They feed on the organic matter that settles from the upper zones and, in very specialized deep-sea communities, on minerals that well up with hot water from midocean vents in the seafloor.
\par {\b Economic Resources--Future Prospects}
\par \tab Approximately 40 percent of the world's fish catch comes from the Atlantic Ocean. In the northwestern Atlantic off Newfoundland is the Grand Banks, where herring, cod, and menhaden are plentiful. Traditional fishing areas in the northeastern Atlantic and the North Sea yield flounder, ocean perch, cod, hake, and herring, but they have been overfished. The warm waters of the Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico abound with shrimp and sponges. Since the 1950s fishing has greatly increased in the South Atlantic, where large quantities of tuna, hake, and herring are caught. Clams, oysters, crabs, and octopuses can be harvested along the coast of much of the Atlantic. The Sargasso Sea, in the center of the North Atlantic, is the breeding ground for the American and European species of migratory eels.
\par \tab The most important mineral resources derived from the Atlantic are petroleum and natural gas. Offshore fields lie in the North Sea, the Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean, and along the coasts of Nigeria, Brazil, Canada, Argentina, and the United States. Other minerals being exploited include tin and coal from mines under the ocean floor off Great Britain. Large diamond deposits are found along the southwestern coast of Africa. Salt and bromine are extracted from sea water. Manganese nodules have been found on the deep ocean floor, but technology still needs to be developed to make them economically retrievable.
\par {\b History and Trade}
\par \tab Though human beings have sailed on the waters of the Atlantic from ancient times, the Vikings were the first Europeans to document these voyages. During the 11th century they explored and charted the waters around Iceland, Greenland, and northeastern North America.
\par \tab In the 15th century the Portuguese discovered the Azores and Madeira and sailed along the entire western coast of Africa. Under the Spanish flag, in 1492, Christopher Columbus made the first of his trans-Atlantic crossings. Europeans explored and settled most of the Atlantic coast of the Americas during the 16th and 17th centuries.
\par \tab In the mid-1800s Lieut. Matthew Maury of the United States Navy made the first oceanographic study of the Atlantic. He compiled charts on winds and currents that established the first sea lanes, prepared a treatise on the Gulf Stream, and collected other data. The British Challenger expedition, made between 1872 and 1876, discovered the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. In more recent times, Jacques Piccard, the Swiss scientist, explored Atlantic waters in Trieste I, a deep-sea bathyscaphe. A wide range of other submarine devices have also been used to record new information about the depths of the Atlantic and other oceans. The submersible Alvin explored the wreck of the Titanic in 1986.
\par \tab Deep-sea drilling ships, such as the Glomar Challenger, have surveyed the bed of the Atlantic and discovered oil fields. The United States Navy established Sealab, an underwater habitat that was set up near Bermuda where aquanauts lived beneath the ocean and studied marine life for extended periods of time.
\par \tab The North Atlantic, with its hazardous icebergs and winter storms, is the most heavily used and congested ocean trade route in the world. Shipping lanes were established and regulated to ensure the safety of all who sailed the Atlantic. Ice patrols maintain surveillance of icebergs and report on their locations to all ships and oil drilling platforms that could be in danger. Satellites are used to observe iceberg movements throughout the entire Atlantic.
\par \tab Among the Atlantic's many deep, natural harbors are those at New York City and Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Other busy ports, such as Amsterdam, The Netherlands, are accessible to oceangoing vessels through dredged channels. Punta Arenas, Chile, is the southernmost port in the South Atlantic, and the northernmost port in the North Atlantic is in Russia, at Archangel.\par \tab Wedged between the Indian and Pacific oceans, Australia lies south of the Eurasian landmass. It is an island continent and, like the island continent of Antarctica, it is located entirely in the Southern Hemisphere. Australia is also the only continent occupied entirely by a single nation. Tasmania, a much smaller island off the southeast coast, is also considered to be a part of the continent of Australia. Australia is the smallest, flattest, most arid, and least populated of the inhabited continents. Its southern coasts are washed by the cold Antarctic Ocean--those portions of the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian oceans encircling Antarctica--while Australia's northern coasts are separated from the archipelagoes of Southeast Asia by warm, shallow, tropical seas. Although Australia is a small continent, it is a large country: only Russia, Canada, the United States, China, and Brazil have larger areas. Of Australia's 17.7 million inhabitants, about 23 percent were born elsewhere, and 1.5 percent are of aboriginal descent. Over 86 percent of Australia's people live in cities, yet only 10 percent of its area is cultivated. Two thirds of the continent is desert or semidesert.
\par \tab Australia has a diverse, technologically advanced industrial economy, very productive primary industries, and abundant mineral and other resources. It leads the world in wool production and coal exports, and its iron ore and bauxite mines also make significant contributions to world production. With a gross national product per capita of 17,070 dollars in 1992, Australia enjoys one of the world's highest standards of living, ranking sixteenth among the industrialized nations.
\par \tab Australia began its political independence in 1901 as a remote European country near Asia. Since 1945, it has become increasingly an Asian country with European origins and culture. Politically, Australia may be variously described as an independent Western democracy, a liberal welfare state, a federal parliamentary democracy, or a constitutional monarchy. England's reigning monarch remains the head of state. Australia contains six states (New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, South Australia, Western Australia, and Tasmania) and two internal territories (the Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory). Australia also administers seven external territories: Norfolk Island, the Coral Sea Islands Territory, the Cocos (Keeling) Islands, Christmas Island, Ashmore and Cartier Islands Territory, Heard and McDonald Islands, and the Australian Antarctic Territory--the latter covering 42 percent of that landmass.
\par \tab Australia claims sovereignty over three maritime zones around its coasts. Its territorial seas extend 3 nautical miles beyond the line of lowest tide. The Australian Fishing Zone extends 200 nautical miles beyond the coastal base line. Australia also claims its entire continental margin--approximating the shallow continental shelf--extending farther than 200 nautical miles in some northwestern coastal sections. Maritime delimitation agreements have been formalized with Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, and France (regarding New Caledonia). Australia was one of the twelve original signatories to the Antarctic Treaty in 1959. This reserved the area south of 60░ S. latitude for peaceful purposes and placed it under international management, while preserving the status quo with regard to territorial rights and claims.
\par \tab Australia was a founding member of the United Nations and served four terms on its Security Council. It was also one of four founding members of the (formerly British) Commonwealth. It has been a partner in the ANZUS (Australia, New Zealand, and United States) Treaty since its inception in 1952, in the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) since 1971, and in the Colombo Plan, the South Pacific Commission, and the South Pacific Forum. Australia ratified the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty in 1973, and the Convention on the Law of the Sea in 1982. The Australian flag incorporates the Union Jack in the top left quarter, representing British colonial origins; the large seven-pointed Commonwealth Star below it, representing the federation of six states and other territories; and the Southern Cross constellation of five stars in the fly. The Blue Ensign places these symbols on a dark blue background, whereas the Red Ensign is reserved for merchant ships registered in Australia. The Australian coat of arms consists of a shield containing the badges of all six states. The coat of arms is supported on either side by a kangaroo and emu, the national fauna; swathed in golden wattle, the national flower; and surmounted by the Commonwealth Star. The national colors are green and gold. 'Advance Australia Fair' was adopted as the National Anthem in 1984, replacing 'God Save the Queen', which was designated as the Royal Anthem and played only during the monarch's presence. 'Waltzing Matilda', Australia's best-known song, was written in about 1895 by A.B. Paterson. Australia Day is celebrated on January 26, commemorating the arrival of the First Fleet at Sydney Cove in 1788. Other public holidays observed throughout Australia include Anzac Day, April 25, to honor war veterans; Good Friday; Easter Monday; Queen's Birthday; Christmas Day; and Boxing Day (December 26). Different States observe Labour Day, or Eight-Hour Day; Bank Holiday; Proclamation Day, in South Australia; Foundation Day, in Western Australia; Remembrance Day (November 11); and Melbourne Cup Day, in Victoria, to permit attendance at Australia's richest and most popular horse race.
\par \tab The school year extends from late January or early February into mid-December. Students attend class for about 120 days per year. Literacy stands at 99.5 percent of the population. The summer months are December through February. Australia has three standard time zones. The eastern states are ten hours ahead of Greenwich (15 hours ahead of New York). South Australia, the Northern Territory, and the city of Broken Hill are 30 minutes behind the eastern states, which are two hours ahead of Western Australia. Conversion to the metric system was completed by 1981, and decimal currency--dollars and cents--replaced pounds, shillings, and pence in 1966. The language of Australia is English, by common usage rather than law. There are an Australian accent and a vivid Australian slang. Western Australians are 'sand gropers', cattle duffers are 'poddy-dodgers', and a home run in cricket is a 'bewdy bottler.' There is no national costume, except the slouch hat, and no national motto, though "Advance Australia" is widely used.
{\b LAND}
\par \tab Australia is sometimes called "the land down under," because it lies in the Southern Hemisphere. It is almost halfway around the world from England, its mother country. The continent extends between 113░ 9 and 153░ 39' E. longitude and between 10░ 41' and 43░ 39' S. latitude. It is crossed by the Tropic of Capricorn, and a little more than one third of the continent is in the tropics.
\par {\b Geology and Landforms}
\par \tab Australia is the least mountainous and most level of the world's continents. Two thirds of its surface forms a plateau only 1,000 to 2,000 feet (300 to 600 meters) in elevation. The few peaks that exceed 6,500 feet (2,000 meters) would be considered foothills in any other continent. One may drive to the summit of Mount Kosciusko, at 7,310 feet (2,228 meters) the continent's highest point. Unlike North America and Europe, where spectacular tectonic and glacial activity created most landforms within the last 20,000 years, Australia's geological history dates back to the Precambrian, the oldest era of all, over 600 million years ago. The dominant geological processes have been sedimentation in shallow seas that once inundated parts of the present continent, interspersed with long periods of erosion.
\par \tab Australian fossils are among the oldest on Earth, revealing some algae and soft-bodied invertebrates dating from 3 billion years ago. These indicate that Australia was once joined to South America, Africa, India, and Antarctica to form the southern part of a supercontinent called Gondwanaland. This great landmass began to split and drift apart some 85 to 100 million years ago. The plate carrying Australia is still drifting northward by about 2 3/4 inches (7 centimeters) per year, having shifted the continent from subpolar latitudes where rain forest was almost universal to tropical and arid latitudes where dry eucalyptus forests and Asian vegetation, better adapted to the changing climate, could invade and displace much of the rain forest.
\par \tab The Australian continent has remained separate for the past 40 million years, during which its distinctive flora and fauna evolved in isolation. Fossils of mammals are scarce but reveal giant wombats; goannas, a type of lizard; kangaroos; and mihirungs, flightless birds standing 10 feet (3 meters) high, the largest that ever lived on Earth. Rich sources of Australian fossils include the Gogo formation of Western Australia, where the internal anatomy of ancient fish can be studied; and the Riversleigh deposit in North Queensland, where giant pythons, carniverous kangaroos, and horned turtles have been discovered.
\par \tab Australia has three major physiographic, or landform, areas: the Western Plateau, containing two thirds of the continent; the Eastern Highlands, extending from Cape York Peninsula (Queensland) to Victoria and Tasmania; and, between them, the Central Lowlands from the Gulf of Carpentaria to the Murray-Darling drainage basin. The first consists mainly of Precambrian rocks, with such uplifted blocks as the central Macdonnell Ranges. Desert dunefields cover its parched surface. The wetter, usually forest-covered highlands are a succession of separate tablelands, or plateaus, escarpments, and low ranges. Some were glaciated during the Pleistocene period--the Snowy Mountains and central Tasmania, for instance. Others are of volcanic origin--for example, the border ranges between Queensland and New South Wales.
\par \tab Parts of the Central Lowlands drain sluggishly into the ocean along the Murray River and its tributaries. Most of the water dissipates and evaporates in such dry saline depressions as Lakes Eyre, Torrens, and Gairdner. Underlying these lowlands are the largest artesian basins in the world, from which bore water is pumped to sustain grazing animals in the arid zone. Representative caves include the intricate dripstone at Jenolan, New South Wales; the fossil bones at Mammoth Cave, Western Australia; and the flint quarrying and aboriginal rock paintings, 20,000 years old, at Koonalda Cave, 250 feet (75 meters) below the Nullarbor Plain. The highest waterfall in Australia is Wollomombi, at 1,100 feet (335 meters), in northern New South Wales.
\par \tab The Australian coastline extends for 22,826 miles (36,734 kilometers), including Tasmania, which has 1,990 miles (3,200 kilometers) of coastline. Warm, shallow tropical seas connect the northern coasts with Indonesia. More typical of the southern coasts are drowned river valleys (where rising sea levels followed the melting of polar ice) and alternations of cliffed headlands and sandy beaches. Huge sea stacksjagged rocks--called the Twelve Apostles line the Victoria coast near Port Campbell.
\par \tab The Great Barrier Reef is a spectacular ribbon of reefs and islands extending for 1,240 miles (2,000 kilometers) along the Queensland coast. Its pools, lagoons, and grottoes display the most complex diversity of marine life in the world. It teems with 10,000 species of sponge, 350 species of coral, 4,000 species of mollusk, and 1,200 species of fish. The reef originated about 18 million years ago when coral polyps began to colonize the subsiding continental shelf. As the lowermost polyps die, their skeletons fuse into a massive limestone foundation on which new coral grows. Coral survives only in shallow, moving water where sunlight can reach the algae on which it feeds, in seas never colder than 64░F (18░ C). As the sea level rose, so did the coral reefs, until there were 2,100 reefs forming the outer barrier. Another 540 continental islands (fragments of the coast) have their own fringing reefs. Only four shipping passages connect the mainland to the Coral Sea. The Hydrographers Passage alone is navigable by large vessels. Near Cairns, the reef has been degenerating since the 1960s, when the voracious crown of thorns starfish destroyed as much as 80 percent of the living coral. Since 1976, the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority has had responsibility for reef management.
\par {\b Climate}
\par \tab For so large an area, Australia experiences a relatively small variation in climate. The landmass extends over only 33░ of latitude, one third of which lies within the tropics. Its generally low, flat topography lacks the mountain ranges that diversify climatic regimes elsewhere. Summer temperatures hover around 84░ F (29░ C) in the north and 64░ F (18░ C) in the south, compared with winter temperatures of 75░ F (24░ C) and 50░ F (10░ C). Cloncurry, Queensland, claims the highest temperature ever recorded, 127░ F (52.7░ C) in 1889, but Marble Bar, Western Australia, set the heat wave record by surpassing 100░ F (37.8░ C) on 170 consecutive days in 1923-24. The lowest temperature, -3░ F (-23░ C) was recorded at Charlotte Pass near Mount Kosciusko.
\par \tab As an island continent, Australia displays major contrasts between its interior continental climates (with large temperature ranges and erratic rainfall) and its coastal maritime climates (with small temperature ranges and more reliable rainfall). Of all the continents, only Antarctica receives less precipitation than Australia--an annual average of 16 1/2 inches (42 centimeters). Periodic droughts, flooding, heat, and aridity are constant threats. Dry conditions create the potential for disastrous fires, such as those that charred thousands of acres and destroyed many homes in the vicinity of Sydney early in 1994. Almost all of northern Australia endures heat discomfort for over 150 days a year. The tropical seas along the coast offer little relief from the heat.
\par \tab Very different wind belts cross northern, central, and southern Australia. Humid easterlies blow off the Pacific Ocean across the tropical north, making the coastal rain forests of Tully, Queensland, the wettest place in Australia; they receive an average of 159 inches (405 centimeters) per year. These summer winds are augmented by monsoonal westerlies which blow out of Indonesia into Arnhem Land, Northern Territory, and the Kimberleys, Western Australia, and by destructive tropical cyclones (or hurricanes) off the Coral Sea and Gulf of Carpentaria. Northern Australians refer to summer as "the wet" and to winter as "the dry."
\par \tab Across the center of Australia move the subtropical anticyclones, from west to east. These cells of high pressure bring clear skies, summer heat, and almost no rain to the desert core of the continent. Southern Australia extends into the belt of westerlies that encircle the Earth around 40░ S. latitude: the "roaring forties." These bring cloudy cold fronts (cyclones) twice weekly to Tasmania and Victoria during the winter, when rainfall is concentrated. Perth enjoys a classic mild Mediterranean-like climate, with its cool, moist winter and warm, rainless summer. Australia's erratic weather has been attributed to the El Ni±o Southern Oscillation effect. Because of this effect, when unusually warm water gathers off the Pacific coast of South America, it disrupts the usual climatic rhythms of atmospheric pressure on the opposite side of the Pacific. Thus, every five years or so, rainfall due in Australia falls instead in the central Pacific, to be followed a few years later by an equally perturbing inundation of usually dry areas.
\par \tab Climate does change. The last Ice Age ended only 10,000 years ago. Today, despite scientific skepticism, many Australians are concerned that rapid global warming caused by the 'greenhouse effect' may ruin agriculture and flood coastal cities.
\par \tab A recurrent summer hazard is the bushfire--a forest fire, or wildfire--especially after seasons of intense heat which dry out plant litter. Fanned by hot winds, the leaves of oil-bearing eucalyptus trees burn explosively. Careless campers and arsonists are often responsible. Killer fires that damaged many towns occurred in 1851, in 1983, and during the January 1994 conflagration.
\par \tab Conservationists advocate the reintroduction of trees and deep-rooted perennials, the preservation of bushland, the use of more native predators instead of pesticides (and biological control by fungi and insects rather than herbicides), the diversification and scaling down of the farming-forestry system, and a more self-sufficient, less urban population.
\par {\b Plant Life}
\par \tab Although only a dozen plant families are unique to Australia, there are 530 unique genera and many unique species within these genera. As the Australian fragment of prehistoric Gondwanaland drifted north, its ancient flora became the basis for the present plant systems. Increasing aridity modified this vegetation, giving much of it hardened, pointed leaves of reduced size--a condition called scleromorphy.
\par \tab Australia's native vegetation is divisible into seven types. The first type of vegetation consists of remnants of Gondwanan rain forests, with primitive flowering plants, palms, and laurels. These occur where high rainfall and high temperatures coincide with fertile, often volcanic soils, mainly in coastal north Queensland. In climax rain forests, three layers of trees appear, entangled with shrubs, lianas, and epiphytes. Closest to original Gondwanan conditions are the temperate rain forests of Tasmania, dominated by the myrtle beech and swathed in tree-ferns and mosses--called moss forests.
\par \tab The second type of vegetation, communities dominated by the tall, straggly eucalyptus trees, is the most ubiquitous, forming a wide, concentric band around the desert core. Of the 500 species, two or three typically form a mosaic in one locality and intermingle with other plant associations. Eucalyptus trees are classified according to their bark types--hence the names stringybark, ironbark, bloodwood, and smoothbark (the gums that shed their outer bark annually). The most widespread is the river red gum. Mallee eucalypts survive in semiarid regions by growing multiple stems (lignotubers) from a common rootstock. The world's tallest flowering plant is a southern eucalyptus, the mountain ash. Its height can exceed 325 feet (100 meters). Building timbers are obtained in Victoria from alpine ash and mountain ash, in New South Wales and Queensland from blackbutt, spotted gum, bluegum, and ironbark, and in Western Australia from jarrah and karri, another type of eucalypt.
\par \tab A third type of plant community is dominated by wattles (the genus Acacia of the Mimosa family) and advances beyond the last eucalyptus trees into the desert. Although more than 900 species are known, vast regions are dominated by just a few, including brigalow, mulga, and gidgee. Their tannin-rich bark is used in tanning leather. One of the less attractive of the varieties of acacia is the mulga. This small tree grows on thousands of square miles of arid inland Australia. The slang term "out in the mulga" refers to the distant outback areas. Aborigines had a number of uses for this tree. Its wood provided a slow-burning fuel for cooking fires, and it was also used to make spear blades.
\par \tab The golden wattle is the acacia most familiar to natives. It is the floral symbol of Australia. There is even a Wattle Day, which may be celebrated on August 1 or September 1. Eucalyptus or acacia trees are dominant over 75 percent of the continent.
\par \tab Three other types of vegetation are found over smaller areas. Communities dominated by casuarinas (and Allocasuarina species, including she-oaks) occupy semiarid niches between eucalyptus and acacia woodlands. Native conifers command no large areas as they do in the Northern Hemisphere, although white cypress pine grows widely on infertile soils. Pioneer builders were gratified to discover that it withstands drought, fire, and termites. Salt-tolerant shrublands devoid of trees are found mainly along the southern edges of the arid core. Mallee, saltbush, and bluebush are common, and Banksia and Grevillea are of local importance. Finally, grasslands occur where rainfall is insufficient for larger plants. Summer-growing species tend to be more northerly and winter-growing species more southerly. Hummock grasslands (including spinifex) spread across the dunes, sandy plains, and rocky ranges of the Western Plateau.
\par \tab Minor coastal plant communities include salt marsh, seagrass, and mangroves. Alpine herb fields, often flattened by the wind, are dotted with sphagnum moss bogs. Weeds introduced from outside Australia, such as wild turnip and hoary cress, compete with crops. Lantana, blackberries, bracken fern, and Paterson's curse overrun pastures. Cape tulip and Saint-John's-wort can poison livestock or taint food. Algae block drainage and smother plants. Only 5.3 percent of Australia's 2,966,200 square miles (7,682,300 square kilometers) is covered in forest. Of that, 75 percent is in public domain. Forest plantations account for another 3,759 square miles (9,737 square kilometers), 69 percent of them under California radiata pine. Fine specimens of Australian flora can be seen in the National Botanic Gardens in Canberra, the Royal Botanic Gardens of Sydney and Melbourne, and Kings Park in Perth.
\par {\b Animal Life}
\par \tab Native to Australia are 250 species of mammals (half of them pouched marsupials); 750 species of birds; more than 500 species of reptiles and amphibians, including 150 species of snakes; 22,000 species of fish, but only 150 of them freshwater; 65,000 known insect species; and 1,500 species of spiders. The continent is world-famous for these zoological curiosities. It became a veritable Noah's ark for monotremes, which include the platypus, and marsupials, saved from competition with carnivores and herbivores and free to evolve uniquely, when Australia split from Gondwanaland between 45 and 70 million years ago. By contrast, other animals drifted free with South America and Africa but became extinct when those continents encountered Northern Hemisphere landmasses that were home to predators.
\par \tab When Australia drifted closer to Asia 20 million years ago, Asian animal immigrants reached northern Australia across shallow continental shelves. Bats and rodents island-hopped. The dingo, a type of wild dog, came with migrating aborigines or Asian fishermen 5,000 years ago. Other creatures used the broad land bridges which surfaced when the expansion of the ice caps resulted in lowered sea levels, linking the Australian mainland with New Guinea and Tasmania. Marine animals dispersed easily across the entire tropical and subtropical Indian and Pacific oceans. Wallace's line, drawn in 1868 between the Indonesian islands of Bali and Lombok, marked the proximal separation of Australasian and Oriental faunas.
\par \tab The present Australian fauna thus contains three main elements--those uniquely Australian (like the monotremes and lyrebirds), those of Gondwanan origin with affinities to other continents (some marsupials, the emu and cassawary, geckos, side-necked tortoises, most frogs, lungfish, and barramundis), and those which flew or floated on drifting vegetation from Asia within the last 30 million years (rodents, lizards, insects, birds, bats, and snakes), still comfortably acclimatized in tropical northern Australia.
\par \tab The monotremes, an egg-laying order of mammals, include only the platypus and two species of echidnas, or spiny anteaters. Platypuses are found nowhere else in the world, not even in fossil form. Echidnas are found also in New Guinea. The platypus uses its webbed feet and broad, sensitive bill to nuzzle food from the bottoms of coastal creeks from northern Queensland to South Australia. The bill has a unique sensing device that detects changes in electrical fields. The platypus is a skilled swimmer and can remain underwater for up to five minutes at a time. It spends only a few hours of each day in the water. The males have a poisonous spur on each hind leg. Although the poison is not fatal to humans, it can cause agonizing pain.
\par \tab The shy echidna uses its snout to probe for termites and insects, which adhere to the saliva on its tongue. It settles into the ground, spikes erect, when disturbed. The heavily armored echidna has small spines on the back of its head and long spines on the upper surface and sides of its body. Its clawed limbs are short and powerful. The male has a retractable spur on each hind limb that releases a weak poison. It is from this that the animal gets its name--echidna is derived from a Greek word for viper. The echidna is toothless but has a tongue up to 12 inches (30 centimeters) long, the sticky surface of which is used for catching ants.
\par \tab For a study in sheer animal cunning it would be difficult to surpass the dingo, also known by the aboriginal name warrigal. It is an animal very similar in appearance to the domestic dog. It probably arrived from mainland Asia about 5,000 years ago, along with an immigration of aborigines. The dingo is a fairly large canine, growing to about 4 feet (1.2 meters) long, including its 12-inch tail. The dingo has long been the killer of the outback. It hunts kangaroos, wallabies, rabbits, and ground birds--with a special fondness for the echidna. It also runs down and kills sheep and cattle. Like wolves, these animals hunt alone or in packs. Its ferocity resulted in the elimination of the Tasmanian devil and the Tasmanian wolf from mainland Australia. The dingo carries a bounty on its head, and Queensland once erected a 3,000-mile (4,800-kilometer) fence to keep the animal out.
\par \tab {\b Marsupials.}
\par \tab Of the world's 19 marsupial families, 16 are native to Australia. They include opossums, koalas, wombats, kangaroos, and wallabies. Whereas placental mammals connect the unborn baby to the mother's uterus, the marsupials give birth to their young at a very early stage of development, retaining, carrying, and suckling them in an abdominal pouch. A vivid example is the joey, or baby kangaroo, scrambling into the mother kangaroo's pouch.
\par \tab There are 50 species of kangaroos in Australia. These macropods have large hind legs for hopping. Their heavy tails serve as a counterbalance during locomotion and as a prop when standing upright.
\par \tab Kangaroo sizes and characteristics vary widely. There are burrowing rat kangaroos, tree kangaroos with shortened hind legs and exceedingly long tails, rock wallabies with granulated footpads for gripping, pademelons, and quokkas. The largest species are the grey (or forester) kangaroo and the red kangaroo. Males of both species may exceed 8 feet (2.4 meters) from nose to tail.
\par \tab Many ranchers regard kangaroos as vermin, especially during plagues. Conservationists deplore their slaughter for skins, for pet food, or simply to cut down the size of a herd.
\par \tab Koala is an aboriginal word meaning "it does not drink," though these animals do drink when ill. Koalas are tree-dwelling marsupials with a home range of 14 to 15 eucalyptus trees. One tree will be an animal's favorite. They feed exclusively on specific eucalyptus leaves which provide sufficient moisture. An exceptionally long intestine and special liver mechanism cope with the harsh oils and tannin in the leaves. Lacking the tails typical of most arboreal animals, and with pouches that open inconveniently backwards (like their closest relative, the wombat), koalas may have originated as ground-dwelling, burrowing animals.
\par \tab Koalas were abundant in coastal forests from northern Queensland to southeastern South Australia. Hunters exported their pelts in large numbers (two million in 1924 alone) until public revulsion and an American ban on imports led to total protection by law. Continuing problems include habitat fragmentation--especially in their southern Queensland stronghold--serious fires, and a virulent form of the disease trachoma.
\par \tab Australian opossums, or phalangers, are also arboreal marsupials. They include the cuscus, a monkeylike marsupial; the ringtail opossum, which has a prehensile tail; and the gliders, which are also called flying phalangers.
\par \tab Another tree-dwelling marsupial is the tiny pygmy gliding opossum, an acrobatic, mouselike animal and the smallest marsupial adapted for gliding. One of the numerous kinds of Australian possums, it is found in eastern regions of the country. However, it is rarely seen because it is active at night and extremely furtive. It glides from tree to tree in flights that are really prolonged leaps. Membranes between its limbs have a parachute effect, and its fringed tail provides an additional airplanelike surface.
\par \tab The doglike Tasmanian devil is also a marsupial. It is a slow-moving, clumsy animal that lives in open forest areas. It takes shelter in any available cover by day and scavenges for food by night. Although widely regarded as a fierce killer of animals, the Tasmanian devil is actually a poor hunter and usually feeds on carrion, much like a vulture. The animal is usually about 28 inches (71 centimeters) long with a 10-inch (25-centimeter) tail. It is mostly black, with white bands across its chest and rump. The forefeet have five toes and the rear feet have four. All of its toes are strongly clawed.
\par \tab {\b Reptiles.}
\par \tab All three orders of reptiles--crocodiles, lizards and snakes, turtles and tortoises--are well represented in Australia. The seagoing estuarine crocodile ranges from India to China and the western Pacific. It is found along the northern coasts of Australia between Broome and Maryborough, in saltwater estuaries and river mouths. Males average 16 feet (5 meters) in length but do reach 23 feet (7 meters). Crocodiles feed on fish, crabs, water rats, and occasionally on larger prey--including horses, cattle, and humans--which they first drown and then dismember. The smaller freshwater crocodile, found in the billabongs (streambeds) and lagoons of monsoonal rivers, is harmless to humans.
\par \tab Besides estuarine crocodiles, the only Australian animals that will feed on humans are sharks and, of course, mosquitos and fleas. Crocodile-skin handbags and shoes were once highly prized luxury items, but crocodile hunting has been completely banned in Western Australia and the Northern Territory since 1971 and in Queensland since 1974. Crocodile farms, several of them run by aborigines, now market meat.
\par \tab Australia's 450 species of lizard probably originated in tropical Asia. Today they are the dominant predators in desert ecosystems. The largest of them is the desert perenty, averaging 5.2 feet (1.6 meters) but known to reach 8.2 feet (2.5 meters). Fossil monitor lizards, called goannas, at 20 feet (6 meters) and 1,300 pounds (600 kilograms), were twice as big as today's record-holder, the Komodo dragon. Curiosities include the gecko, whose padded, adhesive digits enable it to move and rest on ceilings. Geckoes are able to snap off their still-wriggling tails to distract predators while making their escape. Among the dragon lizards are the thorny devil, the water dragon, and the spectacular frill-necked lizard, which unfolds its ruff like an umbrella when alarmed. Skinks with smooth, silky scales are common sights in suburban gardens.
\par \tab Of Australia's marine turtles, the largest is the leathey, or luth, turtle, up to 10 feet (3 meters) in length and 1,100 pounds (500 kilograms) in weight. Among reptiles, only the estuarine crocodile exceeds it in size. Marine turtles thrive in the warm tropical seas, coming ashorevulnerable to human predators--to lay scores of eggs in chambers dug into beach sand. An extraordinary navigational sense permits turtles to return to the very beach where they were hatched.
\par \tab Australia is the only continent where venomous snakes outnumber the nonvenomous, though only 20 or so of the 160 species (including 32 of sea snakes) are fatal to humans. Among the nonvenomous are blind or worm snakes, tree snakes, file snakes, and 13 species of pythons that suffocate their prey by constriction. The longest is the amethystine, or rock, python, which averages 11 1/2 feet (3.5 meters), and whose maximum length is 28 feet (8.5 meters). The most widespread is the common carpet snake.
\par \tab All 65 species of venomous snakes are front-fanged elapids. Venom is secreted from modified saliva glands at the base of grooved, hollow fangs. It kills either by destroying the linings of blood vessels, causing blood to clot, destroying the red blood cells, or, in the case of neurotoxins, paralyzing nerves that control the heart and lungs. Australia's most dangerous snakes are the tiger snake, the Eastern brown snake, the mulga or king brown snake, death adders, the red-bellied black snake, the taipan, and its look-alike, the fierce or giant brown snake. The latter's neurotoxic venom can kill 100,000 mice, making it the most deadly of all the world's land snakes. Antivenins developed in the Commonwealth Serum Laboratories, if administered promptly, can now counteract most of these venoms.
\par \tab {\b Insects.}
\par \tab Other poisonous animals include the Sydney funnelweb spider, which spins a silken tube at the entrance to its burrow and has killed unsuspecting gardeners; the trapdoor spider, which seals its burrow with a plug of earth; and the red-back spider; which lurks in outhouses under toilet lids. Many of Australia's 80,000 known insect species also sting.
\par \tab The largest insect nests are the towering termites' nests, or termitaria, some of which surpass 23 feet (7 meters) in height, connected to food sources by 110 yards (100 meters) of tunnels and galleries. Those built in the Northern Territory by the compass, or magnetic, termite are aligned north-south to minimize exposure to the tropical sun.
\par \tab {\b Birds.}
\par \tab Of the world's more than 8,000 species of birds, about 750 are found in Australia. Of these, 368 are peculiar to Australia, 125 are nonbreeding visitors, and 20 or so were introduced, usually by human migrants longing for the birdsongs of their homelands. Acclimatized birds include the house sparrow, starling, song thrush, blackbird, pigeon, and, from India, the mynah and red-whiskered bulbul. Although Australia has 19 of the 25 orders of living birds, it lacks woodpeckers, vultures, true finches, and flamingos. Many of the indigenous birds originated in Asia or Gondwanaland. Many still live in New Guinea, among them the birds of paradise, bowerbirds, and spangled drongo.
\par \tab The flightless, nomadic emu is the largest native bird and the second largest in the world. It accelerates in short bursts to 30 miles (48 kilometers) per hour and may surpass 6 1/2 feet (2 meters) in height. It is found almost anywhere in inland Australia. Having laid from 7 to 20 green eggs on the ground, the larger female emu wanders off, leaving the male with nest duties of hatching and tending the chicks.
\par \tab The lyrebird is unique to Australia and is one of the largest songbirds in the world. It can reproduce the sounds of more than 20 other songbirds. Similar in appearance to the peacock, the lyrebid can grow to more than 3 feet (0.9 meter) in length. Rarely seen by humans, it is native to eastern Australia. It is famous for its tail-twirling courtship display, as well as for its incomparable mimicry.
\par \tab Other native species are mound-building birds, nesting in hot anthills, and the black swan, the symbol of Western Australia. Also peculiar to the continent are honeyeaters, bowerbirds, nocturnal frogmouths, and kingfishers. Singularly Australian birdcalls come from the kookaburra, or laughing jackass--a raucous, throaty, mocking peal of laughter--and the bellbird, which has ringing, tinkling tones. A survey by the Royal Australasian Ornithologists Union, founded in 1901, reported that the ten most commonly sighted Australian birds were the Australian magpie, willie wagtail, Australian magpie-lark, welcome swallow, black-faced cuckoo-shrike, galah, white-faced heron, laughing kookaburra, Australian kestrel, and common starling.
\par \tab The drab, brown plains of inland Australia are brightened by the brilliant plumage of 55 species of parrots, one sixth of the world total. The gaudily colored rosellas take their name from Rose Hill, the Sydney locality where they were first observed. There are small grass-eating parakeets, tree-dwelling lorikeets, and budgerigars, but the aristocracy must be the cockatoos--among them the galahs (sometimes in flocks of a thousand), the screeching sulphur-crested white cockatoos, gang-gangs, and the glossy black cockatoo. The illegal smuggling of parrots out of Australia remains a problem.
\par \tab Many seabirds and waders are migratory, even reaching Asia and New Zealand. The muttonbird, or short-tailed shearwater, follows a 19,000-mile (31,000-kilometer) figure-eight loop between Japan and Bass Strait, managing to summer in both the northern and southern hemispheres.
\par \tab {\b Sea animals.}
\par \tab Australia's tropical coral reefs teem with fish, but the scarcity of rivers in an arid continent limits its freshwater fishes to only 150 species, including the carnivorous barramundi (giant perch). Commercial trawlers fish for barricuda, gemfish, or hake, tuna, and Australian salmon in the deeper, colder waters off the southern coasts, nominally inside the 200-nautical-mile Australian Fishing Zone adopted in 1979. Australia's last whaling station, at Albany, Western Australia, was closed in 1978. The Whale Protection Act of 1980 outlawed whaling in all Australian waters.
\par \tab Whales still migrate along the Australian coast, where they are sometimes stranded, between Antarctica and their tropical breeding grounds. Two suborders are seen in these waters--the baleen whales, which filter water and plankton through a whalebone screen, and toothed whales, which chew their food. The baleen species are the southern right whale, formerly the prime target of whalers; the blue whale, largest of known mammals, averaging 95 feet (29 meters) but reaching 130 feet (40 meters); and the humpback whale. Toothed species include killer whales, which hunt in packs of 40 or more, preying on dolphins, seals, penguins, and other whales; and sperm whales, which in the 19th century were hunted almost to extinction for their oil and spermaceti.
\par \tab Thirteen species of dolphins frolic off the Australian coast. The spinner dolphin leaps almost vertically above the waves while rotating at high speed. From 1790 to 1850, an industry that hunted fur seals for their oil and skins operated from the islands of Bass Strait.
\par \tab The major scavengers in Australian waters today are sharks. They shred and swallow marine carrion indiscriminately and voraciously, but they also attack living creatures. Sharks differ from most other marine species in that their skeletons are cartilage, not bone. Lacking a swim bladder, they must swim ceaselessly to circulate water through the gills and maintain their height above the bottom. That is why sharks quickly drown if snared in nets strung across swimming beaches, just below the surface. Since the installation of such nets in Sydney Harbour in 1937, there has not been a single fatality from shark attacks. An average of less than one shark fatality per year has been reported in all Australian waters over the past 150 years. Attacks occur almost only in summer where water temperatures exceed 72░ F (22░ C).
\par \tab Of Australia's 90 species of shark, the only dangerous man-eaters are the bronze whaler and grey whaler--with which the grey nurse shark is often confusedthe tiger shark, the blue pointer (which prefers surfboards and small craft to swimmers), and the most dangerous of them all, variously known as the white pointer, great white shark, or white death. It may be 40 feet (12 meters) long and displays up to 200 replaceable teeth. Other common sharks are the thresher, hammerhead, checkerboard, and paisley-patterned wobbegong. The Australian coast is also plagued by the blue-ringed octopus, which delivers a fatal bite, the box jellyfish, whose trailing tentacles carry venomous cells, the poisonous geographer cone, the well-camouflaged stonefish, and assorted stingrays.
\par \tab {\b Nature parks.}
\par \tab Representative slices of Australia's natural environment can be seen in more 2,000 national parks and other conservation reserves. These protected areas contain over 154,400 square miles (399,000 square kilometers) and cover 5 percent of the total land area, compared with 8.6 percent of total land area in the United States going to parks, and about 4 percent worldwide. Except in federal territories, they were established and remain controlled by state governments. Australia was one of the first countries to create national parks and nature reserves. Kings Park in Perth dates from 1872 and Sydney's Royal National Park from 1879. Yet most of the significant natural and cultural sites have been identified, inventoried, and protected systematically only since 1970. National parks are intended primarily for public recreation.
\par \tab Other reserves are dedicated to protecting such significant or endangered features as prehistoric rock art, sacred or ceremonial aboriginal sites, wilderness areas, marine and terrestrial habitats, and sites of historic or scientific interest. Australia has five major zoos: Taronga Park, Sydney; Royal Melbourne Zoological Gardens; Adelaide Zoo; Perth Zoo; and the Western Plains Zoo, an open-range park at Dubbo, New South Wales. Native fauna parks include the Cleland National Park, South Australia; Sir Colin Mackenzie Zoological Park, Victoria; and the Currumbin Sanctuary, Queensland, where friendly perching parrots almost envelop visitors.
\par {\b Environmental Concerns}
\par \tab Australian aborigines lived for millennia in respectful harmony with the land. Only during the time of European settlement have mechanized farming, deforestation, and the dispersal of exotic species of flora and fauna created environmental degradation. Extinction has been the fate of 18 species of native birds and mammals. Among them are the Tasmanian tiger, certain bandicoots and wallabies, and the hopping mouse. At least 97 vascular plant species have disappeared. Another 3,300 species (17 percent of the total) are considered rare or threatened, and another 1,000 are considered endangered or vulnerable.
\par \tab Sixty percent of all soils now require treatment for erosion, compaction, acidification, or salinity. The Australian Conservation Foundation, created in 1966, became a powerful lobby by bringing nature conservation into the public arena. During the 1970s, called the decade of the environment, the federal government began requiring environmental effects statements before resource exploitation could be approved. The government passed the Australian Heritage Commission Act in 1975. This created a register of the National Estate for the protection of both the natural and cultural heritage.
\par \tab Previously conservation in Australia was a matter left mostly to the states. Belated federal involvement had to fall back on constitutional prerogatives in external affairs, mainly by nominating crucial environments for World heritage designation by UNESCO.
{\b PEOPLE}
\par \tab In 1788, when the first permanent European settlers arrived in Australia, the population of the continent consisted of these 1,030 Europeans and an estimated 750,000 aborigines. Two hundred years later, by the census of 1991, that population had grown to 17.3 million, of whom only 250,000 (1.5 percent) were indigenous, either aboriginals or Torres Strait Islanders of Melanesian origin.
\par \tab With 63.6 percent of the total population concentrated in just eight capital cities, and 86 percent in all cities, Australia now lays claim to being the most urbanized nation on Earth. This population is largely concentrated within 220 miles (350 kilometers) of the eastern and southeastern coasts, including Tasmania. The only other center of dense population is in the southwestern corner of Western Australia. Another entire third of the continent is sparsely settled semiarid rangeland. The remaining third is virtually empty desert.
\par {\b Migrants and Population}
\par \tab Throughout the 19th century, North America was the main destination for migrants from Europe. Luring them to Australia required strong incentives and financial assistance.
\par \tab Immigration policy was aimed at occupying--and then defending--a seemingly empty continent and developing its resources, preferably through family migration. Edward Gibbon Wakefield, a British official who spearheaded colonization of the continent, realized that sole reliance on the transportation of convicts could not produce a stable, civil society. He tried using the proceeds of land sales to finance the migration of free settlers, notably in the founding of South Australia in 1836. The Australian colonies eventually paid the fares of some 700,000 British migrants between 1831 and 1900. Since then, federal programs have controlled the types, numbers, and skills of subsidized migrants, as economic conditions permitted.
\par \tab The continuous influx of largely male immigrants during the past two centuries has distorted the Australian population. The ratio of males to females stood at 121 to 100 in 1881 and remained at 102 to 100 during the 1950s and 1960s, while postwar immigration policies were in full force. Before 1870, the majority of residents were British-born; since 1870, the majority have been Australian-born. Average life expectancy now stands at 80 years for females and 74 years for males. For aborigines, it is 64 for females and 56 years for males. Seventy-two percent of all Australian householders now own or are purchasing their own dwellings, compared with 40 percent in 1947. Three fourths of all homes are separate houses. Entrenched government policies favoring home ownership have kept welfare, or public, housing at 5 percent of the total. During the 1980s, new policies to encourage urban consolidation saw many inner-city single-family residences replaced by townhouses and row houses.
\par \tab To exclude cheap Asian labor and to avert racial conflict, the "white Australia" policy was embodied officially in the Immigration Restriction Act of 1901. It applied until 1973. Immigration in Australia today is no longer restricted by race or nationality, but only by employability and skills. The only refugees who have received financial assistance since 1947 have been Jews fleeing from Nazi Germany, Eastern Europeans and Asians fleeing from Communist regimes, and persons displaced by war. During the 1950s and 1960s, migration from Britain was eclipsed by migration from Southern Europe, especially from Italy, Greece, Croatia, and Malta. During the 1970s and 1980s, migrants from Asia, notably Chinese and Vietnamese, accounted for up to 35 percent of the total. The restriction of government assistance to only British migrants ended in the 1950s. Australians abandoned the old ideal of perpetuating an exclusively British heritage by establishing a federal Office of Multicultural Affairs in 1987. Social cohesion was to be attained, not through the previous policy of assimilation, but by tolerating ethnic differences within an accepted legal code. Now only New Zealanders are granted unrestricted entry.
\par \tab Of the 17.5 million Australians, four million identify themselves in some way with an ethnic group, though the other 75 percent of the population do not. Two million were born in a non-English-speaking country and speak its language. Official sources no longer categorize people by race or ethnicity, but refer simply to NESB, or non-English-speaking background, Australians. These form 100 distinctive groups with 4,000 ethnic organizations.
\par \tab Despite the background diversity of five million postwar immigrants, surprisingly few social conflicts have erupted on the continent. Only the Jewish and Greek Orthodox communities have established their own school systems. Such government initiatives as a telephone interpreting service (operating since 1973) and the multilingual Special Broadcasting Service (since 1977) made migrants welcome in Australia. Public debate continues on the issues of Asian migration, sustainable levels of development, and zero population growth.
\par {\b Aborigines}
\par \tab Of the 250,000 indigenous people, only a fourth are pure aborigines still pursuing the traditional seminomadic life of hunter-gatherers and following a seasonal, cyclical calendar. Another fourth live in big cities. The remainder live in rural areas. Many are still devoted to notions of kinship and walkabout--the desire to revisit the sacred sites.
\par \tab Aborigines hold inalienable freehold title to 34 percent of the Northern Territory, including the great Arnhem Land Reserve created in 1931. They comprise 22 percent of the Northern Territory population. Other aboriginal concentrations are found in the Kimberleys in Western Australia and Cape York Peninsula in Queensland. Since 1988, when the European bicentenary of Australia was celebrated, many aborigines have rejected the anthropological term aborigine. Instead, they refer to themselves in their own languages: Koorie (Our People) in the southern and eastern states, Yolngu in Northern Territory, Arangu in central Australia, Nyunga in Western Australia, and Nungga in South Australia.
\par \tab Aboriginal oral history traces their origins to ancestral beings such as the Rainbow Serpent. These spirits moved across the land before the Pleistocene ice ages, two million years ago, leaving "dreaming tracks" along which nomads still travel to distant ceremonial gatherings. By contrast, scientists using radiocarbon and thermoluminescence dating techniques believe that the aborigines canoed to Australia in successive waves from Southeast Asia some 30,000 to 50,000 years before the present, when sea levels were lower and when Homo sapiens was replacing the Neanderthals in Europe. A female skull, 30,000 years old, was found in Lake Mungo, New South Wales. Aboriginal religion is deeply involved with the land, the mother of all living things to which the spirit returns for rebirth following death. Aborigines do not own the land: it owns them. They are its custodians, believing that the ancestral beings of the Dreamtime, or Dreaming, created plants, animals, people, and places. Some of these are sacred to men, others sacred to women--who have religious autonomy in aboriginal society--still others sacred to both. The exact place of birth determines a person's position within a clan or kinship group and provides a secret personal name.
\par \tab Traditionally, aboriginal education required separate ceremonies, or rites of passage, at each stage of the life cycle for males and females. A group's history was passed on through song cycles recounting the creation myths and the cautionary tales. At the physically painful initiation into adulthood, sacred secrets were passed down. Only initiates could inherit land, sing certain songs, or paint certain images. Group territorial boundaries were known and respected without recourse to fences or permanent housing. Wars over property were therefore unnecessary. There were 230 distinct aboriginal languages and 500 dialects, half of them now extinct. Nomads had few material possessions and built temporary shelters from bark and brush (gunyahs or mia mias). They wore little clothing in hot areas but used marsupial-skin cloaks in colder areas. In thick forests, their hunting weapons were killer sticks and specialized spears. On the open plains, they hunted with woomeras (hooked spear-throwers) and boomerangs, firing the grasslands to drive game animals in their direction. Fishing required string nets, stone traps, and tined spears. When game was scarce during droughts, tribal aborigines depended on the women's work with digging sticks to supply yams, witchetty grubs, and honey ants. Edible native plants included epacrids (a family of small trees and shrubs), geebungs, and lillypilly. Traditional aborigines may have had a sparse material culture, but they gloried in a richly imaginative spiritual life. Their art, their dancesincluding the festive corroboree--and their music were intimately linked with this spiritual life and the land which embodied it. "Songlines" of communication carried ideas and images across the continent. Their art was both symbolic and educational, from tree-bark paintings of animals and fish--with depictions of the placement of vital organs to illustrate spear targets--to rock engravings, hard sand sculptures, and petroglyphs (rock paintings) of Mimi, a clan of spirit beings. The oldest petroglyphs in the world were created 43,000 years ago in the Olary region of South Australia.
\par \tab The forms and content of this art persisted for thousands of years. Its ceremonial association with the ancestral past is seen in the Pukimani burial poles, mortuary figures, and hollow log coffins. The earth tones of clays and ochres conveyed specific meanings: white for mourning and grief; yellow for anger and belligerence; red for love and joy; black (from charcoal) for death and revenge. Some convergence of aboriginal and Western art was achieved by Albert Namatjira, whose embrace of watercolors enchanted many Euro-Australians; and Geoffrey Bardon of Papunya, whose acrylic, mosaic-like, abstract dot paintings incorporated layers of aboriginal symbolism.
\par \tab European contact with the aborigines, until quite recently, has been a painful and tragic tale of incomprehension and rapacity. The earliest British settlers did not recognize aboriginal rights to the land, but regarded it as a terra nullius--a land unoccupied and unclaimed by prior inhabitants. They saw aborigines as uncivilized relics of the Stone Age, lacking agriculture, permanent habitations, written languages, or the use of metal. Many groups were physically or culturally exterminated, uprooted from land which held for them sacred, ceremonial, or hunting significance. Massacres, food poisoning, rape, and punitive expeditions were employed.
\par \tab By 1930, only 67,000 aborigines remained in Australia, and there was fear of complete genocide. Christian missions were largely unsuccessful except in furthering segregation. Protection acts were passed in all states between 1860 and 1911, and many reserves were set aside for the "use and benefit" of aborigines, typically in remote, isolated, arid areas. Aborigines were eventually granted Australian citizenship by the government in 1967, and they were granted the right to vote in 1984.
\par \tab In 1976, the Aboriginal Land Rights Act of the Northern Territory gave ownership of its reserves to the aborigines, and permitted them, as traditional owners, to claim other vacant public land--up to 30 percent of the entire territory. Aboriginal groups or communities now own 11 percent of Australia's land, despite fierce opposition from the governments of Queensland and Western Australia, and from the mining companies.
\par {\b Women}
\par \tab Australian society was long characterized by the concerns of dominant patriarchy, and the rights of women were often subject to discrimination. Feminist reforms have almost as long a history as this discrimination. In 1902, Australia granted women the right to vote in national elections and the right to stand for Parliament--just a decade after New Zealand passed similar legislation and 18 years before women in the United States could vote. Women could vote in all state elections by 1909. One setback was depression-era legislation that resulted in the dismissal of 220 married female teachers in New South Wales in 1932. The law was repealed in 1947.
\par \tab The Country Women's Association, founded in 1922 as a nonsectarian, nonpolitical organization to alleviate the hardships of rural life for women and children, brought rest rooms, rest homes, and baby health centers to hundreds of country towns. Equal-opportunity legislation was promoted by two parliamentary watchdog groups, the Australian Federation of Women Voters, from 1921, and the Women's Electoral Lobby, from 1972. Equal pay for women was legislated in 1974, but immigrant women who spoke no English remained an exploited group. The 1975 Family Law Act resulted in raising the divorce rate to one in every three marriages.
\par {\b Welfare}
\par \tab Australia has 40,000 welfare organizations which complement the government's formal provision of social services. They include the Red Cross Society, the Smith Family (established in Sydney in 1922 for the needy), the Salvation Army (1881), the St. Vincent de Paul Society (Roman Catholic), and the Brotherhood of St. Lawrence (Anglican). Underprivileged children have enjoyed free seaside holidays with Barnardo Australia since 1921. St. John Ambulance teaches first aid and provides voluntary paramedic services at sporting and other public events. LifeLine is a telephone emergency service, founded in Sydney in 1963. It is now international in scope. Another 3,000 organizations provide social, recreational, and spiritual programs for the youth of Australia. In 1908, just one year after Robert Baden-Powell founded the Boy Scouts in England, they were established in Australia. Of the international networks, the largest are the YMCA, the YWCA, and the Youth Hostels Association, with some 100 hostels throughout the nation and no age limit on membership.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by Dr. Bruce Ryan, Professor of Geography at the University of Cincinnati.
\par \tab {\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR AUSTRALIA}
\par \tab A Day in the Life of Australia. (Collins, 1982).
\par \tab Brewster, B.M. Down Under All Over (Four Winds, 1991).
\par \tab Cobb, Vicki. This Place is Lonely (Walker, 1991).
\par \tab Cowen. Elements of the Aborigine Tradition (Element, 1992).
\par \tab Crump, D.J., ed. Surprising Lands Down Under (National Geographic, 1989).
\par \tab Dolce, Laura. Australia (Chelsea House, 1990).
\par \tab Evans, Gareth, and Grant, Bruce. Australian Foreign Relations (International Spec Books, 1991).
\par \tab Hughes, Robert. The Fatal Shore: The Epic of Australia's Founding (Random, 1988).
\par \tab Jackomos, Alick, and Fowell, Derk. Aboriginal Living Histories: Stories in the Oral Tradition (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1992).
\par \tab Kurian, G.T. Australia and New Zealand (Facts on File, 1990).
\par \tab Lewis, Brian. The Naked Australian: Australia, Her People, and the Way They Live (AA Publications, 1987).
\par \tab Shaw, John, ed. Australian Encyclopedia (Macmillan, 1989).
\par \tab Smolan, Rick. From Alice to Ocean (Viking, 1992).\par \tab In the early 19th century the region now known as Oceania was called Oceanica by French geographers. For the French it was one of the five great divisions of the world. Because it consisted of islands, they included Indonesia. The name Oceania is now generally applied to Pacific islands having similar cultures but not to those that are mostly Asian such as Indonesia. It consists of four large culture areas--Australasia, Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia.
\par \tab The name Australasia was given to Australia and its adjoining islands. Austral means "south," and Australia lies south of Asia. The name Polynesia was coined at the same time to mean "many islands" and applies only to islands with similar cultures that lie east of the other three divisions of Oceania. The names Micronesia and Melanesia were coined later and mean, respectively, "small islands" and "islands inhabited by blacks."
\par \tab Most of the islands and peoples of Oceania are clustered in the west-central Pacific Ocean. There are very few islands in the eastern Pacific. About 2,000 miles (3,200 kilometers) of empty ocean lie between San Francisco and Hawaii, and more than 4,000 miles (6,400 kilometers) of open sea separate Lima, Peru, from the Marquesas.
\par \tab In contrast to the huge area of the ocean, the land area of Oceania is very small. Apart from New Guinea, New Zealand, and Australia, most of the islands appear simply as specks on maps of the Pacific. Their total land area is only about 42,000 square miles (109,000 square kilometers). It is a place where people are conscious of great distances, of isolation, and of the smallness of their land in the immense sea.
\par \tab Because of the great scatter and the different kinds of islands with separate histories, there is great diversity in Oceania. Some islands are crowded with people, some empty; some are very large, others mere rocks; some, like Hawaii, are well known, while others are hardly ever visited by humans. There is not even general agreement on the number of islands--though it is huge--nor are the locations of all known exactly. Their surrounding reefs are also unplotted.
\par {\b Land}
\par \tab Most of the islands of Oceania are on, or near the edge of, the Pacific tectonic plate. Because the plate is moving toward the northwest, its motion causes earthquakes and tremors. The edges of the Pacific plate are the sites of most of the world's earthquakes. There are also many active volcanoes along its boundary, so it is often called the Ring of Fire. The most dramatic eruptions occurred near the city of Rabaul at the eastern end of New Britain, which was covered by volcanic ash in 1937 when two nearby volcanoes erupted. More eruptions are predicted.
\par \tab Earthquakes that occur underwater in the ring may also cause hazards in the form of tsunamis, or giant sea waves, that cause much destruction when they reach shore. A tsunami that struck Hilo, Hawaii, on April 1, 1946, caused the loss of 159 lives, the worst natural disaster in Hawaii's history.
\par \tab Hawaiian volcanism is different from the explosive kind. But it too is caused by movement of the Pacific plate, which has produced an enormous ridge of lava hundreds of miles long. The Hawaiian Islands are the tops of this ridge. The plate is temporarily stationed over a hot spot, or plume, under the island of Hawaii. From it molten lava streams upward and out of the volcanoes Mauna Loa and Kilauea, which produce more lava than any other volcanoes on Earth.
\par \tab A shield volcano is built up of relatively thin sheets of lava, which results in the shield shape. The island of Savai'i in Western Samoa is the largest (703 square miles, 1,821 square kilometers) and highest (6,094 feet, 1,857 meters) shield volcano of the South Pacific. The island of Hawaii is the largest (4,038 square miles, 10,458 square kilometers) and highest (13,796 feet, 4,205 meters at Mauna Kea) shield volcano of Oceania. It is also the largest pile of young volcanic material on Earth.
\par \tab The islands of Polynesia and Micronesia have been built either by volcanoes or by coral. The differences between volcanic and coral limestone islands provide the main classification. Most volcanic islands are referred to as high even if they are not very high, and most coral islands are called low. Low coral islands are called atolls if they consist of a ring of land or islets surrounding a shallow lagoon. Their land consists of broken pieces of coral and white sand formed by the breakup of coral and shells by waves. Some are only a few feet above sea level.
\par \tab Kwajalein in the Marshall Islands is the largest atoll in the world. It consists of 90 islets on the rim of a lagoon of about 650 square miles (1,683 square kilometers). The lagoon is so large that one side cannot be seen from the other.
\par \tab The continental islands of Melanesia, especially the larger ones, are more complex than the oceanic islands of the open sea such as Hawaii. They are called continental islands because their rocks are andesitic in contrast to islands formed on the Pacific plate, which have basaltic rocks and are called oceanic. The term andesitic comes from the Andes Mountains, which have similar rocks. The Andes, like the islands of Melanesia, are at the edge of the Pacific crustal plate and are also part of the Ring of Fire.
\par \tab A feature common to many of the continental islands of Melanesia is that of very steep slopes. These occur because of the very heavy rainfall, which causes the rocks to erode and decay quickly, producing soil rapidly. But the soil is so wet that it slides easily, exposing more rock, and thus steep slopes are maintained. Not even the heavy growth of forest that covers these steep slopes can keep the soil in place. Many parts of Melanesia, and especially New Guinea, have slopes so steep and terrain so rugged that they are empty of people, who cluster where life is easier. In New Guinea very large numbers of people live in highland basins in the interior of the island. Here is flat land surrounded by rugged mountains, and people live in very dense clusters.
\par \tab A fourth type of island in Oceania consists of reef limestone that has been raised by vertical movement of the Earth's crust or exposed by a drop in sea level. Most of the islands of the kingdom of Tonga are of this raised type, and most of the people of the kingdom live on Tongatapu, the largest of them (100 square miles, 259 square kilometers). Equally large is the raised island of Niue, which lies about 300 miles (483 kilometers) east of Tonga. The two islands are similar in having rather flat surfaces on which lies a reddish-brown soil, deep in some places and shallow in others. Because the rock is very porous, there is little or no surface water, and people depend on cisterns, tanks, and springs.
\par \tab Nearly all of the inhabited high islands of Oceania are surrounded by coral reefs except where the water is too cold, as at Easter Island and the few other islands of the southeastern Pacific. The water is also too cool in Hawaii for luxuriant growth of coral.
\par \tab Coral reefs are of enormous benefit to people who live along tropical coasts because the biomass, or marine life, growing in these warm, clear, shallow waters is so great and so diverse. Much of it is easy to gather--by children as well as adults. Much of it is also good to eat, and some does not even need to be cooked. Some of the fishes and snakes, however, are deadly poisonous.
\par \tab It is more dangerous to fish in the open ocean beyond the reef, and this is generally done by men in larger canoes. There is great contrast in the amount and kind of life found in the open sea and that of the coral reef. Fishermen are grateful if there is an opening in the reef that takes them easily and safely from one to the other.
\par \tab The coral reef also protects the volcanic rocks from erosion by the waves. These break instead against the edge of the reef, where species of coral build massive skeletons that resist the pounding of the waves. If a reef is not present, waves attack the volcanic materials. Some of these are not very resistant and collapse easily. This has happened on the windward side of Molokai in Hawaii, resulting in spectacular sea cliffs and waterfalls.
\par {\b Climate}
\par \tab Most of the people of Oceania live in the part of the western Pacific that has the largest amount of high rainfall found on the Earth--more than 80 inches (200 centimeters) per year. The eastern parts of the ocean are dominated by high-pressure systems and are dry, but a principal physical fact of islands is that they may greatly modify the climates found over the adjacent ocean. The best example of this is the island of Kauai in Hawaii. Its summit of 5,145 feet (1,568 meters) is perhaps the wettest place on Earth with 485 inches (1,232 centimeters) of rain per year. But over the nearby sea the annual rainfall is only about 20 inches (50 centimeters). This effect is called orographic and is caused by the fact that Kauai, like other islands, disturbs the flow of air over it. It makes the air rise and thus cools it, which causes clouds to form and rain to fall.
\par \tab The highest orographic precipitation is received in Hawaii below 6,000 feet (1,830 meters). Higher elevations are dry, barren, and cold, as on Mauna Kea. Because its air is so dry and clear, it is considered the best astronomical site on Earth.
\par \tab Temperature falls with height, and these two features of island precipitation and temperature mean that high islands may have many very different climates on their slopes. Most of the islands of Oceania are in the trade-wind zone and are subject to the strongest and most persistent winds on Earth. High islands therefore have especially marked windward and leeward effects of precipitation in which the side facing the wind receives more rain than the lee, or rain shadow. Near Hilo on the windward side of Hawaii, for example, precipitation is more than 300 inches (760 centimeters) a year, but in the northwest corner of the island, at Mauna Kea Beach, it is only 7 inches (18 centimeters).
\par \tab The leeward and windward effects, combined with different elevations, give even small islands many different environments. The wetter parts may have more streams as well as faster formation of soil and more erosion. This can lead to steeper slopes and many landslides. People living on the lee side may have difficulty finding water supplies and so spend much time carrying water to their homes.
\par \tab Other climatic features of tropical coasts and islands are the land and sea breezes. In the morning the sun heats the land, and the land heats the air above, making it lighter and causing it to rise. Cooler air flows in from the sea to replace it, while the air above moves out to sea and sinks, setting up a circulation that brings pleasantly cool air to the land. At night the circulation is reversed, and air moves from land to sea. Sometimes on high, large islands the land breeze may be very strong and even uncomfortably cool. These two circulations are separated by periods of little or no wind that produce hot and muggy conditions. A benefit of the sea breeze is that cumulus clouds often form over the land, bringing relief from the intense solar radiation of the tropics.
\par \tab A major resource of many islands is their freshwater lens. This forms on islands of porous rock, such as limestone and volcanic rock, as a lens-shaped body of fresh water that rests on heavier salt water. The bigger the island, the thicker and larger the lens. Small islets perched on atoll rims have lenses that are very small, thin, and fragile--easy to break and slow to reform. Many islets have dry climates, and the lens may be the major source of water for both humans and plants, so care must be taken when removing water from it. On larger islands water may flow from the lens to form springs along the shore.
\par {\b Peoples and Cultures}
\par \tab In all the vast area of Oceania there are only 25 million people, or 0.5 percent of the world's population. Most of them (some 16 million)--live in Australasia and are European by descent.
\par \tab Of the rest of Oceania, Polynesia has the most people--4,800,000. Most of them live in New Zealand and Hawaii, but they are not Polynesian. Outside these two places there are only a half million Polynesians. Half of these live in Western Samoa (160,000) and Tonga (100,000), and most of the rest (160,000) are scattered throughout French Polynesia. Polynesians have migrated more than other people in Oceania--about 140,000 born in Polynesia live elsewhere. New Zealand has the most--about 75,000, the United States 56,000, and Australia only 8,000. More people born in Niue and the Cook Islands live in New Zealand than in their homelands.
\par \tab By far the largest native population is found in Melanesia--4,100,000. Most of these (3,100,000) live in Papua New Guinea. Fiji has most (650,000) of the rest, but more than half of all Fijians are descendants of people imported from India to work on sugarcane plantations.
\par \tab Micronesia has the smallest population--310,000. As in Polynesia most of its population is widely dispersed in small groups on many islands. The largest cluster is on Guam (106,000), but many of these are non-Micronesian.
\par \tab Rates of population change differ widely in Oceania. In most of the large population groups, the rate of increase is fairly high--between 2.5 and 3 percent per year. The Solomon Islands are highest at 3.2 percent. Some small groups are declining in population, mainly through migration.
\par \tab {\b Settlement.}
\par \tab Nearly all the peoples of Oceania live in clusters--whether hamlets, villages, or cities. This is true in spite of the fact that perhaps two thirds of the native people are in agriculture. In general the larger towns are growing faster than the traditional villages, partly because people migrate to them from the villages.
\par \tab On most islands of Oceania the primary settlement form is the village, which traditionally is also the primary landholding unit. Many villages are along the coast, and on islands that are not very large a village may own land in a long strip from reef to summit.
\par \tab Many villages occupy places along the coast where water is available--at springs or where streams enter the sea or lagoon. A site with this feature is more valuable if there is easy access across the reef to the open sea by means of a deep channel. These are features of Apia, the capital of Western Samoa, that attracted European settlers and traders.
\par \tab A village may contain only a few people or as many as hundreds and even thousands. Some have grown into small cities that have also become capitals, but the only large city is Honolulu, Hawaii, with about 365,000 people. It has a well-developed city government, unlike some of the rest, which are collections of villages merged into one large urban area of self-governing units.
\par \tab In Polynesia many villages have a formal plan of two rows of houses facing each other across an open space resembling a village green, where ceremonies take place. Behind each house in these two rows, which are the dwellings of chiefs, may be another, smaller house in which other family members sleep and keep their clothes. Behind this there is yet a smaller structure, the kitchen. At one end of the green is the village church. A village may also contain a primary school and a clinic that serves a number of villages. Usually there is a store that sells such basic items as kerosene, matches, flour, canned goods, thread and cloth, and simple remedies--mainly for relief of cold symptoms. These stores also receive copra in exchange for goods. Cash is usually in short supply in the village.
\par \tab The household supplies the daily needs of the people living in it. It is the place where people eat and sleep and where the daily tasks of gardening and household chores are assigned by the chief or his wife. In Oceania people also belong to a much larger network of relatives to whom they owe obligations and on whom they may call in time of need--for example, when a child is sent away to school and cash is needed for tuition, books, and clothing.
\par \tab Households may differ greatly in size--from just a few people to a dozen or more. In places where migration from the village is easy, as from American Samoa to Hawaii or California, many households consist mostly of grandparents and their young grandchildren.
\par \tab {\b Traditional social life.}
\par \tab Most village households raise chickens for food and also pigs, which are the most common domesticated animal of Oceania. Pigs are raised to be used in ceremonies in which goods are exchanged and speeches are made to acknowledge and recognize the social relations of the people attending the ceremony. These ceremonies are central to the social life of most of Oceania.
\par \tab A typical ceremony might be a party given by a chief for perhaps 300 people that lasts for two or three days. The purpose of the gathering might be a wedding, and guests come from many other villages and even from other islands and countries. Relatives in the village and elsewhere, as well as villagers, are asked to help with the party. They do so because they have been helped in some way in the past and because their honor and reputation, as well as those of the village and its families, are at stake.
\par \tab Most of the food for the wedding must be raised and gathered by the people of the village. They plant extra taro, collect extra coconuts, raise extra pigs, and begin to make such gifts as barkcloth and mats. Houses are improved, thatched roofs repaired, the church painted, and the village made neat. Some food and other materials may come from elsewhere, but for the most part the villagers must rely on themselves.
\par \tab The preparation of food must be planned to ensure that it does not spoil in the high temperatures of the tropics. Large quantities of food are cooked in a pit dug into the ground. The pit is lined with rocks heated to high temperatures. Layers of food are put into the pit and covered with leaves and a layer of earth or wet jute or burlap sacks.
\par \tab When the ceremonies begin, there are speeches, singing, dancing, and feasting. There are personal exchanges. Old obligations are met and new ones made. The festivities end, and the guests leave. The lives of the villagers return to normal but with the expectation that another such occasion will come.
\par \tab This is the traditional way throughout most of Oceania based on the resources of the islands. On the high islands these are more abundant and varied than on the low islands. There are also more people to add life and variety to the ceremonies that affirm the social relationships of people from different places.
\par {\b Traditional Economy}
\par \tab Traditional households support themselves mainly by agriculture and fishing. Along the coasts of Oceania villages contain many coconut trees, and groves of coconuts surround them. From these nuts are extracted coconut cream, used in cooking, and copra, the dried meat of the nut from which coconut oil is extracted. What is left is fed to livestock. There are also breadfruit trees in many villages and other useful trees scattered through the coconut groves.
\par \tab Beyond the groves lie the gardens where crops are grown in shifting cultivation. In this kind of agriculture rainforests or scrub trees are cut down and burned, leaving ashes to nourish the crops without other fertilizer being applied. After harvesting, another part of the forest is cleared and another garden planted, the crop having exhausted the nourishment. The cycle, called shifting cultivation, or slash-and-burn agriculture, continues.
\par \tab This kind of agriculture is widely practiced in the tropics, but it is not the only kind found in Oceania. In the wet highlands of New Guinea, for example, the sweet potato is a major subsistence crop. It is grown in permanent beds raised above the surrounding swampy area for better drainage.
\par \tab In many of the larger islands there are plantations of coconut trees owned by European and native settlers and companies. Their principal crop is copra, and in some of them cattle graze on the vegetation that grows under the trees. The copra is produced for sale in other countries, making plantation agriculture very different from traditional subsistence agriculture, whose crops are not sold abroad but are consumed at home.
\par \tab Most subsistence crops produce edible roots or tubers. The best known of these are taro and its relatives, grown in warm places, and the sweet potato, found at higher altitudes or where it is colder, as in New Zealand. Bananas are part of the native diet, as is the sago palm in Melanesia. Breadfruit is very common, an attractive tree that requires little care. Like many plants of Oceania, it produces useful materials besides the fruit: the wood is good for building houses, its latex is used to caulk boats, and its leaf can be used as a plate.
\par \tab The edible parts of these plants are mostly starches, and little protein is produced by any plants of the rainforest. To fill the need for protein, the people of coastal Oceania turn to the reefs and open sea, catching and gathering fish, shellfish, and a host of other edible marine species.
\par {\b Changes in Traditional Life}
\par \tab With the arrival of the Europeans in the 19th century and their takeover of government and religion, traditional ways of life changed forever. On the negative side, new diseases and weapons caused the loss of many lives. However, the Europeans eventually ended local warfare, stopped the movement of people, fixed the locations of villages, and introduced money. New crops and jobs, new opportunities, and even a new language appeared. The pidgin of Melanesia made it possible for millions of people who spoke hundreds of very different languages to communicate.
\par \tab The end of warfare had a major effect on many island societies because warfare had occupied so much of their time and energy. Social organization and the roles of men and women had been closely related to it. Changes continued into the 20th century with the discovery of a large group of inhabitants of the New Guinea highlands. Warfare had been a major part of their societies, and they were shaken when it ended. War still threatens to break out between enemy tribes there, and tribal enmity remains a strong force in local politics.
\par \tab In pre-European times tribal groups moved a great deal as they fled from or pursued their enemies. When warfare was banned, there was the opportunity and the need to settle in one place. Villages were established and the boundaries of their lands fixed. Life became more stable and predictable.
\par \tab Europeans introduced money and the need for it where none existed before. Although all of the changes had enormous social effects, the need for money was the most dramatic. The people of Oceania could no longer escape changing economic conditions in the outside world.
\par \tab The people were required to pay taxes to support at least part of the expenses of colonial government. This required them to produce something for sale abroad in order to get money to pay the taxes. Copra was the first major product to fill this role, and for many places it remains the largest export. Atoll people have little else to sell. More coconut trees were planted, and coconut groves are the single most noticeable feature of many Pacific islands.
\par \tab Cash was also needed to pay for the new schools and churches. Parents wanted their children to be educated so they could adjust more easily to the new ways introduced by Europeans. The adults of the villages built village schools but had to raise money to buy the concrete, tin roofs, and other materials. Books, supplies, and uniforms also had to be bought and teachers paid.
\par {\b Modern Economies}
\par \tab These developments occurred especially rapidly after World War II. Many villagers found the agriculture they knew and their limited resources inadequate for modern life. They left their villages for places of greater opportunity--cities in the islands as well as overseas.
\par \tab {\b MIRAB societies.}
\par \tab So many workers in the villages left that traditional agriculture and social life declined. Some writers call the new societies that have emerged MIRAB societies. This term was coined from the words migration, remittance, aid, and bureaucracy--the four major sources of income for many islands and new microstates.
\par \tab Most migrants go to New Zealand and the United States, particularly to Hawaii and California. Many send remittances back home after finding jobs. This money enables their relatives to buy necessities.
\par \tab Aid is a significant source of income to governments in Oceania. Much of this money consists of gifts, not loans, from developed countries. Australia and New Zealand are the primary sources of regional aid, while France and the United States also contribute some aid. Aid is quite easily obtained, and the amounts requested are not large. The expense of running the bureaucracy is included because in most of these societies, which lack industries and large businesses, the government is the largest employer.
\par \tab Mining has long been an activity in certain parts of Oceania. In the 19th century guano, a natural fertilizer consisting of the manure of seabirds, was extensively mined on low islands in the Central Pacific. Today it is no longer mined, but phosphate rock is taken from raised limestone islands for use in making superphosphate fertilizer. The most plentiful source of phosphate rock is the island of Nauru. In addition, gold deposits have been found from New Guinea to Fiji.
\par \tab The only major mining industry in Oceania is in New Caledonia, whose mines make it the world's second largest producer of nickel. This industry has spurred other investment, making New Caledonia's economy the largest in the area.
\par \tab Because opportunities and natural resources are few on most islands, many islanders see tourism as their greatest potential source of income. Others object that jobs in tourism are menial, and high fares in the Pacific make visits expensive and tourists few. Nevertheless, Oceania has attracted travelers for many decades, and its image is among the most alluring in the world. Increasing numbers of visitors have brought many economic benefits to some places, especially Guam, the Northern Marianas, Fiji, and French Polynesia.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by Ward Barrett, Professor of Geography, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, and author of 'Mission in the Marianas' and 'The Sugar Hacienda of the Marqueses del Valle'.
\par \tab Daws, A.G. A Dream of Islands (Mutual, 1991).
\par \tab Margolis, Susanna. Adventuring in the Pacific (Sierra Club Books, 1988).
\par \tab Oliver, D.L. Oceania: The Native Cultures of Australia and the Pacific Islands, 2 vols. (Univ. of Hawaii Press, 1989).
\par \tab Theroux, Paul. The Happy Isles of Oceania (Putnam, 1992).
\par \tab Withey, Lynne. Voyages of Discovery (Univ. of Calif., 1988).\par \tab A small, mountainous country in Central Europe, Austria was once at the center of a great empire and one of the great powers of Europe. Its position at the middle of Europe made it a center of trade, transportation, and culture.
\par {\b Land and Climate}
\par \tab The Republic of Austria occupies the eastern end of the great mountain ranges of the Alps. The highest peaks are in the western and central parts of Austria. A number of ranges extend west to east with several major river valleys between them. The highest peak is the Grossglockner (12,457 feet; 3,797 meters), located in the Hohe Tauern range. The high ranges of the Austrian Alps are glaciated.
\par \tab The major lowland areas lie in the northern and eastern parts of the country. The northern lowland is the wide valley of the Danube River, which flows across northern Austria. At the eastern end of this lowland, where the Danube emerges from the mountains into the drier plains, lies the capital city of Vienna. South of Vienna a second area of plains extends to the Slovenian border. These lowlands occupy about 20 percent of the country's total area. North of the Danube is an area of hills that is an extension of a mountain area in the southern part of the Czech Republic.
\par \tab A number of rivers, such as the Enns, Inn, Drava, Ill, Salzach, and Mur, flow through the interior valleys of the Alps. These valleys provide conditions suitable for farming as well as for the development of cities and towns. Among a number of Alpine passes, the most important is the Brenner Pass, which connects Austria with Italy. The city of Innsbruck, located in the valley of the Inn, owes its importance to its location at the approaches to the Brenner Pass. The Semmering Pass south of Vienna leads to the northern end of the Adriatic Sea. The largest lake is Neusiedler Lake, south of Vienna. The western tip of Austria lies on the shores of Lake Constance (Bodensee), which borders Austria, Switzerland, and Germany.
\par \tab The climate of Austria is not uniform throughout its whole territory. The western mountainous region receives considerable moisture from the Atlantic Ocean and thus tends to have higher rainfall and snowfall totals than the east. The difference between summer and winter temperatures is greater in the east than in the west. The interior valleys and the eastern lowlands have the warmest summer temperatures. In the latter area summers have average temperatures of about 68░ F (20░ C) and winter temperatures of about 29░ F (-2░ C). In the mountains temperatures decrease with altitude, and the permanent snow line averages between 8,000 and 9,000 feet (2,400 and 2,700 meters). Alpine weather is affected by winds. The most important is the foehn, a warm, dry wind that occurs on the leeward slopes of the mountain ranges.
\par {\b Plant and Animal Life}
\par \tab The original vegetation of the Austrian Alps consisted of deciduous trees, such as beech, birch, and oak, on the lower slopes, and coniferous trees, such as spruce, pine, fir, and larch, on the upper slopes. Much of the forest on the lower slopes and on the lowlands has been removed to allow crop farming. A large number of the native species--bears, wolves, and wild swine--have vanished, but there are still marmots, deer, foxes, martens, badgers, squirrels, hares, partridges, pheasants, and a number of other birds. In the high parts of the Alps chamois and a few ibex are found. Above the timberline grow numerous species of berries and flowers, including the rare edelweiss.
\par {\b The People}
\par \tab About 96 percent of the inhabitants of Austria are German-speaking. The small minority groups include Czechs, Croats, Slovenes, and Hungarians. Dominant in Austrian society, along with German language and culture, is the Roman Catholic religion. The few Protestants and Jews reside mainly in Vienna.
\par \tab Austrian culture has made many contributions to the world. In particular, several great composers--such as Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Ludwig van Beethoven, Franz Schubert, Johannes Brahms, Johann Strauss, and Gustav Mahler--have lived or worked in Austria. Austrian writers such as Hugo von Hofmannsthal and Arthur Schnitzler have made important contributions to German literature. Austrian folk culture is rich in music, dance, arts, and crafts.
\par \tab Since the 1970s the growth rate of the population has decreased to near zero, due to a balancing out of the birthrate and the death rate. About 65 percent of the population lives in cities. The largest city by far is the capital, Vienna, with a little more than 1.5 million inhabitants. The second city, Graz, is much smaller, with only about 237,000 inhabitants. Other important cities include Linz, Salzburg, and Innsbruck.
\par {\b The Economy}
\par \tab Because of its large region of mountains only about half of Austria's total area is suitable for farming or pasture. More than one third of its area is forest and woodland, and more than 15 percent is unproductive. More than half of the farmland consists of natural meadows and pastures where cattle, goats, and sheep are grazed. Of the country's agricultural output more than two thirds consists of animal products, especially milk, butter, and cheese. The major grain crops are corn (maize), barley, wheat, and rye. Other important crops include potatoes and sugar beets. Orchards and vineyards are found mainly in the eastern part of the country. The main tree orchard fruits are apples, pears, plums, apricots, and peaches. Wine is produced both for home consumption and for export. A typical farm is small and is usually owned by the family that lives and works on it.
\par \tab The forest-products industry is important, and about one eighth of Austria's exports consists of timber, timber products, and paper. The country is one of the world's leading producers of coniferous sawn timber. Much of the forest land has been severely overcut, but extensive reforestation and other forest management techniques such as controlled thinning are being encouraged by the government. About one third of the forest land is in small, private holdings, and many of the owners have formed efficient forest-utilization cooperatives.
\par \tab The lack of energy resources is the weakest aspect of Austria's economy. Austria must import more than 70 percent of its bituminous coal and lignite. It also imports more than 80 percent of its oil and natural gas. Some petroleum and natural gas come from wells east of Vienna. There is a refinery at Schwechat, a suburb of Vienna. Oil from the Middle East is brought by pipeline from Trieste in Italy. Natural gas is imported from Russia by pipeline. Lignite is mined locally in small quantities and is burned to generate electricity. About half of the electricity produced comes from hydroelectric power stations on Alpine rivers and on the Danube. A nuclear power station built near Vienna was protested, and, after a national referendum in 1978, it was not used.
\par \tab Production of metallic minerals is significant, and Austria mines iron ore, lead, zinc, copper, and magnesite. Iron ore is mined in the southern area of the country. Magnesite is an important export.
\par \tab Austrian industry is in general characterized by a number of small specialized enterprises, many of them state-owned. The iron and steel industry is important and produces enough for the country's needs and for export. The major plants are at Linz and in the south near the iron ore deposits. The Austrian iron and steel industry expanded rapidly after World War II. There is also a sizable aluminum industry that processes primarily imported aluminum, which is economically feasible because of the abundance of inexpensive hydroelectric power. One of the largest plants in Western Europe is located near Braunau. The chemical industry produces fertilizer, plastics, and synthetic fibers, mainly for use in Austria. The paper industry is important, and cellulose, paper, and cardboard are exported. Other industries include construction, machinery, transportation equipment, electrical equipment, and cotton and wool textiles.
\par \tab The development of the tourist trade also contributes much to the Austrian economy. The main attractions are the alpine scenery and the skiing resorts in the mountains. Many art and music enthusiasts and historians are attracted to the galleries, concert halls, and museums of Vienna. Salzburg, with its annual music festival, also brings many visitors.
\par {\b Transportation, Communication, and Education}
\par \tab Austria is located at the meeting place of several important transportation routes. In the west is the Brenner Pass to Italy, and in the east is the Danube River, which flows through southeastern Europe. Austria also lies on the land route between the head of the Adriatic Sea and the Danube Plain.
\par \tab Austria has a good railroad network, half of which is electrified. There are several mountain railroads and many cableways and chair lifts that provide access to the high slopes for skiers and hikers. Austria also has several four-lane highways that are connected to the German and Italian road networks and permit easy access to the country for tourists. The two most important river ports are Vienna and Linz. The national airline links Vienna with many cities of the world.
\par \tab Austria has a well-organized postal and telegraph network, as well as a state radio and television service. All of these services are controlled and operated by the Post and Telegraph Administration.
\par \tab The Austrian educational system is based on compulsory, free education for all children between the ages of 6 and 15 in a variety of primary and secondary schools. There are six universities, located at Vienna, Graz, Innsbruck, Salzburg, and Krems. They are particularly noted for their technical and medical schools and clinics. Austria has produced Nobel prizewinners in the fields of medicine, physics, chemistry, peace, and economics. Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, was an Austrian.
\par {\b Government}
\par \tab Austria is a federal republic, consisting of nine democratic states, known as BundeslΣnder. The states of Lower Austria, Upper Austria, Styria, Tirol (Tyrol), Carinthia, Salzburg, Vorarlberg, and Burgenland have their own capitals and legislative assemblies. The federal capital, Vienna, is also a state.
\par \tab The country is governed under the constitution of 1920, as amended in 1929, which gives the federal government considerable political and economic power. The residual powers are left to the provincial governments. The federal president is elected by popular vote for a term of six years. He is the head of state, but his power is largely limited to appointing the chancellor (head of government) and the Cabinet ministers. The legislature consists of a lower house, the National Council (Nationalrat), and an upper house, the Federal Council (Bundesrat). There are two major political parties, the People's party and the Social Democratic party. The former is, in general, a conservative party representing businessmen and farmers, and it has the unofficial support of the Roman Catholic church. The Social Democrats count on the support of industrial workers.
\par {\b History}
\par \tab The present nation of Austria is the remnant of a once-powerful empire that controlled a large area of central and eastern Europe. With the breakdown of the empire of Austria-Hungary after World War I, Austria found itself only one eighth of its former size.
\par \tab This sudden reduction from world power to a small and relatively weak country was a major blow to the Austrian people. In 1918 the German members of the imperial parliament declared the formation of an Austrian nation consisting of the German-speaking areas of former Austria-Hungary. This new republic, however, was threatened by Communist attempts at a takeover along with the attempts by several of the provinces to break away and form independent states.
\par \tab The republic in its early days wished to be united with Germany, but this was expressly forbidden in the World War I peace treaty signed with the Allies in 1919. The main task of the government was the restoration of the economy, which was in chaos. Although economic conditions improved considerably in the 1920s, the internal political situation did not, due to a continuous confrontation between the Socialists and right-wing groups. Many people turned to the Nazi party after a financial crisis in 1931 discredited the major parties. The Christian Socialist party under Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss was attacked by both the left and right, and in 1934 the conflict led to a brief civil war. In the same year the Nazis attempted to take over the government by force and murdered Dollfuss. The leaders of this attempt were arrested, and the new chancellor tried to resist Nazi Germany. In 1938 the Germans marched into Austria and declared a union, or Anschluss. Renamed Ostmark by the Nazis, Austria fought World War II as part of the Axis powers.
\par \tab In 1945 Austria was divided into zones of occupation by the United States, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and France. Economic problems retarded the recovery of the country, but by the early 1950s considerable prosperity had been restored. In 1955 the four countries signed a treaty with the Austrian government and removed their troops. Austria was prohibited from union with Germany and undertook to maintain a democratic political system. The constitution was amended to make the nation neutral. Austria was admitted to the United Nations in 1955.
\par \tab Controversy erupted during Austria's 1986 presidential election when candidate Kurt Waldheim, former secretary-general of the United Nations (UN), was accused of participating in war crimes while serving in the German army during World War II. Despite this, Waldheim won the election.
\par \tab Austria's neutrality had prevented it from joining the European Communities (EU; formerly the European Communities) or any major European military organization. With the end of the Cold War, this situation changed. Austria was a member of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA). In 1991 the EFTA signed a free-trade agreement with the EU, and in June 1994 Austrians voted overwhelmingly to join the EU in 1995.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab Ian Matley
{\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR AUSTRIA}
\par \tab Austria: A Country Study (U.S. Govt. Printing Office, 1994).
\par \tab Jelavich, Barbara. Modern Austria: Empire, and Republic 1815-1986 (Columbia, 1987).
\par \tab Robertson, Ian. The Blue Guide to Austria, 3rd ed. (Norton, 1992).
\par \tab Sully, M.A. A Contemporary History of Austria (Routledge, 1990).
\par \tab Sweeny, J., and Weidenholzer, J. Austria: A Study in Contemporary Achievement (Ashgate, 1988).\par \tab On the Caspian Sea at the eastern end of the Caucasus mountains is Azerbaijan, one of the 15 republics that made up the Soviet Union until that country was dissolved and the republics gained their independence in December 1991. Azerbaijan is bordered by Russia and Georgia to the north, the Caspian Sea to the east, Armenia to the west, and Iran to the south.
\par {\b The Land and Climate}
\par \tab The republic has an area of 33,400 square miles (86,600 square kilometers), about the size of Portugal. Much of the north and south is mountainous, the highest peak being Bazardyuze (14,698 feet; 4,480 meters). The central area consists of a large lowland through which flows the Kura River.
\par \tab The climate is dry and subtropical, with hot summers and mild winters. Much of the plains has a dry and even semidesert type of climate, while more rain falls in the mountains and on the narrow Lenkoran coastal plain in the southeast. Cactus, scrub growth, and steppe grass grow in the lowlands and foothills, and there are hardwood forests and alpine grazing meadows at higher elevations.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab The Azerbaijanis are traditionally farmers and herders, though more than half of the people now live in urban areas. The largest city and the republic's capital is Baku. The petroleum industry in particular has attracted many people to Baku. Some three quarters of the republic's more than 7 million people are Turkic Azerbaijanis. They speak Azeri-Turkish, which differs somewhat from the language of Turkey. They are Muslims of the Shi'ah sect, the predominant sect of Iran. There are some 9 million Azerbaijanis living across the border in Iran. Azerbaijan administers Nakhichevan, an ethnically Azerbaijani territory located within Armenia.
\par \tab Armenians make up more than 80 percent of the population living in the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast, a district in the south of the republic. There have been violent ethnic riots since 1988 between Azerbaijanis and Armenians after Armenian demands that Nagorno-Karabakh be united with the Armenian republic. The Soviet government intervened to stop the violence, but the fighting escalated when the Soviet troops were withdrawn after the dissolution of the Soviet Union.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab Raw cotton and tobacco are the leading crops. Wheat, barley, and corn are the major grain crops. Rice is grown through irrigation. Potatoes, fruits, grapes, and vegetables are other crops. Tea and citrus fruits are specialties of the humid Lenkoran lowland. Cattle, sheep, and goats graze the lowlands and the mountains and are the basis of wool and meat production. Silk is a major product.
\par \tab The Baku area is the site of extensive petroleum and natural gas fields. Most of the republic's industry is in the Baku-Sumgait area, where petroleum refining and the manufacture of steel, oil equipment, and chemicals are significant. A petroleum pipeline extends from Baku to Batumi in Georgia, and gas pipelines also extend to the nearby republics.
\par {\b Government and History}
\par \tab Before the 19th century the territory of the present republic consisted of a number of khanates, which were conquered by the Russians by the 1820s. At the time of the Russian Revolution in 1918, an independent Azerbaijan republic was declared with the help of the Turks and, later, the British. In 1920 the Soviets invaded the republic, and in 1936 it was declared a republic of the Soviet Union. Azerbaijan declared its independence in August 1991. When the Soviet Union was dissolved in December, Azerbaijan tentatively joined ten other republics in forming the Commonwealth of Independent States. It did not become a member, however, because its parliament failed to ratify the agreement. Population (1992 estimate), 7,237,000.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab Ian Matley\par \tab One of the Bahama islands--San Salvador, also called Watling Island--is probably the site where Christopher Columbus first landed in the New World in 1492. The islands got their name from the Spanish word bajamar, meaning "shallow water."
\par \tab The independent Commonwealth of the Bahamas is an archipelago consisting of about 700 islands and cays (keys) and almost 2,400 low, barren rock formations. Only 22 of the islands and cays are inhabited. The archipelago extends about 750 miles (1,200 kilometers), reaching from a point off the east coast of Florida almost to the island of Hispaniola. Through this island barrier there are only three channels for large vessels, for the islands are merely the exposed portions of the Great Bahama Bank, an extension of the North American continental shelf.
\par \tab The islands are generally low and flat, and the highest point in the entire archipelago, on Cat Island, is only 206 feet (63 meters) above sea level. There are no running streams, except on Andros, the largest island. Fresh water is procured from wells dug in underlying rocks. On New Providence Island is the capital, Nassau, a popular winter resort. Other Bahama islands include Great Abaco, Eleuthera, Grand Bahama, and Long Island.
\par \tab The climate is mild, with an average winter temperature of about 70░ F (21░ C). Lacking natural resources other than their magnificent climate and dazzling beaches, the islands are economically dependent on tourism. About two thirds of the islands' workers are involved in tourist-related businesses. The many attractions, including gambling casinos that have opened in several areas, have brought a relatively high standard of living for the mostly native population. The economy is also dependent on banking.
\par \tab In the southeastern islands, the traditional pattern of small farming and fishing still prevails in many villages. Fruits and vegetables are grown. Pigs, sheep, goats, and turkeys thrive. Crayfish, lumber, and pulpwood are shipped chiefly to the United States.
\par \tab Englishmen came to the Bahamas in the 1600s, and the island group later became a British colony. However, the society and culture that have developed in the Bahamas are an unusual blend of both the European settlement and the African heritage that are a legacy of the islands' former slave trade.
\par \tab The islands had their first government assembly in 1729. They were given internal self-government in 1964. Following a 1972 electoral mandate for independence from Britain, they achieved full independence as the Commonwealth of the Bahamas in July 1973. Britain raised no objections. Under the 1973 constitution, a governor-general is appointed by the British Crown. The land area of the Bahamas is 5,382 square miles (13,939 square kilometers). Population (1990 census), 255,095.\par \tab A small Arab monarchy in the Persian Gulf, Bahrain consists of a group of islands between the Qatar peninsula and the northeastern coast of Saudi Arabia. Named for the main island in the archipelago, the country includes some 30 smaller islands. Bahrain covers an area of about 270 square miles (692 square kilometers).
\par \tab There are only two major towns. The capital and chief port is Manama, in the northeastern part of Bahrain Island. It contains several large hotels, schools, Western-style shops, and an Arab suq, or bazaar. Al Muharraq, to the north of Manama, is a traditional Arab town with narrow, winding streets and a dense settlement. These two towns contain about half of Bahrain's total population.
\par \tab The Arab villages consist mainly of substantial houses of local stone or of concrete with flat roofs. Some of the temporary settlements of the fishermen and the very poor are made of barasti (sticks or canes from date palms). On the southern half of the main island there is little settlement.
\par \tab Bahrain remains essentially Arab in its culture and life-style. The state radio station broadcasts mostly in Arabic, the official language, and television transmissions are received from Saudi Arabia. Several weekly and daily papers are published in Arabic and a few in English. The British Council in Manama is the main foreign cultural institution. In 1981 Bahrain was chosen as the site for a Gulf University.
\par \tab Bahrain Island has an excellent paved road system, and buses and taxis serve its major areas. The busy international airport on Al Muharraq Island has flights to most countries in the Middle East.
\par \tab The climate of Bahrain is very humid. Average monthly temperatures from May to October exceed 83░ F (28░ C). Winter temperatures from December to March average below 70░ F (21░ C). Agriculture is of minimal economic importance and produces only a fraction of Bahrain's food requirements, mainly in fruits and vegetables. There are a few thousand sheep, cattle, and goats.
\par \tab Bahrain owes its commercial success as a business and communications center to its location in the prosperous Persian Gulf region. It is an offshore banking center for more than 60 foreign banks, and there is a free zone in which many foreign business concerns have their headquarters.
\par \tab Major industries include natural gas and petroleum products--the principal exports. In 1978 the government took over ownership of the petroleum industry. Bahrain moved closer to the other Persian Gulf monarchies--Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Qatar, Oman, and the United Arab Emirates--through the establishment of the Gulf Cooperation Council in March 1981.
\par \tab Bahrain was ruled by Portugal and then by Persia (Iran) before coming under British influence in the 19th century. From 1916 until 1971 it was a British Protected State, and the United Kingdom was responsible for the conduct of its foreign affairs and defense. Bahrain then declared itself independent of Britain and became a member of the United Nations. Population (1990 estimate), 503,000.\par \tab One of the world's most densely populated nations, Bangladesh is also one of the poorest. More than 108 million people live within this South Asian country's total area of 55,598 square miles (143,998 square kilometers). This amounts to an average of almost 2,000 persons per square mile (about 755 persons per square kilometer). Most of the people depend upon agriculture for a living. Their average annual income in 1990 amounted to less than 200 dollars per person.
\par \tab Bangladesh is surrounded by India on the west, north, and northeast; Myanmar (Burma) on the southeast; and the Bay of Bengal on the south. The country is inhabited almost entirely by people who speak the Bengali language, and it has a distinctive Bengali culture shared by adjacent West Bengal, a state of India. Bangladesh and West Bengal constituted the former Bengal Province of British India, and the region is still referred to informally as Bengal.
\par {\b Land and Climate}
\par \tab Bangladesh, most of which is at low elevations, is divided into five physical regions: the Ganges Delta proper to the southwest, the Paradelta to the northwest, the East-Central plains, the Sylhet Hills in the northeast, and the southeast Chittagong region.
\par \tab The Ganges Delta is geologically the most recently formed of the regions. Mangrove forests thrive in the active lower delta, which is flooded by fresh and tidal waters. The soil base is new alluvium.
\par \tab The Paradelta, like the delta proper, is a plain, but its elevations are higher--100 to 300 feet (30 to 90 meters) above sea level. Its soils are varied: silt and sandy clays and old alluvium. It lies between the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers.
\par \tab The East-Central plains, with the Meghna River almost at its center, consists of plains and active floodplains in which the main rivers, including the Brahmaputra, have altered their channels in the past. At the center of this plain lies Madhupur Jungle, formerly a site for tiger hunting. To the northeast is the Meghna depression, part of which is only 10 feet (3 meters) above sea level; during the rainy season it turns into a huge lake, covering most of its 2,800-square-mile (7,250-square-kilometer) basin.
\par \tab The Sylhet Hills and ranges are a small extension of the foothills of India's Meghalaya Plateau. Its highest peak (Harargaj) reaches 1,103 feet (336 meters).
\par \tab The Chittagong region primarily consists of coastal plains and islands. It also includes the Matamori River delta and parts of the Karnaphuli River valley to the west and ridges and valleys to the east.
\par \tab {\b River systems.}
\par \tab The extensive river systems of Bangladesh are fundamental to the nation's economy and way of life. The rivers flow into the Bay of Bengal. About three fourths of the water emptied into the bay is carried during the rainy season, especially June through September. The foremost river is the Ganges, known in Bangladesh as the Padma. A sacred river to the Hindus, it originates in the snow-clad Himalayas in India and flows for most of its 1,557 miles (2,506 kilometers) in India. Forming part of the Bangladesh-India border in the west, the Ganges turns southeast into the channel of the Meghna. The Meghna breaks into branches that form part of a vast delta adjoining the Bay of Bengal.
\par \tab The Brahmaputra-Tista system joins the Ganges almost at the center of the country. The Brahmaputra originates in the Kailas range of the Himalayas in Tibet and enters Bangladesh from the north; its total length is about 1,800 miles (2,900 kilometers). In Bangladesh its main stream is known as the Jamuna. The Tista changed its course in 1787, and the two rivers joined and now flow on the course of the Brahmaputra. The Tista also originates in the Himalayas and enters Bangladesh from the north.
\par \tab The rain-fed Meghna-Surma system consists of the Meghna and its tributary, the Surma. Together they run a course of about 130 miles (210 kilometers) before joining the Ganges-Padma southeast of Dhaka. During the rainy season the water from the system flows back into the Meghna depression, creating a vast sheet of water. The lower Meghna is formed after the Ganges-Padma joins it, following a course of 95 miles (155 kilometers) to the Bay of Bengal. The foremost river in Asia in average annual discharge (which totals about 875 million acre-feet), the Ganges-Padma is surpassed only by the Amazon and the Congo rivers.
\par \tab The Chittagong region river system consists of three main rivers: the Karnaphuli, the Sangu, and the Matamori. All are swift-flowing, relatively small rivers of the hill country that frequently cause flash floods. The harbor of the Chittagong is located at the mouth of the Karnaphuli.
\par \tab {\b Climate.}
\par \tab Bangladesh has a tropical monsoon type of climate, with heavy summer rain and high summer temperatures. Winters are dry and cool. South and southwest winds dominate the six-month period of mid-April to mid-October and bring enormous amounts of moisture from the Indian Ocean and Bay of Bengal; 95 percent of the total annual rainfall, which averages about 80 inches (203 centimeters), occurs during that period. The temperatures range from an average of about 68░ F (20░ C) in January to about 86░ F (30░ C) in April.
\par \tab Bengalis subdivide the year into six seasons: Grissho (summer), Barsha (rainy), Sarat (autumn), Hemanto (cool), Sheet (winter), and Basanta (spring). For practical purposes, however, three seasons are distinguished: summer, rainy, and winter. Rain begins to fall in April, the hottest month. Farmers then begin to plow their fields for the main crop planting. With the break of monsoon in the first week of June, the extremely heavy monsoon rains start suddenly, and average temperatures fall into the low 80s F. These heavy rains prevail for two to three months and continue more moderately into November.
\par \tab Destructive floods every two or three years are common in Bangladesh. Between 1960 and 1970, nine cyclones accompanied with floods hit Bangladesh during the October through December period. Floods devastate summer crops, destroy homes, and drown people and livestock. In 1988 monsoon rains left 2,000 people dead and 30 million homeless. Later that year a cyclone killed 1,700 people. As many as 131,000 people were killed by a May 1991 cyclone that caused 2.7 billion dollars in damages.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab With more than 107 million people, Bangladesh ranks as the world's 10th most populous country. According to projections, the population will reach 140 million by the year 2000. This rapid growth places a great and growing strain on the heavily agricultural economy of Bangladesh, which is already one of the world's most crowded countries. Like most developing countries, Bangladesh has a young population; nearly half of the people are under the age of 15. The population is 51.5 percent male and 48.5 percent female. Although infant mortality has declined recently, it still stands at a high level of about 110 per 1,000.
\par \tab Muslims constitute about 85 percent of the population of Bangladesh, but the Hindus form a sizable minority of about 12 percent. Most of the remainder are Buddhists and Christians. Racially, Bangladesh is a mixture of three groups: Australoids, Mongoloids, and Caucasoids. The latter group, which is divided into dark-skinned Dravidians and the lighter Aryans, dominates most parts of the country. Bengali is the state language and mother tongue of 98 percent of the people in Bangladesh.
\par \tab The staple food of the Bengalis is rice, which is generally eaten three times a day. Boiled rice and fish curry is the common diet. Most women in Bangladesh wear a sari, a cloth about 15 feet (4.6 meters) long that is wrapped around the body. The Muslim males wear a lungi, a cloth wrapped below the waist, and Hindu men wear a dhoti, a white cloth almost as long as a sari, wrapped around the waist with one end tucked in the back and the other draped in front. Shirts are worn with both the lungi and the dhoti, and blouses are worn with the sari. In urban areas Western dress is more popular with men than it is with women.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab The backbone of the Bangladesh economy, agriculture contributes about 45 percent of the gross domestic product. Approximately two thirds of the land area is cultivated. Rice and jute are the principal agricultural crops, and others include wheat, barley, corn (maize), millet, lentils, beans, potatoes, sweet potatoes, vegetables, spices, oil seeds, cotton, and sugarcane. Tea is grown in the northeastern areas.
\par \tab The growing season lasts throughout the year, which permits Bangladesh to devote about half of the cultivated land to multiple-cropping. Traditionally three rice crops are grown each year. The summer-rainy season rice crop is called kharif, the rainy season crop haimantik, and the winter crop rabi. The three principal categories of rice--aman, aus, and boro--are associated with kharif, haimantik, and rabi crops, respectively. About half of the rice acreage is in aman, though boro provides higher yields.
\par \tab The major industry in Bangladesh is based on the jute crop. Jute fiber, mainly used for the manufacture of sacks, is a specialty of Bangladesh. About two fifths of the world's jute is produced in Bangladesh, which is also the world's leading exporter. Jute is Bangladesh's principal foreign-exchange earner. More than 30 percent of the laborers engaged in large industries in Bangladesh are employed by more than 70 jute mills, which manufacture about half a million tons of products annually. Other products come from rice and cotton mills; forest-based industry (match factories and paper mills); mineral-based industry (cement, glass, chemicals, petroleum, and fertilizers); and engineering and steel industries.
\par \tab Dhaka, the national capital, is located almost at the center of the country. As early as medieval times it was a flourishing city; it has a population of about 4.5 million. Other large cities include Chittagong, Khulna, and Rajshahi.
\par {\b Transportation, Communication, and Education}
\par \tab Water transportation is vital in Bangladesh because of the country's extensive river network. During the rainy season boats weighing 10 tons and more can ply 4,000 miles (6,500 kilometers) of its waterways and smaller craft can use an additional 11,000 miles (17,700 kilometers). During the drier seasons the number of navigable miles shrinks considerably. The total number of passenger and cargo boats amounts to more than 350,000.
\par \tab Other means of transportation are not well developed. The Bangladesh Railways is owned by the government and operates only about 2,000 miles (3,200 kilometers) of track. Nevertheless it carries some 90 million passengers and 3.2 million tons of cargo annually. There are about 100,000 miles (160,000 kilometers) of roads. About 12 percent are paved.
\par \tab The official airline, the Bangladesh Biman, operates mainly from the international airport at Dhaka with connections to Chittagong, Cox's Bazar, Comilla, Jessore, Thakurgaon, Ishurdi, and Sylhet. It carries about half a million passengers annually.
\par \tab The communications network is also rather limited. The telephone system has few connections outside of Dhaka. Radio and television transmission is government-owned, and transmission centers include Dhaka and Chittagong. Daily newspapers are printed both in Bengali and English. Because English is taught beginning in the third grade in elementary schools, it is a second language for many people. Dhaka University is the nation's most prestigious.
\par {\b History and Government}
\par \tab Bangladesh has a long history that is divided into four phases: Hindu or Buddhist kingdoms to the 12th century AD; Muslim domination from the 13th century through 1757; British rule from 1757 through 1947; and the recent era, which includes the Pakistan period from 1947 to 1971 and the period of an independent Bangladesh from 1971.
\par \tab Although historical accounts of Bengal, referred to as Gangaridi, occur from the 4th century BC, the political domination of the region was well defined during the reign of Bengal-based dynasties of the Palas (750-1160), who were Buddhists, and the Senas (1095-1205), who were Hindus. The Pala capital was in northwestern Bengal, while the Senas operated from Bikrampur, a few miles south of Dhaka.
\par \tab Islamic domination of Bengal began in 1204. The region remained largely independent of the Delhi sovereigns of India until 1576, when generals of the Mughal emperor Akbar converted Bengal into a province of the Indian Empire. Dhaka became the capital of the province. When the Delhi-based Mughal Empire began disintegrating in 1707, Bengal again became independent and was ruled by Muslims. The last of these rulers was defeated in 1757 by the British. During this period a large number of Muslims migrated to Bengal from both western India and the Middle East.
\par \tab British rule of Bengal (1757-1947) was headquartered in Calcutta. Bengal province was partitioned into the Hindu West and Muslim East in 1905, but a powerful protest forced the British to reunite it in 1912. During this period Dhaka was the capital of East Bengal.
\par \tab After the British left India in 1947, the subcontinent was divided into India and Pakistan. The latter consisted of two geographically separate divisions, East Pakistan (present-day Bangladesh) and West Pakistan (present-day Pakistan). When the East Pakistan-based Awami League candidates won a majority in the Pakistan National Assembly in the 1970 elections, a power struggle within the country was the result. The West Pakistan-based government began cracking down on East Pakistan, unleashing one of the most severe repressions in history upon the Bengali people. Almost 10 million refugees fled to neighboring India. Late in 1971 East Pakistan was liberated from West Pakistan, and on Dec. 16, 1971, it declared its independence and gave itself a new name, Bangladesh.
\par \tab Bangladesh held its first national election in 1973, and the Awami League party, led by Mujibur Rahman (known as Sheikh Mujib), won almost all 300 seats of the Parliament. A parliamentary democracy was introduced with Abu Sayeed Choudhury as president and Mujib as prime minister. However, the nation was so strained by internal chaos that by December 1974 the constitution was amended, making Mujib president with power to rule by personal decree.
\par \tab In August 1975 a coup was staged by the military, and Mujib was assassinated. The army chief, Ziaur Rahman, seized power in November 1975, and Abu Sadat Mohammed Sayem, a civilian, was named president. After Sayem's resignation in 1977, Ziaur became the president. By the end of 1977 democracy was partially reinstated, and Ziaur, who led in the formation of a new Jatiya (Nationalist) party, became the elected president in 1978. In 1979 martial law, which had been in effect since 1975, was lifted, and a democratic form of government was restored.
\par \tab On an official visit to Chittagong in November 1981, Ziaur was assassinated. Abdus Sattar, the vice-president, succeeded to the presidency. In March 1982 the army chief Hussain Mohammed Ershad staged a bloodless coup. Martial law was then proclaimed, and Ershad became the nation's chief administrator. Ershad lifted martial law in November 1986. In 1987-88 he declared a state of emergency after violent antigovernment protests over the poor state of the economy. Ershad dissolved Parliament in December 1987. In parliamentary elections held in March 1988, the ruling Jatiya party won a majority of seats. In June 1988 Ershad amended the country's constitution and made Islam the state religion. He resigned amid protests in 1990, and the following year was sentenced to ten years in prison for possessing illegal firearms. Khaleda Zia, Ziaur's widow, was elected prime minister in early 1991. In August her plan to reduce the powers of the presidency by changing the form of government to a parliamentary democracy was ratified by Parliament.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab Ashok K. Dutt\par \tab The easternmost island of the West Indies is the small nation of Barbados. A former British colony, it lies in the Atlantic Ocean, 100 miles (160 kilometers) east of the Windward Islands.
\par \tab Barbados has a total area of 166 square miles (430 square kilometers). Its coasts are fringed with coral reefs. The north-central portion is elevated, and Mount Hillaby at 1,115 feet (340 meters) is the island's highest point. Although the climate is ordinarily mild, the island has had several devastating hurricanes during the past two centuries.
\par \tab Most of Barbados is under cultivation. Sugarcane is the chief industrial crop, but fruits and vegetables are raised for local consumption. Flying fish are the most important catch of the Barbadian fisheries and are frozen and exported to England. The leading exports are sugar, molasses, and rum. Tourism is the major source of income, and some light industry has developed, including food processing, textiles, furniture, and local handicrafts.
\par \tab Barbados is one of the world's most densely populated countries. The vast majority of its people are descendants of African slaves who were freed in 1834. The rest are of British or British-African descent.
\par \tab The largest city and only seaport is the capital, Bridgetown (population, 1980 census, 7,552). A shipping center, it has a deepwater harbor, completed in 1961. Its colonial-style government buildings have an Old World charm. The Cave Hill Campus of the University of the West Indies is in Bridgetown. The island has a museum and a library.
\par \tab Barbados (the Portuguese word for "bearded") probably takes its name from the bearded fig trees that grow there. When British colonization began, in 1627, the island was uninhabited because the Spanish had earlier deported the native Arawak Indians to Hispa±ola to work in the mines there. Its first parliamentary body was established in 1639. Under British rule, attempts were made to administer Barbados jointly with other islands. From 1958 to 1962 it was part of the short-lived West Indies Federation. Barbados was granted internal self-government in 1961. It became an independent state within the Commonwealth of Nations on Nov. 30, 1966.
\par \tab The government is headed by a prime minister. A governor-general represents the British Crown. Parliament consists of the Senate and the House of Assembly. Barbados is a member of the United Nations and a member of the Caribbean Community (Caricom). Population (1988 estimate), 254,000.\par \tab The Eastern European nation of Belarus lies nestled between Russia to the east, Poland to the west, Ukraine to the south and Lithuania to the north. From 1939 until December 1991 Belarus was a republic within the Soviet Union, after being annexed by Soviet military forces early in World War II. Its name was the Belorussian Soviet Socialist Republic. When the Soviet Union dissolved in late 1991, Belarus became an independent republic. Its capital and largest city is Minsk, which was also named capital of the new Commonwealth of Independent States.
\par \tab Through the centuries, Belarus has been claimed by Russia and Poland, and many invading forces have marched across it. The country is chiefly a farming region but has been increasingly industrialized since World War II.
\par \tab Belarus covers 80,200 square miles (207,700 square kilometers) and has a population of more than 10 million people. It forms part of the great East European Plain, which stretches from Poland to the Ural Mountains. Most of the region is flat, but a chain of low hills runs across the center of Belarus from southeast to northwest. Much of the lowland area is swampy. Forests cover about one quarter of the land. Belarus has generally fertile soil for farming. Summers in Belarus are cool and the winters mild with frequent thaws. The rainfall, though more than adequate for farming, occurs mainly during the summer and often causes problems with the harvest.
\par \tab The predominant ethnic group of the republic is Belorussian, also known as White Russian. They are a Slavic people, closely related in culture and language to the Russians and Ukrainians. Many Belorussians were at one time under Polish rule, but they resisted conversion to Roman Catholicism and remained members of the Russian Orthodox church. Since the late 19th century the Belorussian language has been recognized as different from Russian, and a modern Belorussian literature has appeared. A rich folk culture can be seen in their distinctive regional costumes, cooking, and decorative arts.
\par \tab Belarus ranks as a flourishing agricultural region despite its cool climate and the areas of swampy or sandy soil. Livestock production, especially cattle and hogs, and dairy production are based in areas with good pastures and large amounts of land planted with fodder crops such as hay. The main commodity crops grown for food are rye, oats, potatoes, and sugar beets. Flax and tobacco are also cultivated to some extent.
\par \tab Belarus lacks major deposits of industrial raw materials. It has, however, huge deposits of peat. The most useful mineral deposit is potash, which goes into the production of potassium fertilizer. The southern part of the republic produces some petroleum, but most of Belarus' petroleum is imported by pipeline from the east. Two large refineries process this oil.
\par \tab Chemical plants operate near the potash deposits and the oil refineries. There are major truck and tractor plants, and tractors, motor vehicles, and farm products are exported to other countries. Other economic activities include lumbering and woodworking. Minsk, the capital, produces about one third of the republic's industrial output. Several railroad lines cross Belarus, and Minsk is linked by air with many cities in the western part of Russia.
\par {\b History and Government}
\par \tab For centuries the area that is now Belarus was divided between Russia and Poland. Because it lay on a major east-west invasion route, it suffered great destruction at various times, including during World War II.
\par \tab After annexation by the Soviet Union the present boundaries were set. Belarus had its own government and Communist party, which were directed by the Soviet government in Moscow until 1990. Then, with the Soviet Union already showing signs of coming apart, Belarus declared its sovereignty. An attempted coup in Moscow in August 1991, meant to stop the reform movement in the Soviet Union, led instead to the unraveling of central controls. In September Belarus took its present name and joined nine other republics and Mikhail Gorbachev in an accord to establish a transitional government and transfer power to the republics from the central government. This agreement came to nothing. Belarus instead became part of the Commonwealth of Independent States. Population (1991 estimate), 10,260,400.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab Ian Matley\par \tab Spreading out from the southern shore of the North Sea is the small kingdom of Belgium, a historic buffer zone between Europe's Latin and Germanic civilizations. Occupying the southern rim of the Rhine-Meuse-Schelde delta, it shares with The Netherlands a strategic location on Western European trade routes. This has helped Belgium become one of the world's most advanced and prosperous commercial and industrial nations.
\par \tab Belgium has an area of 11,784 square miles (30,520 square kilometers). It is bounded by the North Sea on the northwest, The Netherlands on the north and northeast, Germany on the east, Luxembourg on the southeast, and France on the south and southwest. The country's greatest extent, from the North Sea to the Germany-Luxembourg border, is about 180 miles (290 kilometers). Its width ranges between about 35 miles (56 kilometers) in the west and 140 miles (225 kilometers) in the east.
\par {\b Physical Regions and Climate}
\par \tab Belgium is divided by the valley of the Meuse and Sambre rivers into two major regions. To the northwest is the generally level coastal lowland, a continuation of the continental shelf lying under the shallow waters of the North Sea. The shore is lined with low sand dunes. Fringing them is a narrow belt of polders, land reclaimed from peat bogs and shallow lakes.
\par \tab For some 40 miles (60 kilometers) in from the North Sea and the Dutch border is the sandy, partially wooded outwash plain of Flanders and the Kempenland. Ribbons of alluvial clay carpet the river valleys. The rest of northwestern Belgium is crossed by a low, rolling, loam-covered plateau.
\par \tab Almost all of southeastern Belgium beyond the Meuse-Sambre Valley is occupied by the Ardennes, a forested, deeply dissected plateau. It lies generally at 1,200 to 1,500 feet (370 to 460 meters) above sea level. In the extreme southeast are the plains of Lorraine, a region shared with France.
\par \tab Belgium has a temperate climate, characterized by alternating high- and low-pressure weather systems moved in from the Atlantic Ocean by the prevailing westerly winds. Summers usually are warm but not hot. Winters are cold but not severe. In the interior lowlands, average daily temperature extremes range between 31░ F (-1░ C) and 42░ F (6░ C) in midwinter and between 54░ F (12░ C) and 73░ F (23░ C) in midsummer. Along the coast, average daytime temperatures in the summer are somewhat lower. Winters and summers are cooler in the forests of the Ardennes plateau.
\par \tab During the winter, dry, frigid air occasionally surges over Belgium from the Eurasian interior. Moist, warm air frequently moves in from the North Sea. The shifting fronts between the contrasting air masses produce cyclonic storms, with frequent rain and snow. During the summer, there is considerable fog and drizzle. Air masses flowing out of Central Asia bring occasional spells of hot weather.
\par \tab Precipitation is fairly evenly distributed throughout the year, with spring usually the driest season. The annual average precipitation ranges from less than 30 inches (76 centimeters) in some lowland areas nearer to the sea to more than 40 inches (100 centimeters) in the Ardennes plateau.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab Belgium has a population of 9,978,000 (1991 estimate). With 847 persons per square mile (327 persons per square kilometer), it is one of the most densely populated nations. The density is greatest in a belt that crosses northern Belgium from Antwerp and Brussels through Flanders, and along the Meuse-Sambre Valley. The Ardennes is sparsely populated.
\par \tab Belgium is highly urbanized. Brussels, the capital, is the largest city. Its metropolitan area has 964,385 (1990 estimate) inhabitants. Other large metropolitan centers are Antwerp, Ghent, Charleroi, and LiΦge.
\par \tab Daily commuting between homes on the farm and jobs in the city is a common practice in Belgium. Many industrial workers are part-time farmers who have strong family ties in the country. A large number of Belgian workers, called frontaliers, travel each day to jobs in France.
\par \tab Belgium is a nation of two peoples--the Germanic, Flemish-speaking (Dutch-speaking) Flemings of the north and the Celtic, French-speaking Walloons of the south. The provinces of West Flanders, East Flanders, Brabant, Antwerp, and Limburg are predominantly Flemish. Hainaut, Namur, LiΦge, and Luxembourg provinces are mainly Walloon. People of both groups live in the Brussels area, which is bilingual. Some Belgians in the Eupen-MalmΘdy area are German-speaking. Most Belgian people are Roman Catholics.
\par \tab In earlier times Walloons made up the majority of the population. French was the dominant language in Belgium until the 20th century, at which time the Walloons became outnumbered by the Flemings. Today French, Flemish, and German are all official languages. The Walloons, however, still hold positions of greater economic and political power--a situation that is a cause of continuing political unrest.
\par {\b Industry}
\par \tab Belgium is a workshop and key commercial outlet for a heavily populated and industrialized region that extends far beyond its own borders. The economy is highly productive. It is restricted, however, by a chronic shortage of unskilled labor and a limited domestic market. Belgium's great dependence on export markets also makes the economy vulnerable to fluctuating foreign trade barriers.
\par \tab The nation's main industrial resources are large deposits of good coking coal, rich markets among its neighbors, and excellent transportation facilities. Another advantage is a labor force skilled in the use of modern machinery and techniques.
\par \tab The per capita gross national product is among the highest in the world. Manufacturing accounts for a large portion of the gross domestic product. Almost all Belgium's factories are privately owned. They employ almost 1.5 million workers, mostly engaged in the processing of imported raw materials for reexport as finished or semifinished goods.
\par \tab Belgium is a major steel-producing nation. Annual production is about 11 million tons, more per capita than any other nation except neighboring Luxembourg. Most of the steel mills are near the southern coalfields, along the Meuse-Sambre Valley. They use iron ore that is imported mainly from the Lorraine region of France. The principal steel industrial centers are LiΦge and Charleroi.
\par \tab Belgian steel is used in the large domestic metalworking and machine-building industry. Among the principal products are structural steel, electrical machinery, machine tools, railway cars, and ships. Antwerp, Brussels, and LiΦge and other cities of the Meuse-Sambre Valley are the main centers.
\par \tab The chemical industry is concentrated both in an arc from Ghent through Antwerp to LiΦge and in the Mons-Charleroi-Namur area. Products include photographic materials, fertilizers, explosives, drugs, plastics, paints, and industrial chemicals.
\par \tab Cloth weaving was Belgium's first major industry. Textile manufacturing (both with natural and synthetic materials) today is dispersed through much of the country in dozens of modern mills in Brussels, Mechelen, and Verviers, as well as in Ghent, Brugge, Ypres, Kortrijk, and other older cities of Flanders.
\par \tab Large amounts of imported copper, lead, tin, and other nonferrous ores are refined in Belgium. Other leading industries of the country are automobile, television, and radio assembly, diamond cutting, and the manufacture of food, cement, synthetic rubber, plastics, chemicals, tobacco, paper, clay, glass, leather, and petroleum products.
\par {\b Coal and Power}
\par \tab Coal is Belgium's only major mineral resource. The main coal-producing district is in Kempenland, with more than 90 percent of the total. Other coalfields are at Charleroi, LiΦge, and in the Borinage, extending from Mons into France.
\par \tab Belgian coal output reached a record total of 33 million tons in 1953. As new tariff barriers and higher mining costs cut exports, coal production sagged. By the early 1990s it was averaging only 3.9 million tons per year. Meanwhile, there was extensive modernization of the mines, and many old, unprofitable ones, especially in the Borinage region, were closed.
\par \tab Domestic coal has been replaced by both imported petroleum and natural gas as fuels for the generation of heat and electric power. Natural gas, from fields in The Netherlands, was piped to Belgium beginning in the mid-1960s. Petroleum and natural gas terminals have been installed at the ports of Antwerp, Brugge, Brussels, Ghent, and Zeebrugge. Nuclear power provides 62 percent of Belgium's electric power. A nuclear power station at Chooz, France, is jointly operated by Belgium and France.
\par {\b Agriculture}
\par \tab Belgium also is highly productive agriculturally. Full-time farmers comprise only about 2 percent of the total Belgian work force, yet they supply all but a fifth of the nation's total food needs.
\par \tab Farmlands cover almost half of Belgium's total area. Wheat occupies the most cereal crop acreage. Other leading cereal grains are barley, oats, and corn (maize). In harvested tonnage, sugar beets and potatoes lead. Much of the harvest is used for livestock feed. Cattle raising, for both beef and dairy products, is a mainstay of the Belgian farm economy.
\par \tab Belgium's most productive farmland lies north of the Meuse and Sambre rivers. Centered in Hainaut and Brabant provinces, it has been developed by centuries of intensive cultivation and heavy fertilizing and by the recent introduction of modern methods and machinery. Crop yields are among the world's highest. From the generally small, prosperous farms of this region comes the bulk of Belgium's agricultural produce. Here, and in the adjoining areas of the Kempenland and Flanders, such specialty crops as fruits, vegetables, hops, flax, chicory, tobacco, and flower bulbs are raised. Large sections of the Brussels-Mechelen-Antwerp-Ghent area are devoted to vegetable raising, much of it in greenhouses.
\par \tab Fishing and forestry are of minor economic importance. The fishing catch is worth about 60 million dollars per year. Ostend and Zeebrugge are the chief fishing ports. There has been extensive reforestation, and the lumber industry has increased its output, aided by modern mechanization.
\par {\b Commerce and Transportation}
\par \tab Fully three fifths of Belgium's industrial output is exported. Except for coal, most raw materials for industry must be imported. The principal exports are iron and steel, textiles, machinery, motor vehicles, nonferrous metals, and chemicals. The principal imports are machinery, motor vehicles, food products, chemicals, petroleum products, textiles, and metal ores. The value of Belgium's foreign trade totals 116 billion dollars per year. The other nations of Western Europe, especially Germany, The Netherlands, and France, are Belgium's main trading partners.
\par \tab The nation's inland waterways are a vital link in its transportation system. They extend about 1,200 miles (1,900 kilometers) and serve most of the industrial areas. Among the main ship channels are those linking Ghent, Brussels, and Brugge with the sea, and the Albert Canal, between LiΦge and Antwerp. Most of Belgium's waterborne traffic is routed through Antwerp, one of Europe's largest ports.
\par \tab Belgium has one of the world's densest railway networks, totaling about 2,200 miles (3,500 kilometers). A large part is electrified. The main lines are operated by a government-controlled company. The national airline, Sabena Belgian World Airlines, operates both domestic and international routes. The main air terminals are at Brussels and at Deurne, near Antwerp. The telephone, telegraph, postal, radio, and television services are government-operated.
\par {\b Welfare, Education, Culture, and Tourism}
\par \tab The Belgian government operates a comprehensive social welfare program through its National Social Security Office. The program is financed by employee, employer, and government contributions. It provides citizens with accident, sickness, maternity, and unemployment benefits; veterans' and old-age pensions; survivors' insurance; family allowances; and paid vacations.
\par \tab There is virtually no illiteracy in Belgium. Schooling is free and compulsory from ages 6 to 14. The nation's primary and secondary school systems are divided between private denominational (usually Roman Catholic) schools and nonsectarian government schools. The subsidized private schools educate more than one half of the pupils.
\par \tab There are three official state universities--at Ghent, LiΦge, and Mons. The language of instruction at Ghent is Dutch, and at LiΦge and Mons it is French. The Catholic University of Leuven (Louvain), Belgium's oldest university, and the Free University of Brussels are large, private universities receiving financial support from the government. In 1970 each of these universities was divided into separate French- and Dutch-speaking campuses. There are also a number of specialized institutes, professional schools, and colleges and hundreds of libraries. The government subsidizes several national theaters.
\par \tab Belgian painters have been among the greatest in Europe. Outstanding in the 15th century were Hubert and Jan van Eyck, Hans Memling, Quentin Matsys, and Rogier van der Weyden; and, in the 16th century, Pieter Brueghel the Elder, Jan Brueghel, Hieronymus Bosch, and Jan Gossaert (Mabuse). Peter Paul Rubens and Anthony Van Dyck were the most renowned painters of the 17th century, while James Ensor was the most famous modern Belgian painter. Leading writers included Nobel prizewinner Maurice Maeterlinck and ╔mile Verhaeren.
\par \tab Belgium draws many tourists. Among the main attractions are the theaters, museums, churches, historic dwellings, and medieval palaces, the resorts along the North Sea and in the Ardennes woods, and the historic battlefields such as those at Bastogne, Ypres, and Waterloo. Traditional festive events include the carnivals at Binche and Aalst. A Rubens quarter-centenary exhibition at Antwerp in 1977 drew enormous crowds.
\par {\b Government}
\par \tab The government, as set forth in the constitution of 1831, is a constitutional monarchy. The king is the head of state. He is commander in chief of the armed forces, nominates government officials, and can dissolve the parliament. The king actually acts mainly as a mediator and shares executive authority with his ministers, including a prime minister. The king issues royal decrees, but they must be countersigned by a minister. In June 1991 the parliament approved changes to the constitution that would allow women to accede to the throne.
\par \tab Parliament exercises the primary authority. It consists of a senate and a house of representatives. Laws must be passed by both houses and then promulgated by the king. All 212 representatives and about two thirds of the 184 senators are elected by popular vote on a proportional basis. Of the remaining senators, some are appointed by the provincial councils, the others by the senate. The councils, popularly elected, govern the nine provinces. Representatives and senators serve for four years unless parliament is dissolved earlier for new elections. Voting is compulsory; the minimum age is 18. Representatives must be at least 25 years old, senators at least 40. Sons of the king, however, become senators at the age of 18.
\par \tab The nation's higher courts consist of a court of assizes in each province and courts of appeal in Brussels, Ghent, and LiΦge. A supreme court of appeal, in Brussels, is the highest tribunal.
\par {\b Early History}
\par \tab Belgium takes its name from the Belgae, the early Celtic tribes who had settled in the area of the Low Countries during prehistoric times. A Roman army led by Julius Caesar conquered them in 52 BC. With the later decline of the Roman Empire, the Germanic Franks began moving into Belgium from the east. They settled mainly in the north and west, thus creating a language frontier--with the Romanized Belgic tribes--that persists to this day.
\par \tab The Franks consolidated their rule over Belgium in AD 496 when their king, Clovis, adopted the new Christian faith of the Belgo-Roman aristocracy. The area later was ruled by the Frankish Pepin family. The son of Pepin II, Charles Martel, led the Christian army that defeated the Moorish invasion of France near Poitiers in 732. Belgium was the heart of the Holy Roman Empire, headed by Charlemagne, grandson of Charles Martel. Frankish control collapsed after Charlemagne's death in 814. In 843, under terms of the Partition of Verdun, Belgium was divided between France and the Germanic kingdom of Lotharingia. By the end of the 9th century Belgium was split into several self-ruling feudal principalities roughly corresponding to the nation's modern provinces.
\par \tab During the next centuries several great leaders emerged. RΘgnier au Long Col led the Belgians to victory over Viking invaders at Louvain in 891. Godfrey of Bouillon was a leader of the First Crusade in the 1090s. Baudouin (Baldwin) of Flanders and Hainaut was named the first Latin emperor of Constantinople in 1204.
\par \tab With the Crusades came the opening of trade with the Orient and the rise of Belgium's first great centers of commerce and industry. It was a period of rapid commercial growth and the flowering of Flemish art. The urban merchants and artisans banded together in communes and used their growing wealth to bargain for political rights from the governing rural aristocracy. Thus, in 1066 the citizens of the commune of LiΦge were granted one of the world's first charters of civil liberties.
\par \tab The communes, or free cities, also led the struggle against foreign intervention. In 1288 Belgian forces under Jean de Brabant defeated troops of the archbishop of Cologne. At Kortrijk in 1302 Flemish knights crushed an invading French army.
\par \tab Nearby Burgundy spread its rule over all of present-day Belgium and The Netherlands late in the 14th century. Spanish rule was imposed on Belgium in 1519 when Charles V, a descendant of the Burgundian dukes, was crowned Holy Roman emperor and king of Spain.
\par \tab For much of the 15th and 16th centuries the area that makes up present-day Belgium and The Netherlands was the scene of religious conflicts between the Protestant Dutch provinces in the north and the Roman Catholic Belgian provinces in the south. The two areas were separated in 1579, and their frontier was set by the Treaty of Mⁿnster, or Peace of Westphalia, in 1648.
\par \tab During this period, discontent with Spanish rule also repeatedly erupted into violence. The Bourbon and Hapsburg royal families fought out many territorial disputes on Belgian battlefields. Belgium was awarded to the Austrian Hapsburgs by the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713.
\par {\b Belgian Independence and Modern Growth}
\par \tab Meanwhile, the modern movement for Belgian independence was developing. The Confederation of the United States of Belgium was formed in 1790, but the Austrians quickly suppressed it. Then French revolutionary troops invaded, and in 1795 Belgium was annexed by France.
\par \tab After the defeat of the French armies under Napoleon at Waterloo in 1815, William of Orange was recognized by the Congress of Vienna as the head of the new United Kingdom of The Netherlands. His rule was resented by the Belgians, however, and in 1830 they revolted. On October 4 Belgian independence was declared. Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, uncle of Britain's Queen Victoria, was chosen to reign as Leopold I. He ascended the throne on July 21, 1831, now recognized as Independence Day.
\par \tab Guaranteed its independence and neutrality by the leading European powers, Belgium enjoyed a long period of peace and rapid economic growth. Late in the 19th century a vast colonial empire was acquired in Africa's Congo basin by Leopold II, who became king in 1865. Under his nephew, Albert I, who succeeded him in 1909, significant social progress was made. Albert I also was hailed for leading resistance to German occupation during World War I.
\par \tab Despite widespread devastation, the nation recovered quickly after the war. The Belgians then tried building military alliances and a modern army as their best defense. They were drawn into World War II, however, when in 1940 German armies again marched in. The Belgian cabinet set up a government-in-exile in London, but Leopold III, who had become king in 1934, was made a prisoner of war. Hundreds of thousands of Belgians were deported to Nazi Germany as forced laborers. Belgian resistance forces helped to oust the Germans from the country in 1944. Accused of failing to resist the Nazis, Leopold III was forced into exile.
\par {\b Post-World War II Developments}
\par \tab Leopold III returned in 1950 after receiving a favorable majority in a nationwide referendum. The threat of civil war, however, soon forced him to abdicate in favor of his son, Baudouin, who was crowned king on July 17, 1951.
\par \tab Belgium participated in many ventures for Western European cooperation after the war. Among them were the formation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949, the European Coal and Steel Community in 1952, and the European Economic Community (Common Market) in 1957. The Belgian Congo (now Zaire) was granted independence in 1960.
\par \tab The historic antagonism between the Flemings and the Walloons became a burning issue early in the 1960s. A language frontier was drawn in 1963, dividing the country into two cultural regions. The continuing controversy figured in the downfall of cabinets and the election of parliaments. Belgium's 150th anniversary celebrations in 1980 were marked by a major step toward regionalization. Two bills approved in the parliament reorganized the country's structure on the basis of three regions: Flanders, Wallonia, and Brussels. King Baudouin died on July 31, 1993. Because he and Queen Fabiola were childless, next in line to the throne was his brother, Prince Albert, who reigned as Albert II.
{\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR BELGIUM}
\par \tab Belgium in Pictures. (Lerner, 1991).
\par \tab Files, Yvonne. The Quest for Freedom: The Life of a Belgian Resistance Fighter in World War Two (Fithian Press, 1991).
\par \tab Lye, Keith. Take a Trip to Belgium (Watts, 1985).
\par \tab McDonagh, Bernard. Belgium and Luxembourg, 8th ed. (Norton, 1993).\par \tab A constitutional monarchy on the Caribbean coast of Central America, Belize was once known as British Honduras. The name Belize, officially adopted in 1973, comes from a Mayan word that means "muddy water." The former British colony has an area of 8,867 square miles (22,965 square kilometers) and is only about 68 miles (109 kilometers) across at its greatest width. Belize is bordered by Mexico on the north and by Guatemala on the south and west.
\par \tab Belize is a land of mountains, swampy lowlands, and tropical jungle. The Maya Mountains form a plateau in the south. Victoria Peak, which rises to 3,681 feet (1,122 meters) in a spur of the Maya range, is the highest point. Lowlands lie along the coast, and jungle covers most of the interior. The climate is subtropical with a dry season from February to May and a rainy season from June to November. Hurricanes occasionally cause extensive damage.
\par \tab The chief cities are Belize City, the main port and commercial center, Orange Walk, San Ignacio/Santa Elena, Corozal, and the capital, Belmopan, which is located about 50 miles (80 kilometers) inland. After Belize City, the former capital, was devastated by a 1961 hurricane, construction of Belmopan began in 1966, financed by a British grant. Government operations moved there in 1970.
\par \tab The population of Belize includes mestizos (descendants of Spaniards and Carib Indians), Creoles (persons of mixed racial background), black Caribs (descendants of blacks and Carib Indians), Mayan Indians, and a small percentage of whites and Asian Indians. Although English is the official language, the Creole dialect, Spanish, and several Indian dialects are also spoken.
\par \tab A majority of the people of Belize earn their living from agriculture. Fishing and forestry are other important sources of income. Furniture, boats, and wood products are manufactured from the high quality native wood. Chief exports include sugar, citrus fruits and products, bananas, fish and lobster, and clothing. Sugarcane, oranges, and grapefruits are the main food crops. Farmers also raise pigs and cattle.
\par \tab The earliest European settlements in Belize were established by British loggers in the 1600s. Because Spain claimed sovereignty over the region, Spanish settlers repeatedly attacked the British. The dispute continued until a decisive British naval victory in 1798. In 1862 the settlement was declared a British crown colony. It was Britain's last colony on the American mainland when self-government was finally granted in 1964.
\par \tab Belize achieved independence in September 1981, but the negotiations were complicated by Guatemala's claim to the land, based upon an unfulfilled provision of an 1859 treaty. A few weeks before the independence ceremonies were to take place, Guatemala broke off diplomatic relations with Britain. To forestall an invasion, Britain guaranteed that its military force would remain after independence. Guatemala recognized Belize as a full sovereign nation in September 1991, and the two countries established diplomatic relations.
\par \tab Belize's parliamentary government consists of a cabinet and a National Assembly that is composed of an 8-seat appointed Senate and a 29-seat elected House of Representatives. National elections are held every five years. George Price, who had served as head of government for 23 years before his party lost the 1984 election, regained the office of prime minister in 1989. Population (1993 estimate), 204,000.\par \tab The ancient and powerful West African kingdom of Dahomey made the transition from a colony of France and a self-governing republic to a Marxist-Leninist state and then a free democracy--all within less than a century. Now called the Republic of Benin, it occupies a strategic political and commercial position on the Gulf of Guinea. Porto-Novo is the official capital, but the port city of Cotonou serves as the nation's political capital and commercial center.
\par \tab {\b Land and climate.}
\par \tab Benin consists of five natural regions. The coastal area is low, flat, and sandy and is backed by lagoons. North of the coast is the barre country, a fertile clay plateau. North and west of the barre are the Benin plateaus, ranging in height from 300 to 750 feet (90 to 230 meters). The Atakora Mountains in the northwest are a continuation of the Togo mountain chain and reach an altitude of 2,100 feet (640 meters) at their highest point. In the northeast are the plains of the Niger River valley. Temperatures in the south range from 72░ to 93░ F (22░ to 34░ C). In the drier north they average 80░ F (27░ C).
\par \tab {\b People.}
\par \tab A small country, Benin occupies an area of 43,475 square miles (112,600 square kilometers). It is one of West Africa's most densely populated states, however, with more than 109 persons per square mile (42 per square kilometer). More than 40 ethnic groups live here, but the Fon, Bariba, Yoruba, and Somba peoples make up most of the population. A majority follow traditional religious beliefs, and about 25 percent are Christians and 15 percent Muslims. French is the official language, but the people use Fon, Adja, Bariba, Yoruba, Fulani, and other languages in their everyday life and in the elementary schools.
\par \tab {\b Economy.}
\par \tab Benin's economy is based almost entirely on small family farms that produce little more than is needed by each family. They grow corn (maize), yams, cassava, rice, fruits, sorghum, and beans. Palm oil products have long been the major export; other exports include cotton, coffee, and cacao beans. Livestock is raised for milk and meat, and fishing plays a large part in domestic trade. The offshore SemΘ oil field has the capacity to produce roughly twice the country's needs for petroleum.
\par \tab {\b History and government.}
\par \tab Between the 12th or 13th century and the 19th century, five kingdoms--Allada, Abomey, Ouida, Nikki, and Porto-Novo--occupied the area that is now Benin. The people who settled in Abomey called their nation Dahomey. In the 1600s Dahomey came under attack by Allada and strengthened its defenses. The 30-foot (9-meter) walls that protected the palace of King Ouegbadja, Dahomey's first monarch, are still standing.
\par \tab Dahomey gradually consolidated its power and conquered neighboring states. The Dahomey kingdom, one of the best-organized states in West Africa, was divided into six provinces, each ruled by a governor. Its army included a women's corps. The kingdom eventually expanded to the coast, where there were European slave traders. The demand for slaves led to war in the region, with kingdoms competing for profits by selling one another's captives.
\par \tab Dahomey signed a commercial treaty with France in 1851, but French interest in the area extended beyond trade. When the neighboring kingdom of Porto-Novo requested protection from rival powers, the French willingly helped. France also conquered vast inland territories to the north, realizing that control of Dahomey and the nearby kingdoms would link the interior lands with the sea. Dahomey became a French colony in 1902, but the African population violently resisted this action. The resistance continued through both World War I and World War II, when West Africans were drafted to fight for the French--many against their will. Meanwhile, France had combined all of its West African colonies into a vast administrative unit called French West Africa.
\par \tab In 1958 Dahomey became an autonomous republic in the French Community. It achieved independence on Aug. 1, 1960, but kept the colonial borders that divided its various ethnic groups. This division of the people separated communities that had long lived together, and the government had difficulty building a sense of national unity. As a result, the government became weak and unstable.
\par \tab A group of army officers led by Mathieu KΘrΘkou seized control of Dahomey in 1972, claiming that the government was corrupt and did not meet the people's needs. President KΘrΘkou proclaimed a policy of "Marxist-Leninist scientific socialism" in 1974. A year later he changed the nation's name to the People's Republic of Benin and took control of major foreign companies. In 1979, under a new constitution, a National Revolutionary Assembly was elected. It continued to reelect KΘrΘkou to five-year terms.
\par \tab Benin's only commercial bank collapsed at the end of 1988. Student protests and widespread strikes, coupled with the downfall of Communism in Eastern Europe, forced KΘrΘkou to renounce his orthodox Marxist policies by the end of 1989. In 1990 his power was reduced as Benin tried to become a multiparty democracy under a new constitution. Prime Minister Nicephore Soglo defeated him on March 24, 1991, in the nation's first free presidential election in nearly 30 years. Population (1990 estimate), 4,471,000.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab Katherine Thuermer and David S. Wiley\par \tab One of the most isolated places in the world, and yet one of the most popular as a tourist resort, is the group of British islands known as Bermuda, the Bermudas, or Bermuda Islands. On a map Bermuda looks somewhat like a fishhook, with the curve at the southwest and the shaft extending northeast. There are some 200 islands in Bermuda but a total area of only about 21 square miles (54 square kilometers). Great Bermuda, called the Main Island, is larger than all the rest combined. The nearest land is Cape Hatteras, N.C., about 570 miles (900 kilometers) to the west. The islands' delightful climate and their beauty attract thousands of visitors each year.
\par \tab Only about 20 of the islands are inhabited. The population, excluding tourists and British and American defense forces, is about 59,800 (1991 estimate). About 60 percent of the population is black. There is also a large Portuguese population. The official language is English, but some Portuguese is also spoken. Despite both a cost of living and a population density that are among the world's highest, Bermuda has almost no poverty or unemployment. No income tax is levied, nor does the government receive any foreign aid. More than 95 percent of the population is literate, and education is free and compulsory between the ages of 5 and 16. There is one college.
\par \tab The capital and chief port is Hamilton, on Great Bermuda. Hamilton is one of the world's smallest cities, with an area of about 180 acres (70 hectares). On St. George's Island, at the east end of the group, is the picturesque old port of St. George. Nearby is the United States naval air station.
\par \tab The average temperature is about 70░ F (21░ C). In winter it is seldom cooler than 55░ F (13░ C); in summer, rarely hotter than 87░ F (31░ C). The heavy rainfall of nearly 60 inches (152 centimeters) a year and brilliant sunshine encourage vegetation.
\par \tab Palm, casuarina, and swamp mangrove are among the common trees. Hibiscus, oleander, poinsettia, and many other flowering plants and trees bloom lavishly. Acres of Easter lilies are cultivated for export and for making perfumes. About 200 species of birds have been noted, but most of these are migratory birds blown off their regular routes. The waters teem with fishes. Many are remarkable for their striking colors and markings.
\par \tab Bermuda is believed to rest on the peaks of a volcanic mountain rising steeply from the ocean bottom to about 200 feet (60 meters) below the surface. Above this level the islands consist mainly of limestone formed by seashells and corals. Along the shore rise huge rocks, sculptured by wind and water into fantastic pinnacles, pillars, and grottoes. The reefs surrounding the islands are built up by corals--the northernmost point on Earth at which this type of growth occurs.
\par \tab Coral stone gives Bermuda excellent road and building material. The white, smooth roads are simply the stone laid bare by stripping away surface soil or small hills. The stone is so soft that it is cut with handsaws, but it hardens with exposure to air. Even the roofs of the houses are built of stone, for they are used to catch rainwater, the chief water supply.
\par \tab In an average year about 600,000 tourists, largely from the United States and Canada, visit the main islands. The money they spend gives the colony about 40 percent of its total income. International insurance and investment companies also contribute significantly to the economy through their foreign exchange earnings. Vegetables are exported for winter sale, but housing and industrial construction has reduced farm acreage. Pharmaceuticals and extracted scents for perfumes are major exports. Industry is confined to boat building, ship repairing, and furniture making. There is a little commercial fishing. Meat, flour, and most other foods are imported.
\par \tab Early in World War II Bermuda became important as an outpost commanding Atlantic sea-lanes. In 1940 United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt gave Great Britain 50 overage destroyers in exchange for advanced bases. In 1941 the United States took over, on a 99-year lease, 526 acres (213 hectares) for a base on the Great Sound at the western end of the islands.
\par \tab One of the special charms of Bermuda before World War II was the absence of motor traffic. Automobiles were banned, and everyone traveled by bicycle, horse-drawn carriage, or boat, or on the motor-powered railway. In 1946 the ban on private cars, buses, taxicabs, and motorcycles was lifted, though cars are restricted to one per family, and car rentals are not allowed.
\par \tab On Sept. 25, 1987, Bermuda was hit by the worst hurricane in many years. Hurricane Emily caused an estimated 35 million dollars in damage.
\par {\b History and Government}
\par \tab Bermuda is named for the Spaniard Juan de Berm·dez, who is credited with discovering the islands in about 1515. They were once called the Somers Islands, after Sir George Somers, who first settled them early in the 17th century.
\par \tab Since 1684 Bermuda has been a self-governing British colony. Movements for independence have surfaced repeatedly over the years, but in 1968 Bermudans ratified a new constitution, under which the British monarch, represented by a governor, is the head of state. The governor controls defense, internal security, external affairs, and the police. The cabinet, headed by the premier, and including at least six other members of the majority party in the legislature, advises the governor on other matters. The 11 members of the Senate are appointed. The 40 members of the House of Assembly are elected, two from each of the islands' constituencies. Racial and political tensions increased in 1973 when Bermuda's governor, Richard Sharples, was assassinated. Rioting in the late 1970s led to the Human Rights Act of 1981 that prohibits racial discrimination.\par \tab The once-isolated kingdom of Bhutan lies along the lofty ridges of the eastern Himalayas. Its landlocked location--between India, on the east, south, and west, and the Chinese region of Tibet, to the north--gives the country its political significance..
\par \tab Bhutan may be divided into three regions--the Great Himalayas, the Lesser Himalayas, and the Duars plain. Alpine pastures on the high ranges of the snowcapped Great Himalayas are used for grazing yaks in the summer months. In the Lesser Himalayas the fertile valleys of central Bhutan are relatively flat and broad and are fairly well cultivated and populated. Along the southern border of Bhutan lies the Duars, which forms a strip 8 to 10 miles (13 to 16 kilometers) wide. With extremely heavy rainfall of from 200 to 300 inches (500 to 760 centimeters) a year, the entire Duars tract is unhealthful, hot, and steamy and is covered with dense semitropical forest and undergrowth.
\par \tab The northern part of the Duars immediately bordering the mountains consists of a rugged, irregular, and sloping surface. At the foot of the mountains small villages are found in forest clearings, but most of the area is covered with dense vegetation inhabited by elephants, deer, tigers, and other wild animals. The southern part of the Duars bordering India is mostly covered with grassy parkland and bamboo jungle. A wildlife sanctuary has been established in the area. It contains many valued species of animals, including the golden langur, a slender long-tailed monkey that is rare elsewhere in the world.
\par \tab Most of the Bhutanese people are of Tibetan ancestry. Known as Bhote or Bhutia, they share a common heritage of Tibetan culture and religion. Their language is Dzongkha, a Tibetan dialect. Dzongkha is also the official language of Bhutan. The Bhutia live mainly in northern and central Bhutan, and their religion is a form of Buddhism. In the southern part of the kingdom there is an ethnically mixed population of mostly Nepalese settlers whose religion is Hinduism. Their chief language is Nepali.
\par \tab Farming is the principal occupation. There are many livestock and sheep-breeding farms. The chief crops are rice, corn (maize), oranges, and potatoes. Four government orchards in the temperate zone specialize in apples, pears, peaches, plums, apricots, and walnuts. A major force in Bhutan's agriculture has been the development of irrigation schemes.
\par \tab A variety of industries has developed, including woodworking, timber, and small-scale distilleries, food canneries, and a nut and bolt factory. There is a silkworm farm in eastern Bhutan that produces raw silk for the local weaving industry, and there are several privately run sawmills operating throughout the country. Several Bhutanese cottage industries include making matches, soap, textiles, carpets, and candles.
\par \tab Although paved highways connect various parts of the kingdom, yaks, mules, and ponies are still used as a mode of transportation on rough mountain roads. Bhutan has two airports--at Paro and Yangphulla. Trekking tours became popular after the country was opened for tourism in 1974. There is a telephone system that operates between main towns, but Thimphu, the capital, has the only service to places outside of the country.
\par \tab Little is known of Bhutan's early history. For much of the 19th century the country was plagued by a series of civil wars. The king who came to power in 1972 was the fourth in a line of hereditary rulers, which began with the election of his great grandfather as maharaja of Bhutan in 1907. The absolute monarchy was changed to a form of democratic monarchy in 1969. Two thirds of the members of Bhutan's National Assembly are elected.
\par \tab Once isolated from the mainstream of world affairs by steaming jungles in the south and snow-covered mountain ranges in the north, Bhutan now finds itself caught between the old and the new. It is a country that has tried to adapt to 20th-century opportunities and alternatives. At the same time, it has maintained pride in traditional culture.
\par \tab The first two five-year plans (1961-66 and 1966-71) for economic growth stressed the development of transportation and communication. In 1968 the first 18 students completed the 11-year course of free government-sponsored education. A fifth five-year plan (1981-86), worked out in consultation with Indian planning experts, promoted self-sufficiency. The sixth plan (1987-91) encouraged participation in the government's development programs. The area of Bhutan is 18,150 square miles (47,000 square kilometers). Population (1991 estimate), 1,476,000.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab Pradyumna P. Karan\par \tab The South American republic of Bolivia has great natural wealth. Its riches, however, are hard to obtain and harder still to get to world markets. Mountains and tropical forests make transportation difficult, and the country has no seacoast for ships. The mountains hold rich deposits of minerals, but they must be mined at altitudes of 13,000 to 15,000 feet (4,000 to 4,550 meters) where physical labor is extremely difficult. Mahogany, rubber, cinchona, and other valuable trees are abundant, but they grow in highly inaccessible tropical rain forests.
\par \tab Bolivia looks small on a map of South America, but it has an area of 424,165 square miles (1,098,582 square kilometers). It has a population of 5,718,000 (1981 estimate), with the majority of its people living at an altitude of 12,000 feet (3,700 meters) or more.
\par {\b The Land}
\par \tab About 80 percent of the people of Bolivia live in the western two fifths of the country. Here the Andes Mountains extend from north to south in two lofty parallel ranges, the Cordillera Occidental to the west and the Cordillera Real (Oriental) to the east. Snow-clad peaks rise more than 21,000 feet (6,350 meters) in the western range blocking easy access to the Pacific Ocean, and several volcanoes are still active. The eastern range is more broken, providing access to the monta±a, or eastern foothills, and to the lowlands.
\par \tab Between the cordilleras stretches the altiplano, or high plain, with an average altitude of about 13,000 feet (4,000 meters). It is about 500 miles (800 kilometers) long and 40 to 60 miles (65 to 100 kilometers) wide and is the largest plateau in the Andes system. Across the northwestern boundary of Bolivia and Peru lies Lake Titicaca. At 12,500 feet (3,810 meters), it is the highest large body of navigable water in the world with regular steamer service. Its fresh water drains through the Rφo Desaguadero to Lake Poop≤, where much of it evaporates, causing that lake to be salty. The northern and eastern Andean slopes (monta±a region) are cut with broad, fertile, cultivated valleys known as the yungas.
\par \tab The country's tropical and semitropical lowlands (Oriente), which make up about 60 percent of its area, form a broad crescent around the Andes. The northeastern plains are drained through branches of the Amazon River, while the southern plains, part of the Gran Chaco, drain southeasterly toward the Atlantic through the Paraguay-Paranß River system.
\par {\b Climate and Vegetation}
\par \tab Bolivia lies wholly within the tropics, but its climate varies considerably with altitude. The high peaks are cold enough to remain covered with snow and ice the year around, and the altiplano and adjoining slopes--from 10,000 to 14,000 feet (3,000 to 4,200 meters)--are cool, with an average annual temperature of 50░ F (10░ C). The western half of the altiplano has a dry climate, while its eastern half, influenced by Lake Titicaca, is more humid. The yungas grow warmer as they slope toward the plain, and the lowlands have tropical heat with a mean annual temperature of 77░ F (25░ C).
\par \tab The tropical northeastern plains, like the rest of the Amazon Basin, receive abundant rains and are covered with dense rain forest. Not many people live in this area because of insect pests, tropical diseases, and the generally poor soils. However, a few Indians do exist there by hunting and raising cassava and other plants in small clearings. These natives also gather wild rubber, Brazil nuts, and cinchona bark.
\par \tab To the southeast is the Gran Chaco, a lowland region that receives seasonal rain. Its grasslands, called savannas, offer abundant pasture for cattle in the wet season. However, the livestock may suffer in the dry season when pastures wither and streams and water holes disappear. Although underground water is available for irrigation, there are only limited transportation facilities to take crops to market.
\par \tab The yunga region, on the other hand, is well watered, and its cloud-filled valleys yield a variety of crops. The lowest, hottest levels produce sugarcane, vanilla, and bananas and other tropical fruit. Slightly higher up the slopes farmers raise coffee, cacao, and coca. Between 4,000 and 8,000 feet (1,200 and 2,400 meters), corn (maize), alfalfa, and temperate-climate fruits flourish, while still higher valleys and basins produce mainly wheat, rye, and oats. To be profitable, products must earn enough money to cover the cost of their transportation--sometimes by packtrain--to markets in the mining camps or cities. These products include chocolate, coffee, brandy made from sugarcane, coca leaves, and chicha, a beer usually made from corn (maize) and other grain.
\par \tab The high ridges of the Cordillera Real block the rain-bearing winds from the east, and so the altiplano and the Cordillera Occidental receive little moisture. Moreover, they are drier in the south than in the north, and due to drought and cold temperatures have no trees. Natural growth is mainly the tough bunchgrass called ichu, the tola bush, llareta moss, and reeds from the shallow waters of lakes.
\par {\b The People}
\par \tab More than half of the Bolivians are Indians, mainly of Quechua and Aymara language stocks. There are also about 50 tribes of forest Indians. The mestizos, of mixed Indian and white heritage, make up almost two fifths, while the remainder are of European descent, mainly Spanish. The vast majority of the population is Roman Catholic.
\par \tab Most of the Indians live on the bleak altiplano and on the brown, rocky slopes and eastern valley pockets above it. Others toil in the mines or do manual labor in the cities. Almost 50 percent of the work force makes a living by farming. This is difficult to do since there are few places on Earth where people farm in so high, cold, and dry a region. Yet, centuries ago the highland Indians of Peru and Bolivia learned how to make a living there. They domesticated a highland animal--the llama--to supply meat, milk, hides, fuel, and wool. They also developed hardy food plants such as the potato, a staple in their diet, and the highland grain crops, quinoa and canagua. Irrigation canals brought water to their fields.
\par \tab Many Indian farmers still employ traditional agricultural methods. Often they use a foot plow to break up the soil, or they may drive oxen hitched to a wooden plow tipped with steel. During the planting of crops the farmer is followed by his wife, who drops the seed. Children bring up the rear, adding fertilizer and covering the seed.
\par \tab At harvesttime, in May or June, the family cuts the tough quinoa stalks with a sickle, flails the plant to thresh out the seeds, and tosses the seeds in the air to winnow out the husks. The women grind the seeds and make bread or gruel from the resulting flour.
\par \tab Another popular food is chu±o, made from the potato. Spread on the grass in the early winter, the potatoes freeze at night and thaw in the daytime until they become soggy. Then members of the family tramp them to squeeze out moisture and remove part of the peel. Again, the potatoes lie in the sun and dry. They become small, hard pellets that will keep without spoiling for months--even years. The Indians use them in a stew with llama meat or mutton. In the spring quinoa leaves are added to the stew.
\par \tab In this treeless land the Indians make small, windowless huts of stone and adobe clay with thatched grass or reed roofs. For fuel they use tola sticks, llareta, and llama dung. The hut is cold and gloomy, and at night the people wrap themselves in a llama skin and may sleep on the earthen floor.
\par \tab Colorful clothing brightens the drab landscape. The men wear handwoven striped ponchos over shirt and pants and a knitted wool helmet, called a lluchu, which has flaps to keep their ears warm. Sometimes they set a felt hat over the helmet. The women also wear felt hats, and their full skirts are dyed in brilliant shades of orange, purple, red, and blue. Frequently, they wear a shawl for warmth and for carrying their babies on their backs. Many go barefoot.
\par \tab About three fifths of Bolivians are illiterate. In recent years special efforts have been made to bring schools to the Indians and to other rural people. Bolivia has universities in Cochabamba, La Paz, Oruro, Potosφ, Santa Cruz, Sucre, Tarija, and Trinidad. Although Spanish is the official language, many Indians speak only Quechua or Aymara.
\par {\b Population Growth and Cities}
\par \tab As in many countries of Latin America, population is growing rapidly, more than 2.5 percent a year. If this growth continues, the population will double in less than 30 years. It is projected that there will be almost 9 million Bolivians by the year 2000. Bolivia faces another population problem: It has the highest infant death rate in Latin America--about 170 children die out of every 1,000 born.
\par \tab Although Bolivia's population is growing rapidly, not all places within the country are growing at the same rate. Again as is true in most of Latin America, the population of the cities is increasing much faster than that of the rural areas. For example, La Paz's population is increasing at a yearly rate of 3 percent; if this continues, the city will have almost one million people within the next 20 years. A large part of this increase is due to people leaving their farms for large towns and cities.
\par \tab High rates of growth create many problems in the cities. La Paz is a good example. There are not enough jobs in the city. Housing is inadequate. The drinking water is poor as are public transportation and utilities. There is no sewage disposal system, and automobile exhaust fumes pollute the air.
\par \tab La Paz is the country's largest city and administrative capital, with a population of 719,780 (1980 estimate). Most government functions are carried out there. Sucre, the official capital, is the seat of the judiciary.
\par \tab La Paz is on the altiplano, as is Oruro, a tin center. Most other cities and the high, bleak mining camps are in the Cordillera Real. Cochabamba and Sucre lie in fertile basins. Potosφ, one of the highest towns in the world, is famous for its mineral wealth.
\par \tab Transportation has been one of Bolivia's greatest problems. There are rail links with Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and Peru. The Santa Cruz-Cochabamba highway, finished in 1954, closed the last gap in a Pacific-to-Atlantic rail-and-highway route. But, although international airlines connect La Paz with cities in North and South America and in Europe, there are many parts of Bolivia that still lack easy access to the rest of the nation.
\par {\b Industries}
\par \tab Mining is Bolivia's leading industry, and tin is by far its chief mineral. The main mining area is in the Cordillera Real from Oruro to Potosφ. About 90 percent of the nation's export income normally comes from minerals, with tin accounting for some 70 percent of the mineral revenue. Other minerals include lead, silver, tungsten, copper, zinc, antimony, bismuth, and gold. There are oil and natural gas fields in the Camiri-Santa Cruz area. Production meets domestic needs, and some oil is exported. A natural gas pipeline extends from Santa Cruz to Buenos Aires, Argentina, and an oil pipeline extends from Sica Sica to the Chilean port of Arica. Another natural gas pipeline is being constructed.
\par \tab Bolivia has few factories. Supplies of raw materials, fuel, and trained workers and the capacity of the transportation system are inadequate for industrial development. The factories that there are, however, produce such goods as textiles, cement, dairy products, ceramics and plastics, and refined sugar.
\par {\b History and Government}
\par \tab The richly carved monuments and stone walls of a ruined city at Tiahuanaco in the Titicaca Basin indicate that an advanced people lived in Bolivia perhaps 1,000 years ago. When the Spaniards invaded the area in the early 16th century, it was part of the powerful Inca Empire. After conquering the Indians in 1538 the Spaniards governed the region, first under the viceroyalty of Peru and later under that of Buenos Aires.
\par \tab Led by Gen. Antonio JosΘ de Sucre, the Bolivians won their independence in 1825 and named the new republic after Sim≤n Bolφvar, who drafted its first constitution. In the War of the Pacific, which lasted from 1879 to 1884, Bolivia lost its Pacific coast. In the final Chaco War, from 1932 to 1935, Bolivia lost most of the disputed Chaco region.
\par \tab A social-reform party seized power by revolution in 1952 and nationalized the country's largest tin mines and the railroads, initiated land reforms, and gave all adults the right to vote. During the 1950s Bolivia's economy suffered severely. National and international sources provided financial aid.
\par \tab In 1964 a military junta ousted the social-reform government, introduced new economic reforms, and welcomed foreign investors. However, it and a subsequent government were overthrown by coups in September 1969 and in October 1970, respectively. A leftist regime fell during a coup in August 1971, and Col. Hugo Banzer Sußrez assumed the presidency. He ruled until July 1978, when elections were held. When the results of these elections were voided, the leading candidate took control under a state of siege; a junta overthrew him in November.
\par \tab Because no candidate won a majority in the 1979 election, an interim president was named. In November a military coup overthrew the civilian government. The next interim president, Lydia Gueiler Tejada, was ousted in July 1980 by a rightist junta headed by Gen. Luis Garcφa Meza. Garcφa Meza resigned in August 1981. Strikes and economic crises continued throughout the decade.
\par \tab The National Congress, which had been suspended in the 1980 coup, was recalled in October 1982. It confirmed the 1980 presidential victory of Hernßn Siles Zuazo. Victor Paz Estenssoro became president in 1985 for the fourth time. It was the first democratic transfer of power in 25 years. In the May 1989 presidential election, none of the nine candidates won a majority. The Congress chose Jaime Paz Zamora as president. Another indecisive election occurred in June 1993. Of the three candidates with a plurality, Congress selected Gonzalo Sanchez de Lozada as president.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab Robert N. Thomas
{\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR BOLIVIA}
\par \tab Klein, Herbert S. Bolivia: The Evolution of a Multi-Ethnic Society, 2nd ed. (Oxford Univ. Press, 1992).
\par \tab St. John, Jetty. A Family in Bolivia (Lerner, 1987).
\par \tab Swaney, D., and Strauss, R. Bolivia (Lonely Planet, 1993).\par \tab The country of Bosnia and Herzegovina is located on the western side of the Balkan Peninsula, an area of land that extends southward from Central Europe toward the Mediterranean Sea. Bosnia and Herzegovina is bounded on the north, west, and south by Croatia, on the southwest by the Adriatic Sea, and on the east by the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, which consists of Serbia and Montenegro. Bosnia and Herzegovina has a total area of 19,741 square miles (51,129 square kilometers). The largest city and national capital is Sarajevo.
\par \tab Bosnia and Herzegovina is largely mountainous. The Dinaric Alps are to the west, the Bjelanica Moutains are in the south, and the Majevica Mountains are to the east. Major rivers include the Sava, which forms the northern border with Croatia, and the Bosna, from which the country takes its name.
\par \tab Bosnia and Herzegovina was settled by Slavs in the early 7th century. For several hundered years, rule of the region shifted between the Byzantine Empire, Croatia, and Serbia before Hungary solidified its control over Bosnia in the 12th century.
\par \tab The Ottoman Turks first invaded Bosnia in 1386 and completed their conquest in 1463. Many Bosnians, including a large majority of the landowners, converted to Islam after the Turkish conquest, since under Ottoman law only Muslims were allowed to own property. The Serbs and Croats who remained Christian were relegated to peasantry, possessing few rights except religious freedom. The decline of the Ottoman Empire in the 18th and 19th centuries brought hardship to Bosnia, heightening ethnic tensions between the prosperous Muslim landowning class and the Serbian and Croatian Christian peasants.
\par \tab In 1875, Bosnian Christians rose in revolt against Turkish rule with the support of Serbia, which hoped to gain control of the region. With the approval of European leaders, Austria-Hungary took temporary control of Bosnia in 1878 and formally annexed the area in 1908. Bosnia's new rulers did little to address the exploitation of the Christian Serb and Croatian underclass by the Muslim landowners, and their favoritism towards the Catholic Croats at the expense of the Orthodox Serb population served to exacerbate ethnic tensions even more. Bosnian Serbs began to agitate against Austro-Hungarian rule, and in June 1914 a young Bosnian Serb assassinated Austrian Archduke Francis Ferdinand in Sarajevo, triggering a war between Serbia and Austria-Hungary that quickly escalated into World War I.
\par \tab In the aftermath of the war, Bosnia and Herzegovina was incorporated into the new Serbian-controlled Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes, which became Yugoslavia in 1929. Muslim landowners faced violence and the expropriation of their lands to the Serb and Croat peasantry. When Yugoslavia was divided by the Axis powers in World War II, Bosnia and Herzegovina became part of the Nazi-controlled Independent State of Croatia. A bitter civil war broke out between the three ethnic populations in Bosnia, a conflict that ceased only when Bosnia and Herzegovina became one of the six republics of Communist Yugoslavia in 1946.
\par \tab Yugoslavia's dictatorship succeeded in controlling the region's bitter ethnic conflicts for nearly a half-century, but the tensions between Serbs, Croats, and Muslims soon emerged when Bosnia seceded from Yugoslavia in March 1992. An exceptionally brutal civil war was started by the Serbs on March 3. The Serbs carried out a policy called ethnic cleansing against Muslim civilians. This included forced expulsions, rapes, and mass murders. United Nations (UN) sanctions prevented the Muslims from getting weapons, while the Serbs were aided by the Yugoslav government until August 1994. After more than three years of inaction and failed peace efforts, the warring parties agreed on a peace settlement in November 1995. The fighting uprooted more than 2 million people from their homes and killed more than 200,000 people. Population (1994 estimate), 4,447,000.
{\b The Former Federated Republic of Yugoslavia}
\par \tab One of the youngest nations of Europe, Yugoslavia was created after World War I as a homeland for several different rival ethnic groups. The country was put together largely from remnants of the collapsed Ottoman Empire and Austria-Hungary. Demands for self-determination by Slovenes, Croats, Serbs, and others went unrecognized, and thus Yugoslavia became an uneasy association of peoples conditioned by centuries of ethnic and religious hatreds. World War II aggravated these rivalries, but a Communist dictatorship took power after the war and kept them restrained for 45 years. When the Communist system failed, the old rivalries reasserted themselves; in 1991-92 the provinces of Slovenia, Croatia, Macedonia, and Bosnia and Herzegovina seceded from the union, leaving the republics of Serbia and Montenegro as the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. Serbia includes the formerly independent provinces of Vojvodina in the north and Kosovo in the south.
\par \tab Yugoslavia is bounded on the north by Hungary, on the northeast by Romania, on the east by Bulgaria, on the south by Macedonia and Albania, on the southwest by the Adriatic Sea, and on the west by Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. At its widest point, the country measures more than 290 miles (465 kilometers) from northwest to southeast and 250 miles (400 kilometers) from northeast to southwest. Yugoslavia's total area is 39,449 square miles (102,172 square kilometers).
\par \tab Yugoslavia has a mountainous terrain. In eastern Serbia, the Balkan Mountains form the republic's border with Bulgaria and Romania, reaching an elevation of 6,000 feet (1,800 meters). The Sar and Kopaonik Mountains, located in southwestern Yugoslavia, feature the country's highest peak, Daravica, at 8,712 feet (2,655 meters). The Dinaric Alps occupy much of Montenegro and contain peaks reaching more than 8,000 feet (2,400 meters), including Montenegro's highest mountain, Durmitor, at 8,274 feet (2,522 meters). The major area of flatland lies in the north and is part of the Mid-Danube, or Pannonian, Plain. Stretching from Croatia and Hungary across northern Serbia, the plain is Yugoslavia's most fertile land.
\par \tab The major river in Yugoslavia is the Danube, which flows southeastward from the Hungarian border, through Belgrade, to the border with Romania. Its primary tributaries are the Sava, Drava, Tisa, and Morava. Other rivers include the Piva, Tara, Lim, and Vardar. Lake Scutari, on the border between Montenegro and Albania, is the largest lake on the Balkan Peninsula.
\par \tab The mountainous nature of Yugoslavia causes considerable climatic differences from one place to another. The Mid-Danube Plain has a continental climate with cold winters, hot summers, and moderate precipitation. The mountain regions have, on the whole, colder and shorter summers and more severe winters compared with other regions.
\par {\b Natural Resources and Plant and Animal Life}
\par \tab Yugoslavia has numerous deposits of lignite, or brown coal, but there is little good-grade black coal. There are some small petroleum and natural gas fields, located primarily in the Vojvodina region. The country has no nuclear power stations. Waterpower is a major source of energy, providing about one third of Yugoslavia's electricity. Yugoslavia is a major European producer of lead and copper. Other minerals include iron ore, zinc, bauxite, mercury, and antimony. About 37 percent of the country is forested. The predominant species are oak, beech, and other deciduous trees, with such evergreens as pine and fir growing in the mountains. Yugoslavia has a wide range of animals, including deer, foxes, wolves, wild pigs, bears, and martens. Birds include grouse, partridge, swans, buzzards, woodpeckers, and pelicans. The Adriatic Sea contains anchovies, sardines, mackerel, tuna, and other fishes.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab The inhabitants of Yugoslavia are of varied ethnic origins. According to the 1991 census the largest group is the Serbs, who number 6.5 million, or 62 percent of the population. They speak Serbo-Croatian, a Slavic language, and belong to the Eastern Orthodox church.
\par \tab A non-Slavic people, the Albanians, live in the southern part of the country. They number 1.7 million (17 percent of the population) and are the fastest growing ethnic group. Montenegrins total about 600,000 and are concentrated within the borders of their republic in southern Yugoslavia. They are Eastern Orthodox and speak Serbo-Croatian. Other ethnic groups present in Yugoslavia include Bosnian Muslims (300,000) and the Hungarians (300,000), Romanians, Bulgarians, Slovaks, Czechs, and others who live mostly in the northern province of Vojvodina.
\par \tab The largest city is Belgrade, the federal capital, with about 1.1 million inhabitants. Novi Sad, the capital of Vojvodina, is the second largest, with more than 170,000. Other important cities include Nis, with 160,000 people; Pristina, the capital of Kosovo, with 108,000; and Podgorica (formerly Titograd), the capital of Montenegro, with about 96,000 inhabitants.
\par \tab Yugoslav culture has been influenced by the Slavs, Turks, Italians, and Austrians. The influence of the long Turkish occupation can be seen in the food, folk costumes, and architecture of the nation.
\par \tab The earliest Yugoslav literature was religious in nature. The first popular literature appeared in medieval Serbia, mainly in the form of epic poems describing the struggle of the Serbs against the Turks. These poems were chanted by minstrels who traveled from village to village.
\par \tab In the 19th century Serbian writers laid the foundations of a modern literature. Vuk Karadic reformed the language and collected folk poetry, while Petar Petrovi Njegos produced epic poetry on the theme of liberty. Among modern writers are the Serbs Branimir Cosic, Branko Copic, and Ivo Andric, the winner of the 1961 Nobel prize for Literature, whose novel 'The Bridge on the Drina' has been translated into many languages.
\par \tab Yugoslav folklore is very colorful. Each ethnic group has its own costumes, songs, and dances. The most popular folk dance is the kolo, a circle dance performed to lively music.
\par \tab Soccer is the most popular sport, and Yugoslavia has produced some star players. Yugoslav basketball teams have also had success in international competitions, including a gold medal victory in the 1980 Summer Olympics. Outdoor sports such as hunting and fishing are also popular.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab Farming is a major occupation, employing about 34 percent of the labor force and utilizing more than half of the nation's land. Most farms are owned privately and are small. The major crops are corn (maize), wheat, barley, oats, potatoes, sugar beets, sunflowers, tobacco, and alfalfa. About one third of the agricultural area consists of pastures for grazing pigs, sheep, and cattle. Much of this is in the mountains. The growing of fruit includes plums, apples, pears, peaches, raspberries, strawberries, and apricots. Grapes are widely grown and wine produced, some for export.
\par \tab Fishing is carried out along the Adriatic coast and on the Danube River. Forestry is concentrated mainly in the mountain forests of northern Yugoslavia. It supports the pulp and paper and furniture industries.
\par \tab Much of Yugoslavia's industry is located in the north, primarily in the area surrounding Belgrade. Major exports include iron, steel, electronics, machinery, textiles, automobiles, and trucks. The processing and refining of metallic minerals also gives considerable employment.
\par \tab In the late 1980s, Yugoslavia began the shift from a centrally planned economy to a market economy. By 1993, only 4 percent of the nation's businesses were owned by the state, though nearly 70 percent of the labor force was employed in the state sector. The combined effects of the civil war in Bosnia and Herzegovina and United Nations (UN) economic sanctions against Yugoslavia served to devastate the Yugoslavian economy in the early 1990s. The country was plagued by a fall in output in almost every sector of the economy, and hyperinflation raged from early 1993 until January 1994, when the government introduced a new currency, called the new dinar, that is pegged to the German deutsche mark.
\par {\b Transportation, Communication, and Education}
\par \tab The problems of rail construction over the mountainous terrain of Yugoslavia have favored the development of a highway network. In the early 1990s, there were nearly 30,000 miles (48,300 kilometers) of roads in the country, compared to almost 2,500 miles (4,025 kilometers) of rail. More than 1.4 million passenger cars and 120,000 trucks were registered for use in 1993.
\par \tab With the secession of Croatia and Slovenia in 1991, Yugoslavia lost all of its major ports except the Montenegrin town of Bar. Yugoslav Airlines (JAT) is state owned and flies to many foreign destinations. The country has five airports, including international terminals at Belgrade and Podgorica.
\par \tab Postal and telephone services are run by the state. In 1993, there were 11 daily newspapers, including the notable Politika and Borba, published in Belgrade, and Pobjeda, printed in Podgorica. More than 2,500 books are published annually in Yugoslavia.
\par \tab In addition to the state-run Serbian Radio and Television and Montenegrin Radio and Television networks, there were three independent radio and television networks operating in the mid-1990s. An estimated 1.7 million televisions and 1.8 million radio receivers were in use in 1993.
\par \tab Education is compulsory between the ages of 7 and 15, after which students may choose to attend either a vocational or general secondary school. Students attending vocational school have the option of continuing their education at a two-year postsecondary school, while those attending general secondary school may continue at one of the country's six four-year universities. All education is free in Yugoslavia, including that at the university level.
\par {\b Government}
\par \tab Under a constitution drafted in April 1992, the government of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia is a federal multiparty republic with a bicameral legislature. The parliament, called the Federal Assembly, is divided into the Chamber of Citizens, which has 138 members elected by universal suffrage, and the 40-member Chamber of Republics, composed of representatives elected in equal numbers from the assemblies of both Serbia and Montenegro. The head of state is the president, who is elected by the federal parliament. The president is responsible for appointing a prime minister to head the government, a choice subject to approval by the legislature.
\par \tab The federal government handles matters of national defense, foreign policy, monetary policy, social welfare, and human rights. A large amount of administrative power is delegated to the separate republican governments of Serbia and Montenegro, which are organized on the federal model.
\par {\b History}
\par \tab After World War I the breakup of Austria-Hungary made possible the creation of a new state for the South Slavs, who include the Serbs, Croats, Slovenes, Bosnian Muslims, Montenegrins, and Macedonians. In 1918, an uneasy coalition of mutually hostile ethnic groups, each with a distinct 1,400-year history, became the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes; the new nation was renamed the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in 1929.
\par \tab Yugoslavia's first ruler was King Alexander, a Serb, who declared a personal dictatorship in 1929. He was assassinated by Croatian terrorists while on a state visit to France in 1934, and the throne passed to his young son Peter II. The resolution of the country's ethnic troubles appeared closer when an agreement was reached in 1939 to give Croatia autonomy, but in 1941 Yugoslavia was invaded by Germany, Italy, Hungary, and Bulgaria. Serbs resisted the occupation forces, and the Communist Partisans under the leadership of Josip Broz, known as Tito, became the dominant group. The Croats and Slovenes, however, sided openly with Germany and Italy.
\par \tab In the aftermath of World War II, Yugoslavia was devastated, with much of the country in ruins and more than 10 percent of its prewar population dead. Peter II was deposed in 1944, and Tito--who now bore the title of marshal--and the Communists came to sole power after an election in November 1945.
\par \tab A new constitution adopted in January 1946 abolished the monarchy and established the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia, a federation of six republics: Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia, and Slovenia. The Serbian provinces of Kosovo, with its Muslim Albanian majority, and Vojvodina, with a large Hungarian population, were given autonomous status within the people's republic in an effort to protect the interests of those two populations.
\par \tab In June 1948 Yugoslavia was expelled from the Soviet bloc for refusing to submit to Soviet orders. Despite Soviet efforts to depose him by isolating Yugoslavia, Tito became the country's first president in 1953. He managed successfully to steer a nonaligned path between the two superpowers, the Soviet Union and the United States, criticizing Western colonialism while also denouncing Soviet aggressions, such as the 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia. When Tito died in 1980, the fragile federation he had held together began to unravel.
\par \tab The League of Communists relinquished their constitutionally guaranteed monopoly on power, and in 1990 the first multiparty elections were held since Tito took power. In May 1991 Serbia and its allies blocked the election of a Croat to the federal presidency, leaving the country without a president. A new Serbian leader emerged--Slobodan Milosevic, who renewed the age-old promise of a Greater Serbia. This goal entailed taking parts of other republics where Serbian minorities lived and uniting them with Serbia.
\par \tab On June 25, 1991, Croatia and Slovenia declared their independence from Yugoslavia. Serbian leaders denounced this action, fearing for the safety of the more than half a million Serbs living in the other Yugoslav republics. Federal troops made up mostly of Serbs poured into Slovenia, resisted by Slovenian militia. The Serbs invaded Croatia.
\par \tab At the end of 1991 Germany, followed by the European Community (EC; now the European Union) and the United States, recognized the independence of Croatia and Slovenia. In January 1992, a cease-fire was negotiated that left Serbia with about one third of Croatia's territory. (A shaky peace between Serbia and Croatia lingered for more than three years until Croatia regained the captured territory in a military offensive during May-August 1995.)
\par \tab The violence spread next to Bosnia and Herzegovina. In an early 1992 referendum boycotted by the large Serb minority, the republic's Croats and Muslims voted for independence. International recognition came on April 6, 1992, and soon after, a bitter civil war erupted throughout the republic as the artillery of Serb militias shelled cities and towns.
\par \tab The situation in Bosnia was complicated by religious differences. Many of its residents were Muslims. Serbs tended mostly to be Serbian Orthodox, while Croats were mostly Roman Catholic. These rivalries added to the ethnic hatreds. Croat and Serb Christians also turned their weapons on the Muslim minority.
\par \tab A campaign of terrorism and genocide, which they termed ethnic cleansing, was started by the Serbs against the Muslims. Many Muslims were killed outright. Muslim women were raped, and men and boys were put into concentration camps. At least two million people became refugees, and about 140,000 were missing and presumed dead.
\par \tab In May 1992 the UN imposed sanctions on the newly formed Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. The UN accused the country of fueling the conflict in Bosnia and Herzegovina by supplying weapons and material support. The sanctions devastated the Serbian economy, causing hyperinflation and massive unemployment. Serbian President Milosevic closed his country's borders with Bosnia and broke off contacts between Serbia and the Bosnian Serbs in an effort to have the sanctions lifted.
\par \tab By late 1995, Muslim and Croat forces had made substantial gains against Serb forces and were in control of more than half the country. Many of Bosnia's cities were in ruins, among them Sarajevo, the capital. A breakthrough peace agreement was signed by the presidents of Serbia, Croatia, and Bosnia on November 21. The deal called for Bosnia and Herzegovina to be split 51 percent to a Croat-Muslim federation and 49 percent to a Bosnian Serb republic, both of which will share power in a central government. As a reward for Yugoslavia's role in bringing the peace treaty to fruition, the UN lifted its economic and military sanctions, signaling that the nation's long international isolation had finally come to an end.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by Ian M. Matley, Professor of Geography, Michigan State University.
\par \tab {\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR YUGOSLAVIA}
\par \tab Cohn, Lenard. Broken Bonds: The Disintegration of Yugoslavia, 2nd ed. (Westview, 1995).
\par \tab Crnobinja, Mihailo. The Yugoslav Drama (Univ. of Toronto Press, 1994).
\par \tab Dragnich, Alex. Serbs and Croats: The Struggle in Yugoslavia (Harcourt Brace, 1992).
\par \tab Pavlowitch, Stevan. Tito--Yugoslavia's Great Dictator: A Reassessment (Ohio State Univ. Press, 1992).
\par \tab Silber, Laura, and Little, Allan. Yugoslavia: Death of a Nation (TV Books/Penguin, 1996).
\par \tab Singleton, Fred. A Short History of the Yugoslav Peoples (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1985).\par \tab The landlocked Republic of Botswana is bounded on the northeast by Zimbabwe, on the south and southeast by South Africa, and on the west and north by Namibia (formerly called South-West Africa). In the north Botswana also shares a short border with Zambia.
\par \tab Botswana is sparsely populated. With an area of about 224,600 square miles (581,700 square kilometers) and a population of 1,406,000 (1994 estimate), it has about 6 persons per square mile (2 persons per square kilometer). Much of both the south and the west is covered by the Kalahari Desert, inhabited only by aboriginal San (Bushmen). In the north-central portion lie the swampland of the Okovango Basin and the salt pans of the Makgadikgadi area.
\par \tab Herds of wild game inhabit Botswana's plains, and the national parks and game reserves are well stocked. Besides many species of large and small antelopes, there are lions, elephants, leopards, hippopotamuses, giraffes, buffalo, and crocodiles. Poisonous snakes abound, among them the cobra and puff adder. There are also many varieties of scorpions, tarantulas, spiders, and termites. Birds are also abundant and include ostriches, pelicans, and bustards, which are a type of game bird.
\par \tab The climate of Botswana is generally a subtropical one. Rainfall is light, ranging from about 27 inches (69 centimeters) a year in the northern areas to less than 9 inches (23 centimeters) in the southwest; droughts are frequent. The country is geologically a vast tableland and has an average elevation of about 3,300 feet (1,000 meters).
\par \tab Most of the population is made up of the Tswana, or Bechuana, a people of Bantu heritage. The official language is English, and Setswana is the most widely spoken African language. There are eight major Tswana tribes, each of which occupies its own separate territory with its own traditional chiefs. Each tribe maintains communal ownership over its lands. Only the nomadic San and the few thousand Europeans who reside in Botswana are not included in this tribal village system. The Tswana have a rich tradition of folklore, music, and dancing, and their lives are still strongly influenced by tribal institutions.
\par \tab Stock raising is the occupation of most Tswana. Cattle, hides, meat, and other by-products are among the country's chief exports and are sold primarily to neighboring South Africa. Thousands of Tswana are miners in South Africa. Botswana's rich mineral resources include copper, nickel, semiprecious stones, and coal. Diamonds are a valuable export.
\par \tab Industry in Botswana is confined to a few factories. The largest towns are Gabronne, which is the capital, Francistown, Selebi-Pikwe, and Molepolole. Gabronne, in the southeast, has a population (1991 estimate) of 133,791.
\par \tab The San are the native inhabitants of Botswana, the Tswana having immigrated to the country from farther north. In 1885, after repeated clashes between the Bechuana and the Boers, Great Britain extended its protection over the land. The territory became the Bechuanaland Protectorate, administered by Britain.
\par \tab Self-rule advanced when advisory councils of African and European residents were set up in 1920. A parliamentary government consisting of the National Assembly and the advisory House of Chiefs and headed by a president was instituted in 1965. Complete independence as a republic came on Sept. 30, 1966. Botswana established its own currency in 1977. The National Development Plan of the early 1980s concentrated on creating employment in agriculture, industry, and commerce. Drought-relief programs were vital to the economy in the late 1980s.\par \tab Stretching 2,500 miles (4,000 kilometers) from east to west and 2,700 miles (4,300 kilometers) from north to south in South America, Brazil is the world's largest tropical country. The only nations that are larger are the Temperate Zone lands of Russia, Canada, China, and the United States. Brazil has more than 140 million people spread unevenly over its huge land area, making it the sixth most populous country in the world.
\par \tab More than two thirds of Brazil's people live in cities and towns, and more than 29 percent of them are in its ten cities with more than a million inhabitants. These include the metropolitan areas of Sπo Paulo with more than 10 million people and Rio de Janeiro with more than 5 million people. The rural population is concentrated either on the ribbon of fertile lowland along the east coast or in the highlands of the more southerly states. Elsewhere, settlement is sparse. There are widely scattered small subsistence farms that feed the miners of the eastern highlands, the cowboys of the western savannas, and those who gather forest products in the northern jungles.
\par \tab Since 1960 when Brasφlia, the new national capital in the interior, was inaugurated, great changes have taken place in Brazilian society and in its economy. Schools and medical care have come to distant villages; a network of highways has been built across the interior; new industries have grown up; and television has made countless communities feel less isolated. Modernization has also introduced its less enviable by-products: urban blight, pollution, and an increasing crime rate. But, because of its vast size and low overall population density, Brazil remains a hospitable land of great beauty.
\par {\b The Land}
\par \tab Most of Brazil's 4,500-mile (7,200-kilometer) Atlantic coastline is rimmed with sandy beaches and narrow but fertile coastal plains interspersed with low hills. In the south, however, these are broken up by spurs of the Serra do Mar. This range of coastal mountains is actually the rim of the Brazilian Plateau. In the south, from Sπo Paulo almost to P⌠rto Alegre, the gently rolling plateau is underlain mostly by lava flows that dip gradually westward to the plains of the Paraguay (Paraguai) River.
\par \tab To the north, stretching from the headwaters of the Paraguay to the mountains of Minas Gerais, Brazil's Central Plateau is a peneplain, an ancient land surface that was eroded down to sea level and then thrust upward. Much of it is flat even though it reaches up to 4,000 feet (1,200 meters) above sea level, as in the Brasφlia area.
\par \tab About halfway between Brasφlia and the coast, the landscape changes to one of low but rugged mountain ranges. The most prominent of these is the Serra do Espinhaτo, on the western flank of Brazil's extremely productive mining region. This area not only supplies iron, manganese, lead, zinc, and aluminum ores, but also quartz crystal, mica, diamonds, 90 percent of the world's semiprecious stones, and gold. Twenty miles (32 kilometers) east of Belo Horizonte more than $250 million in gold has been extracted from the Morro Velho mine since it began operations in 1834. By the early 1980s it comprised a maze of tunnels opening off a shaft that is nearly 9,000 feet (2,700 meters) deep, one of the deepest such shafts in the world.
\par \tab Mining extends even to the beaches of Espφrito Santo and southern Bahia with their deposits of zirconium, titanium, and monazite sands that are a source of cerium and thorium. These have been washed out of the ancient rocks of the Serra do Mar. That range is at its most imposing in this region. One of the highest Serra do Mar peaks is the 9,144-foot (2,787-meter) Pico do Itatiaia, site of a scenic national park, on the border between the states of Rio de Janeiro and Minas Gerais.
\par \tab In central Bahia the Serra do Mar decreases in elevation until it reaches Salvador where it is only a low bluff separating the two levels of that city. From this point toward the interior and northeastward along the coast, a jumble of low granite mountain blocks and sedimentary ridges and mesas contrast sharply with gently sloping basins.
\par \tab Along Brazil's northern border with the Guianas and Venezuela is another uplifted peneplain landscape similar to that of the Central Plateau. The two were once a single surface but became separated when a block of the Earth's crust slipped downward to form a trench, or graben. It is through this gap that the Amazon River now flows into the Atlantic Ocean. A thousand miles (1,600 kilometers) upstream, near Manaus, the Amazon lowland broadens out into a vast basin that once held an inland lake that drained southward along the Paraguay River. The ancient lake bottom was covered with sediments into which the Amazon River and its tributaries have cut their present courses. The soils of the parts of the Amazon plain above the river valleys are not fertile because the organic and chemical nutrients are leached (removed) by the continuously heavy tropical rains. The land in the valleys next to the rivers floods each year when heavy rains on the Central Plateau and in the Andes Mountains raise the water level. Fresh deposits of silt then renew the fertility of these floodplains (vßrzeas), which have been farmed for thousands of years.
\par {\b Climate, Vegetation, and Animal Life}
\par \tab The Amazon rain forest has the most varied plant life on Earth, consisting of about 50,000 different species. Only about half of them have been named and classified. Individual plants of each species are widely scattered throughout the forest, which helps to ensure their survival against blight, disease, and pests. Where an acre of woodland in the northeastern United States might include a dozen different kinds of trees, a typical acre of rain forest may have as many as 300. Because of this it is difficult and time-consuming to harvest the forest products, such as rubber, Brazil nuts, and hardwoods.
\par \tab The diversity of animal life along the Amazon and its tributaries is equally abundant. Most of it is concentrated in the treetops about 150 feet (45 meters) above the ground where food and sunlight are plentiful. Animals living there include tree frogs and salamanders, monkeys, swarms of insects, and a great variety of birds. About 1,400 species of birds have been identified compared to only 195 in New York State and 81 in the Canadian region of Labrador. Brazil has more kinds of butterflies than anyplace in the world, many of them in the Amazon Basin. There are, however, few large animals in the forest, and these live mostly along the riverbanks. They include the world's largest rodent, the capybara, as well as alligators, boa constrictors, and turtles. Turtles, once abundant, are becoming an endangered species because the eggs they lay in the sands along the riverbanks have been heavily plundered.
\par \tab Because the Amazon straddles the equator, average temperatures hover at around 80░ F (27░ C) throughout the year. They rarely reach 100░ F (38░ C) during the day or drop below the mid-70s at night. Humidity is high the year around, and it rains, on average, every other day. The heaviest and most continuous rainfall comes between December and April, with 8 to 10 inches (20 to 25 centimeters) per month. This drops to about two inches (five centimeters) a month during the brief dry season in July, August, and September.
\par \tab South of the Amazon lowland the climate becomes more varied. There are increasing distinctions between the rainy and dry seasons, between winter and summer. These variations are most pronounced in the interior, especially on the highlands, and are more gradual along the Atlantic coast. Warmed by moist trade winds, the coastal lowlands have a climate similar to that of the Amazon for much of the year; rainfall is heavy, and temperatures average about 80░ F. In June, July, and August, however, cold air sweeping up from Antarctica--although warmed as it moves over the ocean--can affect temperatures as far north as Recife. In Rio de Janeiro the temperature during those three months averages 69░ F (21░ C), while in P⌠rto Alegre the temperature drops down to 57░ F (14░ C).
\par \tab In northern Brazil the coastal vegetation and animal life are an extension of those in the Amazon. Toward the south, however, the gradually increasing coolness eliminates or modifies many species. The trees do not attain the enormous height of those near the equator, and some shed their leaves during the cool months. Today only a few patches of the natural coastal habitat remain as a result of centuries of destruction caused by settlers and their ancestors who sought farmland and timber.
\par \tab The same fate overtook the belt of tropical forest on the plateau in Sπo Paulo, southern Minas Gerais, and northern and western Paranß, although at a somewhat later date. This area proved to be ideal for coffee growing. On the plateau south of the forest belt is Brazil's only subtropical climate. The city of Curitiba at an elevation of 3,000 feet (900 meters) averages only 70░ F (21░ C) during February, its warmest month, while its coldest, June, averages 54░ F (12░ C). Frosts occur with some regularity during winter, and there are occasional light snowfalls. Many Temperate Zone crops that do poorly in the tropics are grown in this area by Brazilians of Italian and central European descent. These crops include rye, oats, barley, potatoes, pears, and grapes. The land was once covered by forests of Paranß pines, but they have been largely destroyed to create farmland and to supply lumber, plywood, and paper mills.
\par \tab Beyond the fringe of regular, plentiful rainfall that extends from the South, along the coast, and into the Amazon, the Brazilian interior suffers from drought during much of the year. Yearly totals range from 65 inches (165 centimeters) on the Central Plateau down to 33 inches (84 centimeters) in northeastern Brazil. However, 80 percent of the rain falls during a five-month period--between November and March on the plateau, where the dry season extends from May through August, and from January to May in the Northeast, where the four driest months are August through November. The dry months in these regions produce only about one inch of winter precipitation. Not only is rainfall low in the Northeast, but it is unreliable, causing droughts that drive farmers from their land and into overcrowded cities.
\par \tab The long and severe dry season of the Brazilian interior is reflected in its vegetation of bunch grasses and scrub trees. In the arid Northeast stands of cactus are scattered about, and the scrub is covered with thorns instead of leaves. Cattle ranching occupies most of the Northeast, although small farms, often densely packed, are located in the valley bottoms where there is an adequate water supply. In their natural state the valleys support tropical woods or palm groves. They are also the home of the onτa, a type of leopard that preys on the deer and cattle that graze in the scrub. Other animals of the scrub include roadrunners; ostrich-like rheas, and various game birds; and armadillos, iguanas, and rattlesnakes.
\par {\b The People}
\par \tab Before the Portuguese discovered Brazil, it was the home of 4 million or more native peoples. They were divided into two fairly distinct racial and cultural groups. The thinly scattered Paleo-Americans, who were similar in many respects to the North American Plains Indians, occupied the colder and drier lands. They lived mostly by hunting and gathering. The tropical forest tribes were located in the jungles of the Amazon and along the Atlantic coast. Living in villages of as many as 3,000 people, they were expert fishermen and farmers who also manufactured hammocks, canoes and balsa rafts, blowguns for hunting and warfare, and exquisite pottery. Their staple food was cassava, or manioc, which is still an important part of the Brazilian diet.
\par \tab Because they occupied the most accessible and fertile lands, the tropical forest Indians bore the brunt of early European settlement. They were soon exterminated by war, disease, and enslavement. The more isolated and warlike Paleo-Americans survived for several more centuries, and today a few bands still live near remote parts of the Amazon. Although Indians have almost disappeared from Brazil, many of its inhabitants, especially those in the interior, have some Indian heritage.
\par \tab It did not take the Portuguese long to find out that Indians made poor and unwilling slaves. Therefore, beginning in 1538, they imported Africans to work on the coastal sugar plantations. Later, these slaves were taken to the gold and diamond mines in Minas Gerais and to the coffee plantations in the highlands of Rio de Janeiro. By 1822, when the slave trade was abolished, there were about 4 million Africans in Brazil, by coincidence about the same total as the number of Indians that once inhabited the country. Today the majority of Brazil's population consists of blacks and mulattoes.
\par \tab There was a trickle of non-Portuguese European immigration into Brazil throughout the 1800s, but only after the emancipation of the slaves in 1858 did the country attract large numbers of European settlers. From that time until World War I as many as 200,000 arrived each year. About half were from southern Italy, and they went mostly to the newly opening coffee lands of Sπo Paulo. After the war, immigration rose again, dominated by people from Germany, eastern Europe, and Japan. Then the depression of the 1930s, World War II, and a quota system reduced the numbers of immigrating people once more. After a brief resurgence following World War II, immigration declined again.
\par {\b Culture and Religion}
\par \tab The customs and practices of Portugal are clearly reflected in Brazil's architecture, language, and Roman Catholic religion. Modern Brazilian culture, however, developed from the contributions of many peoples. The Indians contributed foods, farming methods, and many words from their languages; the Africans added their music, cooking, and religious practices; the northern Europeans and Japanese brought their technical and commercial know-how, adding new cultural values in the process. The diverse roots of Brazilian culture can be traced through the evolution of the people's religious beliefs.
\par \tab A large number of Jesuit priests went to Brazil with the early Portuguese colonists. Their main function was to set up missions to educate and convert the Indians. Many were not converted, and in northeastern Brazil, where slaves were in contact with the Indians, the Indian beliefs crept into the Africans' religion and developed into a unique, altogether Brazilian cult, the catimb⌠.
\par \tab Although the Africans brought their own religion and rituals with them, these were prohibited and Roman Catholic practices were enforced. But a strange mix of the two faiths developed, each saint masking an African deity. Thus, while they seemed to be praying to Catholic saints, slaves were secretly continuing the practices of their own religion. Numerous Brazilians, both white and black and representing all social classes, continue to endorse both faiths without any feelings of conflict.
\par \tab Roman Catholicism, however, ceased to be the official religion after the proclamation of the republic in 1889. Finally, over the next century Protestant missionaries, largely of fundamentalist denominations, had considerable success in spreading their religion. The crente, as the Brazilian Protestant is called, is often devout and has usually renounced all other worship to embrace this new faith. So Brazil, although nominally the world's largest Roman Catholic country, has many other beliefs that run through its cultural fabric.
\par {\b Literature and Art}
\par \tab Through translations, readers in many countries are becoming aware of the excellence of Brazilian literature, which is as varied as the origins and individuality of the people of the nation. The earliest writings, from the days of colonization, are mostly documentations of life in the new settlements.
\par \tab An awakening of nationalism in the mid-1700s established a new literary trend that carried into the Romantic period of the 19th century. The beauty of the land, the native Indians, and the injustice of slavery were themes that appeared repeatedly in both poetry and prose of the time.
\par \tab As Naturalism replaced Romanticism, new themes were discovered: life in the city, social conditions, developments in science and industry, and man's struggle to cope with a rapidly changing environment. Out of this naturalistic movement came Joaquim Maria Machado de Assis, who is considered by many critics to be Brazil's greatest literary figure. His best works were his novels and short stories; but his cr⌠nicas--collections of often satirical anecdotes, reflections, and observations--are still very widely read and appreciated.
\par \tab Brazilian literature of the 20th century is an amalgamation of earlier trends. Romantic themes have been rediscovered, but they are generally treated in a realistic way. Regionalism flourishes, and the literary language is more relaxed and colloquial. The two best known authors of the "New Novel" are ╔rico Verφssimo and Jorge Amado. Verφssimo writes about life in the South, and his polished literary style reflects the Europeanized culture of that region. Amado's less refined language characterizes the highly mixed origins of the people of his native state of Bahia.
\par \tab The art and architecture of Brazil's colonial period was a continuation of the baroque style of Spain and Portugal, reflected mainly in the construction and artwork of the churches. The best known Brazilian artist of this style was the sculptor Ant⌠nio Francisco Lisboa. Better known as Aleijadinho, the Little Cripple, he worked in wood and the soft bluish soapstone of his native Minas Gerais. His most famous works are 12 larger-than-life statues of the Biblical prophets and six life-size scenes of the Crucifixion of Jesus Christ, all in the small town of Congonhas do Campo, Minas Gerais.
\par \tab In 1815 the king of Portugal, who was then in exile in Brazil, became patron of the School of Fine Arts in Rio de Janeiro. From that time through the years of the Brazilian Empire, from 1822 to 1889, painters, sculptors, and architects were enthusiastically supported by the court.
\par \tab Brazil's greatest painter was, however, Cßndido Portinari, a product of the 20th century. He went to study in Europe at the age of 25 and was deeply influenced by the French modernists, but his subject matter was usually Brazilian.
\par \tab Contemporary Brazilian architecture, often considered to be among the most innovative in the world, also reflects this blend of modernism with native themes. Oscar Niemeyer, who was already well-known for his public and private buildings, headed a group of architects who in the late 1950s created the new capital, Brasφlia. A monument to modern design and planning, the city was entirely preplanned, from its inspiring public buildings and imaginative housing developments to its parks, artificial lake, and streets without intersections.
\par {\b Education and Health}
\par \tab Until about 1960 the Brazilian education system was deficient at every level, from primary school through university. Higher education was available only to upper income level families. About one half of the population was illiterate. In 1964, although about three fourths of the city dwellers could read and write, only about one third of the rural population could do so. To remedy this the government launched a two-pronged attack on illiteracy. First, it started a teacher-training program, which eventually led to a doubling of the number of primary students. In 1970 the government began a second program to teach adults to read, write, and do simple arithmetic. The objective was to eliminate illiteracy in Brazil by the mid-1980s. Although a few isolated areas will probably remain backward for some years, great progress was made in most of the country.
\par \tab At the university level competitive entrance examinations and the building of branch campuses in small communities increased enrollments fivefold during the 1960s. In 1972 substantial pay raises were given to professors, whose salaries had been so meager that most had had to take outside jobs. By the 1980s Brazilian university graduates were especially well-trained in scientific and technical skills, and for the first time many of them came from families with lesser incomes.
\par \tab Health care has followed a pattern which is similar to that of education. The health of Brazil's lower income families was long neglected, even though highly skilled medical care was available to the wealthy. As a result of malnutrition, tropical diseases, and a high rate of infant mortality, the life expectancy of the average Brazilian in the 1940s was only 43 years.
\par \tab Since that time the government has set a high priority on solving the nation's health problems. Medical services have been expanded, and they now include mobile clinics and hospital ships that reach the more isolated areas. University students have, since 1967, been volunteers in a program that provides medical assistance and teaches hygiene in the rural areas. As a result of these measures and of building modern sewage and water treatment plants in the small towns, life expectancy in Brazil has now risen to about 60 years.
\par \tab Brazil's high infant mortality remains a critical problem. Of every 1,000 children born, 105 will die before reaching the age of five. This compares to a rate of 7.5 per 1,000 for the same age group in The Netherlands. Even so, because the large family is traditional in rural areas, Brazil's population is increasing at a rate of about 2.8 percent a year. If this continues to be the case, the population will double its early 1980s' total by about the year 2007. Also, because more than half of all Brazilians are under 20 years old, this high growth rate should continue well into the 21st century.
\par {\b The Economy}
\par \tab During the 1960s and 1970s Brazil was not only able to absorb its high population increase but also to raise its people's standard of living. This happened because its economy was growing by about 7 percent a year, one of the highest growth rates in the world. Industrialization, the mechanization of agriculture, and the building of highways, power plants, and cities were all taking place simultaneously. The worldwide recession and the high price of oil slowed this growth during the late 1970s and early 1980s.
\par \tab {\b Farming.}
\par \tab The mechanized family farm of North America is little known in Brazil. Instead, family-operated farms are usually small, under about 25 acres (10 hectares), and have few modern tools or conveniences. They make up 51 percent of all Brazilian farm properties, yet they occupy less than 4 percent of the total farmland. Most of the land belongs to large landowners. Those with the biggest farm properties, more than 2,500 acres (1,000 hectares), number fewer than one percent of all owners, yet they hold 39 percent of the country's farmland. The owners of these vast estates usually live lavishly in the cities, visiting their properties by private airplane and leaving their day-to-day operation to managers.
\par \tab Such medium-sized farms as there are in Brazil are located mainly in Sπo Paulo state and especially in the states of the southern region. This is because these cooler lands did not appear to be worth claiming until northern Europeans began settling them in the late 19th century. On what is now the frontier, along the southern rim of the Amazon Basin, the situation is different. This land has been deeded for decades, even for centuries, to absentee landlords. With the opening of new roads into the interior these properties are being cleared and planted to crops or pasture grass. A great deal of labor is needed to begin this work, but once it is done the services of most of those who opened up the land are no longer needed. After three or four years they must move on. Unlike North American homesteaders, Brazilian pioneers seldom have a stake in the land they have cleared.
\par \tab Wealthy landowners have been a fixture of Brazilian society since colonial times, although their slaves have been replaced by tenant farmers. The average farmer still labors on someone else's land and lives simply in an adobe-and-thatch cottage on a small plot of land which is provided by the landowner. There he is able to grow some of his own food--most likely corn, bananas, cassava, and papaya--and raise a few chickens. In exchange for this privilege, the tenant must put in many hours of work on the plantation for little pay.
\par \tab There are variations in this system. If the land belongs to the government, as it does in official colonization projects along a few of the new highways or at irrigation projects in the Northeast region, the tenant has a larger plot of land to work and pays rent for its use. The tenant on a mechanized farm may be paid more and live a little better. Mechanization usually means, however, that many tenants lose both their land and their means of earning a living. Some plantations, especially those with crops such as coffee that require year-round attention, prefer to operate on the basis of sharecropping. In this case the farmer is loaned a portion of the land to tend and receives a share of the proceeds from the sale of the crop. The larger an individual family, the more land it can care for and the more it can earn. This, naturally, helps to perpetuate the country's high birth rate.
\par \tab The sheer magnitude of farming, which employs nearly one third of Brazil's labor force, along with the mechanization of certain croplands results in an impressive amount of production. Brazil is first in the world in the production of coffee, sugarcane, cassava, bananas, and sisal; in the Western Hemisphere it is the leading producer of rice and pulses (beans, peas, and lentils). It ranks second in the world in the production of oranges, cocoa, and soybeans, and third in the production of black pepper and corn (maize) and in the size of its herds of cattle and hogs. Although a large amount of this is consumed within the country, almost half of the value of Brazil's exports comes from agricultural products, particularly coffee, cocoa, soybeans, black pepper, oranges, and canned beef. A variety of oils, waxes, and fibers are also exported from the palm groves of northeastern Brazil, as are cashew nuts from that area and Brazil nuts which come from the Amazon. Some wine is also sent abroad from the vineyards of the South.
\par \tab {\b Industry.}
\par \tab Since World War II Brazil has been turning from an agricultural country into an industrial one. In 1958 it passed Argentina to become the leading industrial nation of Latin America. In 1967 the value of its industrial production was greater than that from agriculture for the first time. Finally, in 1972, the export value of Brazilian-manufactured goods passed that of coffee. Before that time, going back to the 1800s, coffee had been the country's leading earner of foreign currency. Coffee, however, continues to be the leading export crop.
\par \tab Some of Brazil's industries are well established. These include iron mills, textiles and clothing manufacture, food processing, furniture making, tanning, and leather goods. Begun on a small scale to supply the country's internal needs, many of these industries now export their products throughout the Americas and to other parts of the world.
\par \tab Brazil's iron and steel industry began in colonial times. The Western Hemisphere's first ironworks began production there in 1597. The country's steel industry was founded in 1815 in Minas Gerais, based on a plentiful supply of local iron ore and limestone and fueled by charcoal from nearby forests. Brazil became a major steel producer during World War II when its first large, integrated mill was built at Volta Redonda in the Paraφba Valley halfway between Rio de Janeiro and Sπo Paulo. By 1980 Brazil was producing about 12 million tons of steel a year. Most of its production is used within the country, but many of the end products, such as hardware and automobiles, are exported.
\par \tab Two of Brazil's most successful industries, motor vehicles and petrochemicals, were established relatively recently. Until 1956 Brazil merely assembled foreign-built cars and manufactured some spare parts for them. In that year the government placed high taxes on imported vehicles and gave incentives to manufacturers who would build them in Brazil. By 1960 Brazil was making all its own cars, trucks, buses, jeeps, and tractors, although a few components for these vehicles still had to be imported. The country now exports vehicles and parts. Almost all the plants are located in Sπo Paulo and are subsidiaries of major foreign companies.
\par \tab The petrochemical industry in Brazil began in the late 1950s as a subsidiary of Petrobrßs, Brazil's national petroleum company that was set up in 1952 to give the government a monopoly on oil and gas production. In 1965 the government opened up the petrochemical by-products industry to private (including foreign) investors.
\par \tab Approximately $750 million was put into it over the next six years, and the industry grew rapidly. In 1972 Brazil became the largest petrochemical-producing nation of Latin America. Its principal products are plastics, fertilizers, and synthetic textiles.
\par \tab {\b Power.}
\par \tab The growth of the automotive and petrochemicals industries, along with other sectors of the Brazilian economy, slowed down during the late 1970s and early 1980s because of the high cost of imported oil. About two thirds of the nation's needs are met by imported oil, the other one third coming from oil fields in the Northeast. Petrobrßs increased its production from 2 million barrels in 1954 to about 75 million in 1981. To maintain a high rate of production Brazil has had to shift from the gradually depleting onshore fields to new, offshore ones.
\par \tab Because it wishes to be less dependent on imported oil and because it has vast acreages that are, or could be, planted with sugarcane, Brazil leads the world on research into gasohol. This is an alcohol fuel that can be made from sugarcane. It has gradually lowered the country's gasoline consumption and its use is being strongly encouraged.
\par \tab Supplies of coal and natural gas are also limited in Brazil, and the country has turned to developing hydroelectricity. In 1980 this form of power provided 16 percent of Brazil's energy output. The two largest projects are at Urubupungß and Itaipu, both on the Paranß River not far from Brazil's largest cities and major manufacturing centers.
\par \tab Many Brazilians do not have access to, or cannot afford, either electricity or petroleum-derived power. About one third of the energy used in the country, whether in homes or by small manufacturing enterprises, comes from wood, charcoal, and bagasse, the fibers that are left over after the juice has been squeezed out of sugarcane. In the Northeast the energy problem is particularly acute because incomes are low and there are few rivers suitable for hydroelectric development other than the Sπo Francisco.
\par \tab Brazil has an enormous reservoir of untapped hydroelectric potential in the Amazon River basin, more than that remaining to any country in the world. Until recently the population has been too sparse and hydroelectricity required transmission distances too great to make such development of even the tributaries of the Amazon feasible. However, as settlement of this frontier grows and as techniques for long-distance transmission improve, development of the Amazon Basin for hydroelectricity appears to be more and more likely to become a part of Brazil's future.
\par \tab {\b Transportation.}
\par \tab Brazil is as unevenly served by land transportation as it is by hydroelectricity. Because of the vast distances to be covered, excellent air services are maintained to all parts of the country. The railroads at one time were the chief means of transportation. However, they had a number of disadvantages. First, they were built to move agricultural and mining products to the seaports and not for connecting different parts of the country. Also they could not be linked because they had been built by private companies using different track gauges. Brazil's roads at the time were no better.
\par \tab When Brasφlia was inaugurated in 1960, the nation's attention was focused on the critical lack of surface transport. It took three days to reach the new capital by jeep from Rio de Janeiro or Sπo Paulo. The government began a crash program to build new roads and to improve those already in existence. The military government made this its top priority when it came to power in 1964. By 1970 the number of miles of paved road had doubled and new roads were being extended to the most distant parts of the country. The most ambitious of these was the Trans-Amazon Highway, begun in the 1970s.
\par {\b Government and History}
\par \tab The government of Brazil, like those of many other Latin American countries, has been replaced many times. Nevertheless, the basic system for organizing the country has been retained. Brazil is a federal republic divided into 26 states and the federal district of Brasφlia. There is an elected National Congress divided into a Senate, with three members from each state elected for eight-year terms, and a Chamber of Deputies, elected for four-year terms on the basis of population. Power is divided among Congress, the judiciary, and the president. The president is elected for a five-year term and cannot immediately succeed himself.
\par \tab Brazil's discovery is officially attributed to the Portuguese navigator Pedro ┴lvares Cabral on April 22, 1500, but other Portuguese explorers had reached the Amazon by 1498. Portugal gained the rights to present-day Brazil under its 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas with Spain. The country's name comes from brazilwood, a red dyewood found along the coast.
\par \tab Brazil was long neglected by the Portuguese, whose attention was focused on their wealthier colonies in Asia and Africa. As a result the French established settlements at Sπo Luφs and Rio de Janeiro, and in 1624 the Dutch occupied the entire northeastern coast. By then sugar from that area had become important to the Portuguese economy, and the Portuguese cleared the settlers out by 1654. In 1808 the Portuguese royal family took refuge in Brazil when Portugal was occupied by Napoleon. King John VI made many changes in the colony before he returned to Portugal in 1821. A central administration was established and, with it, a postal service. Brazil's ports were opened to non-Portuguese ships, and industry was encouraged.
\par \tab King John's son remained behind as regent, but in 1822 he declared Brazil independent with himself as its emperor, Pedro I. He abdicated in 1831 and was succeeded by his 5-year-old son, Pedro II. Regents ruled in Pedro II's place until 1840. In 1889 he was overthrown and exiled. By then Brazil was a stable, unified country, a situation that contrasted sharply with the former Spanish colonies in Latin America, which were in political turmoil. Brazil became a federal republic, and a constitution modeled after that of the United States was adopted in 1891.
\par \tab The orderly succession of Brazil's presidents was interrupted three times between 1930 and 1964. Get·lio Vargas, governor of the state of Rio Grande do Sul, seized power in 1930 after the economy had fallen into chaos because of the worldwide economic depression. His dictatorship never completely abolished the democratic process, however. After World War II the military forced Vargas to resign. General Eurico Gaspar Dutra was elected president, but Vargas returned to power in 1951 after a free election. His second government was chaotic, and the military made him resign again in 1954. The government was then returned to civilian control. The military seized power again in 1964, allegedly because Joπo Goulart, who had taken office in 1961, was ruining the economy. Under a new 1967 constitution and the amended constitution of 1969, the government continued to be led by the military. Some semblance of democracy was retained even though the political parties were abolished and the powers of Congress curtailed.
\par \tab Unlike many other military regimes in Latin America, Brazil's had not attempted to take over every aspect of the day-to-day running of the country. In the late 1970s the government began policies that would gradually return Brazil to a more democratic system. Political rights were restored to some who had lost them, provision was made for new political parties, and press censorship was relaxed.
\par \tab The two decades of military rule ended in 1985. Tancredo Neves, a moderate, was elected president in an indirect election, but he was hospitalized on the eve of the March inaugural. Vice-President JosΘ Sarney became constitutional president when Neves died in April. A new constitution took effect on Oct. 5, 1988. It guaranteed basic social and labor rights. On March 15, 1990, Fernando Collor de Mello of the National Reconstruction party took office, the first freely elected president in 29 years. On Sept. 29, 1992, the Chamber of Deputies voted to impeach President Collor on charges of corruption. Facing probable conviction, Collor resigned on December 29, a few minutes after the Senate had started his trial. Vice-President Itamar Franco was sworn in as president that same day.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by Richard P. Momsen, Ph.D., Professor, Geography Department, University of Calgary, and Senior Photo-interpreter, Inter-American Institute of Agricultural Sciences.
\par \tab {\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR BRAZIL}
\par \tab Ashford, Moyra. Brazil (Steck, 1991).
\par \tab Barman, R.J. Brazil: The Forging of a Nation, 1798-1852 (Stanford Univ. Press, 1988).
\par \tab Carpenter, M.L. Brazil: An Awakening Giant (Dillon, 1987).
\par \tab Cross, Wilbur, and Cross, Susanna. Brazil (Childrens, 1984).
\par \tab Dos Santos, T. The Political Economy of Brazil (Westview, 1993).
\par \tab Haverstock, N.A. Brazil in Pictures, rev. and updated ed. (Lerner, 1991).
\par \tab Krich, John. Why Is This Country Dancing? (Simon & Schuster, 1993).
\par \tab Shoumatoff, Alex. The Capital of Hope: Brasφlia and Its People (Vintage, 1990).\par \tab Located about 50 miles (80 kilometers) east of Puerto Rico in the eastern Caribbean Sea, the British Virgin Islands consist of 36 picturesque islands and islets. They are part of an island chain that is continued by the Virgin Islands of the United States to the west. The major islands are Tortola, Anegada, Virgin Gorda, and Jost Van Dyke. The chief town and port is Road Town on Tortola, the largest island. The total area is 59 square miles (153 square kilometers). The pleasant subtropical climate has year-round temperatures between 70░ and 90░ F (21░ and 32░ C). The variety of scenic physical features includes steep hills, lagoons with coral reefs, and landlocked harbors.
\par \tab The majority of the population is of black African descent. About 80 percent of the total population lives on Tortola. The official language is English.
\par \tab Tourism is the economic mainstay. Cottage industries produce handmade items. Manufactured goods are rum, paint, and building materials. Fishing is a growing export industry. Agriculture focuses on livestock, though some tropical fruits and vegetables are exported.
\par \tab A colony of the United Kingdom with a representative government, the islands are administered under a constitution dating from 1977. The governor is appointed by the British monarch.
\par \tab Arawak and Carib peoples inhabited the area before Christopher Columbus landed there in 1493, and Spain sent an invasion force to claim the islands in 1555. The islands were an early haunt of pirates.
\par \tab Dutch buccaneers held Tortola until English planters took control in 1666. In 1872 the islands became part of the Colony of the Leeward Islands. In 1956 they were made a separate colony. Population (1988 estimate), 12,400.\par \tab A small Islamic sultanate, Brunei is one of the few remaining countries in the world without personal income tax. Located on the northwestern coast of the island of Borneo, it was a powerful state in the 16th century, with authority over the whole island.
\par \tab Brunei has an area of 2,226 square miles (5,765 square kilometers). The sultanate is bounded on the north by the South China Sea and on its landlocked sides by the Malaysian state of Sarawak. The geographic position of Sarawak also divides Brunei into two separate portions.
\par \tab The climate in this hilly and rugged country is determined by the equatorial monsoons, or rain-bearing winds. Rainfall is heavy and is distributed throughout the year. Annual precipitation varies from 100 inches (250 centimeters) in the coastal areas to more than 200 inches (500 centimeters) in parts of the interior. Temperatures average between 76░ and 86░ F (24░ and 30░ C). Dense tropical rain forests cover three fourths of the country and are characterized by a variety of hardwood species. Brunei's animal life includes lions, tigers, monkeys, birds, insects, snakes, and lizards.
\par \tab The principal language is Malay, but Chinese and English are widely spoken. Most of the people live near the petroleum fields at Seria and Kuala Belait. Brunei is a major petroleum producer and enjoys one of the highest standards of living in Southeast Asia. The state's economy depends almost entirely on its petroleum production.
\par \tab The largest concentration of urban population is in Brunei's capital, Bandar Seri Begawan (population, 1985 estimate, 55,000). Whereas wooden houses are found in the rural areas, Bandar Seri Begawan has modern apartment buildings, hotels, a shopping center, a commercial center, and port facilities. Alongside the modern section of the capital is the older section known as Kampong Ayer, where people live in small houses on stilts along the inlets of a broad, winding river. These houses are interconnected by footbridges, and small boats provide transport. Since roads are poorly developed, rivers are the main means of transportation in Brunei. At Bandar Seri Begawan is an international airport.
\par \tab Brunei's economy is based on the exploitation of petroleum and natural gas. Agricultural and forestry products include rubber, pepper, wood, and cork and account for about 1 percent of the export earnings. Other agricultural products, including rice, sago (a starch), and local fruits, are grown on a small scale.
\par \tab Brunei became a British protectorate under treaties made with its sultan in the 19th century, when the state was troubled by piracy. The sultan signed a new treaty in 1979, making Brunei a fully sovereign and independent state on Jan. 1, 1984. Population (1988 estimate), 250,000.\par \tab The Republic of Bulgaria occupies the eastern portion of the Balkan Peninsula. In 1946, some 1,200 years after it was founded as a kingdom, it came under Communist control, which lasted until the great political upheaval in Eastern Europe in late 1989 and 1990 and the demand for greater freedom. Its neighbors are Yugoslavia on the west, Romania on the north, and Greece and Turkey on the south. The Black Sea forms its eastern boundary.
\par {\b Land and Climate}
\par \tab Bulgaria, with an area of 42,855 square miles (110,994 square kilometers), is a little smaller than Greece. The country is divided into two parts by the east-west chain of the Balkan Mountains, called by the Bulgarians Stara Planina (Old Mountains). Although they rise in places to more than 7,000 feet (2,100 meters), the mountains have rounded tops and so do not have a rugged appearance. They are crossed by several passes. To the north of the range lies an area of lowland along the Danube River. To the south of the mountains and running parallel to them is the range of the Sredna Gora (Central Forest). The two ranges are separated by the valley of the Tundzha River. To the south of the Sredna Gora is the Thracian Plain, which is the broad valley of the Maritsa River and one of the best areas in Bulgaria for farming. The southwest contains a large rugged area consisting of the Rila, Pirin, and Rhodope mountains. The highest peak in Bulgaria, Mount Musala (9,596 feet [2,925 meters]), is in the Rila Mountains. The Rhodope Mountains form the boundary with Greece. Apart from the Danube lowland and the Thracian Plain, the only other lowlands are along the Black Sea coast and in the west, around the capital city of Sofia.
\par \tab Bulgaria's major river is the 1,750-mile (2,800-kilometer) Danube, which forms much of the border with Romania. The longest river originating in Bulgaria is the Maritsa. Other major rivers include the Iskur, Tundzha, and Struma. The flow of many Bulgarian rivers varies with the season. Some of the rivers become dry by the end of the summer.
\par \tab The climate of Bulgaria is continental, with warm summers and cold winters. In the southern portion of the country, which is tempered by Mediterranean influences, and along Bulgaria's Black Sea coast the winters are comparatively mild. The climate is on the whole favorable for agriculture, but it is too cold for the growing of citrus fruits and olives. A major problem for farmers is summer drought.
\par {\b Plant and Animal Life}
\par \tab About one third of the country is covered by forest, much of it beech and oak. Coniferous trees, such as pine, fir, and spruce, grow mainly on the slopes of the Rhodope and Rila mountains. The lowland areas had a mixed vegetation of trees and grass but are now cleared for farming. There are about 20 soil types and subtypes. The soils of the Danube lowlands and the Thracian Plain are of good quality for farming.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab The Bulgarians descend from the Bulgars, who settled in the area in the 7th century. They were assimilated into the Slavic culture and adopted its language. The Communist regime that controlled the country for most of the second half of the 20th century discouraged religion, and most of the population is atheistic. The majority of Bulgarians who profess a faith belong to the Eastern Orthodox church.
\par \tab The population of over 9 million people, mostly Bulgarians, includes some Turks and Gypsies among its minority members. Because of a long period of Turkish control, many aspects of Bulgarian folk culture show Turkish influence, especially music, clothing, and architecture. In recent times Western influences have appeared in Bulgarian literature and art. Much of Bulgarian culture after World War II was ordained by Communist ideology.
\par \tab For almost 20 years ethnic Turks and Muslims were forced to adopt Bulgarian names in an attempt to assimilate the groups into the culture of the country. In early 1990 a new law was passed granting them the right to use their own Muslim names.
\par \tab About two thirds of the population lives in cities. The largest city is Sofia, the capital, with more than 1 million inhabitants. Other cities include Plovdiv, Varna, Burgas, Ruse, and Pleven.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab In 1990, with former Communists in control of the new parliament, the country opted for a slow transition to a market economy. Farming plays a major role in the Bulgarian economy. About half of the cultivated land is devoted to the production of cereals, of which the principal crops are wheat, corn (maize), and barley. Tobacco, cotton, sugar beets, and sunflowers for vegetable oil are also produced. The principal livestock are sheep, cattle, and pigs.
\par \tab Bulgaria is not overly rich in energy resources, though it does have relatively large reserves of lignite. Other energy sources are brown coal and hydroelectric power. Reserves of soft coal and of petroleum and natural gas are meager. There is a large oil refinery at Burgas on the Black Sea coast. Important hydroelectric power projects are located in the Rhodope and Rila mountains. The largest power station in Bulgaria is a nuclear plant located on the Danube.
\par \tab Bulgaria's supplies of metals and minerals are relatively good. Iron ore, lead, copper, zinc, and manganese are produced. Before World War II Bulgaria had little industry. An iron and steel industry was developed. However, the production of metal is insufficient to support extensive manufacturing. Manufactured products include cement, semifinished rolled-steel products, pig iron, fertilizers, and small automobiles and trucks. There are many chemical and textile plants. Sofia is the largest industrial center of the country, producing processed foods, chemicals, electrical equipment, textiles, and clothing.
\par \tab The railway network in Bulgaria is sparse, but it is the main means of transport. It is partially electrified. Road mileage throughout the country has more than doubled since World War II, and improvements on the system are continuing. The national airline, Balkan, uses the international airport at Sofia as its base. Varna and Burgas are the main Black Sea ports. The major Danube River port is Ruse.
\par \tab Bulgaria has compulsory education for children between the ages of 7 and 16. There are universities at Sofia, Veliko Turnovo, and Plovdiv. Radio and television are under state control.
\par {\b Government and History}
\par \tab In 1947 Bulgaria adopted a constitution based on that of the Soviet Union. Until 1990, when free elections were held and the Communist party lost its constitutionally guaranteed exclusive power, the party controlled the government and all aspects of national life. The 240-member Parliament is elected by popular vote. On July 13, 1991, Bulgaria's Communist past was swept aside, when a new constitution went into effect declaring the country a "democratic, constitutional, and welfare state." The Communist party was renamed the Bulgarian Socialist party.
\par \tab The area occupied by present-day Bulgaria was a territory of the Roman Empire for more than 300 years. In the 6th century AD it was invaded by the Slavs and in the 7th century by the Bulgars. Though the original Bulgars were eventually absorbed by the Slavs, the name Bulgar came to be applied to both. In 864 Czar Boris I converted to Christianity. Under Czar Simeon, Bulgaria became a major Slavic empire, with control over Macedonia and Serbia. The rulers of the Byzantine Empire broke up the Bulgarian rule. In 1185 a revolt against the Byzantines was successful, and a second Bulgarian empire was established. In 1396 Bulgaria was conquered by the Ottoman Turks, and the country ceased to exist for 500 years.
\par \tab In the 19th century a revolutionary movement for national independence grew in Bulgaria, resulting in an uprising in 1876 that was put down by the Turks. The Russians then came to Bulgaria's aid, and in 1878 the Turks were defeated in several battles. The other great powers supported the Ottoman rulers, however, and the Congress of Berlin in 1878 returned to the Ottoman Empire much territory freed by the Russians. Part of the Bulgarian territory was declared a self-governing state, and Alexander of Battenberg was made prince. In 1887 Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha replaced the unpopular Alexander, and in 1908 all of Bulgaria was proclaimed independent from the Ottoman Empire with Ferdinand as its king.
\par \tab Bulgaria participated in 1912 in the First Balkan War against the Ottoman Empire. The Turks were quickly defeated, and in the 1913 peace treaty Bulgaria was awarded the largest share of the territory under dispute. The Second Balkan War then broke out. Bulgaria was defeated and lost much of its claim but did retain a part of eastern Macedonia. During World War I Bulgaria sided with Germany. With Germany's defeat in 1918 Ferdinand abdicated, and Bulgaria lost territory to Greece and Romania.
\par \tab During the rule of Czar Boris III, Ferdinand's son, there was much internal strife between the political parties. In 1934 Boris suspended the constitution and banned all parties. After the outbreak of World War II Boris followed his father's example and supported the Germans. Boris died in 1943, and his son, Simeon II, became king. The war ended with an invasion of Bulgaria by Soviet troops, and a Communist government was set up in 1946 under Georgi Dimitrov.
\par \tab The heady atmosphere in Eastern Europe at the end of 1989 reached Bulgaria. The president and chairman of the Communist party, Todor Zhivkov, resigned. The new party chief, Petar Mladenov, called for free elections, and in June 1990 Bulgaria became the first Eastern European country to freely elect a parliament dominated by former Communists. The next year, however, brought the country its first non-Communist cabinet in half a century. Zhelyu Zhelev, leader of the opposition Union of Democratic Forces, succeeded Mladenov as president. He was reelected in 1992, when Blaga Dimitrova became the first woman vice-president in post-Communist Eastern Europe.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab Ian Matley\par \tab One of the poorest of the African nations, Burkina Faso is a landlocked country in the southern part of Africa's great bulge. Formerly known as Upper Volta, it was affiliated economically with France, which ruled it for more than 60 years. The country's capital and largest city is Ouagadougou.
\par \tab The country was originally named for the three upper branches of the Volta River that flow through it. These are the Black Volta, the White Volta, and the Red Volta. A tributary, the Sourou, joins them in the north as they flow southward toward Ghana and converge to form the Volta River. With an area of 105,946 square miles (274,378 square kilometers), Burkina Faso occupies a low plateau that slopes downward to the south.
\par \tab It is bounded on the north and west by Mali; on the south by C⌠te d'Ivoire, Ghana, and Togo; and on the east by Benin and Niger. Much of the country's surface is covered in wild grassland or desert. Most of the woodlands have been cleared for farming, though only about 10 percent of Burkina Faso's land is under cultivation. Some of the few remaining forests have been set aside as wildlife preserves. Animals include antelope, lions, elephants, buffalo, hippopotamuses, monkeys, and crocodiles. The disease-causing tsetse and simulium flies are widespread.
\par \tab The climate is generally sunny, hot, and dry, since the southern part of the country is only about 10 degrees north of the equator, and the northern part is just south of the Sahara. Rainfall ranges from less than 10 inches (25 centimeters) a year in the northern parts to about 40 inches (100 centimeters) in the southern parts.
\par {\b People and Economy}
\par \tab Almost one half of the population is younger than 15, and most people live in rural areas. French is the official language, but MorΘ is spoken by a majority of the population and Dyula and Hausa are the languages of commerce. Almost one half of the population practices tribal religions, and many of the rest are Muslims. About 12 percent are Christians.
\par \tab The largest ethnic group is the Mossi, who make up about half the population. Folklore reflects the country's ethnic diversity. Malnutrition and such diseases as malaria, tetanus, measles, and leprosy are common. Health and sanitary conditions are poor. The infant mortality rate is very high, and life expectancy is only about 48 years for men and 51 years for women. School enrollment is among the lowest in Africa. Less than 19 percent of the population above the age of 15 is literate. The only institution of higher learning in Burkina Faso is the University of Ouagadougou.
\par \tab Agriculture is the chief industry, with most people engaged in subsistence farming or stock raising. Crops include sorghum, millet, sugarcane, corn (maize), and pulses. Goats, sheep, and cattle are raised in large numbers, and live animals are exported. Cotton, meat, hides, and skins are also exported. Severe drought conditions have made the economy suffer, resulting in substantial migration to C⌠te d'Ivoire and Ghana each year. Small quantities of gold are mined, and large deposits of manganese and bauxite are known to exist. Manufacturing plants include cotton gins, rice and flour mills, a sugar refinery, and a textile mill. Service industries account for a small portion of the work force. Communications are mostly inadequate.
\par \tab Burkina Faso has one of the most poorly developed transportation networks in West Africa. It has one railroad, which connects Ouagadougou with the C⌠te d'Ivoire port of Abidjan. There are about 7,000 miles (11,300 kilometers) of roads, of which about 800 miles (1,300 kilometers) are paved. Ouagadougou and Bobo Dioulasso have international airports.
\par {\b History and Government}
\par \tab The Bobo, Gurunsi, and Lobi peoples were the earliest known inhabitants of the region. In the 15th century the Mossi and Gurma tribes established themselves in the central and eastern areas of the region. The Mossi kingdoms of Yatenga and Ouagadougou were still in existence in the early 20th century. In 1897 a French military force persuaded the Mossi ruler to place his country under a protectorate. The French also annexed the lands of the Bobo and Lobi peoples. Upper Volta was made a district of French West Africa in 1919. In 1958 it became an autonomous republic in the French community.
\par \tab Upper Volta achieved full independence in 1960 and joined the United Nations. Maurice YamΘogo was the first president and helped establish a new constitution. In 1966 the military seized power, and the country was under military and civilian control. Civilian governments were overthrown in 1974 and again in 1980. Another coup, in 1982, was headed by Maj. Jean-Baptiste Ouedraogo, who promised a return to civilian rule. He was overthrown by his former prime minister, Capt. Thomas Sankara, in August 1983. Sankara became president of the National Revolutionary Council (NRC).
\par \tab In 1984 Upper Volta was renamed Burkina Faso (which means "Country of Honesty," or "Country of Honest Men"). Sankara, who served as president of the NRC, chief of the army, and head of state, was overthrown in October 1987 by his former chief adviser, Capt. Blaise CompaorΘ. Sankara and 12 of his aides were executed during the coup, and the NRC was dissolved. CompaorΘ consolidated power with two others--Capt. Henri Zongo and Maj. Jean-Baptiste Boukari Lingani--and called the new government the Popular Front.
\par \tab The Popular Front established a new government structure of a legislature, a coordinating committee, and an executive committee. Zongo and Ligani were executed in September 1989 for plotting to overthrow CompaorΘ, and a December 1989 coup attempt by "foreign mercenaries" was foiled. In June 1991 voters approved a new constitution that provided for separate legislative, executive, and judicial branches of government. Population (1989 estimate), 8,714,000.\par \tab The Union of Myanmar, known as Burma until mid-1989, is the land of the great Irrawaddy, or Ayeyarwady, River. Most of the country's people live in the fertile lowlands drained by the river. Foreign products and travelers come through Rangoon (Yangon), Myanmar's capital. Myanmar is bordered by China, Laos, Thailand, the Andaman Sea and the Bay of Bengal, Bangladesh, and India.
\par \tab Myanmar is mountainous. Its parallel ranges are separated by the north-south valleys of the Irrawaddy, the Salween, and the Sittang rivers. The Irrawaddy and the Salween rise high in the Tibetan Highlands of China. The Irrawaddy Valley may be divided into three parts. The narrow, thinly populated upper valley reaches to about 50 miles (80 kilometers) north of Mandalay and receives other swift mountain streams. Much of the broader middle valley is known as the dry zone because its rainfall is low. The lower valley, which is the delta region, extends 180 miles (290 kilometers) upstream from the sea. A range of low mountains, the Pegu Yoma, runs east of the Irrawaddy.
\par \tab At the south end of the Irrawaddy Valley is the Arakan Yoma. Here the highest elevations rise to almost 13,000 feet (4,000 meters). West of the Arakan Yoma lies the state of Arakan, along the Bay of Bengal.
\par \tab The highlands to the northeast and east include the Shan Plateau, which averages about 3,000 feet (900 meters). The Salween River flows through in a deep, narrow valley. Myanmar's southern panhandle is the Tenasserim (Tanintharyi) division. It is on the Isthmus of Kra, which links Malaysia to continental Asia.
\par \tab Most of Myanmar receives heavy rainfall, almost all in summer. The Arakan and Tenasserim regions receive up to 200 inches (500 centimeters) a year. From 60 to 100 inches (150 to 250 centimeters) fall in the Irrawaddy Delta and between 40 and 80 inches (100 and 200 centimeters) in the eastern highlands and in the north. Parts of the dry zone, in the middle Irrawaddy Basin, get less than 40 inches each year.
\par \tab Almost 50 percent of Myanmar is forested. Where the rainfall is greatest, broad-leaved evergreen rain forests are common. Where there is less rainfall, the forests have trees that lose their leaves in the dry season. Teak is the best known of these trees. In prehistoric times the dry zone was a savanna, with mixed grass and trees. Most of the delta, formerly a swamp forest, has been cleared for farms. Mangrove forests rim the delta and portions of the coasts.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab The population of Myanmar is more than 40 million. Most of the ancestors of the present population came originally from southwestern China about 2,000 years ago. The various groups spoke different languages and had different customs, but the people were predominantly of Mongoloid background.
\par \tab The country's name change from Burma to Myanmar in 1989 was made to make clear the fact that the country was composed of various ethnic groups, not just the majority Burmans. The Burmans make up almost three quarters of the population and live chiefly in the central lowlands and the delta. The Shans, of the Shan Plateau region, the Karens, who live in the eastern hills and the eastern delta, and the Rakhines make up about a fifth of the population. The Talaings, or Mons, and the Chins and Kachins make up most of the rest of the population. In addition, there are many hill tribes, each speaking a different language. After the mid-19th century, thousands of Indians migrated to the country. People of Chinese origin live chiefly in the cities.
\par {\b Religion, Education, and Health}
\par \tab Buddhism, the country's dominant religion, was brought from India and Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) many centuries ago. The Buddhism of Myanmar is called Theravada or Hinayana (Little Raft) to differentiate it from the Mahayana (Great Raft) Buddhism most common in Tibet, Mongolia, China, Japan, and Korea. Each village has its Buddhist temple, or pagoda. The monks live in monasteries, which also serve as centers of traditional education.
\par \tab The society, in keeping with its religion, is quite democratic and fluid. There is no caste system nor is there a true nobility. The hill tribes are under the rule of chiefs, and most of the tribesmen practice traditional beliefs. The Shans are Buddhist. Many of the Karens have been converted to Christianity.
\par \tab Only a small number of the people receive more than a primary education. Rangoon and Mandalay have universities and state schools. The educational focus has been on vocational and technical training.
\par \tab Health facilities are fairly well developed for a tropical country. Infectious diseases such as typhoid fever, cholera, plague, and tuberculosis still occur, however, and malaria takes a heavy toll.
\par {\b Farming, Industry, Trade, and Transportation}
\par \tab About two thirds of the labor force tills the soil for a living, though only about 15 percent of the area is under cultivation. Rice is by far the chief crop, planted on about three quarters of the cropland. Other crops are sesame seeds, peanuts (groundnuts), and pulses (peas, beans, and lentils). Cereals, sugarcane, tobacco, and cotton are also grown. Northern Myanmar is the center of the Golden Triangle, the world's major grower of opium for the illegal heroin trade.
\par \tab Rice makes up more than 30 percent of the exports. High-quality hardwoods come from Myanmar and are its largest export. Teak from the Shan Plateau accounts for about a third of the hardwood timber output. Rubber trees are grown in the Tenasserim division. Tin and tungsten ores are mined there. Lead and zinc are found in the Shan Plateau. Precious metals, rubies, and jade have long been mined. Petroleum has long been a major product. Transportation is mostly by water or rail, with air service available between the larger cities. The Irrawaddy is navigable for some 900 miles (1,450 kilometers), and the Chindwin for 520 miles (840 kilometers) more.
\par {\b Government and History}
\par \tab Myanmar was first united as a single kingdom in 1044 under the ruler Anawrahta, who made it the center of Theravada Buddhism. After a series of wars in the 19th century, the country came under British control. The British took Tenasserim and Arakan in 1826; most of the delta region, including Rangoon, in 1852; and a large part of the rest of the country in 1885. From 1886 to 1937 they governed it as a province of India.
\par \tab The Japanese occupied the country in 1942 and created a puppet state that lasted until 1945, when British rule was restored. Burma was granted independence from the British in 1948. Burma's policy of neutrality and isolation in international relations was strained by Chinese pressures in the northeast. A boundary treaty between Burma and China, signed in 1960, helped ease tensions.
\par \tab In 1958 a caretaker government was set up under the army chief of staff, Gen. Ne Win, who prepared the country for elections. U Nu was elected prime minister of the government, which ruled from 1960 until 1962, when Ne Win staged a coup. He dissolved the parliament, abandoned the constitution, and began nationalizing industry. Under the 1974 constitution, Burma became a one-party socialist republic, with Ne Win as president. He dissolved the Revolutionary Council that was set up after the coup of 1962 and inaugurated a one-chamber assembly. Ne Win stepped down in 1981 but retained his leading role as chairman of the Burma Socialist Program party (BSPP).
\par \tab In July 1988 Ne Win resigned as chairman of the BSPP after antigovernment demonstrations led to violent protests. Sein Lwin, a former military officer, became president but resigned two weeks later. Maung Maung became president in August, as the first civilian leader in 26 years, but failed to end the street violence. On September 18 Saw Maung, a four-star general and close associate of Ne Win, toppled the civilian government. Street violence and military actions resulted in the deaths of 10,000 people. On September 10 Article 11 of the constitution, making the country a one-party state, was dropped. On September 26 the name of the BSPP was changed to the National Unity party. In an attempt to quiet protests by ethnic minorities, the country's name and many cities' names were changed in 1989.
\par \tab Despite the arrest and disqualification of most of its leadership, the National League for Democracy won about 82 percent of parliamentary seats in 1990 elections. The military government, however, never permitted the elected government to take power. Opposition leader Aung San Suu Kyi, under house arrest since 1989, was awarded the 1991 Nobel prize for peace. The United Nations Human Rights Commission condemned the military regime for human rights abuses, but economic sanctions failed to bring about changes.\par \tab A landlocked country of Central Africa, the Republic of Burundi has an area of 10,740 square miles (27,816 square kilometers). It is bordered by Rwanda on the north, Zaire on the west, and Tanzania on the south and east.
\par \tab The heart of Burundi is mountainous. The mountain slopes, which are wetter and cooler than the rest of the country, are forested. A north-south range, rising to more than 8,500 feet (2,590 meters), is the divide between the drainage systems of the Congo and Nile rivers. The mountains slope gently toward the Tanzanian frontier on the east but they drop abruptly toward the west. Here lie the lowlands along the Ruzizi River and Lake Tanganyika. These plains are part of Africa's Great Rift Valley. The varied animal life includes elephants, lions, leopards, hippopotamuses, crocodiles, buffalo, warthogs, baboons, and antelopes.
\par \tab The heat of the tropics is moderated by the high altitude. The average temperature is 73░ F (23░ C) on the Ruzizi River plain and 63░ F (17░ C) on the crest of the divide. The divide's rainfall measures an annual average of 60 to 70 inches (150 to 180 centimeters), while that on the plain is only about 30 inches (80 centimeters). The dry season lasts from June to August and the rainy season from February through May.
\par \tab Burundi is a rugged land where people live by subsistence farming or by grazing cattle. There are 527 persons per square mile (203 per square kilometer), making Burundi (like its neighbor Rwanda) one of the most densely populated countries in Africa. About 80 percent of the people are Hutu, about 15 percent are Tutsi, and most of the remainder are Twa, or Batwa, a Pygmy group. The Tutsi have traditionally controlled the military and the government. Rundi and French are the official languages, though Swahili is also spoken. More than half of the people are Roman Catholics.
\par \tab Coffee is the chief commercial crop and export. Tea and cotton are also grown for trade. Subsistence crops include beans, cassavas, corn (maize), rice, sweet potatoes, peanuts, peas, and sorghum. Soybeans, oil palms, and sugarcane are also grown. There are reserves of metallic ores. The few industrial plants process cotton and coffee or manufacture consumer products.
\par \tab Trade is hampered by poor transportation facilities. A road network connects Burundi with its neighbors. Exports move to market through Bujumbura and Kigoma-Ujiji, a Tanzanian port on Lake Tanganyika, then by rail to Dar es Salaam, Tanzania's main seaport. There is an international airport at Bujumbura, Burundi's capital and chief city (population, 1990 estimate, 226,628).
\par \tab Burundi's national culture is traditional rather than written. There is a good deal of oral literature that consists of stories, legends, and fables, as well as poetry and songs. Burundi folk dancing is internationally famous.
\par {\b History and Government}
\par \tab The Twa were probably the land's first inhabitants. Centuries ago the land was overrun--first by the Hutu, then by the Tutsi. Germany made Burundi part of German East Africa in the late 19th century. After World War I Ruanda-Urundi was made a League of Nations mandate, administered by Belgium, and in 1946 it became a United Nations trust territory. On July 1, 1962, the two parts of the trust territory became separate independent countries. The northern part became the Republic of Rwanda, and the southern part, Burundi, became a constitutional monarchy under its hereditary ruler, the mwami. The mwami was deposed by his son on July 8, 1966, and the constitution was suspended. The new mwami was enthroned on September 1, but on November 28, while he was out of the country, he was overthrown. The bloodless military coup was led by Burundi's prime minister, who assumed the new title of president and declared the country a republic.
\par \tab The exiled mwami, who had been promised amnesty, returned to Burundi in March 1972 and was arrested. A month later the president dissolved the Council of Ministers and took full control of the country; the mwami was killed during the bloody rebellion that followed. The president reinstated a government with a prime minister in July 1972 but suspended the constitution in 1974. In November 1976 the president was deposed by army officers, who set up a Supreme Revolutionary Council. The office of prime minister was again abolished in 1978.
\par \tab In September 1987 President Jean-Baptiste Bagaza was overthrown, and the 1981 constitution was suspended. Bagaza was replaced by Maj. Pierre Buyoya, who improved human rights, curbed repression, and stopped the anti-Roman Catholic policies of Bagaza. In August 1988 battles between the rival Hutu and Tutsi peoples broke out. About 20,000 people were killed and tens of thousands of Hutu fled to Rwanda. Each group accused the other of starting the warfare. A new government was formed in October 1988. Buyoya reshuffled the cabinet and appointed a Hutu prime minister, and for the first time the Hutu held a majority of the ministries.
\par \tab By mid-1989 almost all of the Hutu who had fled in 1988 had returned. In the June 1993 elections, Melchior Ndadaye, a Hutu, unexpectedly won the presidency. This represented a major shift in power from the minority Tutsi to the Hutu majority. This change was short-lived, however, as Ndadaye was killed in a Tutsi-led coup attempt in October. Waves of ethnic violence then swept the country, killing thousands. Economic problems continued to beset the nation, and Burundi continued to rely on foreign financial and technical aid. Population (1993 estimate), 5,665,000.\par \tab In the southwestern part of the Indochinese Peninsula of Southeast Asia is the country of Cambodia. The names Cambodia and Kampuchea are transliterations of the country's traditional name in the Khmer language, and both have been used for the name of the country. In 1970 the government abolished the colonial name Cambodia but retained the name Kampuchea. Nineteen years later the name Cambodia was readopted. The country is a remnant of the Khmer Empire, which ruled much of Southeast Asia from the 9th to the 15th century. Cambodia was a part of French Indochina from 1887 to 1953, when it gained independence. During the 1970s rival factions engaged in a bloody struggle for control of the country. One faction, supported by China, took over the government in 1975. Another, backed by Vietnam, overthrew the government in 1979 and controlled the country for the next decade.
\par \tab Cambodia has an area of 69,898 square miles (181,035 square kilometers). It centers on a basinlike lowland that rises gently from the Gulf of Thailand in the south to the Dangrek Mountains in the north. In the Cardamom Mountains in the southwest rises the country's highest peak, Phnum Aoral, at 5,948 feet (1,813 meters). To the west a low divide separates Cambodia from Thailand. The Mekong River flows southward from Laos through eastern Cambodia.
\par \tab Approximately in the center of the lowland lies Tonle Sap, meaning "Great Lake," which serves as a natural flood reservoir for the Mekong River. From November to late April, the lake shrinks to an area of about 1,000 square miles (2,600 square kilometers) and to a depth of no more than 5 feet (1.5 meters). From July to late October, when the Mekong floodwaters flow up the Tonle Sap River into the lake, the area of the lake expands and may cover almost 10,000 square miles (26,000 square kilometers) and the depth may reach 45 feet (14 meters).
\par \tab Cambodia has a tropical climate. It is always warm to hot in the lowlands, with temperatures seldom below 80░ F (27░ C). The rainy season comes with the summer monsoon, which lasts from May through October. The monsoon normally brings 50 to 80 inches (130 to 200 centimeters) of rain in the lowlands and about twice as much in the southwestern mountains.
\par \tab Three quarters of Cambodia consists of tropical evergreen forests, and about a fifth of the country is used for meadow, pasture, and agriculture. Away from the streams are sandy soils and course, eroded and infertile yellow or red earth. Along the many floodplains are narrow strips of good alluvial soil. The annually flooded banks of the Tonle Sap and Mekong rivers have fertile soils that are renewed by the silt of the flood season. Animals of Cambodia include monkeys, buffalo, elephants, tigers, panthers, leopards, civets, crocodiles, pheasants, and jungle fowl.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab Most of the people are Khmer, a racially diverse group that arrived in Southeast Asia in about 2000 BC. They speak Khmer, a language that is a member of the Mon-Khmer group of Austroasiatic languages spoken in northeast India and Indochina. Men and women both generally wear an upper jacket and a saronglike lower garment called a sampot.
\par \tab Almost 4 million people lived in the Khmer Empire at its height from the 11th to the 13th century AD. Conquest by Thai forces in the 14th and 15th centuries reduced the population by about half. Wars during the 17th to the 19th century reduced the Khmer to about 1 million people by the mid-19th century. By 1960, however, the number of Khmer had again increased to almost 5 million, and by 1991 the number of Khmer had reached more than 8 million.
\par \tab Aboriginal groups occupy the upland area around the borders of Cambodia. Muslim Chams live in villages in the eastern part of the country. For centuries colonies of southern Chinese have made their homes in Cambodian cities, and some have intermarried with the Khmer. Approximately one third of the Chinese live in Phnom Penh, the capital and largest city. Vietnamese settlers began arriving in southeastern Cambodia in the late 17th century. Thai live along the western fringes of Cambodia, near the border with Thailand.
\par \tab The Khmer are primarily an agricultural people. Most of the Chinese live in cities and work in nonagricultural occupations. Some of the ethnic Vietnamese of Cambodia are farmers or fishermen, and others are artisans or merchants in the cities. In the rural lowlands, the Khmer live in villages.
\par \tab The Khmer have long been practitioners of Buddhism, though many rural people follow ancient folk religions. During the 14th century the Khmer shifted from the Mahayana to the Theravada, or Hinayana, tradition, of Buddhism. Young Khmer men normally spend a period as priests associated with a temple.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab The Cambodian economy is based on agriculture, chiefly rice growing. Rice is primarily a wet-field crop, grown with the aid of irrigation or floodwaters during the rainy season. A number of farmers grow "floating rice" on the deep water next to the natural levees of the Mekong River. Sugarcane ranks second in importance, and roots and tubers rank third, of which cassavas and sweet potatoes are the main products. Bananas and corn (maize) rank next in importance. Other crops include beans, rubber and soybeans. Other fruits, grown for local consumption, include pineapples and oranges.
\par \tab Cotton, kapok, ramie, and raw silk are produced chiefly along the Mekong River. These products are used primarily by domestic artisans. The French began to establish rubber plantations east of the Mekong in the 1920s, and Cambodia is one of the chief rubber producers of the Far East.
\par \tab Livestock raising has a role in the economy, supplying draft animals for use in agriculture and local transportation and small amounts of meat for the urban population. Fishes are a more commonly consumed product. They are dried, salted, or made into sauces and pastes. The supply exceeds domestic needs, and the surplus is exported to Vietnam.
\par \tab A few types of light manufacturing had developed in Cambodia prior to 1965, but political unrest from then until 1979 stopped almost all production. Handicrafts also declined during this period of political turmoil. The economy began to recover in 1980, with operations in textiles, paper, cigarettes, glass, and soft drinks. The private economy began to thrive with the lessening of tensions in the 1990s.
\par \tab Transportation in Cambodia is largely by water during the rainy season and by ox cart in the dry months. Phnom Penh is a Mekong River port accessible to small seagoing ships. Small boats also operate on the Mekong River and on Tonle Sap. A railroad connects Phnom Penh and Thailand. Another line runs between the capital and the port of Kampong Cham, the country's only seaport for oceangoing vessels, on the Gulf of Thailand.
\par \tab Cambodia has about 2,000 miles (3,200 kilometers) of paved, all-weather roads, including a four-lane highway between Phnom Penh and Kampong Saom, but a lack of maintenance since 1960 has made them barely usable. A network of improved dirt roads serves the nation during the dry season. Cambodia's communications system was heavily damaged between 1975 and 1979.
\par \tab Political conflict also disrupted the educational system. The number of literate people in Cambodia was increasing slowly before 1970 but was below that of other Southeast Asian nations except Laos. In 1970 elementary, high school, and university education was regularly available, but after the Khmer Rouge took over in 1975 only elementary classes were available.
\par {\b History and Government}
\par \tab From the 15th century on the Khmer state lost both people and territory to Thailand on the west, Laos on the north, and Vietnam on the east. The country was almost divided between Thailand and Vietnam in the 19th century before the French made Cambodia a protectorate in 1863. The country formed part of French Indochina from 1887 until it became independent in 1953 under King Norodom Sihanouk. The next year at the Geneva Conference, Sihanouk's government was recognized as the sole legitimate authority in the country. Sihanouk abdicated in favor of his father in 1955, reorganized the government, and was elected chief of state in 1960, after his father died. Cambodia tried to remain politically neutral in the fight for power between Communist and non-Communist nations during the 1960s. By 1965, however, Communist factions were competing in promoting revolution there.
\par \tab In March 1970 Gen. Lon Nol, an anti-Communist, seized control of Cambodia. The Cambodian legislature abolished the monarchy and changed the name of the nation to the Khmer Republic. Sihanouk had been out of the country when Lon Nol took over the government. In late 1972, in Beijing, Sihanouk organized a revolutionary government-in-exile. It was backed by China and opposed the Communist faction that was backed by the Soviet Union and Vietnam.
\par \tab In January 1975 the Khmer Rouge, as the China-backed revolutionaries came to be called, launched a major offensive against the Vietnamese faction and the Lon Nol government. The Khmer Rouge, led by Pol Pot, occupied Phnom Penh in April. A new constitution legalized the Communist government and program and renamed the country Democratic Kampuchea. The Khmer Rouge turned all cultivated land into cooperatives and sent city people to rural areas to clear cropland; Phnom Penh became a ghost town. More than 1 million people died or were killed during brutal purges of opposing factions, former government officials, and the educated and middle classes. Thousands of people fled the country seeking refuge in neighboring countries, such as Thailand.
\par \tab In December 1978 Vietnam invaded Kampuchea. The Vietnamese government said it wanted to save Kampuchea from further harshness and purges by the Khmer Rouge; its support went to the Soviet-Vietnamese Communist faction. By April 1979 the Vietnamese had taken Phnom Penh, installed a new government under Heng Samrin, and changed the name of the country to the People's Democratic Republic of Kampuchea. The Vietnamese army occupied the country and waged anti-Khmer Rouge campaigns in the western border areas.
\par \tab The Vietnamese set up a People's Revolutionary Council to govern Kampuchea. In 1981 a 117-member National Assembly was elected to a five-year term, and it approved a new constitution. The Assembly that year appointed a seven-member Council of State and a 16-member Council of Ministers to replace the Revolutionary Council.
\par \tab Many nations were concerned about Vietnam's long-term intentions toward Kampuchea because of its long-standing aggressiveness toward the Khmer. Thailand continued its indirect support of the Khmer Rouge. China bitterly opposed the new regime and briefly invaded Vietnam in 1979. In 1982 the principal anti-Vietnamese Khmer forces formed a coalition to combat Vietnam's continued military occupation of their homeland. Sihanouk resigned as head of the coalition and went into exile in July 1988. Peace talks were held later that month between all of the warring Kampuchean factions.
\par \tab In 1989 Vietnam announced that it would withdraw its remaining troops by the end of September. The constitution drawn up that year renamed the country the State of Cambodia. In March 1990, however, Sihanouk claimed that Vietnam continued to control Cambodia after the pullout and that thousands of troops had never left.
\par \tab The four factions involved in the civil war--the Vietnamese-installed Phnom Penh government, the ousted Khmer Rouge, the anti-Communists, and the nationalists loyal to Sihanouk--agreed in May 1991 to a cease-fire. In an effort to prevent a return to power of the Khmer Rouge, the United States in July scheduled diplomatic talks with the Vietnamese-backed government. During these talks, held in September and overseen by the United Nations (UN), all the warring Cambodian factions agreed to form a 12-member Supreme National Council (SNC) to work toward a peace settlement. Under the terms of the peace plan, the UN would be in charge, running parts of the government and preparing for elections in 1993. Sihanouk was made head of the SNC to lead Cambodia through the transition.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by J.E. Spencer, Professor Emeritus, Department of Geography, University of California, Los Angeles, and author of 'Asia, East by South'.\par \tab A triangle-shaped country facing the Atlantic Ocean's Gulf of Guinea, Cameroon was one of 17 African nations that became independent in 1960, the "Year of Freedom." Cameroon has an area of 179,714 square miles (465,457 square kilometers). It is bordered by Nigeria, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea, Chad, the Central African Republic, and Congo.
\par \tab Only about 15 percent of Cameroon's total land area is arable, or fit for farming; more than half of its land is forested. Cameroon has important mineral deposits of iron, aluminum, bauxite, limestone, uranium, and gold. There are two main rivers: the Sanaga, draining southwestward into the Atlantic Ocean, and the Benue, flowing westward into the Niger River basin in Nigeria. The Benue is navigable during several months of the year.
\par \tab Cameroon has four topographical regions. The southern region, extending southward from the Sanaga River, consists of coastal plains and a densely forested plateau, or raised flatland. The central region, which covers the area between the Sanaga and Benue rivers, rises progressively in elevation toward the north. In the west the land is mountainous, while in the north the savanna plain, or grassland, slopes downward toward the Lake Chad basin.
\par \tab The country is hot throughout the year. The average annual temperatures range between 70░ and 82░ F (21░ and 28░ C). Rainfall is greatest in the south, averaging about 150 inches (380 centimeters) per year. The capital is YaoundΘ.
\par \tab The hot, humid south supports dense tropical rain forests that include mahogany, ebony, and obeche trees. The central region has a mixed forest of evergreens and deciduous trees. Northern vegetation is wooded savanna. Cameroon has varied animal life that includes buffalo, elephant, hippopotamus, antelope, and many kinds of birds.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab Cameroon has been described as a racial crossroads because of its more than 200 ethnic groups. The major groups are Fang, Bamileke and Bamum, and Douala. Pygmies live in the southern forests.
\par \tab The official languages are French and English, but local languages are also spoken. More than half the population continues its traditional religious beliefs. Christianity was introduced by Europeans during the colonial period, and the people of the north are predominantly Muslim.
\par \tab Every major ethnic group of the country has developed its own culture based on traditional arts and customs. The country's rich musical diversity is represented by drum rhythms in the southern forest and flute music in the north. Many crafts are also produced, including worked leather goods and pottery.
\par \tab Education in public schools is free, and the government subsidizes private education. Health conditions are poor, especially in rural areas.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab Since its independence in 1960 Cameroon has experienced a steady economic growth based largely on agriculture. Agriculture totals about one third of the gross national product and employs more than 80 percent of the work force. Crops include corn, beans, peanuts, millet, sorghum, rubber, and palm oil. Timber production is growing, with more than half the output exported as logs. Processed-wood products for export increased with the establishment of a pulp factory in 1980.
\par \tab Cameroon's industry is dominated by raw-materials processing. Factories include an aluminum manufacturing complex, a pulp and paper mill, a tire factory, a fertilizer plant, a tannery, and a petroleum refinery. Exports include petroleum, coffee, cacao and cocoa products, timber, and aluminum. Chief trading partners include France, the United States, The Netherlands, and Germany. Cameroon is heavily dependent on foreign trade, and the majority of its manufactured goods are imported, as are many raw materials for industry. Railroads and highways in addition to the rivers provide transportation. The main airport is at Douala.
\par {\b History and Government}
\par \tab The earliest inhabitants of Cameroon were probably the pygmies. The first Europeans to arrive were the Portuguese in the early 1470s. By 1520 they had established sugar plantations and also a prosperous slave trade. Dutch settlers followed in the early 1600s, and the Dutch took over the slave trade. British and German settlers arrived in the 1800s. In 1807 the British declared the slave trade illegal, and it was phased out by the 1840s. Both the British and the Germans wanted to establish a protectorate. The Germans succeeded in 1884 and retained control until World War I, when British and French troops forced them out.
\par \tab In 1919 Cameroon was divided by the London Declaration into French and British administrative zones. In 1960 the French trust territory became an independent republic and a member of the United Nations. The southern part of the British trust territory voted for union in 1961 with the new Federal Republic of Cameroon and the northern part for union with Nigeria.
\par \tab A unitary government was established in 1972. Its constitution places executive power in the president, who is directly elected to a five-year term. He is assisted by a cabinet headed by the prime minister. Legislative power is in the unicameral, or single-chamber, National Assembly, consisting of 180 members who are also elected to five-year terms. The judicial system is headed by the Supreme Court.
\par \tab In 1984, shortly after Paul Biya was elected to his first full term as president, members of the presidential guard mutinied. The mutiny was put down by forces loyal to the president. In 1986 about 1,700 people in the remote northwest were killed by suffocating gases emitted by a crater lake. Population (1991 estimate), 12,239,000.\par \tab Stretching westward from the Atlantic Ocean to the shores of the Pacific Ocean, and northward from its border with the United States to the icy waters of the Arctic Ocean, Canada is a huge and fascinating land of contrasts. Although its area of nearly 4 million square miles (10 million square kilometers) makes it the second largest nation on Earth, after Russia, it has a population of only 6.9 persons per square mile (2.7 persons per square kilometer). By contrast, the population of China, a nation slightly smaller than Canada in area, is 40 times greater. Although from north to south Canada measures nearly 3,000 miles (4,800 kilometers), more than two thirds of its nearly 27,300,000 residents live within 190 miles (300 kilometers) of its southern border with 12 states of the United States.
{\b NATURAL ENVIRONMENT}
\par \tab A massive dome of Precambrian rock dominates the Canadian landscape. Called the Canadian Shield, it lies at or near the surface of the Earth. Shaped somewhat like a giant inverted saucer, it sweeps from the Amundsen Gulf southward and eastward across the top of the Prairie Provinces, around Hudson Bay to the Atlantic Ocean, encompassing most of Ontario and Quebec and all of Labrador. The sedimentary rocks that make up the remainder of the country's surface and near surface rest on this ancient base, though it may be necessary to penetrate deeply into the Earth to find it.
\par \tab In the Paleozoic era (570 million to 225 million years ago) and later in the Mesozoic era (225 million to 65 million years ago), ancient seas invaded the depressed areas of the Canadian Shield and gradually formed layer upon layer of sediment. In the course of millions of years, these layers were solidified, then uplifted and broken by tremendous geologic forces. Tiny marine life trapped in the sediment formed oil and natural gas deposits that gathered in the folds of the rock. Giant dinosaurs also were covered, and they too became part of the rock layers.
\par \tab Some rock was melted and re-formed, and some molten rock invaded the massive cracks in the Earth's crust, where slowly it cooled and formed massive deposits of minerals. Wind and water and glacial ice wore away the rock, laying down the particles in valleys and depressions, where over the centuries living organisms have turned it into soil.
\par {\b Land Regions}
\par \tab Canada may be divided into several natural regions based upon geologic history. The easternmost is the Appalachian Region, which includes the Atlantic Provinces and the GaspΘ Peninsula in Quebec. This region is a northern extension of the Appalachian Mountains of the United States and, like them, is an area of lakes, rivers, and tree-clad hills. Deposits of coal, gypsum, and other nonmetallic minerals as well as metallic ores may be found in the region. Offshore in the Atlantic Ocean the frigid waters of the Labrador Current, rich in the tiny organisms upon which larger ocean life feeds, meet the warmer waters of the Gulf Stream. The resulting conditions and the presence of the continental shelf have led to the formation of one of the world's most bountiful fishing areas, the Grand Banks.
\par \tab In the Arctic archipelago, the frozen islands of the Canadian north, mountains similar to the Appalachians are found. Named the Innuitian Mountains after the northern indigenous people, they are largely unexplored because of the hostile climate. Thus little is known of their economic potential.
\par \tab Westward from the Atlantic, sandwiched between the Canadian Shield and the Appalachians, lies the region known as the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Lowlands. Here the Mesozoic limestones, sandstones, and shales are overlain by glacial drift, the sediments left when glacial lakes drained away 11,000 years ago. This region's Point Pelee on the Ontario shore of Lake Erie, the most southerly part of Canada, is farther south than the northern boundary of California. The richness of its soils and the presence of abundant building materials have helped make this region the most populated in Canada and the center of the country's economic activity.
\par \tab The projection of the Canadian Shield known as the Frontenac Axis slices the St. Lawrence Lowlands in two to form the Thousand Islands in the St. Lawrence River and the Adirondack Mountains in the United States. Here the ancient granites of Precambrian rock rise above the surrounding sedimentary materials and mark the beginning of the vast expanse of barren rock, forest, muskeg swamps (grassy bogs), and beautiful lakes that are characteristic of the shield. Covering nearly 2 million square miles (5 million square kilometers), this region accounts for almost half of Canada's land area. Here are found most of the major mining activities and the evergreen forests that provide for Canada's huge forest products industry. The flow of water in numerous rivers is the source of hydroelectric power for the cities of the lowlands and for export to the United States.
\par \tab In a wide belt between the Canadian Shield and the western mountains, stretching from the border with the United States to the shores of the Arctic Ocean, is the region known as the Interior Plains and Lowlands. Thick, almost horizontal layers of sedimentary rock form a low, rolling landscape that rises gradually to the west. Cereal-growing areas of the eastern and central part of the region give way, as the land rises, to the cattle ranches of the west and the forests of the north. The sedimentary rock layers in Alberta yield petroleum, natural gas, and coal; in Saskatchewan they yield potash.
\par \tab Two other lowland areas border the shield: the Hudson Bay Lowlands and the Arctic Lowlands of the archipelago. In both the underlying sedimentary rocks are similar to those found bordering the lower Great Lakes in southern Ontario. As is also the case in the south, deposits of salt and hydrocarbons have been found, but the inhospitable climate has kept Canadians from exploiting them.
\par \tab A huge section of the mountainous spine of the Western Hemisphere forms the Cordillera, or Canadian Rocky Mountains, the last natural region of Canada. Monstrous geologic forces buckled and folded ancient sediments to form these chains of mountains that run roughly parallel to the Pacific shore. Rising from the interior plains and forming the Continental Divide, the Rockies were a formidable barrier to the westward expansion of the nation and continue to present problems. Only three natural passes exist--Yellowhead, Kicking Horse, and Crowsnest--and it is through these that the produce of the prairies must pass to reach the markets of the Pacific rim. Further west, the Columbia and Skeena mountains, the interior plateaus, and the deep gorges of the Fraser and Thompson rivers also have made travel difficult through the years. Finally, the massive Coast Mountains plunge into the Pacific, forming sheer walls and a deeply indented, fjordlike coast. Vancouver Island and the Queen Charlotte Islands, projections of another fold of the Earth's crust, form the Island Mountains. In the St. Elias Mountains in the Yukon Territory to the north, Canada's highest point--Mount Logan--soars nearly 20,000 feet (6,000 meters) above sea level. It is almost on the border of Alaska. The Cordillera contains Canada's wettest place--Estevan Point on Vancouver Island--with more than 120 inches (300 centimeters) of precipitation each year, and one of its driest regions--the plateau in south-central British Columbia near Kamloops. Minerals and forest products and the abundant harvests of farms, rivers, and ocean make this region important to Canada.
\par {\b Rivers and Lakes}
\par \tab More than 8 percent of Canada's area is covered by water, and this is still the key to the prosperity of the nation. All its major cities and towns are located on a main river or lake.
\par \tab Two main watersheds, or ridges that account for differences in the direction of water drainage, divide Canada. The first and most significant of these is the barrier formed by the Rocky Mountains, which separates the westward flow of water from the eastward flow. A less noticeable but important watershed is a ridge of high land that more or less follows the 49th parallel of latitude from the Rockies to the head of the Great Lakes; it separates the waters flowing northward to the Arctic Ocean or Hudson Bay from those flowing eastward toward the Atlantic Ocean or southward to the Gulf of Mexico.
\par \tab In the west the Fraser and Thompson rivers drain the southern half of British Columbia and pour their waters into the Strait of Georgia (between Vancouver Island and the mainland) and the Pacific Ocean. On the other side of the Continental Divide the Mackenzie River, Canada's longest, drains the waters from the Peace and Slave rivers, Lake Athabasca, and Great Slave Lake, emptying them into the Beaufort Sea and the Arctic Ocean.
\par \tab The North and South Saskatchewan rivers carry water from the Rockies to Manitoba's Lake Winnipeg. Together with the flow from the Red and Assiniboine rivers in southern Manitoba, these waters flow northeastward through the Nelson River to Hudson Bay. Numerous rivers from Manitoba, northern Ontario, and northwestern Quebec also flow into Hudson Bay and James Bay. Almost all other rivers in Canada flow into the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence River system and then into the Atlantic Ocean.
\par \tab In all the world there is no collection of fresh water to equal the Great Lakes. From Duluth, Minn., in the United States, they stretch in unbroken line through the St. Lawrence to Belle Isle, Newfoundland, a distance of more than 2,300 miles (3,700 kilometers). Canada shares all of the lakes with the United States except Lake Michigan, which lies entirely within the United States. These huge lakes have long played a major role in westward expansion and economic growth. They have eased the flow of raw materials, agricultural products, and finished goods to and from markets all over the world and have greatly enriched the two nations that share them.
\par {\b Climate}
\par \tab In a land as vast as Canada, it is natural to find a great variety of climate. Although overall the country is cool, there are some remarkable differences from region to region. The Atlantic provinces and the lowland region of Ontario and Quebec have a cool continental climate characterized by hot summers and bitter cold winters. But the closeness of the ocean noticeably moderates the climate in the provinces of Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, and Newfoundland so that summers are cooler and winters not so severe.
\par \tab Throughout the whole region precipitation is even and moderate all year. In the region roughly corresponding to the Canadian Shield, there is a cold continental climate, with long, severely cold winters and short, hot summers. The southern parts of the three Prairie Provinces have significantly less rain and snow than their northern sections, and this controls what can be done with the land. In the Rockies there are a number of climates, depending on elevation and position on the slopes.
\par \tab The Pacific coastal areas get great amounts of rain and snow, particularly in the winter when the winds blow mostly directly onshore and are forced upward by the mountain wall. Yet the provincial capital of British Columbia, Victoria, is attractive to many people because of its dry climate and mild winters. Summers on the Pacific coast are mild.
\par \tab Finally, the frigid Arctic archipelago and the shores of the Arctic Ocean make up the Arctic climatic zone. Since this region lies entirely within the Arctic Circle, periods of daylight and darkness last six months, the ground is permanently frozen, and summers are brief and cool.
\par {\b Plants}
\par \tab Plant life varies with land type and climate. By far the most abundant form is boreal, or northern, forest, which accounts for four fifths of the nation's forested area. Indeed, this band of tree growth, which covers the southern portion of the Canadian Shield and which stretches uninterrupted from the border with Alaska to the Atlantic coast, is second in size only to the boreal forests of Russia. Since deciduous trees, or those that shed their leaves, cannot survive in a climate where the average January temperature is below -0.4░ F (-18░ C), the boreal forest is made up almost entirely of coniferous, or evergreen, trees. These forests are the mainstay of Canada's pulp and paper and forest products industries.
\par \tab South of the boreal forest in northwestern Ontario, and again from central Ontario to the Maritime, or Atlantic, Provinces, lies a belt of mixed coniferousand deciduous forest. In southern Ontario are small wooded areas that are the remains of what was the only completely deciduous forest in Canada.
\par \tab To the south of the boreal forest in the Prairie Provinces is an area generally too dry to support the growth of dense forest. Gradually the landscape changes from a parkland with scattered tree stands to an area of long grass and then to the dry short grass region of Alberta and Saskatchewan just north of the United States border. This region of deep rich soils and short hot summers accounts for three quarters of Canada's agricultural land. Westward the Rockies' jumble of mountains and plateaus and complex climatic mixture yields Canada's greatest variety of vegetation. Cacti and sagebrush, grasslands and coniferous forest, and the majestic stands of Douglas fir trees on the Coast Mountains are all part of British Columbia's natural heritage.
\par \tab Northward from the boreal forests lies a transitional zone of scattered stunted coniferous forest and muskeg swamp. This subarctic region, called taiga, yields to the tundra, where it is too cold for trees of any kind to survive. This is the land of lichens and mosses, plants that, like those in warm deserts, must follow a cycle of a short period of growth, followed by a long period of dormancy. This is Canada's most fragile environment and one that has engaged the attention and energies of a number of groups concerned that commercial exploitation of the Arctic resources may cause serious and irreparable damage.
\par {\b Animal Life}
\par \tab Canada has always had a great variety of wild animals. Most of the world's woodland caribou, grizzly bears, mountain sheep, wolves, and wolverines live in Canada. But many native species were severely reduced by uncontrolled hunting and the destruction of animal habitats by human settlement. Wood bison, once on the prairies in vast numbers, now can only be found in protected parklands. Passenger pigeons, which once darkened the skies of the St. Lawrence Lowlands, became extinct early in the 20th century. Harp seals, inhabitants of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, are not endangered but have become the focus of worldwide attention. This is because of the manner in which day-old pups are clubbed to death in great numbers by hunters.
\par \tab The waters of Canada's continental shelf teem with fishes. In the Pacific the cold waters of the California Current mix with the warmer Alaska Current, resulting in perfect conditions for feeding grounds for fishes and, therefore, for an active fishing industry. Particularly valuable are the salmon that spawn in the many rivers and streams of the Coast Mountains and later migrate to the open sea to feed and to mature. Herring as well are attracted to the area and account for a large portion of the fishes caught. In the Atlantic cod is by far the most important species caught in the open sea, while lobsters and shellfish are the main catch of fishermen closer to shore.
{\b PEOPLE}
\par \tab In Canada today the Indian, Inuit, and mΘtis (mixed Indian and French ancestry) peoples are referred to as native peoples. When the first Europeans reached North America, there probably were not more than 200,000 Indians and Inuit in what is now Canada. The population of native peoples in the early 1980s was almost double that number.
\par \tab The Indian peoples are organized into tribal bands, each governed by a band council. Most bands control a tract of land called a reserve that was defined by treaties made in the past with Great Britain. In the 1960s, '70s, and '80s, some bands extended their landholdings or were paid for lands by taking the government of Canada to court.
\par \tab The Vikings from Northern Europe arrived on the continent in about AD 1000, but they made no long-lasting settlement. It was not until the beginning of the 17th century that the French established permanent settlements in what are now the Maritime Provinces and Quebec. The British, who had established themselves in their New England colonies, moved into the interior of the continent through Hudson Bay. The fortunes of war brought almost the whole of the continent under the control of Great Britain in 1763. The American Revolution separated it again and brought about the first of many migrations of people to the nation that was to become Canada. Most of these people were of British origin.
\par \tab Unemployment and other problems caused by industrialization in Great Britain, potato famines in Ireland, offers of free land, and simple adventuresome spirit brought thousands of new settlers pouring into British North America. By the time Canada became an independent nation in 1867, the Maritime Provinces, Quebec along the St. Lawrence River, and southern Ontario were well settled, with extensive farmland and burgeoning towns and cities linked by an expanding road and railway network. Population growth from this time until the beginning of the 20th century, however, averaged only 1 percent per year. The flow from Britain and the rest of Europe was offset to a large extent by a flow out to the United States, where the settlement of the West was in full swing. In the years before the beginning of World War I, a new flood of immigrants, many fleeing the unrest in Germany and Russia, came pouring into Canada and took up cheap land offered by the railroad companies on the prairies. Often the isolated communities that were formed were of people from the same country so that many European cultures were transplanted to the new land.
\par \tab During a very rapid expansion of Canadian industry and a massive movement of people from rural to urban centers following World War II, there was another great influx of immigrants--particularly from Italy--to meet the demand for workers in the building trades. As a result, Italian is now the third most important first language spoken in Canada, next to English and French, the two official languages according to Canada's constitution.
\par \tab Upheavals in Africa and Asia, and the changing of restrictive regulations concerning immigration to Canada from the Far East, have caused an inflow of people of Asian origin. These included Indian and Pakistani refugees from East Africa, Vietnamese "boat people," Chinese from Hong Kong, and many more.
\par \tab In the early 1980s there were about 15 million people in the nation whose mother tongue was English and more than 6 million whose mother tongue was French. But the federal government and most provincial governments have recognized through legislation the multicultural nature of today's Canadian society. Individual ethnic communities are encouraged through various funding arrangements to keep alive their language and culture. In the early 1990s there were in Canada about 485,000 Italian-speaking citizens, 466,000 who spoke German, 221,000 speakers of Ukrainian, 283,000 Chinese-speaking people, and 194,000 who spoke either Inuktitut--the language of the Inuit--or another native Indian language. This cultural diversity is looked upon as a national asset. The Constitution Act prohibits discrimination against individual citizens on the basis of race, color, religion, or sex.
\par {\b Education and Health}
\par \tab In 1867 the British North America Act gave responsibility for public education to the provinces--where there were provincial governments--and to the federal government in the territories. Although educational systems vary from province to province, all children between the ages of 6 and 16 must attend school or they must receive approved instruction at home or in another institution. The usual school divisions are elementary, secondary, and post secondary: a system of grades 1 to 12 or 13 in the first two divisions, years one to four in the undergraduate section of post secondary education.
\par \tab The religious dichotomy has been preserved and recognized in the educational systems of some provinces. Tax support is given in Ontario, Saskatchewan, and Alberta to both public and separate--usually Roman Catholic--schools. In Quebec and Newfoundland the terms Protestant and Roman Catholic are used to distinguish the two types of elementary and secondary schools. In all other provinces schools are nonsectarian.
\par \tab In some provinces schooling for children may begin at age 5 in a kindergarten or age 4 in a junior kindergarten. The needs of children with severe physical or mental disabilities are met in schools for the deaf, blind, or trainable retarded. Private schools in Canada are not supported with tax money. Total enrollment in elementary and secondary schools has been in steady decline since 1970 from 5.9 million to about 5 million in the 1980s.
\par \tab Students in Canada may pursue post secondary education either in a community college, which offers technical, business, or occupational programs; or in a university, which offers studies leading to degrees in the arts and sciences. In 1960 there were 29 community colleges in Canada with 9,000 students. In the 1980s there were about 200 such institutions with students numbering about 300,000. In this same period the university system expanded from 44 to 65 degree-granting institutions, and the number of students from 114,000 to more than 400,000. Usually universities are organized into faculties of arts, or social sciences and humanities, and of sciences. Half of the universities also have a faculty of education.
\par \tab There is a universal health care system for Canadians. It is funded by the federal government and administered by the provincial governments. Some provinces prohibit physicians from billing more than the federal government will pay. Others permit extra billing and pay for it out of tax revenues.
\par {\b Cities}
\par \tab Even though agriculture, forestry, and mining account for much of the wealth of Canada, it is in fact an urban nation with almost 80 percent of its population living in cities, towns, and villages. Many people who are classified as rural residents do not work in agriculture but commute to an urban center to work. Toronto, Ont., with 3,893,046 people is the largest city in Canada, followed by Montreal, Que., its French-language rival, with 3,127,242 and Vancouver, B.C., with 1,602,502 inhabitants.
\par \tab The major cities in Canada are distinctively, even fiercely, different from one another; yet the three largest share many similarities. Montreal, the largest French city outside France, is situated at the meeting point of the Ottawa and St. Lawrence rivers. It and Quebec city, founded at the same time in the 17th century, are the nation's oldest cities.
\par \tab Montreal is a financial and manufacturing centerand seaport. Outside the high-rise towers of thecentral business district, the influence of French architecture and culture are evident. The 19th-century buildings of Old Montreal provide a view of the city's vibrant past.
\par \tab Although it lies some 930 miles (1,500 kilometers) from the Atlantic Ocean, Montreal, at the eastern end of the St. Lawrence Seaway, is the most important seaport in eastern Canada. Farther down the St. Lawrence, Sept-╬les handles more tonnage, but Montreal receives more than 4,000 ships annually, and the majority of Canada's European exports and imports pass through its harbor. Powerful icebreakers keep a channel clear so that the port is open to shipping all year.
\par \tab When the St. Lawrence Seaway was opened in 1959 under joint operation by the governments of Canada and the United States, it was hoped that the large cities bordering the Great Lakes would enjoy a substantial economic benefit. High user fees and the fact that much of the seaway is frozen shut during the winter months, however, have led to a continued heavy reliance on the rail and road transportation networks in both countries. Since 1971 Toronto in particular has had the volume of goods passing through its harbor decrease by 30 percent.
\par \tab Unlike Montreal, there is no concentration of historic buildings in downtown Toronto. Huge office towers bear witness instead to the financial vigor of the city. Toronto is one of the few large North American cities with great numbers of people living in and around the central business district, in the area's many apartment buildings and houses. Soaring above the Toronto skyline is the world's tallest freestanding structure, the CN Tower, which is a reinforced concrete communications pylon.
\par \tab In British Columbia, Vancouver is the focus of the financial, commercial, agricultural, and industrial life of all of western Canada. Towered over by the Coast Mountains, Vancouver's harbor is Canada's largest, busiest, and most picturesque. West Vancouver is the most densely populated urban area and has the highest income per person of any municipality in Canada.
\par \tab Other cities in Canada with a population of more than 500,000 include Ottawa, Ont., the nation's capital; Edmonton and Calgary, Alta.; Winnipeg, Man.; Hamilton, Ont.; and Quebec city, Que. With the restorations carried out in 17th- and 18th-century Basse Ville, Quebec city has retained an Old World character and is arguably the most charming metropolis in Canada.
{\b ECONOMY}
\par {\b Agriculture}
\par \tab Because Canada has such a small population in relation to its landmass, it is the second leading exporter of grain in the world even though it is not the second largest producer. Only approximately 5 percent, or 180,000 square miles (466,000 square kilometers), of the nation's land surface is cultivated, and fewer than 1 million Canadians actually are employed on farms. Nevertheless, agriculture is the country's most important economic activity.
\par \tab In spite of the fact that the total number of farms and farmers has been in steady decline since World War II, the average size of farms has increased, and the total area in production has changed little. More and better farm machinery, better use of fertilizers, and more efficient farming methods combined to more than double agricultural production between 1941 and 1981. Farm implement manufacturing, food processing, and transportation industries are important related economic activities.
\par \tab Principally because of climate, almost all of Canada's cultivated land lies within 300 miles (500 kilometers) of its southern border with the United States. Unseasonal frosts or snowfalls, spring flooding, and summer drought are the principal hazards faced by the agricultural community.
\par \tab There are four main types of farming in Canada--grain farms that produce wheat, oats, flax, and canola (rapeseed); livestock farms that produce cattle, poultry and eggs, pork, and lamb; specialized farms that produce potatoes, tree fruits, tobacco, or vegetables; and mixed farms that usually combine livestock and grain cultivation. The trend is to greater farm specialization. There are several distinct agricultural regions in Canada with regional specialties, but none is limited to a single kind of farming.
\par \tab {\b Atlantic Canada.}
\par \tab Atlantic Canada, which includes the provinces of Prince Edward Island, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland, is generally an area of mixed farming. Most of the agricultural land is found in the coastal areas and up the river valleys. Uneven ground makes some types of agriculture impractical. Farms tend to be small and have poor soils, and many farmers increase their incomes by fishing or working in the lumber industry.
\par \tab In Prince Edward Island agriculture is the main occupation and potatoes the main crop, though there is some grain and livestock farming. New Brunswick is also a major supplier of potatoes for sale fresh or for processing, and more than a third of its farms are in dairying. The Annapolis Valley of Nova Scotia is one of Canada's oldest and most productive fruit-growing areas, and poultry farming and dairying are common in the fertile lands surrounding the Bay of Fundy.
\par \tab The cold weather of Newfoundland makes agriculture on a large scale impossible, though poultry and livestock raising and vegetable farming are of some local significance. Generally the population is sparse and widely scattered throughout the Atlantic provinces, making difficult the marketing of produce other than potatoes and apples, which travel well and find a market in central Canada.
\par \tab {\b St. Lawrence Valley and Great Lakes.}
\par \tab The low land areas of the St. Lawrence Valley and lower Great Lakes, with soils developed from glacial deposits and relatively dense population, form one of Canada's most significant farming areas. The southernmost portions of the country are in this region so that the growing season is relatively long and the climate is generally moderate. The region may be described as mixed farming, but specialty farming is practiced in the areas near the large cities.
\par \tab {\b Quebec.}
\par \tab The traditional mixed farms in Quebec, lying in long ribbons inland from their borders on rivers or roads, are being converted in increasing numbers into larger dairy operations. More than half of the commercial farms in the province are now dairy, and a significant butter and cheese processing industry has developed there.
\par \tab Crops upon which animals feed account for the major part of the cultivated land and are partly responsible for the area's thriving livestock and poultry industries. Apples and other fruits, vegetables, tobacco, and sugar beets make up most of the rest of Quebec's agricultural economy. A small but traditional activity is the annual springtime production of maple syrup and sugar. Stands of maple trees are tapped and the sap collected and boiled down to produce this uniquely North American confection.
\par \tab In the Lac St-Jean region of the Canadian Shield is a large flat deposit of clay. It is not rich or well drained, and the growing season is short, but in most years it can produce good crops of hay and other forage and sustain dairy and other livestock operations to supply the nearby mining and forest industries.
\par \tab {\b Ontario.}
\par \tab The soils of south-central and southwestern Ontario are particularly suited to intensive mixed and specialty farming. Dairy farming in particular is important in the western counties, though the thinner soils along the north shore of Lake Ontario support many livestock and dairying operations. Provincial government quota systems that in essence ration the supply of milk, however, have caused drastic reductions in the number of cheese factories, as many producers cannot market enough cheese to sustain a profitable operation.
\par \tab The largest tobacco growing area in Canada is found on the north shore of Lake Erie, and most of the country's production of soft tree fruits and table and wine grapes is grown in the narrow strip of lake-level land in the Niagara peninsula. Deep rich soils in the Holland Marsh, north of Toronto near Lake Simcoe, constitute Ontario's most productive market-gardening area. The sheltered lowlands south of Georgian Bay are noted for apple production and the nearby stands of maples for springtime syrup and sugar production.
\par \tab The counties of the extreme southwest of Ontario produce crops for the canning industries in the region. As in Quebec, there is an extensive deposit of clay in the shield area known as the Clay Belt. It too has marginal farm operations that help meet some of the food requirements of the people working in surrounding mining and forest industries.
\par \tab {\b Prairie provinces.}
\par \tab The provinces of Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta make up the Prairie Region. The prairies are gently rolling plains, deeply cut by the river valleys that transect them. Centuries of relatively stable weather patterns have produced several distinct soil types. Agricultural activity conforms fairly closely to these climatic and soil zones.
\par \tab The central area of light brown soils, the driest at less than 13 inches (33 centimeters) of annual precipitation, is termed short grassland and is used primarily for beef cattle ranching. Higher precipitation and dark brown soils permit wheat farming, using strains of grain developed in Canada to withstand cold and to grow to maturity in a short period of time. Farther north and east, in the zone of black soils, rainfall may reach 20 inches (50 centimeters) or more per year. Conditions there are favorable for mixed farming.
\par \tab Seventy-five percent of the cultivated land in Canada lies within the Prairie Provinces. Although the yield of grain is low, and few cattle can be supported on the grazing, the vastness of the area makes it extremely productive. A zone lying along the edge of the boreal forest has been the site of modern-day pioneering. Land has been cleared and marginal mixed farm operations begun. The rigors of climate and long distances from markets have doomed most of these operations to failure, and an increasing number of farmers have abandoned their land to move south.
\par \tab The road and rail transportation network is extremely important to prairie farmers. Grain must travel enormous distances to Vancouver for shipment to China, Japan, and other countries of the Far East and to Churchill, Man., on Hudson Bay or Thunder Bay, Ont., on Lake Superior for shipment to the markets of central and eastern Canada, Europe, and Russia. A major debate raged in the country for several years prior to the introduction in 1983 of a change in rail rates for trains that travel through Crowsnest Pass, the first such change in almost a century.
\par \tab South of Winnipeg, Man., stretching into North and South Dakota in the United States, is a bed of an ancient glacial lake, Lake Agassiz. The bed sediments are laid down in what is the flattest part of the prairies, and it is this area that has given rise to the popular misconception that the entire western plains area is as flat as a tabletop. Rainfall here permits mixed farming and dairying closer to Winnipeg, but the tradition among the predominantly French and mΘtis (mixed French and Indian) population to own relatively small farms has resulted in low incomes for many farmers. Nevertheless, wheat and other grains, canola, sugar beets, and substantial livestock production are features of the region.
\par \tab Saskatchewan produces nearly two thirds of the wheat grown in Canada and significant quantities of other grains. Gardiner Dam and Lake Diefenbaker south of Saskatoon provide a massive water storage area for power generation and irrigation. Although many farmers refuse to change to farming based on irrigation, preferring the more traditional wheat and livestock production, more crops are grown under irrigation than ever before. In the wetter regions to the north, chicken and turkey raising is common.
\par \tab The rolling foothills of Alberta's Rockies are too rugged for wheat farming, even though climatic conditions are favorable. The land is used for large-scale cattle and sheep ranching. Southeastern Alberta is the most significant beef production area of Canada. As a result of the irrigation of wide, flat stretches of land near Lethbridge, the province has become noted for sugar beets, vegetables, and forage crops that support feedlots, where cattle are fattened for market. The Peace River district in the north of the province is noted for the purity of its seed grains. Growing conditions are marginal because of the cold, but the cold also limits insects and weeds. Bees, imported to pollinate the seed crops, provide a thriving secondary industry in honey production.
\par \tab {\b British Columbia.}
\par \tab Only about 2 percent of the land area of British Columbia can be farmed. Tremendous variation in temperature and rainfall from one district to another makes it difficult to generalize about its agriculture.
\par \tab There is cattle and pig farming in the interior of the province of British Columbia. The Okanagan valley is the province's most important fruit-growing area. The vast, flat region of rich sedimentary deposits in the Fraser River delta has Canada's longest growing season and forms its most complex agricultural area. Most of the food needs of Vancouver and the other cities of the delta are met from its production. Rapid urban expansion, however, is posing a threat to this limited resource. The southeastern corner of Vancouver Island has good soils and conditions favorable enough to supply most of the milk and vegetables needed by Victoria, the province's capital.
\par \tab Although there are some farms in the northern part of British Columbia, in the Yukon, and in the Mackenzie River basin, the possibility of frost in any month of the year places severe limitations on what can be grown. Few Canadians are willing to attempt to farm in such a hostile environment.
\par \tab The marketing of wheat, eggs, turkey, milk, tobacco, and soybeans is controlled by government marketing boards. Producers' associations and cooperatives are common throughout the country.
\par {\b Forestry}
\par \tab Canada's forests supply the country's building and paper products industries and contribute one fifth of all the nation's exports. In the 1980s the national forest inventory recorded a total of 1.3 million square miles (3.4 million square kilometers) of forest land, of which 83 percent had been surveyed and almost 60 percent was in production. Not all of the forest is suitable for commercial exploitation. Some is located too far from a market to make it economical to cut. Along the northern edges of the boreal forest zone, the trees are too few and too stunted to be of commercial value, and some areas in the more accessible forests have such poor soils that the trees of their forests are not worth exploiting. In parts of the interior of British Columbia, the forests cannot be reached easily, though their timber is highly desirable. About two thirds of all trees cut in Canada are used for lumber, plywood, and wood products and the other third for pulp and paper.
\par \tab The boreal forests account for four fifths of Canada's forestland. The Great Lakes provide inexpensive and easy transportation of logs from the Shield to the sawmills and pulpmills on their shores. Good supplies of hydroelectricity, large bodies of water to carry off waste materials, and nearness to markets in the densely populated industrial regions of Canada and the United States are the major factors contributing to the profitability of this industry. Much of the hardwood used in furniture making in the southern parts of the provinces is cut from forests along the southern edge of the Shield. The St. Lawrence River provides a passage to the supply in the heart of the continent. Inexpensive newsprint from Canada has become the material used to print almost half the newspapers in the Western world.
\par \tab Even though the forests of British Columbia make up only about 15 percent of the nation's wooded area, they account for almost half the total volume of wood cut. This is because of the tremendous size of the Douglas firs and Sitka spruces that grow on the Coast Mountains and the moist slopes of the Columbian Range. In the 1970s and 1980s the development of new techniques for using waste materials from sawmills led the provincial government to assist in establishing pulp mills in the interior. This has revitalized the industry in the province.
\par {\b Mining}
\par \tab More than one third of the total value of Canadian exports is in minerals. The search for mineral deposits to mine has always been a major driving force in the nation's development. When commercially significant deposits are found, towns spring up at the sites.
\par \tab The products of the mineral industry in Canada may be divided into four main groups: mineral fuels, metallic minerals, nonmetallic minerals, and structural materials. Petroleum and natural gas account for more than half of the dollar value of mineral production in Canada, though their share of the export value has declined from 52 percent in 1975 to about 40 percent in the 1980s, chiefly as a result of the rapid drop in the world demand for petroleum products. The first free-flowing oil well in North America came into production at Oil Springs, Ont., in 1857--two years before the first well in the United States. But it was not until 1914, in Turner Valley, near Calgary, Alta., that a sizable petroleum and natural-gas field was discovered in Canada. The threat to oil supplies posed by World War II added urgency to the search for more deposits. The search was rewarded in 1947 when the first well of the huge Leduc field in central Alberta became operational. Later discoveries of oil and gas deposits have led to extensive development. Pipelines carry gas and oil as far east as Toronto and Montreal and gas to markets in the United States.
\par \tab Thick oil seeps through to the surface of the Earth in the Athabasca Tar Sands in northeastern Alberta. Huge machines scoop up the sands, and an elaborate steam-extraction process separates the oil. This is an expensive process, however, and the project has only been barely worthwhile since the early 1980s, when world oil prices began to drop in response to declining demand. Commercially valuable deposits of oil and gas have been discovered in the Beaufort Sea, in the Arctic archipelago, and off the Ungava coast of Labrador, but the cost of transporting the product to market is prohibitive. Because of the fragile nature of the Arctic environment and the danger posed by icebergs to shipping, an oil spill could become a monumental disaster. Therefore it is unlikely that extensive development of these resources will take place soon. Drilling is proceeding in the Hibernia fields in the Atlantic Ocean off the coast of Newfoundland, however, and in the gas fields near Sable Island, offshore from Nova Scotia.
\par \tab The provinces control natural resources found on land, but the federal government has claimed control over all offshore deposits within the 200-mile limit of Canadian sovereignty. This has led to disputes with the governments of British Columbia, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland. In each case--the most recent with Newfoundland in 1985--the federal government has worked out a revenue-sharing arrangement with the provinces so that their citizens may benefit from the probable profits. This is significant in Canada's Atlantic region, which is considered to consist of poor "have-not" provinces. Corporations based in the United States or in Europe own most of the oil and natural gas industry in Canada. Since Canadians want to control their national energy resources, they have bought several foreign-owned petroleum companies since 1980 and have formed Petro Canada, a federally controlled corporation.
\par \tab Igneous rock, material once so hot that it was liquid, that flowed into the granitic rock of the Canadian Shield and the sedimentary rock of the other geological areas of Canada is the major source of the great variety and quantity of metallic minerals found across the country. Because of the vastness of the northern region, not all deposits are known; and, because of the great distances from potential markets, not all the known significant deposits are mined. Yet prospecting for metals is pursued with vigor in the Canadian hinterland.
\par \tab Metallic minerals are of great significance in the Canadian economy. Even though world demand for iron, nickel, and other metals is down and the processing of these metals in areas of the world where labor costs are lower than in Canada has caused a falloff in production since 1980, almost 30 percent of the value of the nation's total mineral production comes from metallic minerals. Iron ore--mined in Quebec, Ontario, and to a lesser extent in British Columbia and Newfoundland--is the most important. Copper from all provinces except Alberta and Prince Edward Island and nickel, for which Canada is the world's leading producer, rank next in dollar value of production. Zinc, gold, uranium, silver, and other metals also are mined in quantity. One of the most important gold deposits in Canada was found in 1981 at Hemlo on the north shore of Lake Superior.
\par \tab Although the nonmetallic minerals mined in Canada do not constitute a huge share of the dollar value of annual production, they are highly significant to the economy. Coal is required for electrical generation. Cement, sand, gravel, and gypsum are essential to the construction industry. Potash from the world's largest deposits in Saskatchewan is the basis for fertilizer manufacture. Although world demand has declined, production of asbestos from the mines in Quebec is an important industry.
\par {\b Fishing}
\par \tab Fishing, whether coastal or inland, is controlled by the federal government. Management of fishing, however, has been delegated in different ways to the provinces. Quebec has assumed management of its marine and freshwater fisheries. Ontario and the three Prairie provinces manage all the fisheries within their jurisdiction, and British Columbia manages all freshwater fisheries except those dealing with migratory fishes such as salmon. The federal Department of Fisheries manages all fisheries in the Atlantic provinces and the northern territories.
\par \tab International agreements have given the country some control over some fishing areas beyond 200 miles from shore, the 200-mile limit. Fisheries in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the Bay of Fundy in the east and in the Georgia Straits, Hecate Strait, and Queen Charlotte Sound in the west are reserved exclusively for fishing by Canadian fishermen. Beyond these limits the Canadian government has granted fishing rights to other nations as well but regulates the amounts of fishes that may be taken.
\par \tab A historic decision in 1984 was made by the International Court of Justice in The Hague, The Netherlands, granting Canada 1,336 square nautical miles of fishing rights near Georges Bank in the Gulf of Maine between Nova Scotia and New England. Fishing in the Atlantic, however, is economically troubled. Competition from other countries and the high cost of modernizing both fishing and processing equipment are major obstacles. Even so, Atlantic fisheries count for three quarters of the nation's annual production of 1.8 billion dollars. Inland fishing is not nearly as important on a commercial level.
\par {\b Energy}
\par \tab Canada has been a world leader in the development of energy from nuclear reactors. Completion by CANDU of installations in Argentina and Korea in 1982, however, marked the end of foreign installations. Worldwide economic recession and growing fears of nuclear accidents and of the possible use of fissionable materials to make nuclear weapons have caused a drastic drop in the demand for uranium and reactors.
\par \tab Electrical energy from hydroelectric, coal, and nuclear generating stations has long been an economic plus for Canada. Production has consistently been higher than domestic demand so that huge amounts have been available for export to the United States. Economic problems in the early 1980s, however, caused a reduction in both Canadian and foreign demand. Provincial governments in Quebec, Ontario, and British Columbia postponed or trimmed development projects to wait for better economic conditions. A hopeful sign was the strengthening of the United States economy and a modest increase in demand for Canadian electricity. In 1984 Canada exported more than one billion dollars in electricity.
\par {\b Manufacturing}
\par \tab Canada is known throughout the world for its natural resources and for the great amount of grain its farms produce, but more people are employed in manufacturing in Canada than in agriculture, mining, forestry, and fishing combined. Canadian manufactured goods as well as raw materials and agricultural products are sold all over the world. In 1981, for the first time in eight years, Canada returned to exporting more than it imported. In that year the surplus was more than 18 billion dollars.
\par \tab The lowlands of Ontario and Quebec are the most important of Canada's industrial regions. There the concentration of population and the nearness of resources, water, electricity, transportation, and food supplies have made it possible for Canadians to build a huge integrated industrial complex in the middle of the continent.
\par \tab The cities of Toronto and Montreal together account for more than a third of all of the nation's manufacturing. Although they both are locations for an immense variety of industrial applications, including cereal processing, breweries, and electrical appliance production, they have some specialties. Montreal is the focus of Canadian clothing manufacture and Toronto of publishing and aircraft production.
\par \tab Oshawa, Oakville, Brampton, and Windsor in Ontario and Ste-ThΘrΦse in Quebec are automobile and truck centers; Hamilton is known as "Steel City," Contrecoeur, Que., is an iron and steel town; and Sarnia, Ont., is a petrochemical and salt processing city. Leamington, Ont., is noted for vegetable canneries and the Niagara peninsula for wineries. Timmins and Sudbury in Ontario and Sept-╬les in Quebec are major ore processing centers. The almost limitless hydroelectric resources of the Shield in Quebec and the easy access to oceangoing ships have made the Lac St-Jean area a major aluminum smelting center. Smelters at Arvida, Alma, and Grande Baie produce a half million tons of aluminum annually. The materials from these primary industries support the tremendous output of the secondary manufacturing of the central region.
\par \tab Nothing is of greater significance to the economy of British Columbia than the forest industry. Pulp and paper, lumber, plywood, and particle board manufacture account for 40 percent of the province's industrial output. Smelting of lead and zinc at Trail, the huge aluminum smelter at Kitimat on the northern coast, and the Vancouver refineries for Peace River oil are the principal mineral resource processing industries. Food and fish processing in Vancouver meets much of the province's requirements.
\par \tab Petroleum refining, meat-packing, flour milling, and dairy products manufacture are the principal activities in the Prairie provinces. Petrochemical production is of growing importance in Alberta, and most of the major cities have numerous light-manufacturing plants to meet the demands of local markets.
\par \tab In the Atlantic region fish processing, pulp and paper, lumber, and iron and steel production are the major activities. Lucrative inducements offered by the federal and provincial governments have caused foreign firms to establish car assembly and tire manufacturing plants in the region, but there is not a sufficient market to support other kinds of secondary manufacture. The Atlantic provinces together form a region of continuously high unemployment.
\par \tab A key part of the whole Canadian economy is the financial community. Canadians per person save more money and have more life insurance than any other people in the world. Banking and insurance firms, therefore, have massive amounts of capital for investment in Canadian and foreign industries. Head offices of financial institutions and of petroleum and other multinational manufacturing corporations located in Montreal, Toronto, Edmonton, Calgary, and Vancouver employ thousands of workers. Federal, provincial, and municipal governments also employ great numbers of Canadians.
\par \tab Cheaper labor in parts of Europe and Asia and the productive capacity of the United States has led the federal government to create tariffs, or extra charges on foreign products, to protect Canadian manufacturers. Telecommunications, microprocessor development, and short-take-off-and-landing aircraft and space equipment are some of the newer technological growth areas in Canada.
\par \tab In 1989 a free-trade agreement went into effect between Canada and the United States that began a ten-year period of phasing out protectionist trade and investment barriers. Proponents of the pact believed it would expand the trading relationship between the two countries and create new prosperity for Canada. Opponents argued that weak Canadian businesses would be destroyed by stronger competitors in the United States and that Canada would be forced to merge its economy with that of the United States, thus losing its cultural identity.
\par {\b Transportation}
\par \tab Fear of United States expansionism, real or imagined, was one of the driving forces in the development of Canada's railway system in the 19th century. In 1885 the Canadian Pacific Railway spanned Canada by railroad from the Atlantic to the Pacific. When the railway company sold or granted lands along its right-of-way to the immigrants pouring into the country, the nation's future was assured. In the 20th century the development of the Trans-Canada Highway and related road networks caused a retrenchment of both the privately owned Canadian Pacific and the publicly owned Canadian National railway systems. Most passenger service and many infrequently used subsidiary lines were abandoned in favor of more economical mainline service. Even so, railway lines in Canada continue to lose money and require subsidies from tax dollars. Most passenger travel between cities is by air on public or privately owned air systems, by bus, or by private car. A great deal of freight moves on truck or in containers through a truck-rail system. The St. Lawrence Seaway has particular economic significance both to Canada and to the Great Lakes states of the United States. The seaway itself through the upper part of the St. Lawrence River; the Welland Canal, which takes traffic around Niagara Falls; and the lock system at Sault Ste. Marie, Ont., allow oceangoing vessels to sail to Chicago, Duluth, Minn., and Thunder Bay, Ont., in the heart of the continent--more than 1,900 miles (3,000 kilometers) from the Atlantic.
{\b GOVERNMENT}
\par \tab Canada is an independent parliamentary democracy. Once a colony of Great Britain, it became independent in 1867 through the British North America Act. Provisions of this act made it necessary for the British Privy Council to approve any amendment to the constitution. In 1982 the act was amended and renamed the Constitution Act. It gave the Canadian people the right to change their constitution without further consultation or approval of the mother country. The British monarch is sovereign of Canada and is represented as head of state by a governor-general, who since World War II has always been a Canadian. Jeanne SauvΘ, appointed in 1984, was the first woman to hold the office.
\par \tab Although the role of the governor-general is largely ceremonial, it plays an essential part in Canadian government. No sitting of the House of Commons or Senate, nor of any provincial legislature, may take place unless called by the governor-general or by the provincial lieutenant-governors. Elections are called by the governor-general or the lieutenant-governors though usually only on the advice of the prime minister or the provincial premiers. No act of any government becomes law until given royal assent by the governor-general or by the governor-general's deputy. Governors-general and lieutenant-governors are appointed by the monarch on the advice of the prime minister and the premiers for a term of approximately five years.
\par \tab The Parliament of Canada is modeled on the British Parliament and has two chambers: the House of Commons, which is elected, and the Senate, whose members are appointed by the prime minister and who hold office until age 75. Representation in the Commons is based on population, with a minimum of four members from each province and a total of three from the territories. The 1988 elections were the first under the redistricting that increased House of Commons membership from 282 to 295. The 104 seats in the Senate are distributed by region. A set of 28 proposals for constitutional reform introduced by Prime Minister Brian Mulroney in 1991 included the direct election of senators.
\par \tab There is no basis in law for the office of prime minister to exist. But the leader of the party with the most members, or of the party able to gain the support of sufficient members of an opposition party to give it control in the Commons, is accepted as the leader of government--the prime minister--provided that he or she has a seat in the Commons. The term of office for the federal government is a maximum of five years, but the prime minister may request an election at any time it is felt advantageous to do so or if the government has been defeated or stalemated by the opposition on a money or a major policy bill. The provincial legislatures and the National Assembly in Quebec each have only one chamber and operate in the same fashion as the Commons.
\par \tab Government policy is determined by the prime minister and the Cabinet, usually with the agreement of the party's members obtained in frequent meetings called the party caucus. It is a custom for every province to be represented in the Cabinet, but, when there is no member in the Commons of the party in power from a particular province, it is customary to appoint a senator to a Cabinet post. No senator may enter the Commons, however, so the prime minister or a delegate must represent such a senator in the House of Commons. Proceedings in the House of Commons are controlled by an elected speaker. The speaker of the Senate is appointed by the Cabinet. It is the custom in both houses to alternate French-speaking and English-speaking leaders.
\par \tab The power to make laws is shared between the federal government and the provinces. Canada since its inception has been a centralized state. The Constitution Act provided for specific responsibilities for the provinces and reserved all others, specified or not, for the federal government. By custom some responsibilities are shared by both levels. The provinces have control over direct taxes for provincial purposes, natural resources, prisons (but not penitentiaries), hospitals, education, property, civil rights in the province, the creation of courts and administration of justice, and other purely local matters.
\par \tab Court decisions since confederation in 1867 have substantially broadened provincial powers to include most responsibility for labor regulation. The federal government has the right to make laws for "peace, order, and good government" and has specific powers in direct and indirect taxation, regulation of trade and commerce, and such social programs as pensions, medical care, and higher education. The Post Office, the Bank of Canada, census and statistics, fisheries, shipping, air and rail transport, telegraph, broadcasting, immigration, criminal code, and many other areas of jurisdiction have been given explicitly to the federal government. The Supreme Court of Canada was established by the federal government in 1875.
\par \tab Municipal and regional governments and school boards have been established under the authority of and regulation by provincial governments to care for strictly local matters. Mayors, reeves (local council presidents), and members of municipal or regional governments are elected to office. All members of other boards and commissions, police departments, and the judiciary are appointed by either federal, provincial, or local government bodies.
\par \tab Canada is a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and of the United Nations (UN). Because of its reputation for seeking impartial settlements to international disputes, Canada has been called upon to take part in a number of UN peacekeeping missions.
\par \tab Membership in the Commonwealth, composed of Britain and many of her former colonies, has tended to give Canadians a broader and more moderate view of the world than it might have had otherwise. (For tables of provincial premiers governors-general and prime ministers, and supreme court, see Canada in Fact-Index.)
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by James D. Miller, Program Coordinator, Support Services, York Board of Education, Toronto, Ont.; editor, 'Media Canada: A Guide for Educators', 2nd ed.
\par \tab Lerner Publications, Geography Department. Canada in Pictures (The Company, 1990).
\par \tab Malcolm, A.H. The Canadians (St. Martin's, 1991).
\par \tab Patterson, Freeman. The Last Wilderness (Rizzoli, 1991).
\par \tab Tucker, Alan, ed. The Penguin Guide to Canada, 2nd rev. ed. (Penguin, 1991).\par \tab An archipelago, or group of islands, in the Atlantic Ocean, the republic of Cape Verde is 385 miles (620 kilometers) off the western coast of Africa. There are ten islands and five rocky islets divided into the Barlavento, or Windward, and Sotavento, or Leeward, groups. The archipelago has a total land area of 1,557 square miles (4,033 square kilometers). After 500 years of Portuguese colonial rule, Cape Verde became an independent nation on July 5, 1975. Its capital is Praia.
\par \tab The islands are mountainous and volcanic in origin. Fogo, an active volcano 9,281 feet (2,829 meters) high, is the highest of the islands. All of the islands, especially the Windwards, have been eroded, or worn, by sand carried by high winds so that the outline of the landscape appears jagged. There are small valleys that stretch out from the mountains to the shore. The climate is hot and dry with almost no rainfall. The sun is sometimes blocked by a dense mist of fine sand brought by trade winds from the Sahara.
\par \tab The Windward Islands consist of Santo Antπo, Sπo Vicente, Santa Luzia, Sπo Nicolau, Boa Vista, and Sal, together with the islets of Raso and Branco. The Leeward Islands include Maio, Sπo Tiago, Fogo, and Brava, and the three islets called the Rombos. They are Grande, Luφs Carneiro, and Cima. The islands' largest port is Mindelo, or Porto Grande, on Sπo Vicente. Its deepwater harbor serves vessels of any size and is used primarily as a fueling station.
\par \tab On the windward sides of the islands there are desert conditions. A sea mist on the higher hills provides enough moisture for some agriculture. Plants called aloes grow, and crops are raised on the green mountain of Sπo Vicente. There are monkeys, sea turtles, lizards, butterflies, and 105 species of birds.
\par \tab Volcanic rock is exported for use in making cement. Salt is an important product on Sal, Maio, and Boa Vista. The vast majority of Cape Verde's work force has traditionally been employed as agricultural laborers. Crops grown and eaten on the islands include coconuts, corn (maize), bananas, and sweet potatoes. The chief agricultural exports are bananas, refined sugar, peanuts, and coffee. More than four fifths of the nation's food requirements must be imported. Severe droughts on and off since 1968 would have led to widespread starvation but for large-scale international food aid. About two thirds of the inhabitants are Creole, and the remainder are European or African.
\par \tab Cape Verde's first settlers came from Portugal and landed on Sπo Tiago in 1462. The importance and wealth of the islands increased with the development of the transatlantic slave trade. In the early 1800s there was drought and famine along with government corruption and poor administration. In 1951 the islands' status was changed from that of a Portuguese colony to an overseas province, and on July 5, 1975, the islands became an independent republic.
\par \tab Under a 1980 constitution, the National People's Assembly held sole legislative power, with the African Party for the Independence of Cape Verde (PAICV) the only legal party until 1991. Both the assembly deputies and the president are elected. A prime minister heads the Council of Ministers. Cape Verde and Guinea-Bissau were linked by a single nationalist movement (the African Party for the Independence of Guinea-Bissau and Cape Verde), but a split followed a 1980 coup in Guinea-Bissau. Relations have since normalized, leading to a cooperative agreement in 1988.
\par \tab Starting in the early 1980s Cape Verde became a frequent host to international summit meetings. Its policy of neutrality under President Aristides Pereira, who served from 1975 to 1990, inspired the confidence of both moderate African leaders and leaders of the Western powers.
\par \tab The first multiparty elections since Cape Verde gained independence were held in January 1991. The PAICV lost its majority in the Parliament to the newly formed Movement for Democracy. Former supreme court judge Antonio Mascarenhas Monteiro was elected president in February. Population (1991 estimate), 341,000.\par \tab Central America extends for a distance of 1,200 miles (1,900 kilometers) east-southeastward from Mexico to South America. Its wider western half is occupied by the nations of Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, and Nicaragua. The republics of Costa Rica and Panama occupy the narrower eastern half.
\par \tab There are 26 million people in Central America. Mestizos of mixed white and Indian heritage make up one half of the population. Indians, which make up one fifth, are concentrated in Guatemala. Whites are dominant in Costa Rica, and blacks and mulattos in Panama and the Caribbean coastal plains.
\par {\b Natural Environment}
\par \tab Central America is an isthmus, or narrow strip of land connecting two larger bodies of land, in this case North and South America. This makes it especially sensitive to movements of the Earth's crust that result in earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. Throughout history capital cities have been repeatedly destroyed. Since 1970, 35,000 persons have been killed by earthquakes in Guatemala and Nicaragua, and the capital cities were badly damaged.
\par \tab A majestic row of geologically recent volcanoes runs along the Pacific shoreline of much of Central America. Inland lies a rugged upland surface produced by earlier volcanic activity. Nearly three quarters of the population live within the volcanic regions and the narrow Pacific coastal plain that has been built up of materials derived from the volcanic upland.
\par \tab While the Pacific side is primarily of volcanic origin, the Caribbean side is dominated by a landscape in which the Earth's crust has been compressed into parallel ridges and valleys. This rugged landscape extends in an east-west arc across northwestern Central America. Along the Caribbean shoreline of northern Honduras it plunges beneath the sea. To the east the tops of the ridges re-emerge as islands of the Greater Antilles. Although this region of Central America is less heavily populated and generally more isolated, it contains greater mineral resources than the volcanic regions to the south.
\par \tab Low-lying plains are limited to part of northern Guatemala, narrow coastal strips along the Pacific and Caribbean shorelines, and the Nicaraguan lowlands that border lakes Managua and Nicaragua. Although these plains are limited in area, they serve in the production of cotton, sugar, cattle, and bananas, which are four of the five major agricultural exports.
\par \tab Although Central America is thought of as being tropical, one third is more than 3,000 feet (900 meters) high and, so, has temperate to cool climates. Four of its seven capital cities and nearly two thirds of its population live in the cool uplands.
\par \tab Rainfall varies considerably. Northeasterly trade winds passing over the warm waters of the Caribbean Sea produce heavy showers throughout the year along the windward slopes of the isthmus. Within the interior and on the Pacific side, there is less rainfall, and it is limited to the summer period between May and October. While seasonal rainfall on the Pacific coastal plain provides an ideal climate for the production of sugar and cotton, year-round rainfall on the Caribbean plains supports tropical rain forests and encourages the production of bananas.
\par \tab Central America has periodic droughts as well as storms that may produce severe flooding. Particularly damaging are hurricanes that strike both the Pacific and Caribbean shorelines of the western half. In 1974 the hurricane Fifi destroyed banana plantations in northern Honduras and killed about 6,000 people.
\par {\b People and Cultures}
\par \tab At the time of the arrival of Europeans in the New World in 1492, Central America contained a population of approximately 5 million Indians. Most of these lived within the Mesoamerican region of advanced culture ruled in part by the Mayan Indians.
\par \tab The number of Spanish involved in the conquest of Central America was remarkably small, and no more than 10,000 or 15,000 migrated into the region before 1600. They profoundly changed the way of life among the Mayan Indians. Mayan culture had begun to decline after AD 900, possibly due to overpopulation, stresses in the social structure, and deforestation. Nevertheless, they resisted the Spanish longer than did the Aztec of Mexico or the Inca of Peru. Many went to northern Guatemala, establishing the city of Tayasal as a place of refuge, and maintained autonomy until 1697.
\par \tab The Indians were congregated into villages and towns. They were converted to Roman Catholicism. Sheep, pigs, horses, and cows, unknown to the Indians, were introduced as were new grains, fruits, and vegetables. Indians were also shown how to use metal implements such as hoes, plows, and saws, and they were taught how to craft products of fiber, clay, wood, leather, and metal. These products were needed by the Spanish in building their new cities. A major contribution was the rise of the mestizo (often called the Ladino in Guatemala), a racial group made up of mixed white and Indian blood.
\par \tab Unfortunately, the arrival of the Spanish also ushered in a host of diseases--such as measles, smallpox, and malaria--against which the Indians had no immunity. Their numbers decreased dramatically so that by 1600 no more than 1 million Indians remained. The population stabilized near that level for the following two centuries. It was not until the early 1800s that the population began to increase again.
\par \tab A small number of blacks had been introduced into colonial Central America by the Spanish and the English. After 1850 a need for labor for the construction of the Panama Canal and railroads, as well as the establishment of banana plantations on the Caribbean coastal plain, brought the importation of several hundred thousand blacks, largely from Jamaica. Earlier English influence along the eastern coastal fringe of Central America was thus reinforced by the arrival of Protestant and English-speaking black islanders. There are still more blacks than any other group along the Caribbean margin of Central America.
\par \tab The population of Central America did not return to its pre-Columbian level of five million until 1930. Thereafter it increased rapidly to 12 million in 1950 and 26 million by 1985. This rate of growth has significantly increased population density, particularly in Guatemala and El Salvador, which contain 53 percent of the population of Central America. El Salvador, with no empty frontier region for an expanding population, has a density of 680 persons per square mile (260 per square kilometer). This is by far the highest for any Central American nation.
\par \tab Between 1970 and 1985 the proportion of the population living in cities increased from one third to one half. This has contributed to an explosive growth of cities and of slums within them. Although the proportion of people living in rural areas has declined in these years, their numbers have grown from ten to 14 million. Increasing rural poverty has been the product of this growth.
\par \tab The nations of Central America share many cultural characteristics. Except in Belize, Spanish is the common official language, Roman Catholics make up between 85 and 95 percent of the population, and masses of rural poor people live on what they can grow on the land. At the same time there are regional differences. In Guatemala, El Salvador, and Honduras, people tend to be poorer. A greater proportion of their inhabitants live in rural areas. Although elementary education is required in all nations, far fewer people can read and write than in Belize, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, and Panama. Medical facilities are also poorer, and the ratio of physicians to people is lower. Guatemala, El Salvador, and Honduras are nations that lie within the culture area once ruled by the Mayan Indians and where Indians still make up a major part of the population. Nations, such as Costa Rica, that are dominated by whites or nations, such as Belize or Panama, with political and economic ties to the United States or Europe tend to be better off.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab As a colonial possession of Spain, Central America had few resources to offer. There was a limited supply of gold and silver. Cacao was in great demand in Europe, but a shortage of labor and the spread of plant diseases took a toll of production within a century after the arrival of the Spanish. The export of the vegetable dyes indigo and cochineal provided limited sources of income. Agriculture and local craft activities essentially provided only for the residents of the colonies. It was not until the mid-1800s, after independence from Spain, that exports from Central America began to enter world markets and thus provide funds necessary for modernization.
\par \tab In the latter half of the 1800s, coffee production spread rapidly throughout the volcanic uplands. By 1900, banana plantations were established in the Caribbean lowlands. Coffee and bananas dominated the exports of all Central American countries, and they became known as banana republics or coffee republics. Railroads and ports were constructed to handle exports. Hundreds of thousands of Indians and poor mestizos were seasonally drawn into the harvest of coffee. Blacks were brought from islands in the Caribbean to assist in creating and caring for banana plantations.
\par \tab Exports continued to be dominated by coffee and bananas until after World War II. Cotton appeared as a major export in the 1950s. The United States embargo of Cuban sugar led to a major increase in the export of sugar in the 1960s. In the 1970s beef became a major export. The three new exports come from coastal lowlands predominantly along the Pacific.
\par \tab The establishment of the Central American Common Market in 1960 encouraged foreign investment in industry. The development of a highway network established the first reliable surface linkage between Central American nations and made possible the exchange of manufactured products. Manufactured goods make up between one quarter and one third of the exports of the Central American Common Market. However, most Central American manufactured goods are traded within Central America and do not bring in large enough profits for economic development. Economic difficulties caused by political tension, regional violence, and border disputes plagued the region in the 1980s.
\par \tab Although industrialization has progressed rapidly, it is highly concentrated in mostly only the capital cities. In general, one half of all manufacturing deals with food processing, beverages, tobacco, textiles, shoes, and clothing. The production of chemicals and pharmaceuticals, refining of petroleum, making of cement, and the processing of paper and wood products contributes an additional one quarter.
\par \tab Since 1950 rapid economic growth has been accompanied by major improvement in transportation. Although railroad freight and passenger traffic have declined markedly since 1955, there has been a dramatic increase in the expansion and use of roads and highways. The Inter-American Highway extends nearly the length of the isthmus.
\par \tab Poor farmers make up nearly three quarters of all rural inhabitants. Although farming is decreasing in importance, farmers continue to make a significant contribution to the national economy of each nation. They produce mostly corn, beans, and squash, which make up a large part of their diets. Throughout much of Central America this type of subsistence farming is referred to as milpa agriculture. It involves the interplanting, or mixing, of these as well as other crops within the same plot.
\par \tab Depending on the climate, subsistence farmers may also produce grains, fruits, vegetables, and meat products for the commercial market. Moreover, the subsistence farmer is critically important as a source of cheap labor during the seasonal harvests of coffee, sugar, and cotton.
\par {\b International Relations}
\par \tab It was not until after its victory over Spain in the Spanish-American War that the United States began to use political influence in Central America. United States intervention in support of revolutionary activity against Colombia assured the independence of Panama. The establishment of the Canal Zone and the construction of an interoceanic passageway under the control of the United States established its role as a protector of the region. Military interventions in Honduras on three occasions between 1907 and 1924 and the occupation of Nicaragua between 1912 and 1933 further confirmed the intention of the United States to act when its interests were at stake.
\par \tab Since World War II there has been a movement away from rule by dictatorship toward constitutional rule by elected officials. Nevertheless, the region has been plagued by continuing conflict. This has been caused in part by a great number of long-standing social problems within the region. The situation was long complicated by the intrusion of ideological rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union. To help solve regional problems the Organization of American States (OAS) was founded in 1948. From its original 21 member states it had grown to 35 by 1991.
\par \tab Social change initiated in the late 1940s succeeded in Costa Rica but failed in Guatemala when the United States became involved in the overthrow of the Jacobo Arbenz Guzmßn regime in 1954. The shipment of arms to Guatemala from the Communist-bloc countries of Eastern Europe precipitated the action. Since then, revolutionary struggles involving warfare between guerrilla and government forces have spread throughout Central America. In Nicaragua this struggle resulted in a victory of the revolutionary Sandinistas in 1979 over the conservative forces of President Anastasio Somoza Debayle. The Soviet Union continued to supply arms to the Sandinista government amid charges by the United States that these arms were being funneled to guerrilla forces in neighboring nations. In an effort to prevent further Communist expansion in the Western Hemisphere, the United States tried to destabilize the Sandinista government by giving financial aid to the guerrillas, or contra rebels, who were battling the leftist regime.
\par \tab In Guatemala the government managed to hold guerrillas in check. In El Salvador the struggle raged on at a great cost of life and economic progress. The Contadora group--comprised of representatives from Venezuela, Colombia, Panama, and Mexico--continued to work toward the resolution of political conflicts within the isthmus.
\par \tab Led by Oscar Arias Sßnchez of Costa Rica, the presidents of Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, and Nicaragua launched a peace initiative, an effort for which President Arias was awarded the Nobel peace prize in 1987. The quest for peace was also joined by the personal involvement of Pope John Paul II and Javier PΘrez de CuΘllar, secretary-general of the United Nations. A cease-fire between Nicaragua and the contras was achieved in 1988.
\par \tab Although the United States agreed in 1979 to give up control of the Panama Canal Zone, it continued to exert its influence in Central American political affairs. This was evident in the United States attempt to isolate Nicaragua as well as its effort to promote the presidency of JosΘ Napoleon Duarte in El Salvador in 1984. International rivalries were further complicated by the failure of the executive and legislative branches of the United States government to agree on a joint plan of action in Central America. The end, in 1991, of the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union probably helped bring some stability to Central America.
\par \tab Drug trafficking was a tremendous problem in Panama at the end of the 20th century. While cocaine and marijuana exports brought huge amounts of money into the economy, the economic benefits were accompanied by widespread corruption in government and violence by drug-trafficking organizations. This led to further foreign intervention in the area. In 1989 the United States brought about the ouster of Gen. Manuel Antonio Noriega, who had taken control of the country. Noriega was flown to the United States for trial on drug-trafficking charges.
\par {\b History}
\par \tab At the time of the discovery of Central America by Christopher Columbus in 1502, highly civilized Maya and Nahua Indians inhabited the westernmost part of the isthmus. The impressive ruins of Tikal in Guatemala, Copßn in Honduras, and Tazumal in El Salvador are relics of that civilization. Panama and most of Costa Rica were occupied by less civilized societies that shared cultural characteristics with the Indians of northern South America.
\par \tab Within 25 years of the discovery of Central America the Spanish had essentially completed their conquest. Vasco Nu±ez de Balboa crossed Panama and discovered the Pacific Ocean in 1513. Exploring along the Pacific coast north and west of Panama in 1522, Gil Gonzßlez Dßvila ventured into Costa Rica and Nicaragua. During 1524 Pedro de Alvarado defeated the QuichΘ, Cakchiquel, and Mam peoples in battle and seized their respective Guatemalan strongholds of Utatlßn, IximchΘ, and Zacaleu. Shortly thereafter Hernando Cortez marched southeastward from Mexico into Guatemala and Honduras. Following various shifts in administrative borders, in 1570 the Spanish reestablished the Captaincy-General of Guatemala, whose authority extended from the province of Chiapas in southern Mexico eastward to the province of Costa Rica. These borders remained intact until after 1821 when Chiapas and Soconusco were stripped away from Central America and annexed to Mexico. Panama, initially included in the Viceroyalty of Peru, came under the control of the Viceroyalty of New Granada in 1718 and was ruled from Colombia.
\par \tab As early as the 16th century the Spanish were required to relocate and fortify Caribbean port settlements because of repeated attacks by English, French, and Dutch privateers. The English established holdings along the Caribbean shoreline between the Yucatßn and Nicaragua that initially were devoted to the cutting of logwood from which dyes were produced, and later to the lumbering of mahogany. Rebellious Caribs, transported by the English from St. Vincent, in the West Indies, to Caribbean shoreline settlements in 1797, remained a major element of the local population. The only part of the coast over which the English were to maintain control into the 20th century was the colony of British Honduras, which is now the independent nation of Belize.
\par \tab For nearly three centuries Central America was joined under the banner of Spain. The Captaincy-General of Guatemala was governed from Ciudad Vieja until its destruction by an earthquake and flood in 1541. The capital then was transferred to the new city of Santiago de los Caballeros, which is known today as Antigua. An earthquake in 1773 destroyed Antigua and resulted in the relocation of the capital to the site of present-day Guatemala City.
\par \tab Independence from Spain in 1821 was followed by a political union with Mexico under Emperor Agustφn Iturbide. In 1823 Central America declared its independence from Mexico and formed the United Provinces of Central America. The province of Chiapas remained with Mexico. The final breakup of the United Provinces of Central America took place in 1838 with the withdrawal of Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica.
\par \tab During the remainder of the 19th century the history of Central America was dominated by internal conflict between conservatives, who supported the traditions of royal Spain and the Catholic church, and liberals, who favored broad reforms and a federated union of the states of Central America. This was further complicated by the intervention of foreign powers vying for control of passages across the isthmus and by the British attempt to maintain its influence along the Caribbean shoreline. The struggle between conservatives and liberals occurred between the independent nations as well as between cities within the nations. In Guatemala conservative Quezaltenango was pitted against Guatemala City; in Honduras, Comayagua against Tegucigalpa; and in Nicaragua, Granada against Le≤n. For more than 40 years after independence, the politics of Central America were dominated by the conservative Guatemalan dictator Rafael Carrera. Between 1873 and 1885 Justo Rufino Barrios, an anticlerical liberal, was president of Guatemala and successfully exercised his authority in support of liberal allies in other nations of Central America. During this period, foreign currency, earned from the export of coffee, supported the construction of railroads and the modernization of national economies. President Barrios was fatally wounded during a conflict with El Salvador while attempting to force the political reunification of Central America.
\par \tab After independence, the idea of establishing an interoceanic passage across Central America drew the increasing attention of entrepreneurs from the United States and Europe. The discovery of gold in California in 1848 further fueled competition for exclusive rights to routes across Nicaragua and Panama. The British, in an effort to assure their control of the Caribbean entrance to a proposed canal across Nicaragua, occupied the port of San Juan del Norte between 1848 and 1850, renaming it Greytown. In 1851 Cornelius Vanderbilt established a highly profitable route across Nicaragua by waterway and carriage road. A railroad under the control of the United States was completed across Panama in 1855.
\par \tab A number of treaties and concessions were drawn regarding the construction of a transisthmian canal; however, the only major attempt to build a canal was undertaken by the French after 1880. It ended in failure in 1889. After futile attempts with the government of Colombia to construct a canal across Panama, the United States managed to conclude a treaty for that purpose with Panama in 1903.
\par \tab The American filibusterer William Walker went to Nicaragua, where he attempted to acquire control of transisthmian transit. In 1856 he became president of Nicaragua. The opposition of Vanderbilt and the neighboring nations of Central America ultimately led to his capture and execution in 1860.
\par \tab The record of internal and external affairs in Central America during the 20th century featured a number of distinctions from the preceding century. The attempt to unify Central America as a single political unit faded as a major issue. Conflicts between nations revolved around issues, generally boundaries, rather than attempts to overthrow governments. These conflicts included disputes between Guatemala and Honduras in 1933, between Nicaragua and Costa Rica during the mid-1950s, and between El Salvador and Honduras in the 1969 Soccer War. Governments were dominated by military regimes supported by organized armed forces. Long-term dictatorships included those led by Manuel Estrada Cabrera and Jorge Ubico Casta±eda in Guatemala, Maximiliano Hernßndez Martφnez in El Salvador, Tiburcio Carφas Andino in Honduras, and the Somoza family in Nicaragua.
\par \tab In the 20th century European domination in Central American affairs gave way to North American interests. The Hay-Pauncefote Treaty of 1901 alerted the British that the United States was no longer bound by the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty of 1850, which required neutral control in the construction of a transisthmian canal. The signing of the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty in 1903 provided for the establishment of the Panamanian Canal Zone, the building of a canal, and the presence of the armed forces of the United States and their right to intervene in Panama in the event of public disturbance.
\par \tab In an effort to secure the canal, which was opened in 1914, the United States was increasingly involved as a mediator in maintaining political stability within Central America. Military forces occupied Nicaragua between 1912 and 1925, and between 1927 and 1933. It was during the latter period that Augusto Sandino gained prominence as a leader of guerrilla forces opposed to occupation by United States Marines.
\par \tab Political turmoil in the early 1930s was a by-product of the economic collapse brought about by the Great Depression. During this period, political unrest contributed to the founding of the dictatorial regimes of Jorge Ubico Casta±eda in Guatemala, Maximiliano Hernßndez Martφnez in El Salvador, Tiburcio Carφas Andino in Honduras, and Anastasio Somoza Garcφa in Nicaragua.
\par \tab The period after World War II introduced a rise of nationalism and concern for the economic and social welfare of the underprivileged in Central America. This led to the overthrow of conservative military governments in Guatemala and El Salvador in 1944. JosΘ Figueres led a liberation army against ultra-leftist forces in Costa Rica in 1948. He also worked toward the overthrow of the Somoza regime in Nicaragua. Labor agitation and government restrictions in Honduras in 1954 led to a movement in Central America to force the United Fruit Company, which owned many banana plantations and had a virtual monopoly on the transportation network in the area, to make concessions. The company since disposed of many of its holdings in plantations and rail and port facilities. After riots in Panama in the early 1960s, the United States agreed to review its policy of sovereignty over the Canal Zone. Belize gained independence in 1981.
\par \tab The dream of reuniting the nations of Central America was partially fulfilled by the establishment of the Central American Common Market in 1960. The market, however, has had many problems since it was established. Panama and Belize chose not to participate. The Soccer War between El Salvador and Honduras in 1969 brought to an end economic cooperation between the member nations of the Central American Common Market.
\par \tab Continued armed conflict between Central American nations contributed to the political instability of the entire region. Border tensions, except between Costa Rica and Panama, were common throughout the region. This was particularly true along borders between El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica. Guatemala continued to pressure Belize for border adjustments.
\par \tab On Dec. 20, 1989, the United States invaded Panama to oust strongman Gen. Manuel Antonio Noriega and install a friendly government. The Organization of American States and the United Nations passed resolutions deploring the invasion.
\par \tab The presidents of Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua signed an accord in August 1989 to disband the contra rebels. The Marxist Sandinista regime of Nicaragua fell after the country's February 1990 elections. Opposition candidate Violeta Barrios de Chamorro was elected president. By early 1992 a peace plan was in place in El Salvador between rebel forces and the government.
\par \tab In June 1990 United States President George Bush proposed an initiative to encourage the growth of free-market economies in Central America by canceling part of their debt to the United States and by promising to work towards establishing a free trade zone throughout North, Central, and South America.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by Oscar H. Horst, Professor Emeritus of Geography, Western Michigan University.
\par \tab {\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR CENTRAL AMERICA}
\par \tab Bachelis, Faren. The Central Americans (Chelsea House, 1989).
\par \tab Booth, J.A., and Walker, T.W. Understanding Central America (Westview, 1989).
\par \tab Bulmer-Thomas, Victor. The Political Economy of Central America Since 1920 (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1987).
\par \tab Helms, M.W. Middle America: A Culture History of Heartland and Frontier (Univ. Press of America, 1982).
\par \tab Kirk, J.M., and Schuyler, G.W., eds. Central America: Democracy, Development, and Change (Praeger, 1988).
\par \tab Lye, Keith. Take a Trip to Central America (Watts, 1985).
\par \tab Morrison, Marion. Central America (Silver Burdett, 1989).
\par \tab PΘrez-Brignoli, HΘctor. A Brief History of Central America (Univ. of Calif. Press, 1989).
\par \tab Pimlott, John. South and Central America (Watts, 1988).
\par \tab West, R.C., and others. Middle America: Its Land and Peoples, 3rd ed. (Prentice, 1989).
\par \tab Woodward, R.L., Jr. Central America: A Nation Divided, 2nd ed. (Oxford Univ. Press, 1985).
\par \tab Woodward, R.L., Jr., ed. Central America: Historical Perspectives on the Contemporary Crises (Greenwood, 1988).\par \tab Cayman Islands, British colony in West Indies, group n.w. of Jamaica, consisting of Grand Cayman, Little Cayman, and Cayman Brac; the first is the largest, area 71 sq mi (184 sq km); the other two about 70 mi (115 km) n.e.; total area 102 sq mi (264 sq km); cap. George Town; exports: mahogany logs, thatch rope, turtles, coconuts; pop. 28,500\par \tab Independent since 1960, the Central African Republic formerly was a French dependency named Ubangi-Shari. Landlocked and remote, the territory fell victim to concessionaires--companies given exclusive rights to certain products--and was little developed. Independence brought new problems, including a 14-year reign of terror by Bokassa I, who named himself emperor and renamed the country the Central African Empire. Following Bokassa's ouster the country reverted to its former name. It remains one of Africa's least modernized countries, though its economic potential is great.
\par \tab The Central African Republic lies on a large rolling plateau that forms the drainage divide between the Ubangi-Bomu river system, part of its southern boundary, and the watershed of Lake Chad to the north. Its compact area covers 240,324 square miles (622,436 square kilometers). It lies in the transition zone between the forested Congo, or Zaire, Basin to the south and the basin of Chad made up of desert and steppe, or treeless plain. As a result there are several climate and plant zones. The southwest is covered by dense forests. The heart of the country is a savanna, or grassland, that is increasingly dry to the north. The northern corner of the country is dry steppe.
\par \tab Moderate rainfall occurs in two wet seasons; it is heavier in the southwest and south than in the north. Streams are numerous and permanent in the south and fewer and often dried up in the north. The Ubangi River is a navigable tributary of the Congo, or Zaire, River, and Bangui, the capital city, lies upriver where navigation first becomes possible.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab French and Sango, a Sudanic language, are the official languages, but many others are actually used there. Some Arabic languages are in use in the northeast, and Niger-Congo languages are spoken in the southwest.
\par \tab There are about 75 ethnic groups, of whom the Banda, occupying the eastern and central parts of the plateau, are the most numerous. The Baya, Ngbandi, Azande, and Sara are other major groups. About 40 percent of the people are Protestant, 28 percent Roman Catholic, and 8 percent Muslim, with the rest practicing traditional animist faiths. Christian religions are associated with colonial rule, and traditional religions have regained some ground.
\par \tab Education is not well developed. Only about 40 percent of the people can read and write. Health care is also a problem, with a low number of physicians and hospital beds per person. The birthrate is among Africa's highest. Infant deaths are also high, and life expectancy is 48 years for males and 53 years for females.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab On the forest margins of the moist south, coffee trees produce a good harvest. On the plateau cotton does well. Tobacco and palm products also are produced in limited quantities. In the cooler, grassy uplands livestock are raised.
\par \tab Diamonds and gold are the only minerals that the country produces, though deposits of uranium, iron ore, manganese, and copper also exist. The absence of a railroad is a major obstacle to the development of these raw materials. Gold and diamonds are exported by air. The republic's forests produce exportable timber.
\par \tab About 65 percent of the labor force farms, most individuals producing only enough for themselves and their families to eat. Mostly they grow cassava, yams, peanuts (groundnuts), corn (maize), bananas, plantains, and oranges. Industrial development is limited and concentrates on textile processing.
\par \tab To some extent the human problems of the Central African Republic stem from abuses of the colonial period. The concession companies created a climate of African mistrust for European actions and motives that was intensified by the French colonial policies that followed. Forced labor ended, but European settlers raised the most profitable crops and made it difficult for African farmers to compete. After independence traditional farmers were suspicious of change. From the 1970s to the early 1990s, however, there was progress. Bokassa's reign ended with French help, and France sent aid to the republic.
\par {\b History and Government}
\par \tab The region has been inhabited for thousands of years. In colonial times it was part of French Equatorial Africa, centered on the Congo city of Brazzaville. After independence was granted in 1960, President David Dacko created a one-party state. Under Dacko the country's economy declined, and in December 1965 the commander of the army, Jean-BΘdel Bokassa, staged a successful coup to replace Dacko. In 1976 he declared himself emperor.
\par \tab Bokassa's excesses gained international attention, and in 1979, with French help, he was himself overthrown and eventually imprisoned. Dacko was restored to power, but he was in turn removed by a military coup in 1981. General AndrΘ Kolingba became head of state of the new military government. In 1985 Kolingba dissolved the military committee that ruled the country and established a new government with a few civilians. The following year he was elected to a six-year term and had a new constitution approved by the voters. In 1987 the first legislative elections in 20 years were held, though the government continued to operate under the control of Kolingba. In a vote taken in 1993, former prime minister Ange-FΘlix PatassΘ defeated Kolingba. With the country near bankruptcy, students, soldiers, and civil servants held protests and strikes. Population (1992 estimate), 2,930,000.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab Harm J. De Blij\par \tab The Republic of Chad is a large landlocked country in west central Africa. Formerly a part of French Equatorial Africa, Chad became independent in 1960. Since then civil war and prolonged droughts have devastated much of the country, creating serious problems, including severe food shortages. Foreign countries, especially France, have helped in several ways, one of which is preventing Libya from expanding into Chad from the north. Internal development has slowed, and Chad has become increasingly dependent on imports of food, fuel, and other products.
\par {\b Land and People}
\par \tab Chad is a country of 495,800 square miles (1,284,000 square kilometers). In the Saharan territories of the north, the rugged granite uplands of the Tibesti mountains have extinct volcanic peaks that reach 11,204 feet (3,415 meters). The Ennedi and Wadai plateaus along the eastern border with Sudan have peaks that reach 1,969 feet (600 meters). To the south and west, the land slopes to the featureless plain of the BodΘlΘ depression and the Lake Chad basin. Intermittent wadis, or streams, flow into the BodΘlΘ, and Lake Chad sometimes overflows into the depression during the rainy season. The southern part of Chad is in the watershed of, or area that drains into, the Shari and Congo, or Zaire, rivers.
\par \tab The northern two thirds of the country is in the hot arid Sahara desert. Most areas receive less than one inch (2.5 centimeters) of rainfall annually. On the southern edge of the Sahara is the Sahel, a band of hot, semiarid steppe, or treeless plain, that extends from the Atlantic coast across central Africa. Here rainfall averages 10 to 20 inches (25 to 50 centimeters) annually and long droughts followed by wetter periods are common. Droughts occur in the winter, and temperatures are higher than 32░ F (0░ C) throughout the year. In the southern part, an area of grassland and light woods with scrub underbrush, rainfall averages 20 to 40 inches (50 to 100 centimeters) annually. The average annual temperature at N'Djamena, the capital, is 82░ F (28░ C).
\par \tab The Sahel is a fragile ecological zone that has many prolonged droughts. The most recent were from 1968 to 1972 and from 1978 to 1982. Because of increased demand for food, marginal lands have been cultivated, and livestock are grazed on smaller areas of poorer pasture. Extensive gathering of firewood adds to the deterioration. Widespread famine in the north has become common.
\par \tab Population densities range from 88 persons per square mile (34 per square kilometer) in the south to less than one per square mile in the Saharan north. There are many ethnic groups that share common languages and cultures. Nationally, the main regional cultural differences are between the nomadic stock herders in the north and African farmers in the south. About 10 percent of the people live in cities and towns of 20,000 or more.
\par \tab The official language is French. The majority of the people, however, use other languages in their daily lives. Arabic, the language of Islam and commerce in northern Chad, is superimposed on local Nilo-Saharan languages. In southern Chad the Sara is the largest ethnic group among Central Sudanic speakers, with about 1 million people. An estimated 8 percent of the country's adult population can read, and 43 percent of 10-year-old children attend school. Education is most widespread among the Sara. The University of Chad, which opened in 1972, is in N'Djamena.
\par \tab About 45 percent of the people are Muslims, most living in northern Chad. Christians, primarily Roman Catholic, account for about 33 percent of the population. Most live in towns and cities in the south and include many of the educated Sara elite. Many farmers in the south are animists. Although Chad is not a religious state, its peoples' economic, political, and social differences are closely tied to their religions.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab About two thirds of the people depend on subsistence agriculture for a living. The principal food crops are cassavas, or manioc, sugarcane, millet, and yams. Peanuts (groundnuts), pulses, rice, sweet potatoes, dates, and corn (maize) are also grown. About 10 percent of the economically active population raise cattle, sheep, and goats. Since the early 1970s, the prolonged droughts have resulted in annual food deficits. Food imports and international aid are meeting some of the need.
\par \tab Raw cotton is the primary export, accounting for more than 90 percent of all exports. A government-supported monopoly purchases, gins, and markets cotton. Meat and live cattle are the second most important exports. Most go to neighboring Nigeria and Congo. Gum arabic is collected in the Sahel.
\par \tab Chad has the least industry in equatorial Africa. Cotton ginning, sugar refining, and textiles are the primary industries. Chad has few mineral resources, though uranium, tungsten, cassiterite, bauxite, and gold are thought to exist in the north. In the early 1970s petroleum resources were sufficiently developed to supply 80 percent of Chad's own needs. Production stopped in 1980, however, and petroleum is imported from Nigeria. Chemicals, machinery, and transport equipment as well as textiles and clothing are other imports.
\par \tab N'Djamena is the capital and largest city, with a population of about 500,000. Moundou, Sarh, and AbΘchΘ are regional administrative and commercial centers. Transportation within the country is primarily by road. A primitive road suitable for motor traffic links Chad with Algeria and Libya. Chad has no railways, and water transportation is limited to small craft on the Shari and Logone during the wet season. The N'Djamena international airport links Chad with neighboring African countries and with Europe.
\par {\b History and Government}
\par \tab The Lake Chad region has been settled since about 500 BC. North African Berbers controlled trans-Saharan commerce from the 8th to the 11th century. Then Arabs gained control of trade and gradually gained political control and converted local Africans to Islam. In the 18th century the Ottoman Empire claimed Chad. Later when European powers split up control of Africa, France gained control of Chad. In 1910 Chad was made part of French Equatorial Africa, and in 1946 it became a French overseas territory. The territory gained its independence in 1960.
\par \tab According to the 1989 constitution, Chad is governed by a president, who is head of state, and a 123-member National Assembly elected by universal suffrage. There are no political parties but groups aligned with the Islamic north and with Sara tribes in the south have attempted to gain control of the government. Civil war broke out in the mid-1960s when two guerrilla groups struggled to overthrow the government and create closer ties with Arab North Africa. In the late 1970s Libya lent its support to one of these groups and attempted to annex part of Chad. Foreign intervention halted Libyan expansion and contained the civil war in Chad, but conflict with Libya continued until 1988, when diplomatic relations between the two countries were restored. In 1990 Gen. Idriss Deby overthrew President Hissen HabrΘ, suspended the constitution, and dissolved the legislature. In March 1991 Deby established a new government according to the terms of a national charter that had been adopted on February 28. Population (1991 estimate), 5,823,000.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab Gary L. Fowler\par \tab The country of Chile in South America is noted for its diversity. In the north is one of the driest areas in the world--the Atacama Desert--which contains places where rainfall has never been recorded. In the far south lies the extremely rainy Strait of Magellan. Middle Chile is a transition zone between the desert north and the rainy south.
\par \tab The land also varies. The relatively flat valley floors of middle Chile give way to the towering Andes Mountains to the east and the Coastal Ranges on the west. The country lacks an extensive plain bordering the Pacific Ocean; generally the coastal mountains plunge directly to the sea.
\par \tab Geographically and economically the country can be divided into three major regions: the mineral-producing northern desert; central Chile, the economic, political, and agricultural core of the nation; and the wet, sparsely settled southern third, where sheep raising is the major activity.
\par {\b Variety of Climates}
\par \tab Two major factors contribute to the broad range of climates. One is that the country extends a long distance from north to south. The other is the cool Peru, or Humboldt, ocean current that flows from Antarctic waters and helps cool the Chilean coast. For example, the average annual temperature at Valparaφso is 58.6░ F (14.8░ C), while opposite it on the east coast of South America, Rio Grande, Brazil, has an average annual temperature of 64.4░ F (18░ C).
\par \tab The cool current also is partly responsible for the lack of rainfall in the desert north. Onshore winds are cooled by the current, then heated as they pass over the adjoining land area. The warming enables the air to hold its moisture, resulting in little rain. Furthermore, the high Andes Mountains to the east help block winds from the interior and trade winds from the Atlantic, which might otherwise bring some moisture to northern and middle Chile.
\par \tab Between Coquimbo and Concepci≤n is middle Chile, a land of hot, dry summers and cool, moist winters. The temperatures are seldom extreme. At Valparaφso the coldest months, June and July, average 52.3░ F (11.3░ C), while the warmest month, January, averages 63.7░ F (17.6░ C). In the Central Valley, where coolness is created by higher altitudes rather than the effects of the sea, temperature averages are similar, but extremes are somewhat greater.
\par \tab Proceeding southward from middle Chile, rainfall increases, and the length of the summer dry season shortens until south of Concepci≤n it rains most of the year. Rainfall totals more than 200 inches (500 centimeters) per year in some places.
\par {\b The Land}
\par \tab Chile is long and narrow with the longest seacoast of any country in the world. Stretching more than 2,600 miles (4,200 kilometers) from north to south, it is only 277 miles (445 kilometers) east to west at its widest point. Chile claims a pie-shaped piece of Antarctica as well as a group of Pacific Islands, including Rapa Nui, or Easter Island. Its area totals 292,133 square miles (756,621 square kilometers).
\par \tab Approximately 70 percent of the land is mountainous, as the Andes extend the length of the country and form a natural barrier between Chile and its neighbors Argentina and Bolivia to the east. From heights of more than 20,000 feet (6,000 meters) in the north, the ranges become increasingly lower until they finally dip into the sea in southern Chile. The Andes contain many volcanoes, but most are extinct.
\par \tab Along the Pacific the lower coastal ranges parallel the Andes between 30░ and 40░ S latitude, enclosing the Central Valley, or Vale of Chile. Crossed by low transverse ridges of hills, the valley continues southward for some 700 miles (1,127 kilometers), reaching the sea near Puerto Montt, where the coastal mountains fragment, forming a chain of islands that fringe the coast for hundreds of miles.
\par {\b Natural Resources}
\par \tab Chile heads the list of mineral producers in Latin America with coal, iron ore, gold, silver, manganese, sulfur, petroleum, nitrates, and, of greatest importance, copper. Chile possesses the world's largest copper reserves. In an average year copper comprises almost 50 percent in value of Chile's exports. Three of its four largest mines are found in the Atacama Desert in the north.
\par \tab The Andes of Chile contain vast amounts of low-grade copper ore. In the 19th century, when mining began, only high-grade ores could be used. Improvements in technology during the first decades of the 20th century, however, made possible the use of the low-grade ores. The mines of Chuquicamata, El Teniente, El Salvador, and Andina account for about 85 percent of annual output and are under the control of the state.
\par \tab Chile also possesses the necessary raw materials for a steel industry. Next to copper, iron ore is Chile's most valuable resource and employs some 5,000 workers. Chile is the third largest producer in South America and exports most of its production to Japan. The mining of iron ore began in 1908 at El Tofo in northern Chile. El Tofo is now almost exhausted, but since 1956 iron mining has moved to newly discovered deposits--east of Antofagasta in the north near the Argentine border; a 300-mile (480-kilometer) belt parallel to the coast some 50 miles (80 kilometers) inland from La Serena north to Cha±aral; and in southern Chile south of Concepci≤n.
\par \tab Chile's only large iron and steel mill is located at Huachipato, near Concepci≤n. It is operated by the Compa±φa de Acero del Pacφfico (CAP), a state-owned corporation that also operates the nation's largest iron mines. About 60 percent of the plant's needs for coal are supplied from domestic sources nearby; the remainder of its coal is imported from the United States and Canada.
\par \tab The Atacama contains the largest nitrate areas in the world. In the 1800s the world's leached and heavily overworked soils were in need of a fertilizer that would replace nitrogen. Sodium nitrate from the Atacama began to find markets in the cotton belt of the United States, in parts of Europe, and in Egypt. Exports by 1860 exceeded 50,000 tons per year. Although this resource no longer plays the important role in the country's economy that it once did, Chile still is the world's leading producer. With the increased prices of petroleum-based synthetic fertilizers in the mid-1970s, the nitrate industry regained some of its former importance.
\par \tab Most of the country's coal production is concentrated in middle Chile; approximately two thirds comes from the Lota mines just south of Concepci≤n. Slightly southward on the Lebu Peninsula is an area of low-grade coal that extends under the sea. A further 25 percent is located in the Osorno-ChiloΘ area.
\par \tab Like most other countries in Latin America that are heavily dependent upon petroleum, Chile must plan to use alternative sources of energy. Hydroelectric potential is abundant and far from being fully utilized. Chile also has abundant uranium reserves and expects eventually to have a nuclear plant operating. There are considerable undeveloped geothermal resources, which produce energy from heat just below the surface of the ground.
\par \tab In 1945 oil and gas were discovered in far southern Chile--Tierra del Fuego. Oil is sent by tankers to refineries in middle Chile, and the gas is liquefied at plants in Tierra del Fuego and shipped north to supply cities in middle Chile. A petrochemical complex on the Strait of Magellan produces chemical fertilizer for export.
\par {\b Vegetation}
\par \tab The vegetation of Chile varies considerably from the desert north to the humid south. Along the coast in the far north, heavy winter fogs account for some seasonal desert plant life. In the desert interior, however, the extreme saltiness of the soil and the absence of rainfall stop most growth.
\par \tab An exception is the Pampa of Tamarugal, south of Iquique, where remnants of a once-extensive thornwood forest survive. Eastward, on the Andean slopes, are scatterings of cacti and desert shrubs. Scrub growth also appears at the southern end of the desert and increases southward.
\par \tab In central Chile, between the Central Valley and the Bφo-Bφo River, a diversified plant life varies with latitude and altitude. In the lowlands blackberry thickets and scrub vegetation are common, while along the coast grow stunted species of palm trees. Vegetation becomes heavier toward the south, but throughout central Chile much of the native cover has been replaced by cultivated crops.
\par \tab To the south most of the area between the Bφo-Bφo River and Puerto Montt originally was covered by tree growth, but much of this cover has been cleared. The remaining stands include beeches, myrtle, and a variety of evergreens.
\par \tab One of the more distinctive hardwood trees of this area is the Auracaria, or monkey-puzzle tree. This tree has a long, straight trunk that terminates in a wide crest of thick foliage at its crown. This same area also contains tangles of vines, shrubs, ferns, and mosses. The forest glades provide an ideal environment for wild bamboo.
\par \tab South of Puerto Montt the thick forest changes from deciduous, or leaf-shedding, growth to evergreens and stretches from the island region on the west to the treeline on the western slopes of the Andes. The forest thins toward the far south and comes to an end in Chilean Patagonia, where grass cover serves as forage for sheep.
\par {\b Wildlife}
\par \tab Wildlife too varies from north to south. In the northern Andes exist all four members of the South American camel family--the guanaco, llama, alpaca, and vicu±a. Other mountain animals include the large huemul deer, Andean wolf, puma, and wildcat. Among native mountain rodents is the nearly extinct chinchilla. The southern forests shelter the Darwin fox, the pud·, which is a small deer, and several kinds of marsupials, or animals with pouches like that of a kangaroo or opossum.
\par \tab The principal forms of bird life found in Chile include doves, ducks, and the perdiz, which resembles the partridge but is actually a member of the titmouse family. The giant condor, Chile's national bird, occasionally is seen in the Andes, while the vulture of Tierra del Fuego preys upon the sheep population of the far southern region.
\par \tab There are few species of freshwater fishes natural to the country, but lake trout, introduced from North America, are plentiful and reach sizes of 30 inches (75 centimeters) or more. A wide variety of saltwater fishes abound in the cool waters off the coast. Big game fishing for marlin and swordfish is excellent near Tocopilla north of Antofagasta, while tuna thrive in most of the coastal waters.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab Chile has no pronounced racial divisions. Only 5 percent of its people are genetically pure native Indians. People of pure Spanish descent total about 25 percent, while 66 percent are mestizo, a mixture of Spanish and native Indian.
\par \tab After the Spaniards came to Chile in the mid-1500s, they mixed with the native Indian population freely and with few prejudices. Social differences, however, soon began to appear in the new society, and the contrast between landowners and the landless people increased despite the fact that few racial differences separated the two classes. People of Indian and Spanish heritage mixed freely within the landed aristocracy or among the tenants who had become increasingly attached to the large estates.
\par \tab By 1980 approximately 80 percent of Chile's population lived in cities, the largest of which is Santiago. It not only serves as the national capital but is the country's industrial, commercial, and cultural core. Chile's second leading city, the seaport of Valparaφso, is located near the mouth of the Aconcagua River. A highway and railroad link the two major cities. Vi±a del Mar near Valparaφso is one of Latin America's most famous resort towns. Chile's third-largest metropolitan area is Concepci≤n. With the adjoining steel city of Huachipato and the ports of Talcahuano and San Vincente, it is the focus of the nation's heavy industry. The city is the mining, agricultural, and transportation hub of southern Chile.
\par \tab Chile contains numerous other large and rapidly growing cities, including Antofagasta in the north, which is an export center for minerals from the interior of the Atacama. It is also a fishing, refining, and regional supply center. Valdivia in southern Chile is a center for fishing, forestry, and cattle raising. Its factories produce textiles, wood products, leather goods, and foodstuffs. Still farther south, Puerto Montt serves as a tourist center for the Chilean lake district as well as a transportation gateway to Argentina and the far south of Chile.
\par {\b Central Chile: the Nation's Heartland}
\par \tab More than 90 percent of Chile's population live in central Chile. Here is centered the cultural, political, financial, and social life of the country. The region is also the location of the modern, European-style capital city, Santiago.
\par \tab The long Central Valley, which is filled with fertile soils deposited by Andean streams, produces most of the nation's food supply. Most of the rainfall occurs in the winter from May to August, while summers generally are rainless.
\par \tab In the summer a large high-pressure area called the Easter Island High lies off the coast, producing dry trade winds. But in winter the area of high pressure moves northward, allowing the westerlies to penetrate the area with their rains.
\par \tab South of the Bφo-Bφo River the valley has dense forests, where the Araucanian Indians successfully defended themselves against the Spanish invaders for 300 years. After the Indians were subdued, the area was opened for Chilean settlers and European immigrants, principally Germans.
\par \tab Wheat is the leading crop of central Chile, and alfalfa is grown widely as livestock feed. Large areas are devoted to vineyards, which produce grapes for Chile's wine industry. Other crops include barley, oats, corn, beans, olives, citrus fruits, peaches, tobacco, potatoes, and other truck garden crops.
\par {\b Transportation and Trade}
\par \tab The sea was the earliest and is still the most serviceable highway. There is coastal traffic between different sections of the country, and some 30 ports are visited by ships engaged in international trade. Chile's merchant marine is one of the largest in South America. The building of the Panama Canal brought the nation closer to world markets and greatly stimulated its industrial development.
\par \tab Of some 35,000 miles (56,000 kilometers) of roads, fewer than half are all-weather roads. The best highways are in the Central Valley. Air service, under government ownership, links the main cities.
\par \tab Chile has more than 5,000 miles (8,000 kilometers) of railways, some electrified. The government owns most of the mileage. Two lines cross the Andes to Bolivia, giving it access to the Chilean ports of Arica and Antofagasta. A third, linking the Pacific and Atlantic oceans, is the Transandine railway that runs from Valparaφso to Buenos Aires, climbing nearly 10,500 feet (3,200 meters) to tunnel through the Andes. Landslides often block the road. A fourth, opened in 1948, crosses the Andes from Antofagasta to Salta, Argentina. There is no railway south of Puerto Montt except on the Isla de ChiloΘ, but southern Chile is served by air.
\par \tab In the total value of its foreign trade, Chile is one of the leading nations of Latin America. In general it ships raw materials and receives manufactured goods. About 90 percent of the value of all exports comes from its minerals--copper, iron ore, nitrate and iodine, gold, silver, sulfur, and sulfate of soda. The second leading group is made up of wood, sheepskins, and fresh and frozen meats. Lentils, beans, peas, oats, barley, fruits, wine, and wood products are also exported, chiefly to neighboring countries.
\par \tab The major imports are machinery, transportation equipment, iron and steel products, chemicals, petroleum and its products, textiles, sugar, and other foodstuffs. Dependence on imported petroleum lessened when petroleum was discovered on Tierra del Fuego in 1945.
\par \tab A pipeline for crude petroleum was opened in 1950. A large part of Chile's trade is with the United States, Germany, Japan, and the United Kingdom as well as other South American countries.
\par {\b Culture}
\par \tab Chile has one of the richest cultural traditions of Latin America. Literature, particularly poetry, is important. The famous verse, 'La Araucana', by Alonso de Ercilla y Z·±iga, is considered by many to be the most important epic poem in the Spanish language. An important landmark in Chilean literature occurred in 1945 when Gabriela Mistral received the Nobel prize for literature. Her two better-known works are 'Desolaci≤n' and 'Los Sonetos de la muerte' (Sonnets of Death). Pablo Neruda, known as "the poet of enslaved humanity," won the Nobel prize in 1971. His epic poem 'Canto general' is memorable.
\par \tab Chileans' cultural interests extend beyond literature to include the entire range of artistic expression. Santiago contains the Palace of Fine Arts, the National Library, National Ballet, symphony orchestras, and theater companies.
\par \tab Folk music and dance are extremely popular. Best known is the cueca, a spirited dance of conquest and submission. Numerous religious festivals commemorate episodes from Chile's history. Rodeos with huasos, or cowboys, in colorful costumes are popular.
\par \tab Soccer is Chile's main sport, and thousands of Chileans watch professional teams in large stadiums in the country's principal cities. Many Chileans, too, are attracted to the sea. The most fashionable seaside resorts include Conc≤n, Vi±a del Mar, San Antonio, Zapallar, and Cartagena. Horse racing, skiing in the Andes, tennis, and yachting are also popular.
\par {\b Education}
\par \tab Public school education provided by the state is free, and eight years of basic education is compulsory. More than 90 percent of Chile's people can read and write. Chile's university system, long known as one of the best in Latin America, underwent a major change in 1981 and 1982. The University of Chile and the University of Santiago of Chile, both in Santiago, had long dominated the highly centralized system. But with the reorganization branch campuses outside Santiago became autonomous. More than 100,000 students are registered, and there are approximately 15,000 faculty members in the 15 universities.
\par {\b History and Government}
\par \tab In 1541 Pedro de Valdivia founded Santiago, the first white settlement in the area. Colonization was slow, as the Araucanian Indians destroyed settlements almost as soon as the Spaniards built them.
\par \tab In 1810 Chile broke from Spain, and, in the struggle that followed, General Bernardo O'Higgins of Chile and General JosΘ de San Martφn of Argentina finally defeated the Spanish forces. Independence was officially proclaimed in 1818, and O'Higgins became dictator. He tried to improve roads, schools, and public health; to stamp out banditry; and to increase foreign trade, but public opposition forced him to resign in 1823. In 1833 Chile adopted a constitution that called for a centralized government.
\par \tab Throughout the 19th century Chile made great social and economic progress. Immigration doubled the population between the 1840s and 1870s, and foreign capital expanded Chile's industry. While other Latin American nations were torn by continual strife, Chile suffered only one serious revolt--in 1891.
\par \tab The mining boom in the Atacama began when, in about 1860, a use was found for sodium nitrate in the manufacture of smokeless powder in explosives. Boundaries in the Atacama were vague, and disputes over nitrate deposits led to the War of the Pacific with Peru and Bolivia from 1879 to 1883. Chile won the war, and its forces occupied the Peruvian capital of Lima. The treaty of Anc≤n in 1884 resulted in transfer of the Peruvian section of the Atacama to Chile. Bolivia was deprived of its part of the Atacama and its access to the sea. Chile, in complete control of the nitrate country, further developed the industry and made increasing profits.
\par \tab During World War I exports at times exceeded 3,000,000 tons a year, but, when Germany was cut off from nitrate shipments, an atmospheric process was perfected for producing synthetic nitrogen. After the war nitrate plants were built in Norway and on the Tennessee River in Alabama. Since then Chile has continued to export nitrate but with little profit.
\par \tab The collapse of the market for nitrates after World War I depressed Chile's economy for more than ten years. Political strife and the workers' demands for better living conditions led to a new constitution in 1925. It provided for the most progressive social legislation in Latin America. Under this constitution the president and Congress were popularly elected. The president was limited to a single six-year term. In 1949 women won the right to vote.
\par \tab Inflation brought wage and price controls in 1956. Destructive earthquakes struck Chile in 1960 and in 1965. President Eduardo Frei initiated far-reaching economic and social reforms in 1965. In 1970 Salvador Allende Gossens became the first freely elected Communist president in the Western Hemisphere. His program included state control over mining, banking, credit, and external trade along with agricultural reform and an expansion of central planning. Large wage increases were granted without a corresponding increase in productivity. A breakdown of the economy was a quick result, followed by a bloody military takeover of the government in 1973.
\par \tab The military regime, under Gen. Augusto Pinochet Ugarte, suspended all of the activities of the political parties and the labor unions. Planning, economic development, and the nation's educational system were decentralized. Government control over industry, banking, commerce, and transportation was ended, as were most forms of tariff protection. A new constitution was approved by the electorate in 1980 that gave Pinochet an additional eight-year term of office. The government ended its 16-year-old state of emergency in August 1988. Voters went to the polls on October 5 and rejected another eight-year term for Pinochet, whose repressive regime was condemned by human-rights organizations. The defeat cleared the way for presidential and congressional elections on Dec. 14, 1989.
\par \tab Opposition candidate Patricio Aylwin Az≤car's election to the presidency marked a new stage in the country's return to democracy. In his first act as president, Aylwin pardoned all "prisoners of conscience" jailed by the Pinochet government. Pinochet remained as commander in chief of the army.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by Robert N. Thomas, Professor of Geography, Michigan State University.\par \tab Everything in China seems larger than life, and perceptions of the country must be adjusted to its enormous scale. Its culture and its civilization go back thousands of years. Its vast area of more than 3,690,000 square miles (9,560,000 square kilometers) is the third largest in the world, after Russia and Canada. With a population of more than 1 billion, it is Earth's most populated country.
\par \tab The Himalayas along China's southwestern frontier with India are the world's tallest mountains. China's greatest river, the Yangtze, is the world's fourth longest. The Taklimakan Desert, in western Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, is one of the driest spots on Earth. The area of loessic soil (fine, siltlike soil created by wind action in dry regions) in Shaanxi and Shanxi provinces is probably more extensive than in any other place.
\par \tab China has a great wealth of mineral and natural resources. Reserves of coal, petroleum, iron ore, tungsten, tin, bauxite, copper, limestone, and many other minerals needed in modern industry are abundant. Used in domestic manufacturing and exported to obtain money, these resources provide China with a solid foundation for rapid industrial growth.
\par {\b Historical and Cultural Continuity}
\par \tab Another significant aspect of China is its long cultural and national history. The Chinese people have shared a common culture longer than any other group on Earth. The Chinese writing system, for example, dates back almost 4,000 years. The imperial dynastic system of government, which continued for centuries, was established as early as 221 BC. Although specific dynasties were overturned, the dynastic system survived. China was even ruled at times by foreign invaders, such as the Mongols during the Yⁿan Dynasty, from AD 1279 to 1368, and the Manchus during the Ch'ing Dynasty, from AD 1644 to 1911, but the foreigners were largely absorbed into the culture they governed. It is as if the Roman Empire had lasted from the time of the Caesars to the 20th century, and during that time had evolved a cultural system and written language shared by all the peoples of Europe.
\par \tab The dynastic system was overturned in 1911, and a weak republican form of government existed until 1949. In that year, after a long civil war, the People's Republic of China, with a Communist government, was proclaimed. This government and the ruling Communist party have controlled China ever since. Although the dynastic system has disappeared, the People's Republic occupies essentially the same territory and governs the same people. If anything, the culture and power of China seem stronger in the late 20th century than at almost any other period in history. Under the People's Republic, China's role in world economic and political affairs has grown increasingly more important.
\par {\b Importance of the People's Republic}
\par \tab Size alone makes China an important member of the world community, a fact that the United Nations has recognized for some years. China has had a permanent seat on the UN Security Council since that organization was founded. For a number of years, this seat was occupied by Chiang Kai-shek's Nationalist government, which had fled to Taiwan when the Communists came to power.
\par \tab In 1971, however, the UN General Assembly voted to turn this seat over to the representatives of the People's Republic. The People's Republic is recognized by most nations as the legitimate government representing mainland China. After 1971, China joined a number of UN and other international organizations, such as the International Monetary Fund. It has become a more active participant in international programs.
\par \tab An example of China's growing involvement with the world community is the rapid increase in its foreign trade with countries outside the Communist bloc. Between 1959 and 1982 China's total trade turnover with non-Communist countries rose from $1.3 billion to about $32 billion. This represented a significant shift in policy on the part of China. It indicates they had come to believe that the key to economic growth and modernization--including access to new industrial and scientific technologies--lay in closer economic and political relationships with developed countries such as Japan, the United States, Germany, and the United Kingdom.
\par \tab By the early 1980s, after several decades of civil war, conflicts with foreign powers, and domestic upheavals, China seemed to have stabilized. Domestic policies and programs appeared to focus on improving the economy, the educational system, and the level of scientific and technical achievement. Disputes with neighbors and foreign powers remained, but they were muted. The emphasis had switched to the practical problems of economic growth.
\par \tab Although China is still a poor country, sheer numbers (22 percent of the world's population) and the size of the overall economy make it an important force among the world family of nations. China has disclaimed any ambition to be a major world power, but its leaders like to represent themselves as speaking for all the less developed and nonaligned countries of the Third World. How effectively China can maintain that position depends on the policies of its leaders in the international community and the success or failure of its economic development programs.
{\b THE LAND}
\par \tab Like the United States, China is located in the mid-latitudes. On the east and south China faces major arms of the Pacific Ocean. Consequently, eastern China--especially the southeastern coast--is humid and has generally mild winters compared to the rest of the country. High mountains close off the west, however, and much of the western two thirds of the country is relatively dry and isolated. Traditionally, China's western regions have been sparsely populated, largely by minority peoples such as Tibetans, Uygurs, and Mongolians.
\par {\b Surface Features}
\par \tab China's land surface is rugged and uneven. Almost one third of the total area consists of mountains and hills. Traveling westward from the coast in central China means going steadily upward across a series of hills and ridges, plateaus, and elevated basins. This climb ends at the Plateau of Tibet with the Himalayas on its southern flank.
\par \tab The major mountains, plateaus, and basins of the west--the Himalayas, Kunlun Mountains (also Kunlun Shan), Tian Shan, Altai, Plateau of Tibet, Tarim Basin, and Junggar Basin--follow an eastward axis. The main structural orientation of the mountains in the east--Great Khingan Range (also Da Hingan Ling) and Taihang--is north-south. Where these mountains cross, they form what has been likened to a gigantic checkerboard. This checkerboard pattern is not so clear in the south, however, because the low but rugged Nan Ling mountains form a more complex association of hills and ridgelines.
\par \tab In the southwest the ridges are folded into extremely rugged, high uplands separating the major drainage systems of several great rivers. Extensive areas in southwest China are underlaid with limestone. This karst, or limestone, region has been weathered into some unusual and striking landscapes that feature a variety of steep domes and towers. These landscapes have served as a popular theme for the traditional school of Chinese landscape painting.
\par {\b Major Rivers}
\par \tab China's two most famous rivers, the Huang He (also called the Yellow River) and the Yangtze, rise on the eastern edge of the Plateau of Tibet and flow eastward, eventually emptying into, respectively, Bo Hai Gulf and the East China Sea. Several other large rivers that rise in eastern Tibet, such as the Mekong, Salween, and Brahmaputra, flow into Southeast Asia or India. Another important river, the Amur, forms part of the boundary between China and Russia in the northeast. China's major southern river, the Xi, together with the Zhu Jiang (Pearl River) and other rivers, forms the important large southern delta plain in which the southern city of Canton is located.
\par {\b Natural Resources}
\par \tab China has a large and varied stock of natural resources. The variety of different landforms, soil conditions, and climate patterns offers many different kinds of opportunities for agricultural production. A tremendous range of food and industrial crops can be grown, and this makes it possible for China to keep imports to a minimum.
\par \tab Another aspect of China's natural endowment is its rich supply of mineral resources, a product of its complex geology. In ancient geologic times much of what is now China was under the sea. Movements of the Earth's crust against three huge, stable masses of ancient Precambrian rock (in southeastern China, Tibet, and Inner Mongolia) gave rise to China's characteristic parallel ridges and plains. In the lowlands and basins, which were repeatedly submerged during the Paleozoic era hundreds of millions of years ago, great quantities of carbon-containing material were deposited, and these became the carbon-based fossil fuels--coal and petroleum--that exist today. Deposits of other minerals accumulated as a result of geologic processes, including vulcanism associated with the crustal movements.
\par \tab China's coal and petroleum reserves are abundant. Reserves of tungsten, antimony, tin, mercury, salt, fluorspar, and magnesite are among the largest in the world, and the tungsten and antimony deposits may be the largest. China also has sizable reserves of iron and manganese ores, bauxite (aluminum ore), limestone, and copper, though it remains to be determined whether these are sufficient to meet China's growing domestic needs.
\par \tab China leads the world in the size of its coal reserves, which are estimated at more than 600 billion tons. These reserves would keep China supplied with coal for about 1,000 years if usage were to continue at its present level. China produces more than 660 million tons (600 million metric tons) of coal annually, most of it bituminous coal or lignite; this is almost as much as the United States produces. China relies on coal as its primary energy source, a condition likely to continue at least through the 20th century.
\par \tab Petroleum is not as easy to estimate as coal, but China is believed to have extensive reserves, both on land and offshore. There are a number of large areas with the right characteristics to contain oil and gas scattered throughout the country, and oil and gas have been discovered in more than half a dozen of them. In addition, there are believed to be major offshore deposits in the Bo Hai Gulf; the Yellow Sea; the East China Sea; the Formosa, or Taiwan, Strait; and the South China Sea. All of these deposits are in the continental shelf, the natural extension of the mainland under the adjacent water bodies.
\par \tab Offshore prospecting is under way in several locations, with a number of Western and Japanese petroleum companies assisting China. Some offshore drilling has taken place, and producing wells have been developed in the Bo Hai Gulf region. In recent years, however, most of China's petroleum has come from the large Daqing field in Heilongjiang Province in the northeast or from fields in the North China Plain near the mouth of the Huang He. Petroleum production in 1982 totaled 750 million barrels, enough to meet China's domestic needs and provide a small amount for export.
\par {\b Difficult Environments}
\par \tab One of the most unusual and challenging regional environments in China is found on the plateau west of the North China Plain, called the Loess Plateau. Here the special type of soil known as loess covers tens of thousands of square miles. The loess is blown by the wind from the adjacent Ordos, Alxa, and Gobi deserts and has accumulated over thousands of years. In many places the loess forms a thick mantle that completely covers the original landforms. When the forest or prairie vegetation on the loess is disturbed, the soil in the upland regions is easily eroded and formed into gullies by summer rainstorms.
\par \tab The region around the confluence of the Wei He and the Huang He is called the cradle of Chinese civilization. It was there that Late Stone Age people began to develop the culture that evolved into the Chinese civilization. When these people began to farm, they disturbed the original forest vegetation. Ultimately, this increased the rate of erosion and led to severe environmental problems. In addition to scarring the surface landscape with gullies and badlands, the runoff found its way into the Huang He, adding to the silt burden of that stream. The high silt content of the Huang He, which gives the stream its common name of "Yellow River," has resulted in a high deposit rate and a tendency to flood farther east on the North China Plain. The chronic and severe flooding of the Huang He, sometimes accompanied by major changes in the location of the channel, led the Chinese to call it "China's sorrow." Tremendous efforts and vast amounts of human labor have been used in building levees and channels to control it.
\par \tab The southwest, with its extensive limestone deposits, irregular karst towers, and subsurface drainage networks, presents a different set of difficulties. There the problems are to find areas of level land large enough to cultivate and to keep water on the surface so it can be used for irrigation. Other environments within China pose their own challenges. Farming is difficult in many parts of the country, and large investments are needed to improve the land and control water for irrigation. Transportation networks are difficult and expensive to plan and build in many areas, where inaccessibility and geographic isolation have seriously impeded development for centuries.
{\b CLIMATE, VEGETATION, ANIMAL LIFE}
\par \tab In terms of climate, China may be divided between the humid eastern region and the dry west. The humid east may be further subdivided between the warm and humid south and southeast and the temperate-to-cool, moderately humid north and northeast. Much of the humid eastern region of China exhibits a monsoonal pattern of temperature and precipitation. In a monsoon climate, the warm summer months are typically the months of maximum precipitation.
\par {\b Precipitation}
\par \tab Only the south and southeast have sufficient rainfall to support intensive farming. Just 20 to 26 inches (500 to 650 millimeters) of precipitation are common throughout much of the north and northeast. This is not enough to grow rice or to raise more than one crop per year. Consequently, much of north and northeast China must rely on irrigation water.
\par \tab Western China gets very little rainfall. Most of this region consists of mountains or enclosed desert basins. In extreme western Xinjiang at Kashgar in the Tarim Basin, rainfall averages only 4 inches (100 millimeters) per year. About the same amount falls farther northeast, at ▄rⁿmqi in the Junggar Basin, while near Lhasa, high on the Plateau of Tibet, the average is about 11 inches (280 millimeters). These dry conditions permit little farming, even where drought-resistant crops such as gaoliang (Chinese sorghum) and some of the millets are grown. Irrigation is essential, and most of the settlements in western China developed initially around oases where there were dependable sources of water. In Tibet less water is needed because of the lower average temperature, but irrigation is becoming increasingly important as a means of making agricultural output more reliable.
\par \tab An important feature of China's climate is the annual occurrence, usually in the summer or autumn, of great storms that sweep in from the western Pacific. These storms, called typhoons, are similar to Atlantic hurricanes. They are accompanied by high winds and tremendous quantities of rain, usually concentrated within a few hours. The storm paths most commonly focus on the southeastern coast, though sometimes they sweep northward toward Japan. Great damage may be done by the flooding caused by typhoons, especially in low-lying floodplains and basins.
\par {\b Temperature}
\par \tab In general, temperature patterns in China are determined by north-south location, though there are some exceptions. South of the Qin Ling Mountains, an eastward extension of the Kunlun Mountains, average annual temperature is high and winters are generally mild. For example, the middle and lower Yangtze Basin in southeastern China has mild winters and extremely hot summers, and the average temperature increases only gradually as one moves south into the tropical coastal areas. Average annual temperature drops rapidly north of the Qin Ling barrier. In much of this area there is a continental climate. This is reflected in the cold winters that occur in such cities as Beijing, Xi'an, and Harbin.
\par \tab The length of the growing season for plants, defined as the period during which daily mean temperatures are above 43░ F (6░ C), varies in line with the temperature patterns. Thus, most of the area south of the Yangtze has a growing season of at least 300 days, mild enough to grow two crops a year. Along the southern and southeastern coast the growing season lasts all year round. Light frosts may occur, but they are not severe enough to kill most plants. North of the Yangtze Basin average temperatures drop sharply, and the growing season shortens rapidly as distance north increases. In the northern interior the growing season is less than 180 days.
\par {\b Vegetation}
\par \tab As might be expected from its huge area and variety of regional climates, China has a great range of vegetation. Most of the types of plants that grow in the Northern Hemisphere can be found there, except for those varieties common to arctic and tundra regions. In Hainan Island in the extreme south, and along the southern coast, there are rain forests and associated plant communities typical of the humid tropics. The high, rugged mountains of western China and Tibet contain alpine and subalpine plants. Other regions of China exhibit a variety of plant life common to deserts, steppes and savannas, prairie meadows, mangrove swamps, and coniferous evergreen and deciduous forests.
\par \tab It is possible, however, to divide this broad range of plants into regional groupings. Thus there is a clear distinction between the character of the plant life in the humid and subhumid east and that of the dry west. The eastern part of the country can be further subdivided into four regions: (1) the tropical, humid southeast, which supports a tropical rain forest; (2) the subtropical southern and central area of broadleaved evergreens, pines, and varieties of bamboo; (3) the mid-latitude forest zone of mainly deciduous species, which extends from the Yangtze north to the Northeast region, formerly called Manchuria; and (4) the less humid but cooler extreme north and northeast, with evergreen conifers and northern deciduous tree species similar to those of the taiga zone in Russia. Throughout China coarse grasses have grown up where forests have been removed. In southern China there is a tough, fibrous type of grass that impedes further economic use of the land. Savanna grasslands are common in the tropics.
\par \tab The large, dense population of eastern China has placed great pressure on the natural vegetation. Especially serious is the demand for wood and forest products. Over the centuries, the great need for firewood, construction material, and paper has led to a serious loss of trees. In many places in eastern China it is difficult to determine the nature of the original vegetation. Today the main commercial forests (mostly conifers, birch, and ash) are found in northeastern China. There are also important and accessible commercial forests on the eastern flank of Tibet and Qinghai.
\par \tab In the mountains, deserts, and steppes of the west, where rainfall is low and winters are cold, the flora is not rich. Vegetation in the deserts and at higher elevations often consists of several species of grasses and subshrubs. Three major vegetation zones of western China have been identified: Inner Mongolia, the Junggar and Tarim basins, and Tibet. Within these three zones, the plant life varies according to local ecological conditions rather than according to north-south location. Trees, for example, are found where precipitation is greatest and where the average annual temperature permits their growth.
\par \tab On the windward, northern slopes of the Tian Shan facing the Junggar Basin, forests of such trees as spruce, birch, ash, and aspen are found up to 10,000 feet (3,000 meters) above sea level. However, there is great variation in the extent and type of tree cover as a result of differences in slope conditions, temperature, and moisture. At higher elevations and in drier steppe and desert locations a variety of grasses, shrubs, and sedges are common. The harshest region in western China is the western part of the Plateau of Tibet, a cold, forbidding desert above 14,800 feet (4,500 meters). Plant growth under such conditions is highly restricted.
\par {\b Soils}
\par \tab The nature of the underlying bedrock and the local topography are the most important factors in determining the formation and character of a soil, but climate and vegetation also play a major role. For example, in humid regions, especially under forest cover, the soils are leached, or drained by water, of certain minerals and nutrients and become acidic. In drier, cooler environments, where soils have developed under a grass cover and chemical weathering has been reduced, the soil typically has a higher humus content and is alkaline.
\par \tab In the humid tropical and subtropical regions of southeastern China, the soils generally have been leached of alkalis, leaving high concentrations of aluminum and iron oxides in the subsoil. Commonly known as lateritic soils, they are acidic and frequently have a reddish color. In general, they are not good for agriculture. A similar process has taken place in the humid but cooler areas of central and northeastern China and also at higher elevations in the west, especially where forests of cone-bearing trees have been present. In these soils, alkalis and iron compounds have been leached from the surface layer and clay and humus have accumulated in the subsoil. Traditionally called podzols, these soils are common at higher elevations in much of China.
\par \tab The dry areas of China, especially in Inner Mongolia, Gansu, Ningxia Huizu, Xinjiang, and parts of northeastern China, are covered with desert, steppe, and prairie soils, some of which are very rich. These soils are fundamentally different from the acidic types. Typically, they develop in dry areas as a result of the concentration of magnesium and calcium carbonates and have a high humus and alkaline content. They range from the extremely rich chernozem, or black earth, type of the northeast to the thinner, poorer brown steppe and gray-brown near-desert soils of Inner Mongolia and arid areas of Xinjiang.
\par \tab In addition to these major soil groupings, there are other soil types that are important. Loess, the windblown, fine-grained, yellow earth found over wide areas in Shaanxi and Shanxi provinces, is generally alkaline and potentially fertile, but it erodes easily. Many desert and mountain soils are thin and poorly developed and are essentially useless for any agricultural purpose. Perhaps most important for agriculture are the alluvial soils associated with the floodplains of streams and rivers. They are generally acidic and not rich, but they are easy to work and are usually near water. Especially in central and south China, they are used extensively for the production of such crops as rice, wheat, and cotton. With proper techniques, they can support some of the world's most intensive year-round farming.
\par \tab China has only a modest supply of arable land (about 10 percent of the total land area). Where precipitation is sufficient for growing crops, however, Chinese farmers have satisfactory to good soils to work with or they have improved existing soils by adding natural nutrients. Controlling runoff and erosion is the great problem in the loess areas. In low-lying floodplains, the water tables may be too high, resulting in the accumulation of excessive chemical compounds called salts. Nevertheless, China's soils are generally satisfactory, and local farmers and scientists have worked together to maintain and improve their quality and productivity.
\par {\b Animal Life}
\par \tab A tremendous number of animals are native to China. Some, such as the giant panda and the Yangtze alligator, are found nowhere else, and in recent years the Chinese government has stepped up efforts to protect and preserve them.
\par \tab Animals of the north include the Siberian tiger, wolf, badger, lynx, sika and musk deer, weasel, sable, stone marten, flying squirrel, snow rabbit, pheasant, mandarin duck, and the white-headed crane. Dry areas of the northwest are home to the wild donkey, Bactrian camel, Mongolian gazelle, and Mongolian beaver, as well as big horn sheep. Western birds include the whooper swan, pheasants, quail, and the great bustard. Sika deer, Tibetan antelope, rock sheep, yak, snow leopard, Himalayan brown bear, and such unusual birds as the Tibetan snow cock live at high elevations in Tibet and Qinghai.
\par \tab Much of the distinctive animal life of the southern and central parts of the country is associated with forested hills or aquatic environments. The panda, golden cat, clouded leopard, rhesus macaque, and takin, or goat antelope, are found in the southwest, and the giant salamander, Yangtze dolphin, crocodile lizard, several types of badgers and weasels, the golden langur, and the tiger in the Yangtze Basin. South China has hornbills, pheasants, monkeys, deer, and civets as well as the tigers and clouded leopards.
\par \tab This listing is by no means complete, but it indicates the rich variety of wildlife found in China and the importance of China as a preserve for the world's animals. Many of China's animals are the same or similar to those in neighboring lands. Distinctively Chinese species occur especially in the mountains.
{\b THE PEOPLE}
\par \tab China has the largest population of any country: 1,133,682,501 people were counted during the census taken in 1990. This population had grown rapidly in recent times, expanding by approximately 15 million each year, an increase equal to the total population of Australia. Between 1964 and 1982 China added 313 million to its population, more people than lived in the Soviet Union during that time. This rapid growth has occurred because the death rate has dropped sharply. The birthrate has also fallen, but the total population is enormous, and there are many young people. Thus, without extreme means of population control, the outlook is for continued rapid increase. The problem of providing an acceptable quality of life for a society this large--and growing ever larger--is a major concern in China. In an effort to reduce the rate of population growth, the Chinese government since 1978 has promoted the one-child family among the Han. (All married couples are urged to have only one child.) Rewards such as better opportunities for that one child are offered. Family-planning advice and birth-control techniques are easily available and commonly used. If a woman becomes pregnant with a second or third child, she is urged to have an abortion. Sterilization after one child is also being promoted.
\par \tab One problem facing the government is the widespread desire for male children. If the first child is a girl, she may be neglected. Some incidents of infanticide, the killing of children, have been reported in cases of female children. Despite all the government's efforts, the family-planning program and campaign promoting the one-child family have had only limited success in rural areas, where peasant families still want sons to carry on the male family name and for the heavy labor necessary on rural farms. Until rural people participate fully in family planning, China's population will continue to grow rapidly.
\par {\b Society and the Family}
\par \tab Traditionally the family has been the most important unit of society, and this is still true. The family is also an important economic unit. In rural areas, where about 74 percent of China's people live, the traditional family consisted of the head of the household, his sons, and their wives and children, often living under one roof. Common surnames gave families membership in a clan. In some villages all families had the same surname, or four or five surname clans might account for most of the villagers.
\par \tab Land, the main form of wealth in traditional China, was divided equally among all the landowner's surviving sons when he died. Thus, as China's population grew, the landholdings became smaller and smaller, and many people were very poor. In the first half of the 20th century the family as a social unit came under severe stress. Rural conditions were bad, income was low, and food was often scarce. Health care was poor or nonexistent for most peasants, and mortality rates were high. Civil unrest, warfare, and foreign invasions added to the difficulties.
\par \tab After the Communist revolution in 1949 rural conditions stabilized. Private ownership of land was abolished, but each peasant family was given a small plot to farm. Health care improved. The fluctuations in the food supply leveled off and life expectancy increased. Living conditions for the average peasant are generally better today than they were in 1949, and there are opportunities for at least some education. All these things have meant a considerable improvement in the quality of life and greater security for the family as a social unit.
\par \tab Today some rural families are still likely to have three generations under one roof. Despite state ownership of the land, they once again serve as basic production units. The Production Responsibility System, initiated in 1978, permits individual families to contract with their local production team or brigade to lease land for farming. Production quotas are also contracted. Whatever is left after taxes are paid and quotas are met belongs to the family. If a family works hard, it can meet its contract quotas and also produce a surplus for consumption or sale. This program was designed to stimulate production, but one result has been to strengthen the role of the traditional family as a consuming and producing unit.
\par \tab Urban family life is different from that in rural areas. In the cities, families usually are smaller, often composed only of parents and children. Since both parents work, the children are left in day-care centers or schools. Sometimes couples are split up if their work units are not close together, and husband and wife may see each other only rarely. Despite such problems, family life for most people in the cities is stable, and family ties continue to play a major role in the lives of both parents and children.
\par {\b Cities}
\par \tab More than 500 million people live in and around cities in China, according to the 1990 census. There are more urban dwellers in China than are found in either the United States or Russia. Some of the cities are quite large. Shanghai, for example, has more than 7 million people; Beijing has more than 6 million, and Tianjin more than 5 million. Many cities have more than 1 million people each. Even so, city dwellers represent a relatively low percentage of the total population--about 20.1 percent, according to the 1982 census.
\par \tab China's cities are expanding rapidly. The government is attempting to regulate urban growth in order to avoid such problems as congestion, overcrowding, slum development, and unemployment. It is difficult, for example, for a person to move to a city unless he or she has a permanent job and a housing permit. Through such constraints, China can slow the migration of people to cities and encourage the kind of urban and regional growth that planners believe is most suitable. Nevertheless, it seems quite likely that urbanization, the flow of people to cities, will continue to be a factor as China modernizes and its economy continues to expand.
\par {\b Ethnic and Language Groups}
\par \tab The concept of being Chinese is not based on race. Rather, it is a cultural concept. To speak and behave like a Chinese--in short, to accept the Chinese system of cultural values--is to be Chinese. The Chinese refer to themselves as Han or sons of Han (as in Han Dynasty, a period of great historical significance). Throughout history, small ethnic groups that came into contact with the Han Chinese have adopted Chinese culture and have been absorbed into the mainstream. This process continues, though there are legal guarantees designed to protect the rights and culture of minority nationalities.
\par \tab Traditionally, the definition of a minority nationality in China is a group of people who speak a common language, occupy a common area, and share a common sense of social values. They see themselves as non-Chinese--not belonging to the majority Han Chinese population. In 1982 approximately 67 million people, or 6.7 percent of China's population, were members of minority nationalities. In 1978 the central government recognized 55 minority nationalities with populations ranging from 300 (the Lobo, a small group living in Tibet) to 12 million (the Zhuang in southwestern China). Thirteen of the nationalities had populations of 1 million or more, and 27 had at least 100,000 members.
\par \tab Although the minority nationalities represent a comparatively small proportion of the total population of China, they have an importance in Chinese society beyond their numbers because of the strategic territories they occupy. Most minority nationalities live along China's sparsely populated frontiers and have cultural relationships with minority groups in neighboring countries, such as Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, North Korea, Mongolia, Thailand, and Myanmar (formerly called Burma). If these groups became hostile toward the central government it could affect China's national security.
\par \tab In part, the guarantees protecting the minority nationalities are expressed in the structure of China's administrative system. In addition to the 22 provinces, there are five autonomous regions, based on the location of five of the larger and more important minority nationalities. These are the Zhuang, a group of more than 42 million occupying the Guangxi Zhuangzu Autonomous Region; the Hui, or Muslims, a religious group of more than 4 million occupying the Ningxia Huizu Autonomous Region; the Uygurs, a Turkic group of more than 15 million in the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region; the Tibetans, or Zang, a group of 2.2 million who live in the Tibet Autonomous Region and Qinghai Province, an area of high plateaus and mountains bordering India; and the Mongols, a group of more than 21 million occupying the Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region between Mongolia and northern China. In addition, smaller units such as autonomous prefectures, leagues, and banners (equivalent to British counties) are based on their occupancy by even smaller minority groupings.
\par \tab This administrative system is designed to give the minorities political equality with the Han people and to help them maintain their distinctive identities. At the same time, Putonghua (based on the Mandarin dialect spoken in the Beijing area) is being promoted as the official spoken language of the country. All minority peoples are urged to learn it. Generally, all minorities live harmoniously with the Han. The government has adopted measures to promote economic development among minorities to enable them to catch up with the Han.
\par {\b Religion}
\par \tab Before the Communist Revolution, a number of religious and philosophical systems were practiced in China. Traditionally Taoism and Confucianism provided ethical guides to the proper behavior of individuals and officials. Both of these systems originated in China during the so-called Golden Age of Chinese thought, several centuries before the beginning of the Christian era. Taoism sought to promote the inner peace of individuals and harmony with their surroundings. Confucianism, based on the teachings and writings of the philosopher Confucius, is an ethical system that sought to teach the proper way for all people to behave in society. Each relationship--husband-wife, parents-children, ruler-subjects--involved a set of obligations which, if upheld, would lead to a just and harmonious society. Following his teachings would also promote a stable, lasting government.
\par \tab Buddhism, which came to China from India as early as the 1st century AD, was a more conventional religion. Its followers attended occasional services, practiced rituals, and supported a temple on a regular basis. It has been estimated that more than 68 million Chinese still consider themselves Buddhists, though it is unlikely that they practice the religion regularly. Prior to 1949, practices that may best be called folk religions were common throughout China. Although they incorporated elements of Buddhism and, especially, Taoism, these religions were usually local, often based on local gods, and served the local people.
\par \tab Christian missionaries have been active in China since Roman Catholics belonging to the Jesuit order arrived in the early 17th century. Protestant missionaries first appeared in the early 19th century. All the Christian missionaries had difficulty converting the Chinese because Christianity was associated in the popular mind with Western imperialism. By 1949 there were only 3 or 4 million Christians in China, less than 1 percent of the total population. Islam came to China mainly from Central Asia, where it was practiced by many of the Turkic peoples. Today there are believed to be more than 4 million Chinese Muslims. One autonomous region, Ningxia Huizu, has been designated for Islamic adherents.
\par \tab The Communists have discouraged religious practices, which they consider anti-socialist. Many temples and churches have been closed and their property taken. During the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution (or simply the Cultural Revolution), a mass movement that lasted officially from 1966 to 1977, conditions were especially difficult, and religious practitioners were persecuted. The situation eased after 1977. A number of Buddhist temples were allowed to reopen. Worship services among Christians were permitted once again, and it is believed that as many as 2 million Christians are practicing their faith in China. The Chinese government is cautious about all religious activity, especially if it happens to involve foreign people in any way.
{\b LANGUAGE, LITERATURE, ART}
\par {\b The Chinese Language}
\par \tab There are two elements to the Chinese language: the written language, based on individual symbols called characters, each of which represents an idea or thing; and the spoken language, which includes a number of different dialects. The written language originally had no alphabet, but it was easily understood by literate people no matter what dialect they spoke. Since the early 1950s a system using the Latin alphabet, called Pinyin, has been developed in China, and it is now in common use. Most of the spellings of Chinese sounds and names in this article are based on the Pinyin system of romanization. Those that are not are generally very familiar in their conventional form, such as the name Chiang Kai-shek.
\par \tab Some of the numerous dialects of spoken Chinese are totally different from each other. All of them use tones to distinguish different words. Mandarin, which is spoken in the Beijing region and in northern China generally, has four common tones. Cantonese, spoken in southeastern China, has nine tones and is quite different from Mandarin. Today Putonghua, which is based on Beijing-area Mandarin, is the official language of government and education, and everyone is expected to learn to speak it. The central government is also expanding the use of the Pinyin romanization system and is urging citizens to learn this alphabetized system of writing Chinese words. (Pinyin represents the spoken sounds of Putonghua, which is an oral representation of Chinese characters.) Citizens are also urged to learn a simplified system of Chinese.
\par {\b Literature}
\par \tab China has a very old and rich tradition in literature and the dramatic and visual arts. Early writings generally derived from philosophical or religious essays such as the works of Confucius (551-479 BC) and Lao-tzu (probably 4th century BC). These writings were often about how people should act and how the society and political system should be organized and operated. A strong tradition of historical writing also evolved. After the fall of a dynasty, for example, a grand history of the late dynasty was commissioned and written by scholars in the next dynasty.
\par \tab In addition to philosophical, religious, and historical writings, China also produced poetry, novels, and dramatic writings from an early date. Poetry became well established as a literary form during the T'ang Dynasty, from AD 618 to 907. One of China's greatest poets, Li Po, wrote during this period. This tradition of poetry, often dealing with the relationship of humans to their natural surroundings, has continued.
\par \tab Drama is another old and important literary form. Chinese drama usually combines vernacular language with music and song and thus has been popular with the common people. A variety of popular and standard themes are presented in Peking Opera, which is probably the best known of several operatic traditions that developed in China. Chinese opera is a favorite artistic and cultural medium.
\par \tab Early Chinese novels often stressed character development and usually centered on an adventure or supernatural happening; an example is the classic Ming version of 'Shui-hu chuan' (The Water Margin). Historical themes were also popular, as in the 'Romance of the Three Kingdoms', written in the late Yⁿan period. There were also love stories such as the extremely popular 'Dream of the Red Chamber', probably China's most famous novel. Many of the early novels were written anonymously. Often these works were written in the vernacular, and many authors felt it was beneath their station to be associated with this type of writing.
\par \tab China's literary tradition continues to the present, though much 20th-century writing has concentrated on efforts to reform or modernize China. Probably the most famous 20th-century writer is Lu Xun, a poet, essayist, and novelist whose work focused on the need to modernize through revolution. Under Communism, writers have been expected to uphold the values of the socialist state, though the degree of control over their output has varied.
\par {\b The Visual Arts}
\par \tab Chinese art, like Chinese literature, goes back many centuries. Early themes were developed from religious and supernatural beliefs or from the natural environment and landscape. One of the oldest and most basic forms of Chinese art is calligraphy, the painting of the Chinese characters with a brush. Calligraphy has developed as a pure art form with its own standards of excellence. Building on the tradition of calligraphy, Chinese painting developed a distinctive style that differs greatly from Western painting. It is more efficient in terms of brushstrokes and appears more abstract. Landscapes have always been a popular theme, and sometimes these appear bizarre to the Western eye. To the Chinese painter, they may represent a figurative view painted with a few swift strokes of the artist's brush.
\par \tab With their stress on simplicity and economy, Chinese calligraphy, painting, and poetry are closely related. In all of them, the artist seeks to express both inner harmony and harmony with the natural surroundings. Chinese poets and painters often have sought inspiration by withdrawing to isolated, mountainous areas, and these landscapes have become conventional themes of Chinese art. Similarly, Chinese architecture has traditionally aimed to convey harmony with society and nature.
\par \tab The magnificent life-size terra-cotta statues of men and horses, discovered in the early 1970s in the tomb of an emperor who died in 210 BC, provide some indication of the long history of Chinese sculpture. After the introduction of Buddhism into China, Buddhist subjects became dominant themes of the sculptor's art. Perhaps best known (and most copied) in the West, however, are the works of Chinese decorative artists, such as pottery, bronzes, lacquer ware, and exquisitely detailed jade and ivory carvings.
{\b EDUCATION AND HEALTH}
\par \tab The traditional educational system in China was based on literacy and the ability to read and write essays about the Confucian classics. Social advancement was achieved through successful completion of the imperial examinations, leading to an appointment in the imperial bureaucracy. Therefore, the questions asked in the imperial examinations determined the nature of the educational system. Since this examination system was used for many centuries and was not discarded until 1905, the Chinese educational system changed little during that time. The emphasis was on interpretation of the Confucian classics and the writing of elegant essays. Practical and scientific subjects were excluded.
\par \tab Although in theory the imperial examinations were open to anyone, only the wealthy could afford to give their children the years of schooling that were necessary for success. It is no wonder that the highest social class, the elite of traditional Chinese society, came to be called the scholar-gentry. They controlled the land and wealth, and, in general, only their sons were taught the Confucian classics, passed the imperial examinations, and became imperial officers.
\par \tab In the late 19th century, as the weaknesses of the Chinese economic and social system became more obvious, calls for reforming the educational system grew louder. Peking National University, with modern programs and courses, was founded in 1898. In 1905 the old imperial examination system was abolished. New courses in Western science and other nontraditional subjects were introduced, and new schools were established. The early 20th century was a period of rapid educational and intellectual change. Many young Chinese wanted to overturn the old society completely and reform China along modern, Western lines. Others advocated educational reform and social and political change, but within the framework of the traditional Confucian values. During the first half of the 20th century vast efforts were made to promote literacy. Both the Nationalist and Communist parties supported literacy and education, and both parties used education to promote their political goals. By 1945, however, it was estimated that only 20 percent of China's people could read and write.
\par \tab Since the Communists came to power in 1949 literacy has risen rapidly. Today it is estimated that 76 percent of adults are literate. Educational policy, however, has varied considerably. Generally, a primary school education has been made available to almost everyone, and about 40 percent of young people are able to attend middle school. This reflects a belief that basic knowledge is essential to rural development and economic progress.
\par \tab Education at the college or university level is difficult to obtain, however. The average primary school student has about one chance in 145 of enrolling in a university or college. More and more of China's young people are finishing high school, but no more than 2 to 3 percent of high school graduates go on to the next level. Policies on college admission have changed from time to time, and the basis of selection is not always clear. During the Cultural Revolution stress was placed on "good political background" as a requirement, and technical expertise was strongly criticized. Many schools and most universities were closed at that time, and education for China's youth and young adults was largely interrupted.
\par \tab The political climate changed in the late 1970s. Schools and universities were reopened. Admission came to be based on achievement, and scholastic goals emphasized technical learning and proficiency in subject matter. The political leaders who came to power after the Cultural Revolution believed that an educated group of professional managers, technicians, researchers, and teachers is essential for the modernization and development of China. Since 1978 the only requirement for admission to college has been a passing score on a college-entrance examination. The political background of an applicant's parents is no longer a factor in college admissions.
\par {\b Health and Welfare}
\par \tab There has been remarkable improvement in the health and material well-being of most of China's people since the civil war. Life expectancy at birth has almost doubled in a little over three decades, rising from an estimated 35 years in 1949 to more than 65 years in 1982. In the same period, the annual death rate declined from 23 per 1,000 population to about six per 1,000.
\par \tab Two major factors help to account for this progress. First, there has been a steady general improvement in the diet of the average citizen, resulting from larger and more reliable crop production. The old problem of periodic famine has largely disappeared, though poor harvests (such as that of the Loess Plateau in 1980) may still result in serious malnutrition. The average daily intake in the early 1980s was 2,700 calories per citizen, which is sufficient to sustain life and support a fair degree of physical activity. This compares with an average intake of 3,000 to 3,500 calories per person in the more heavily industrialized countries of the West.
\par \tab The second factor is the great improvement in the nature and quality of health care. Diseases such as tuberculosis, cholera, typhus, malaria, leprosy, smallpox, typhoid, and bubonic plague traditionally took a heavy toll of lives in China. In addition, a variety of debilitating parasites, such as hookworm and the trematode worm that causes schistosomiasis, were widespread. Dysentery and acute diarrhea were serious problems, especially among young children. Poor diet, insanitary conditions, poverty, and lack of health care made the entire population vulnerable to disease. Fatal illness was frequent and often struck babies and young children.
\par \tab The Communist government has made a tremendous effort to improve this situation. Inoculation against some diseases has been emphasized, as have cleanliness and sanitation. Health facilities, ranging from hospitals and clinics to "barefoot doctors"--people with some medical training who work especially in the villages--have been made available to the entire population. The cost of health care is low, and it is often provided by the farm commune or factory where a person is employed.
\par \tab Most of the epidemic diseases that used to sweep over China have been brought under control. Such diseases as tuberculosis, encephalitis, cholera, and malaria and certain parasites still present problems, but to a lesser degree than in the prerevolutionary period. Diarrhea and dysentery are likely to continue as long as human waste (referred to as night soil) is used as a type of farm fertilizer. Nevertheless, the much improved figures of life expectancy indicate the tremendous progress that has been made in the fight against diseases.
{\b THE ECONOMY}
\par \tab China's traditional economy was based on rural activities and farm production. Ownership of land was the main form of wealth, and large holdings often belonged to absentee landlords who lived in nearby cities. Many peasants were poor and landless and worked as tenants for the absentee landlords or for richer peasants.
\par \tab {\b Rural poverty.}
\par \tab For several centuries one of China's most serious problems has been the rapid growth of the population, which tended to match any increases in food production. This became especially serious after 1800, partly because the supply of farmland grew slowly and partly because the practice of dividing farm holdings among all the surviving sons resulted in ever smaller units of production. Eventually many of the holdings were so small that a family could not sustain itself without going into debt. Once this happened, it was very difficult for the family to clear itself of financial obligation. Large numbers of peasants lost their land as a result. In times of famine and hardship, such families suffered the most.
\par \tab As rural poverty spread during the 19th and early 20th centuries, many poor and middle peasants were attracted to political movements that promised radical changes and the breakup of large landholdings. The programs of Sun Yat-sen, Chiang Kai-shek, and the Nationalist party were intended to improve the people's livelihood, but much of their political support came from landlords. Therefore, it was difficult for the Nationalists to promote effective and thoroughgoing land reform.
\par \tab The Chinese Communist party had no such ties to landlords. At first the party attempted to focus its attention on urban workers, but it made little progress. One young Communist organizer, Mao Zedong (also Mao Tse-tung) urged that the party concentrate its efforts on the rural peasantry, and eventually this strategy proved successful. The Communists gained power in China partly because of the bad rural conditions that existed there.
\par \tab {\b Central planning, the Communist approach.}
\par \tab When the Communist government took over in 1949, several paths to economic development and growth were available to it. The Soviet model of central direction and planning based on the development of heavy industry was one. Another was to retain central planning but to focus on agricultural development and light industry. Still another was to decentralize decision making and allow market forces to determine--in part at least--how resources were used. This last option is closest to the capitalism of Western industrialized countries.
\par \tab Almost by definition any Communist or Marxist system must include a strong element of central direction and planning. China is no different from other Communist states in this respect, and it moved quickly to develop a central planning body to direct the economy and determine the use of resources. The main planning organs are centrally directed by the State Council, the highest administrative body in the government. Under the State Council is the State Planning Commission, which directs the various ministries such as the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry and the Ministry of Commerce.
\par \tab Another important aspect of China's economic system after 1950 was state ownership of all land and major equipment, what Marxists call the "means of production." Initially land seized from the big landlords was given to peasant cultivators, but by 1955 all land was taken over by the state and organized into collective farms. A small fraction was later returned to the peasants as their own family plots, but there has not been any true private ownership of land in China since 1955.
\par \tab Since 1950 China has followed several strategies to promote economic growth and development, but they have all been based on central planning and direction, what is called a "command" economy. However, there have been substantial variations in the amount of decision making left to individuals at the local level and in the types of incentives available to individual farmers and workers. In the early 1950s China followed the Soviet model, focusing on the development of heavy industry to the neglect of other sectors of the economy. Over the years, however, there have been shifts in the relative emphasis placed on heavy industry, light and consumer-oriented industries, and agriculture.
\par \tab Some of these changes in emphasis have been tied to changes in the political orientation and thinking of leadership. In the past such shifts have often been reflected in major policy statements and associated with mass participation campaigns.
\par \tab Examples of mass participation campaigns are the Great Leap Forward from 1958 to 1959 and the Four Modernizations program beginning in 1978. The Cultural Revolution was basically a political movement, though it did have far-reaching effects on the economy and on economic development.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab The Geography portion of this article was contributed by Clifton W. Pannell, Professor, Department of Geography, University of Georgia, and author of 'China, The Geography of Development and Modernization'. The History portion of this article was contributed by Bonnie B.C. Oh, former Associate Professor of History, Loyola University of Chicago.
\par \tab {\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR CHINA}
\par \tab Butterfield, Fox. China: Alive in the Bitter Sea, rev. ed. (Random, 1990).
\par \tab Carter, A.R. Modern China (Watts, 1986).
\par \tab Congress of the United States, Joint Economic Committee. China Under the Four Modernizations. Part I (U.S. Govt. Printing Office, 1982).
\par \tab Danforth, Kenneth, and Dickinson, M.B., eds. Journey into China (National Geographic, 1982).
\par \tab Dures, Alan. The Postwar World (David & Charles, 1988).
\par \tab Fairbank, J.K. Chinabound: A Fifty Year Memoir (Harper, 1983).
\par \tab Filstrup, Chris, and Filstrup, Janie. China: From Emperors to Communes (Dillon, 1982).
\par \tab Goff, Denise. Early China, rev. ed. (Watts, 1986).
\par \tab Hacker, J.H. The New China (Watts, 1986).
\par \tab Lord, B.B. Legacies: A Chinese Mosaic (Knopf, 1990).
\par \tab McLenighan, Valjean. China: A History to 1949 (Childrens, 1983).
\par \tab Martin, Helmut. Cult and Canon: The Origins and Development of State Maoism (M.E. Sharpe, 1982).
\par \tab Medley, Margaret. The Chinese Potter (Cornell Univ. Press, 1982).
\par \tab Pannell, C.W. East Asia, Geographical and Historical Approaches to Foreign Area Studies (Kendall/Hunt, 1983).
\par \tab Poole, F.K. Album of Modern China (Watts, 1981).
\par \tab Rau, Margaret. The Minority Peoples of China (Messner, 1982).
\par \tab Roderick, John. China: From the Long March to Tiananmen Square (Holt, 1990).
\par \tab Sabin, Louis. Ancient China (Troll, 1985).
\par \tab Sadler, C.E. Two Chinese Families (Atheneum, 1981).
\par \tab Tao Tao Liu Sanders. Dragons, Gods and Spirits from Chinese Mythology (Schocken, 1982).
\par \tab Wood, Frances. People at Work in China (David & Charles, 1988).
\par \tab Xiao Ming and Katie Visit the Zoo (China Books, 1981).
\par \tab Yungmei, Tang, photog. China, Here We Come! (Putnam, 1981).\par \tab The fourth largest country in South America, the Republic of Colombia has coasts on both the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea. Lying next to the Isthmus of Panama, which until 1903 was a part of its territory, Colombia is a strategic crossroads in the network of communication between North, Central, and South America.
\par \tab Colombia has an area of about 440,000 square miles (1,140,000 square kilometers), extending for more than 1,100 miles (1,800 kilometers) from north to south and for more than 850 miles (1,370 kilometers) from west to east. It is bounded by the Caribbean on the north, Venezuela and Brazil on the east, Peru and Ecuador on the south, the Pacific on the west, and Panama on the northwest.
\par \tab At its southeastern tip, the Colombia-Peru border is made up of the Amazon River for a distance of 72 miles (116 kilometers). Its only important outlying possession is San AndrΘs and Providencia, a group of islands 500 miles (800 kilometers) from the mainland and only 100 miles (160 kilometers) off the eastern coast of Nicaragua.
\par {\b Land and Climate}
\par \tab Colombia's physical backbone is the northern Andes mountain chain, which effectively separates the country's eastern lowland regions from the Pacific coastal lowlands in the west and the Caribbean littoral in the northwest. A short distance from the Ecuadorian border, the Andes branch into three cordilleras, or ranges, roughly parallel in a south-north direction. The Cordillera Occidental (western) and the Cordillera Oriental (eastern) are separated from the Cordillera Central by the Cauca and Magdalena valleys. The Andean ranges help break the country into five natural units: the Andean region itself, the Pacific lowlands, the Caribbean coastal plain, the eastern Llanos, or plains, and the Amazonian lowlands.
\par \tab The extremely varied land of the Andean region has steep slopes alternating with long valleys and plateaus, or high flat areas. Bogotß, the national capital, is located in the heart of the country on a cool plateau of the Cordillera Oriental at 8,600 feet (2,600 meters) above sea level. Some of the snowcapped peaks in the Cordillera Central, the highest range, are extinct volcanoes. Volcanic activity, however, continues in the southern part of this region.
\par \tab In spite of its inland location and mostly rough terrain, the Andean region has been the one where people have chosen to live throughout Colombian history. This is because it offers so much physical variety and has favorable climates. Yet it makes up only 20 percent of Colombia's land.
\par \tab West of the Cordillera Occidental a narrow plain faces the Pacific Ocean. This lowland is made up of comparatively recent alluvial soils deposited by the San Juan River and numerous streams that drain the western slopes of the Cordillera, one of the rainiest spots in the world. The region is entirely occupied by marshlands and tropical rain forests. Low hills between the watersheds of the San Juan and Atrato rivers separate the Pacific and Caribbean coastal plains. Colombians have long-term hopes of digging an interoceanic waterway in this area as an alternative to the Panama Canal.
\par \tab The Caribbean coastal plain is a lowland formed by materials that settled out of water in the floodplains of the lower Magdalena, Cauca, Sinu, and Atrato valleys, which spread out as they approach the sea. Near the coast the plain is a grassland with seasonal droughts. But its southern section, in contact with the northern spurs of the Andes, is forested marshland affected by seasonal flooding.
\par \tab East of the mouth of the Magdalena, the coastal plain is interrupted by the Sierra Nevada of Santa Marta, an isolated, massive mountain with two peaks--Col≤n and Bolφvar--that rise to nearly 19,000 feet (5,800 meters) and 16,500 feet (5,000 meters), the highest in the country.
\par \tab Colombia's eastern half is a vast inland plain that extends beyond the Venezuelan and Brazilian borders. This area is subdivided by geographers into two separate natural regions--the Llanos, or plains proper, in the northern part and Amazonia south of the Guaviare River.
\par \tab The Llanos is an endless tropical grassland drained through the Arauca, Meta, and Vichada rivers to the Orinoco, which flows across central Venezuela and empties into the Atlantic Ocean. As a typical savanna, or treeless plain, environment with a wet-and-dry tropical climate, the Llanos soils are poor. Sparsely populated and undeveloped, the region traditionally has been used for open-range cattle ranching. Its chance for economic development arrived in the form of rich petroleum deposits discovered in 1984 along the Andean piedmont, or broad low slopes at the base of the mountains.
\par \tab The great lowland located south of the Guaviare River is the Colombian share of the Amazon Basin. Amazonia is a frontier land with a warm climate almost as rainy the year around as the Pacific plain. Until the 1950s this area was almost entirely covered with selvas, or humid forests. It still is a large natural reserve, but large numbers of pioneers settling along the upper Guaviare, Caquetß, and Putumayo rivers are rapidly turning the forest into cropland and pastures.
\par \tab Tropical characteristics may be the common denominator of the climatic conditions of Colombia. Despite local variations, there is no seasonal temperature fluctuation as in middle-latitude climates. Latitude and elevation are the most important factors determining the climate.
\par \tab Since 80 percent of Colombia is made up of lowlands less than 10░ from the equator, warm climates are widespread with average daily temperatures always above 78░ F (24░ C). Weather conditions are controlled by the Intertropical Convergence Zone, a low-pressure belt that moves back and forth across the equator bringing together the trade winds and seasonal rains. Wet and dry seasons alternate in the Andes, the Llanos, and the Caribbean plain. The Pacific region and Amazonia, which are crossed by the equator, have abundant rainfall evenly distributed throughout the year.
\par \tab In the Guajira Peninsula, the northernmost tip of South America, semidesert conditions yield annual precipitation figures of only 12 inches (30 centimeters). By contrast, there are stations on the northern Pacific plain that record more than 390 inches (990 centimeters), matched only by the rainiest places of India, Hawaii, and equatorial Africa.
\par \tab A vertical environmental zoning results from the decrease of temperature as altitude increases in the Andes. At the bottom lies the tierra caliente, or zone of warm lands, to about 3,300 feet (1,000 meters). Next the tierra templada, or temperate zone, reaches to 6,600 feet (2,000 meters). On top of this lies the tierra frφa, or fringe of cool climate, extending up to 9,800 feet (3,000 meters). Finally, a zone of treeless pßramos reaches to the permanent snow line at about 15,400 feet (4,700 meters).
\par \tab Different plant zones exist within the vertical climate zones. The tropical species of the selvas give way gradually to subtropical woods in the tierra templada and to temperate species in the tierra frφa. The pßramos are covered with alpine meadows that dwindle in the colder uplands of barren rock and snow. Crops are also grown according to the vertical climate zones. The warm lowlands are devoted to rice, cotton, bananas, and cacao. Coffee cultivation is typical of the intermediate tierra templada, which also produces maniocs, bananas (plantains), and citrus fruits. Certain cereals grow well in the cool tablelands, which are also the best dairylands. The pßramos are well suited for potato farming.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab Colombia's total population was just over 20 million at the 1973 census. In a 1984 estimate it was thought to have reached more than 33 million. Ninety percent of the people live in the western half of the country, where the most densely settled valleys and tablelands reach as high as 300 persons per square mile (117 persons per square kilometer). The greatest population densities are in the departments of Caldas, Quindφo, and Risaralda; parts of the Antioquia and Valle del Cauca departments; and the highlands of Cundinamarca and Boyacß. Another area densely populated is the Caribbean seaboard around the port of Barranquilla. By contrast the eastern Llanos, Amazonia, and the Pacific plain are sparsely settled.
\par \tab Traditionally Colombia was a rural nation of landlords and peasants, villages, and small towns. Cities were small and provincial. Since the late 1940s, however, a major shift in population from the countryside to urban centers has been taking place. As cities grow, more rural dwellers move in. The greatest urban growth has been in the country's capital, Bogotß, a city that grew from 660,000 inhabitants in 1951 to more than five million in the 1980s. Other thriving centers with more than one million people are Medellφn, Cali, Barranquilla, Bucaramanga, Cartagena, and C·cuta. Altogether half of the Colombians live in 17 cities of more than 150,000 population.
\par \tab Colombians are of Spanish, Indian, and, to a lesser degree, African black ancestry. An accurate ethnic division is difficult to establish after nearly four centuries of intensive racial blending. An educated guess is that about 60 percent of the people are mestizo, or a mixture of Europeans and Indians. Mulattos and blacks may represent 18 percent and whites about the same percentage. Pure or nearly pure Indians make up less than 2 percent. Spanish is the language spoken in Colombia and Roman Catholicism the assumed religion of more than 90 percent of its people.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab Although Colombia is often included in the group of less developed nations of the world, its traditional dependence on agriculture, mining, and other extractive activities is being changed by a steady industrializing trend and technological modernization. The world financial crisis of the 1980s hit Colombia, but its economy is less troubled than some in Latin America that are on the verge of bankruptcy from recession and high foreign debts.
\par \tab Although coffee remains the largest single item contributing to foreign earnings, a greater variety of exports has been successfully encouraged to include such products as coal, nickel, textiles, clothing, and chemicals. The savings of foreign currency is also increasing through government incentives to investors in domestic manufacture.
\par \tab During the 1970s Colombia's gross national product (GNP) grew at an average rate of 6.2 percent per year, reaching a peak of 7.3 percent in 1973. The following decade was poor in economic terms, showing a steady decline to 0.8 percent in 1983. The relative contributions to the GNP are: agriculture, 22.7 percent; manufacturing, 20.4; trade, 12.3; transportation, 9.8; construction, 3.8; and other sectors, 31 percent.
\par {\b Agriculture}
\par \tab Although agricultural output has grown as a result of better farming techniques, its relative role in the national economy is declining as other sectors expand and improve in productivity. The added value of crops and livestock in the GNP went from 40 percent in 1948 to 28 percent in 1975 and to 22.7 percent in 1984. The varied climatic conditions of the country have helped government policies of agricultural diversification. Colombia is nearly self-sufficient in a large number of foodstuffs and has made substantial progress in producing some crop surpluses for the world market. Its traditional exports of coffee and bananas are now complemented by cotton, rice, and fresh-cut flowers. Growing demand in Colombian cities for perishable foodstuffs has led to intensification in vegetable and fruit farming as well as in the poultry industry and dairying. Farms on the plateau surrounding Bogotß are probably the most intensively cultivated in the country. Agriculture may be increased not only by further modernization but by the development of new living areas. In the 1980s only about five percent of the Colombian landmass was under cultivation in spite of this increased food production.
\par \tab After Brazil, Colombia ranks as the world's largest coffee exporter. This single commodity represented 47 percent of Colombia's total foreign income in the early 1980s. Nearly one quarter of Colombia's cropland is in coffee, with 300,000 farms employing more than 20 percent of the agricultural labor force. The typical coffee-producing region is in western Colombia in the intermediate hillsides of the departments of Caldas, Quindφo, Risaralda, Valle del Cauca, and Antioquia. Their rich volcanic soils and temperate climate are excellent for this crop, with yields reaching record figures. Coffee cultivation requires much hand labor because the rough land surface is impossible for the operation of most farm machines. Coffee farms are small and family-operated in contrast to the large plantations producing rice, cotton, or sugarcane.
\par \tab Colombia is also an important cattle-producing country. Livestock ranching is an activity in the best Spanish cultural tradition. During colonial times the Spaniards built a cattle empire that extended from the southern Rockies in the United States to Argentina. The raising of beef cattle is important in the Caribbean plain and the Magdalena Valley and is the leading activity in the Llanos. Dairy cattle, mostly of the Holstein breed, are restricted to the cool climates of the Andes. The total Colombian herd is estimated at about 25 million head grazing on 44.5 million acres (18 million hectares) of pasture, more than three times as much area as in crops.
\par \tab Colombian agriculture faces serious problems. Seasonal flooding and drought in the lower valleys and plains and killing frost in the high mountains cause heavy losses, as do pests and disease. Social unrest and violence has also plagued the rural areas for decades. Traditional small units, called minifundia, of subsistence farming exist along with idle estates, called latifundia. Landless, illiterate peasants are drawn to open revolt by leftist guerrilla movements. The official land reform program established in the early 1960s has failed to counteract this sociopolitical conflict. Furthermore, a large share of agricultural effort presumably has been eroded since the 1970s by secret marijuana and coca plantings. The cocaine trade has been very bad for both the national economy and the country's international prestige.
\par {\b Transportation and Communications}
\par \tab Colombia's transportation network links the major urban centers with one another, with the Caribbean ports of Barranquilla, Santa Marta, and Cartagena, and with the Pacific port of Buenaventura. Until the mid-20th century the transportation system was organized around the Magdalena River, which handled most of the cargo and passenger traffic between the north coast and the country's interior.
\par \tab Now the road network is of foremost importance, totaling 28,000 miles (45,000 kilometers). The highway system is tied to two main north-south roads. The Western Trunk Highway runs from the Ecuadorean border to the Caribbean coast, passing through Cali and Medellφn.
\par \tab The Central Trunk Highway runs from Cali, leading into Bogotß and farther northeast to join the road network of western Venezuela. The two main highways are linked by the 1,700-mile (2,700-kilometer) Caribbean Trunk Highway.
\par \tab There is also overland transportation via the 2,120-mile (3,400-kilometer) rail network. The importance of Colombian railroads declined as the road network improved, and today they are used mostly for cargo transport.
\par \tab Air transportation came early to Colombia; SCADT, later to become AVIANCA, was founded in 1919, the first commercial airline in the Western Hemisphere. Colombia's air traffic is handled through international airports in Bogotß, Cali, Medellφn, Barranquilla, and San AndrΘs Island.
\par \tab Although air cargo traffic has greatly expanded, ocean carriers of the country's Grancolombiana Merchant Marine transport the bulk of the international cargo. The Grancolombiana is one of the leading shipping lines in the Americas.
\par \tab In order to overcome natural barriers that isolate different regions in the country, Colombia developed an effective telecommunications system. Automatic telephone service has operated in Bogotß since 1945, and radio and television are also well developed.
\par {\b Power and Mineral Resources}
\par \tab Colombia's power resources rest heavily on hydroelectric plants, which total 70 percent of installed capacity. In the 1980s the generating capacity was greatly increased by projects in the upper Magdalena, Cauca, and Guavio rivers.
\par \tab Further surveys indicate that by the beginning of the 21st century about 90 percent of new power will be based on hydroelectric sources. The electricity distribution system is publicly owned.
\par \tab Coal is Colombia's most abundant mineral resource and is found throughout the country. Reserves are estimated at 16.5 billion tons, 64 percent of the known Latin American total. Of foremost importance is the Cerrej≤n Basin on the Caribbean seaboard, with proven reserves of 3.7 billion metric tons. Coal shipments to American and European customers began in 1985 through the port of Sim≤n Bolφvar on the Guajiran coast.
\par \tab For nearly half a century beginning in the early 1920s, Colombia exported crude petroleum. Wells running low in the middle Magdalena Valley and in the Catatumbo area, however, reversed that condition just at a time when oil prices climbed to the highest level. New wells in the upper Putumayo Basin eventually brought production to a 150,000-barrels-per-day level, but it was insufficient to satisfy national needs. An intensified search for more petroleum sources, launched in the late 1970s, has shown new promise for self-sufficiency and petroleum exports. The Arauca, Casanare, and Meta basins in the Llanos have proven to be a surprisingly rich oil reserve. Sizable reserves of natural gas, including the major Guajira gas field, have also been found in different parts of the country.
\par \tab There are also new mining activities. The Cerromatoso nickel-mining project began in 1982. There are prospects for new gold discoveries in the Amazonian area, and Colombia continues to be the foremost producer of emeralds.
\par {\b Education and Culture}
\par \tab Illiteracy is one of Colombia's most serious problems. Although elementary schooling is compulsory, the government has been unable to provide education to many Colombians over 7 years of age. It is estimated that about 20 percent, or nearly 7 million, of the people cannot read and write. In the 1980s 86 percent of the children of primary school age attended public institutions, and 58 percent of the eligible students were in secondary school systems. Only 40 percent of college-age students attended officially recognized universities. There is a relatively large number of institutions of higher learning, led by the public National University and the private University of the Andes, both in Bogotß.
\par \tab Colombia has a long-standing cultural tradition. Colombian poets and novelists have earned well-deserved recognition in the Spanish-speaking world. The most famous writer is Gabriel Garcφa Mßrquez, the Nobel prizewinner for literature in 1982. His best-known literary work is 'One Hundred Years of Solitude', a novel translated into more than 30 languages. The fine arts are represented by a number of painters and sculptors led in contemporary times by Fernando Botero, Alejandro Obreg≤n, and Edgar Negret.
\par {\b History and Government}
\par \tab Colombia is the only nation named after Christopher Columbus, who first sailed off its Caribbean shores at the end of the 15th century. Prior to Spanish colonization, Colombia was settled by numerous Indian tribes. One of them--the Chibcha, or Muisca--occupied the fertile valleys and plateaus of the Cordillera Oriental. As a peaceful, settled people, they achieved a cultural development surpassed in the New World only by the Aztec, Maya, and Inca. The Chibcha were farmers and weavers. They were ruled by two principal caciques, or chieftains. No one knows their origin for certain, but their archaeological record goes back 10,000 years. At the time of the Spaniards' arrival, the Chibcha were defending their territory from the Caribs, Indians who had invaded the Caribbean plain and mountain valleys.
\par \tab There were other tribes such as the Tairona in the Sierra Nevada of Santa Marta, the Calima in the Cauca Valley, the Quimbaya in the Quindφo region, and the Agustinians in the upper Magdalena Valley. They left legacies of gold craftsmanship and stone sculpture.
\par \tab The first Spanish settlement was Santa Marta on the Caribbean coast, founded in 1525 by Rodrigo de Bastidas. From this port the Spanish conqueror Gonzalo JimΘnez de Quesada made his way to inland territories by way of the Magdalena River. JimΘnez de Quesada was joined by other adventurers shortly before his founding of Bogotß in 1538. This consolidated the European settlement of the country, which thereafter was known as the Kingdom of New Granada. Two centuries of intensive colonization eliminated most Indian cultural traits. The Spaniards transplanted their language, religion, customs, and institutions as well as their crops and animals, which the Chibcha learned to cultivate and care for. Wherever Indians were rebellious or unable to adapt themselves to hard labor conditions, as in the mines or on tropical plantations, they were replaced by imported African slaves.
\par \tab New Granada grew important enough to be raised in the 18th century to a viceroyalty comprising what is today Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, and Panama. Rivalry between Spain and England troubled the ports of Cartagena and Santa Marta. English pirates frequently looted these cities as they attacked and captured the richly laden ships crossing the Caribbean. The San AndrΘs archipelago was a sanctuary of privateers whose legacy is the English dialect still spoken in these islands.
\par \tab Late in the 18th century mounting resentment against Spanish rule escalated to open revolt in New Granada. In 1781 JosΘ Antonio Galßn led an unsuccessful uprising of the native comuneros. To further set the stage for revolution, Antonio Nari±o translated and published in 1794 the document that embodied the principles of the French Revolution, the 'Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen'. A Supreme Junta of the Kingdom of New Granada was created in Bogotß on July 20, 1810, providing for the liberty and autonomy of the colony. Finally, absolute independence from Spain was proclaimed on July 16, 1813. The war of independence that followed initially favored Spain. An expedition led by Pablo Morillo easily restored the viceroyalty in 1816. Several patriot leaders were either shot or hanged by Morillo. One of the few who escaped was Francisco de Paula Santander. He reorganized an army in the Llanos and in 1819 joined the war effort of the Venezuelan Gen. Sim≤n Bolφvar. Bolφvar and Santander led an army of liberation across the Andes, defeating the Spanish in Boyacß on Aug. 7, 1819. Bogotß was taken, and the same year the Greater Colombia Confederation was established by the Congress of Angostura. In 1830 the federation was dissolved when Venezuela and Ecuador withdrew.
\par \tab In 1832 a government with legislative, executive, and judicial branches was established by a new constitution. General Santander was elected president and led the nation toward democracy.
\par \tab Colombia has a democratic form of government. Its current constitution dates from 1886, though it has been amended. Civil rights, social guarantees, and private property rights are foremost provisions of the constitution and laws of the country. A president elected for a four-year term is the chief of state and head of government. The governors of the departments are appointed by the president. There is complete independence of the executive, legislative, and judicial branches. Traditionally the country has been run through a two-party system. Liberals and Conservatives are both democratically committed. The Communist party is legal, and there is ample freedom for the establishment of other political organizations.
\par \tab In 1989 the government cracked down on the local drug traffickers, who retaliated with a series of killings and in August assassinated the Liberal party's presidential candidate, Luis Carlos Galßn. A state of emergency was declared, and the government attempted to seize the assets of the drug cartels and extradite traffickers to the United States. In response the traffickers began a series of bombings and killings. In February 1990 the presidents of Bolivia, Peru, and Colombia--the world's three main cocaine-producing countries--met in Cartagena with the president of the United States--the world's top cocaine-consuming country. They agreed to exchange United States economic and military aid for increased Latin efforts to combat the drug trade. Voters in May 1990 elected CΘsar Gaviria, the Liberal party presidential candidate, who took a hard line against drug traffickers.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by HΘctor F. Rucinque, Head, Graduate Geography Program, Instituto Geogrßfico "Agustφn Codazzi," Universidad Pedag≤gica y Tecnol≤gica de Colombia, Bogotß.\par \tab The Federal Islamic Republic of the Comoros is made up of three main islands and some smaller islands at the northern end of the Mozambique Channel between Madagascar and the eastern coast of the African mainland. The total land area, excluding the island of Mayotte, is about 719 square miles (1,862 square kilometers). The capital, on Grande Comore, is Moroni and has a population of about 22,000 (1990 estimate).
\par \tab The largest island is Grande Comore. Rising near the southern end of Grande Comore is the highest point in the country, Mount Karthala, an active volcano. MohΘli is the smallest of the main islands, and the third island is Anjouan. A fourth island, Mayotte, is a French dependency, though the Comorian government regards it as part of Comoros.
\par \tab Comoros' tropical climate has two clearly marked seasons. Between May and October it is dry, and between November and April it is hot and humid. The islands' highest temperatures of about 82░ F (28░ C) occur in November. The most rainfall is in January.
\par \tab More than half of the country's food is imported. Cassavas, sweet potatoes, bananas, and mountain rice are grown, and goats, sheep, and cattle are raised. Vanilla, perfume plants, coconuts, cloves, and bananas are cultivated. There are sawmills, vanilla-processing plants, woodworking facilities, oil and soap factories, and hydroelectric plants.
\par \tab An international airport is on Grande Comore near Moroni. The islands are linked to Madagascar and East Africa by regular ship and air ferries. Islam is the state religion. Education is patterned after Islamic and French schools.
\par \tab France took possession of Mayotte in 1843 and in 1886 placed the other three islands under its protection. All four became a French overseas territory in 1947. In 1974 three of the islands voted for independence, but Mayotte continued under French rule. France recognized the independence of the three in 1975 and a year later designated Mayotte as a special collectivity. The government is headed by an elected president who nominates a council of ministers and the governors of the islands. The 42-member Federal Assembly is chosen by direct popular vote.
\par \tab Since 1984 the islands were used by South Africa as a base from which to supply rebels in Mozambique, and the government was essentially controlled by the Presidential Guard, led by the French mercenary Bob Denard. On Nov. 27, 1989, President Ahmed Abdallah was assassinated and Said Mohamed Djohar became interim president. Djohar was elected president in March 1990 elections that marked a return to democracy for the country; he was reelected in 1994. Denard failed in another coup attempt in 1995. Population (1994 estimate), 527,000.\par \tab The Republic of the Congo, usually simply called Congo, lies west of Zaire, east of Gabon, and south of Cameroon and the Central African Republic in equatorial Africa. The country has a short but important coastline on the Atlantic Ocean, where one of the region's principal ports, Pointe-Noire, is located. The Congo, or Zaire, and Ubangi rivers form Congo's eastern boundary. The capital, Brazzaville, lies on the Congo River opposite Kinshasa, the capital of Zaire. A railroad connects Brazzaville to Pointe-Noire.
\par \tab Once the cornerstone of French Equatorial Africa, Congo became an independent republic in 1960. The country's name comes from that of one of the major groups of people in this region, the Bakongo.
\par {\b Land and Climate}
\par \tab Located astride the equator, Congo is hot and humid over almost all of its area of 132,047 square miles (342,000 square kilometers). Most of the northern half of the country is covered by dense forest. The Ubangi River is navigable to the northern border, and it joins the lowest navigable stretch of the Congo River, which flows on to Brazzaville and Kinshasa. There rapids and falls interrupt the flow of the Congo so that all goods that are transported by water must be transferred to railroad cars for the journey to Pointe-Noire.
\par \tab Extensive marshlands cover the areas around the Ubangi and Congo rivers that are not equatorial forest. Savannas develop in the narrow midsection of Congo. Another zone of forest lies behind the drier coastal zone, and forest also covers the northern part of western Congo. Thus savannas extend over less than one quarter of the country, and here the majority of the population is concentrated.
\par \tab In the savanna areas, rainfall averages from 50 to 60 inches (125 to 150 centimeters) per year; there are two rainy seasons--October to December and February to April. But the savanna rains are not reliable, causing serious problems for farmers.
\par \tab Soils are not fertile except in limited areas. The best lie in the Niari Valley, which has become a leading agricultural zone about 100 miles (160 kilometers) inland from Pointe-Noire.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab The population of the republic is not large but is quite varied. The main ethnic groups are the Bakongo, the Ubangi, the Teke, and the Sanga. These, in turn, are divided into numerous subgroups. There are also several small bands of Binga Pygmies, along with small populations of foreigners from Portugal and China, as well as refugees from Zaire.
\par \tab Language distribution is similarly complicated, with Kongo and Teke as major traditional languages and French the official language. Animist, or traditional, religions are practiced by about 5 percent of the population, but more than 90 percent of the population is Christian, mainly Roman Catholic.
\par \tab Congo has both high birth and death rates with high infant mortality and a life expectancy of approximately 50 years for men and 55 years for women. Health conditions are typical of underdeveloped Africa, with approximately 6,000 persons per physician and about 200 persons per available hospital bed. About 57 percent of adults can read and write.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab Congo's economy is not well developed. About 50 percent of the labor force works at agriculture that usually produces only enough food to keep the people alive. Among agricultural products that are exported, coffee and cocoa yield most of the income. Important crops grown and consumed in Congo include maniocs, yams, bananas, corn, and peanuts. Some sugarcane and rice also are grown.
\par \tab During colonial times the Niari Valley became a region of European settlement, and mechanized, large-scale farming soon became the primary way of growing crops. Since independence this area has remained the country's chief concentration of commercial agriculture. Sugar and tobacco continue to be exported from the region.
\par \tab The major source of outside income lies in the export of raw materials, including principally crude petroleum from fields in the southwest. Some natural gas also is produced. Congo has high-grade iron reserves, and some industrial diamonds, zinc, lead, copper, and a small amount of gold are produced. Potash production, once a major source of income, ended in 1977.
\par \tab The United States is the major purchaser of Congo's exports. France, formerly Congo's leading trade partner, still provides almost 50 percent of its imports and is its major source of financial and economic assistance. Privately owned French companies dominate the country's commerce and local industry.
\par \tab Forestry and fishing also contribute to the economy. Timber is a valuable export, and fish help to balance protein-deficient diets. Industrial development is slight. Lumbering, food processing, palm-product treatment, flour milling, and brewing are the leading industries. During the second decade of independence there was foreign aid from Communist countries, but the long-term results were discouraging. A Chinese-built textile complex, for example, lost much money and had to close in 1979. Annual inflation during the decade 1975 to 1984 often reached 100 percent.
\par \tab Most development has taken place in the south, where the major cities, most of the rural population, the best surface communications, the most productive farmlands, the majority of the mineral resources, and almost all industries are located. This has contributed to a regional inequality that is one of Congo's major problems.
\par {\b History and Government}
\par \tab Two stable African states once occupied the Congo region. Both kingdoms were past their peak when the Europeans arrived in the late 15th century. Colonization began in 1880, when Father Savorgnan de Brazza traveled up the OgoouΘ River in present-day Gabon. A colony called Gabon-Congo was established in 1886. The French Congo was formed separately in 1891, with de Brazza as commissioner general based in the town named after him.
\par \tab Beginning in 1897, the concession companies entered the Congo. Between 1898 and 1900 more than 40 such companies were awarded concessions, or exclusive rights to products. They ruthlessly exploited the main resources, natural rubber and ivory. After 1913 the French government regulated economic activity in the region. The railroads were built, mines opened, and settlement proceeded. After 1940 the pace of change accelerated. Congo became successively an overseas territory, an autonomous territory, and in 1960 the Republic of the Congo, electing to remain within the framework of the French Community with Fulbert Youlou as the first president.
\par \tab The republic's original system of government soon changed. Youlou was overthrown in 1963 by Alphonse Massamba-DΘbat, founder of the Marxist-Leninist Party, who in 1968 was ousted by a military coup. In 1970 the People's Republic--which was the first in Africa--was proclaimed under Capt. Marien Ngouabi, the leader of the 1968 coup. In 1977 Ngouabi was assassinated and Massamba-DΘbat executed for his supposed role in the killing. Another coup failed the following year. The Congolese Workers' Party (PCT) installed Col. Denis Sassou-Nguesso as president. His power was diminished in 1991, when political pressure forced him to appoint a prime minister and call a national conference. The gathered representatives declared themselves to be the government and wrote a new constitution. Marxism was rejected and movement toward democracy and a free economy begun. Population (1991 estimate), 2,411,000.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab Harm J. De Blij\par \tab Renowned for its democratic traditions, the country of Costa Rica differs politically and socially from most of its Latin American neighbors. Wealth is more evenly divided, far more is spent on education than on support for the military, and there is an unmatched respect for freedom of expression and the orderly transfer of government.
\par \tab Costa Rica is one of seven countries, all republics, in Central America. The average distance from its border with Nicaragua on the northwest to its opposite border with Panama is 200 miles (320 kilometers). Between the Caribbean and Pacific shorelines it ranges between 100 and 150 miles (160 and 240 kilometers) in width. With an area of 19,575 square miles (50,699 square kilometers), it ranks as one of the smaller Central American republics.
\par \tab In central Costa Rica is a basin area known as the Meseta Central. This intermountain plateau, between 3,000 and 5,000 feet (900 and 1,500 meters) above sea level, is a central feature in the life of the nation. Two volcanic ranges, the Cordillera Central and the Cordillera de Guanacaste, extend northwestward from the Meseta to the Nicaraguan border. Within 15 miles (24 kilometers) of the capital city of San JosΘ is the active volcano Iraz·, 11,253 feet (3,430 meters) high. Extending southeastward from the Meseta toward Panama are the high and rugged mountains of the Cordillera de Talamanca.
\par \tab Along the Pacific, tropical plains are sandwiched between the interior mountains and two peninsulas that jut into the ocean. Along the Caribbean, the Nicaraguan lake plains extend into northeastern Costa Rica. A narrow plain follows the Caribbean shoreline southward to the Panamanian border.
\par \tab Costa Rica is a land of many climates. The low-lying coastal plains are hot throughout the year. The Meseta Central has a more moderate climate. At high elevations in the mountains it is cool.
\par \tab More than 120 inches (305 centimeters) of rain falls throughout the year in the coastal regions of southern Costa Rica. The Meseta Central and the northwest get 60 to 80 inches (150 to 200 centimeters) between May and October.
\par \tab Lacking precious metals and also a supply of Indian labor, Costa Rica attracted only a few Spanish colonists. At the time of independence in 1821, the population was less than 75,000. Not until the mid-1800s did the white settlers occupy all of the Meseta Central and begin to move out to frontier regions.
\par \tab By 1989 the population was estimated at 2,941,000, of whom one half continued to live on the Meseta. Within or near the Meseta are Costa Rica's six largest cities, including the capital, San JosΘ (population, 1984 census, 241,464). Through the ports of Puntarenas and Lim≤n pass much of Costa Rica's foreign trade.
\par \tab There is a significant black population along the Caribbean coast. Their ancestors came from Jamaica and other British colonies beginning in the 1870s to build railroads and to work on banana plantations.
\par \tab Manufacturing contributes the greatest share to national income; yet far more people are engaged in farming. About half of the population lives in rural areas. Sugarcane, bananas, rice, coffee, plantains, corn, and oranges rank as the most important agricultural crops. Of these only coffee, bananas, and sugar are exported. Dairy cattle are concentrated in the cooler Meseta Central. Beef cattle are on the tropical plains.
\par \tab In 1960 coffee and bananas made up three quarters of all exports. With major increases in the export of sugar, beef, and manufactured goods, coffee and bananas have now dropped to half. Imports consist largely of manufactured goods; chemical products; machinery; and automobiles, trucks, buses, and parts. One third of all foreign trade is with the United States. Japan, Western Europe, and the Central American Common Market are other major trading partners.
\par \tab Manufacturing has grown rapidly since the establishment of the Central American Common Market in 1960. Costa Rica is now the only nation in Central America in which the value of manufactured goods is greater than the value of agricultural products. Food processing, textiles, and clothing make up half of all output.
\par \tab Costa Rica was one of the first nations in Central America to have railroads. Paved highways between San JosΘ and the Panamanian border and between San JosΘ and Lim≤n were completed during the 1970s. The Meseta Central and the volcanic uplands on the Pacific side have an adequate network of highways, but the highlands south of the Meseta and the Caribbean coastal plains lack year-round roads.
\par \tab Education is required throughout Latin America, but no nation contributes a greater share of its wealth to education than does Costa Rica. Ninety-three percent of Costa Ricans can read and write. The University of Costa Rica in San JosΘ is considered one of the best in Central America.
\par {\b History}
\par \tab Given the name of Costa Rica--meaning "rich coast"--by Christopher Columbus in 1502, the province turned out to be far less valuable than he had imagined. Little gold and silver were found, and the colony remained poor throughout the colonial era.
\par \tab After independence in 1821 a progressive government promoted production of coffee and bananas and railroad construction, and Costa Rica developed peacefully and with democratic traditions. Although there have been periods of dictatorships and civil war, these have been relatively short. After 1870, under the leadership of President Tomßs Guardia, a constitution assured presidential succession. It remained in force until 1949.
\par \tab Luis Alberto Monge ┴lvarez was elected president in 1982 and instituted a program of economic austerity. In 1986 Oscar Arias Sßnchez, of the ruling National Liberation party, was elected president. He worked toward a settlement of the region's violent disputes, and in 1987 he initiated a peace plan calling for a cease-fire in Central America. Arias won the 1987 Nobel peace prize for his efforts. In 1990 Rafael Angel Calder≤n Fournier, of the Social Christian Unity party, was elected president. Although opposed to Arias' peace plan, Calder≤n promised to maintain close ties to the United States and to fight drug trafficking, poverty, and crime.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab Oscar H. Horst\par \tab The name of C⌠te d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast) comes from the thriving trade in elephant tusks, or ivory, that attracted European adventurers to the area in the 17th century. Located on the southern shore of West Africa's bulge, the Republic of C⌠te d'Ivoire covers an area of 124,504 square miles (322,464 square kilometers). It is bounded on the north by Mali and Burkina Faso, on the west by Guinea and Liberia, and on the east by Ghana. In 1983 Yamoussoukro was designated as the new capital, though Abidjan continued to serve as the capital in fact.
\par \tab The shoreline on the Gulf of Guinea is known for its heavy surf, treacherous currents, and sand barriers that prohibited significant European settlement until the mid-19th century. The Bandama is the largest of four major rivers. The shallow rivers are useless for commercial navigation, but they create the only natural breaks in the coastal sand barriers.
\par \tab The terrain is a plateau, with three zones of vegetation. The coastal sand barriers and lagoons support mangroves, coconut palms, and halophytes, or plants adapted for living in an environment that is high in salt content. These give way to one of Africa's densest tropical forests, which covers about one third of the country before it melds with the savanna of the north. The southern forest zone receives 80 to 120 inches (200 to 300 centimeters) of rain per year.
\par \tab French is the official language. More than 60 languages or dialects are spoken by the various peoples. About 60 percent of the people practice their traditional religions; about 20 percent are Muslims; and some 20 percent are Christians. A national university opened at Abidjan in 1964.
\par \tab After gaining independence in 1960, the country enjoyed a rate of economic growth unequaled by its neighbors. Cacao beans, from which cocoa and chocolate are made, are the main export crop and are grown by more than a quarter of the population. Coffee, tropical woods, copra, pineapples, rubber, cotton, and palm oil are also exported. The mining industry is undeveloped and is limited to diamonds, some gold, and offshore petroleum. There are reserves of copper, nickel, uranium, and manganese, but these have not been developed.
\par \tab With about 3,100 miles (5,000 kilometers) of paved roads and 31,100 miles (50,000 kilometers) of secondary roads, C⌠te d'Ivoire has one of the best transportation systems in West Africa. An international airport was built at Port-Bouδt. Abidjan's port facilities have been expanded. Hydroelectric dams built on the Bandama and Bia rivers supply electricity.
\par \tab Migrations and conquests in precolonial times created the present distribution of the many ethnic groups in C⌠te d'Ivoire. The Senufo founded the kingdom of Kong in the 11th century. After the conquest of Kong by the Dyula at the beginning of the 18th century, it became the largest empire south of the Niger River. The Ashanti Empire was settled near Lac de Kossou. The Akan and Anyi peoples migrated there during the same period and established kingdoms.
\par \tab French colonial rule was not officially established until 1893. While the French moved to conquer the southern part at the end of the 19th century, the kingdom of Kong was destroyed by the Mandingo warrior-king, Samory TourΘ, who tried to establish a Muslim kingdom in the north. Samory himself was defeated by the French in 1898. The Baule fought for their independence until after World War I.
\par \tab Under French rule the territory known as the Ivory Coast was part of the federation of French West Africa. Most Ivorians had few political rights, but those who served in the government or in the French military were granted French citizenship. The French contributed to economic development, but the people were subject to forced labor. Although political, educational, and legal reforms were introduced after World War II, Ivorians--along with all of French West Africa--demanded independence.
\par \tab In 1958 the country became an autonomous republic within the French Community. By 1960, however, France was forced to recognize the political independence of all its West African colonies.
\par \tab The new republic elected FΘlix Houphouδt-Boigny president and established a government with executive, legislative, and judicial branches. Houphouδt-Boigny was consistently reelected. Opposition to him and to the country's main political party--the Democratic party of C⌠te d'Ivoire (PDCI)--arose in the early 1970s. The economy suffered as cacao and coffee prices fell and Houphouδt-Boigny pumped huge sums of money into transforming Yamoussoukro into a modern capital city. Opposition grew toward the government and continued close association with France. In 1986 the French version of the country's name became the only official name. In January 1991 the country held its first multiparty parliamentary elections, which Houphouδt-Boigny won overwhelmingly. Population (1991 estimate), 12,464,000.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab David S. Wiley\par \tab The crescent-shaped republic of Croatia became part of Yugoslavia when that country was created after World War I. It remained part of Yugoslavia for 74 years, until it, along with Slovenia, declared its independence on June 25, 1991. Resistance to independence on the part of the Serbian population of Yugoslavia plunged the nation into a prolonged civil war.
\par \tab Croatia is made up of the territories of Dalmatia, most of Istria, and Slavonia. The northeastern part is mostly flat and fertile and suitable for agriculture, while the southwestern part, in the Dinaric Alps, has a rugged terrain. The Sava and Drina rivers are the country's major waterways. Croatia is bounded by Slovenia and Hungary on the north, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Yugoslavia on the east, and the Adriatic Sea on the south. It covers an area of 21,829 square miles (56,537 square kilometers). The capital, Zagreb, is in the north.
\par \tab Ethnic Croats, a Slavic people, constituted 78 percent of the population in the 1991 census. They are largely Roman Catholic and speak a variant of the Serbo-Croatian language. Other ethnic groups present in the country include the Serbs (12 percent) and the Muslims (1 percent). Before World War II Croatia had an economy based primarily on agriculture and cattle breeding. Grains, potatoes, sugar beets, and grapes were among its output. The discovery of rich petroleum fields and the expansion of light industry after the war greatly changed the region's character. The use of natural resources--such as hydroelectric power, coal, and bauxite--increased in those territories after World War II. During the 1990s Croatia attempted to make the move from a centrally planned economy to a free market system. However, the outbreak of hostilities in the former Yugoslavia caused a rapid and sharp decline in the Croatian economy--the nation's gross domestic product (GDP) fell an estimated 20 percent in 1992 from just a year earlier. The Croatian tourist trade, which accounted for 82 percent of pre-war Yugoslavia's tourism revenues, suffered the greatest war-related economic loss.
\par \tab The Croats began to settle in the lower Danube Valley in the 6th century. Croatia became a kingdom in the 10th century. It was conquered in 1091 by Ladislas I of Hungary, and a union was formed with Hungary that lasted for eight centuries. Croatia became an autonomous Hungarian crown land in 1868. In 1918 it was proclaimed independent from its previous ties with Hungary and Austria, and, with other provinces, it entered into a union known as the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes. The new state was renamed Yugoslavia in 1929, with King Alexander, a Serb, establishing a royal dictatorship. Discontent soon began to rise in Croatia, where many began to argue for the creation of a federation allowing Croatia more autonomy. In 1934 King Alexander was assassinated by Croatian separatists while on a state visit to France, and a regency headed by Prince Paul, the king's cousin, took power.
\par \tab After a separatist party captured 80 percent of the vote in the Croatian elections of 1938, negotiations concerning political reform began between the central government and Croatian political leaders. In 1939 an agreement was reached that Croatia autonomy over its affairs except for defense and foreign affairs. World War II broke out soon afterward, however, and Croatia became an independent state under German and Italian influence in 1941. The Ustase regime that ruled wartime Croatia carried out a brutal persecution of the nation's Serbs, Jews, and Gypsies. More than 350,000 Serbs were massacred by the regime during the war, including thousands at the notorious Jasenovac concentration camp. In 1945 Croatia was rejoined with Yugoslavia, which became a people's republic ruled by Josip Broz Tito, a Croat. The Communist hold on Croatia lasted until 1990, when the spirit of reform that was spreading throughout Eastern Europe led the government to hold multiparty elections. The Croatian Democratic Union, led by Franjo Tudjman, triumphed in those elections.
\par \tab Croatia declared its independence from Yugoslavia on June 25, 1991, and Yugoslav federal troops invaded. When appeals from the European Communities (EC) and the United States failed to stop the civil war, the EC recognized the independence of Croatia and Slovenia. Attempts at a cease-fire worked until Bosnia and Herzegovina declared independence. A bloody civil war soon consumed this province, pitting Serbs, Croats, and Muslims against each other. Nearly 1 million refugees from Bosnia and Herzegovina flooded into Croatia by 1994, prompting the nation's government to appeal for international humanitarian and financial aid. The Krajina and Eastern Slavonia regions of Croatia had been annexed by Serbia during the civil war, but a Croatian military offensive in August 1995 succeeded in recapturing Krajina, and Serbia later agreed to return Eastern Slavonia.
\par \tab In November 1995 the leaders of Croatia, Serbia, and Bosnia and Herzegovina signed a peace agreement ending the four-year-old war in Bosnia. The treaty called for Bosnia to be divided into a Muslim-Croat federation covering 51 percent of the territory and a Bosnian Serb republic controlling the remaining 49 percent of the land. The two segments would be linked by a limited central government and an elected parliament. Population (1994 estimate), 4,788,000.
{\b The Former Federated Republic of Yugoslavia}
\par \tab One of the youngest nations of Europe, Yugoslavia was created after World War I as a homeland for several different rival ethnic groups. The country was put together largely from remnants of the collapsed Ottoman Empire and Austria-Hungary. Demands for self-determination by Slovenes, Croats, Serbs, and others went unrecognized, and thus Yugoslavia became an uneasy association of peoples conditioned by centuries of ethnic and religious hatreds. World War II aggravated these rivalries, but a Communist dictatorship took power after the war and kept them restrained for 45 years. When the Communist system failed, the old rivalries reasserted themselves; in 1991-92 the provinces of Slovenia, Croatia, Macedonia, and Bosnia and Herzegovina seceded from the union, leaving the republics of Serbia and Montenegro as the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. Serbia includes the formerly independent provinces of Vojvodina in the north and Kosovo in the south.
\par \tab Yugoslavia is bounded on the north by Hungary, on the northeast by Romania, on the east by Bulgaria, on the south by Macedonia and Albania, on the southwest by the Adriatic Sea, and on the west by Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. At its widest point, the country measures more than 290 miles (465 kilometers) from northwest to southeast and 250 miles (400 kilometers) from northeast to southwest. Yugoslavia's total area is 39,449 square miles (102,172 square kilometers).
\par \tab Yugoslavia has a mountainous terrain. In eastern Serbia, the Balkan Mountains form the republic's border with Bulgaria and Romania, reaching an elevation of 6,000 feet (1,800 meters). The Sar and Kopaonik Mountains, located in southwestern Yugoslavia, feature the country's highest peak, Daravica, at 8,712 feet (2,655 meters). The Dinaric Alps occupy much of Montenegro and contain peaks reaching more than 8,000 feet (2,400 meters), including Montenegro's highest mountain, Durmitor, at 8,274 feet (2,522 meters). The major area of flatland lies in the north and is part of the Mid-Danube, or Pannonian, Plain. Stretching from Croatia and Hungary across northern Serbia, the plain is Yugoslavia's most fertile land.
\par \tab The major river in Yugoslavia is the Danube, which flows southeastward from the Hungarian border, through Belgrade, to the border with Romania. Its primary tributaries are the Sava, Drava, Tisa, and Morava. Other rivers include the Piva, Tara, Lim, and Vardar. Lake Scutari, on the border between Montenegro and Albania, is the largest lake on the Balkan Peninsula.
\par \tab The mountainous nature of Yugoslavia causes considerable climatic differences from one place to another. The Mid-Danube Plain has a continental climate with cold winters, hot summers, and moderate precipitation. The mountain regions have, on the whole, colder and shorter summers and more severe winters compared with other regions.
\par {\b Natural Resources and Plant and Animal Life}
\par \tab Yugoslavia has numerous deposits of lignite, or brown coal, but there is little good-grade black coal. There are some small petroleum and natural gas fields, located primarily in the Vojvodina region. The country has no nuclear power stations. Waterpower is a major source of energy, providing about one third of Yugoslavia's electricity. Yugoslavia is a major European producer of lead and copper. Other minerals include iron ore, zinc, bauxite, mercury, and antimony. About 37 percent of the country is forested. The predominant species are oak, beech, and other deciduous trees, with such evergreens as pine and fir growing in the mountains. Yugoslavia has a wide range of animals, including deer, foxes, wolves, wild pigs, bears, and martens. Birds include grouse, partridge, swans, buzzards, woodpeckers, and pelicans. The Adriatic Sea contains anchovies, sardines, mackerel, tuna, and other fishes.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab The inhabitants of Yugoslavia are of varied ethnic origins. According to the 1991 census the largest group is the Serbs, who number 6.5 million, or 62 percent of the population. They speak Serbo-Croatian, a Slavic language, and belong to the Eastern Orthodox church.
\par \tab A non-Slavic people, the Albanians, live in the southern part of the country. They number 1.7 million (17 percent of the population) and are the fastest growing ethnic group. Montenegrins total about 600,000 and are concentrated within the borders of their republic in southern Yugoslavia. They are Eastern Orthodox and speak Serbo-Croatian. Other ethnic groups present in Yugoslavia include Bosnian Muslims (300,000) and the Hungarians (300,000), Romanians, Bulgarians, Slovaks, Czechs, and others who live mostly in the northern province of Vojvodina.
\par \tab The largest city is Belgrade, the federal capital, with about 1.1 million inhabitants. Novi Sad, the capital of Vojvodina, is the second largest, with more than 170,000. Other important cities include Nis, with 160,000 people; Pristina, the capital of Kosovo, with 108,000; and Podgorica (formerly Titograd), the capital of Montenegro, with about 96,000 inhabitants.
\par \tab Yugoslav culture has been influenced by the Slavs, Turks, Italians, and Austrians. The influence of the long Turkish occupation can be seen in the food, folk costumes, and architecture of the nation.
\par \tab The earliest Yugoslav literature was religious in nature. The first popular literature appeared in medieval Serbia, mainly in the form of epic poems describing the struggle of the Serbs against the Turks. These poems were chanted by minstrels who traveled from village to village.
\par \tab In the 19th century Serbian writers laid the foundations of a modern literature. Vuk Karadic reformed the language and collected folk poetry, while Petar Petrovi Njegos produced epic poetry on the theme of liberty. Among modern writers are the Serbs Branimir Cosic, Branko Copic, and Ivo Andric, the winner of the 1961 Nobel prize for Literature, whose novel 'The Bridge on the Drina' has been translated into many languages.
\par \tab Yugoslav folklore is very colorful. Each ethnic group has its own costumes, songs, and dances. The most popular folk dance is the kolo, a circle dance performed to lively music.
\par \tab Soccer is the most popular sport, and Yugoslavia has produced some star players. Yugoslav basketball teams have also had success in international competitions, including a gold medal victory in the 1980 Summer Olympics. Outdoor sports such as hunting and fishing are also popular.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab Farming is a major occupation, employing about 34 percent of the labor force and utilizing more than half of the nation's land. Most farms are owned privately and are small. The major crops are corn (maize), wheat, barley, oats, potatoes, sugar beets, sunflowers, tobacco, and alfalfa. About one third of the agricultural area consists of pastures for grazing pigs, sheep, and cattle. Much of this is in the mountains. The growing of fruit includes plums, apples, pears, peaches, raspberries, strawberries, and apricots. Grapes are widely grown and wine produced, some for export.
\par \tab Fishing is carried out along the Adriatic coast and on the Danube River. Forestry is concentrated mainly in the mountain forests of northern Yugoslavia. It supports the pulp and paper and furniture industries.
\par \tab Much of Yugoslavia's industry is located in the north, primarily in the area surrounding Belgrade. Major exports include iron, steel, electronics, machinery, textiles, automobiles, and trucks. The processing and refining of metallic minerals also gives considerable employment.
\par \tab In the late 1980s, Yugoslavia began the shift from a centrally planned economy to a market economy. By 1993, only 4 percent of the nation's businesses were owned by the state, though nearly 70 percent of the labor force was employed in the state sector. The combined effects of the civil war in Bosnia and Herzegovina and United Nations (UN) economic sanctions against Yugoslavia served to devastate the Yugoslavian economy in the early 1990s. The country was plagued by a fall in output in almost every sector of the economy, and hyperinflation raged from early 1993 until January 1994, when the government introduced a new currency, called the new dinar, that is pegged to the German deutsche mark.
\par {\b Transportation, Communication, and Education}
\par \tab The problems of rail construction over the mountainous terrain of Yugoslavia have favored the development of a highway network. In the early 1990s, there were nearly 30,000 miles (48,300 kilometers) of roads in the country, compared to almost 2,500 miles (4,025 kilometers) of rail. More than 1.4 million passenger cars and 120,000 trucks were registered for use in 1993.
\par \tab With the secession of Croatia and Slovenia in 1991, Yugoslavia lost all of its major ports except the Montenegrin town of Bar. Yugoslav Airlines (JAT) is state owned and flies to many foreign destinations. The country has five airports, including international terminals at Belgrade and Podgorica.
\par \tab Postal and telephone services are run by the state. In 1993, there were 11 daily newspapers, including the notable Politika and Borba, published in Belgrade, and Pobjeda, printed in Podgorica. More than 2,500 books are published annually in Yugoslavia.
\par \tab In addition to the state-run Serbian Radio and Television and Montenegrin Radio and Television networks, there were three independent radio and television networks operating in the mid-1990s. An estimated 1.7 million televisions and 1.8 million radio receivers were in use in 1993.
\par \tab Education is compulsory between the ages of 7 and 15, after which students may choose to attend either a vocational or general secondary school. Students attending vocational school have the option of continuing their education at a two-year postsecondary school, while those attending general secondary school may continue at one of the country's six four-year universities. All education is free in Yugoslavia, including that at the university level.
\par {\b Government}
\par \tab Under a constitution drafted in April 1992, the government of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia is a federal multiparty republic with a bicameral legislature. The parliament, called the Federal Assembly, is divided into the Chamber of Citizens, which has 138 members elected by universal suffrage, and the 40-member Chamber of Republics, composed of representatives elected in equal numbers from the assemblies of both Serbia and Montenegro. The head of state is the president, who is elected by the federal parliament. The president is responsible for appointing a prime minister to head the government, a choice subject to approval by the legislature.
\par \tab The federal government handles matters of national defense, foreign policy, monetary policy, social welfare, and human rights. A large amount of administrative power is delegated to the separate republican governments of Serbia and Montenegro, which are organized on the federal model.
\par {\b History}
\par \tab After World War I the breakup of Austria-Hungary made possible the creation of a new state for the South Slavs, who include the Serbs, Croats, Slovenes, Bosnian Muslims, Montenegrins, and Macedonians. In 1918, an uneasy coalition of mutually hostile ethnic groups, each with a distinct 1,400-year history, became the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes; the new nation was renamed the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in 1929.
\par \tab Yugoslavia's first ruler was King Alexander, a Serb, who declared a personal dictatorship in 1929. He was assassinated by Croatian terrorists while on a state visit to France in 1934, and the throne passed to his young son Peter II. The resolution of the country's ethnic troubles appeared closer when an agreement was reached in 1939 to give Croatia autonomy, but in 1941 Yugoslavia was invaded by Germany, Italy, Hungary, and Bulgaria. Serbs resisted the occupation forces, and the Communist Partisans under the leadership of Josip Broz, known as Tito, became the dominant group. The Croats and Slovenes, however, sided openly with Germany and Italy.
\par \tab In the aftermath of World War II, Yugoslavia was devastated, with much of the country in ruins and more than 10 percent of its prewar population dead. Peter II was deposed in 1944, and Tito--who now bore the title of marshal--and the Communists came to sole power after an election in November 1945.
\par \tab A new constitution adopted in January 1946 abolished the monarchy and established the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia, a federation of six republics: Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia, and Slovenia. The Serbian provinces of Kosovo, with its Muslim Albanian majority, and Vojvodina, with a large Hungarian population, were given autonomous status within the people's republic in an effort to protect the interests of those two populations.
\par \tab In June 1948 Yugoslavia was expelled from the Soviet bloc for refusing to submit to Soviet orders. Despite Soviet efforts to depose him by isolating Yugoslavia, Tito became the country's first president in 1953. He managed successfully to steer a nonaligned path between the two superpowers, the Soviet Union and the United States, criticizing Western colonialism while also denouncing Soviet aggressions, such as the 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia. When Tito died in 1980, the fragile federation he had held together began to unravel.
\par \tab The League of Communists relinquished their constitutionally guaranteed monopoly on power, and in 1990 the first multiparty elections were held since Tito took power. In May 1991 Serbia and its allies blocked the election of a Croat to the federal presidency, leaving the country without a president. A new Serbian leader emerged--Slobodan Milosevic, who renewed the age-old promise of a Greater Serbia. This goal entailed taking parts of other republics where Serbian minorities lived and uniting them with Serbia.
\par \tab On June 25, 1991, Croatia and Slovenia declared their independence from Yugoslavia. Serbian leaders denounced this action, fearing for the safety of the more than half a million Serbs living in the other Yugoslav republics. Federal troops made up mostly of Serbs poured into Slovenia, resisted by Slovenian militia. The Serbs invaded Croatia.
\par \tab At the end of 1991 Germany, followed by the European Community (EC; now the European Union) and the United States, recognized the independence of Croatia and Slovenia. In January 1992, a cease-fire was negotiated that left Serbia with about one third of Croatia's territory. (A shaky peace between Serbia and Croatia lingered for more than three years until Croatia regained the captured territory in a military offensive during May-August 1995.)
\par \tab The violence spread next to Bosnia and Herzegovina. In an early 1992 referendum boycotted by the large Serb minority, the republic's Croats and Muslims voted for independence. International recognition came on April 6, 1992, and soon after, a bitter civil war erupted throughout the republic as the artillery of Serb militias shelled cities and towns.
\par \tab The situation in Bosnia was complicated by religious differences. Many of its residents were Muslims. Serbs tended mostly to be Serbian Orthodox, while Croats were mostly Roman Catholic. These rivalries added to the ethnic hatreds. Croat and Serb Christians also turned their weapons on the Muslim minority.
\par \tab A campaign of terrorism and genocide, which they termed ethnic cleansing, was started by the Serbs against the Muslims. Many Muslims were killed outright. Muslim women were raped, and men and boys were put into concentration camps. At least two million people became refugees, and about 140,000 were missing and presumed dead.
\par \tab In May 1992 the UN imposed sanctions on the newly formed Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. The UN accused the country of fueling the conflict in Bosnia and Herzegovina by supplying weapons and material support. The sanctions devastated the Serbian economy, causing hyperinflation and massive unemployment. Serbian President Milosevic closed his country's borders with Bosnia and broke off contacts between Serbia and the Bosnian Serbs in an effort to have the sanctions lifted.
\par \tab By late 1995, Muslim and Croat forces had made substantial gains against Serb forces and were in control of more than half the country. Many of Bosnia's cities were in ruins, among them Sarajevo, the capital. A breakthrough peace agreement was signed by the presidents of Serbia, Croatia, and Bosnia on November 21. The deal called for Bosnia and Herzegovina to be split 51 percent to a Croat-Muslim federation and 49 percent to a Bosnian Serb republic, both of which will share power in a central government. As a reward for Yugoslavia's role in bringing the peace treaty to fruition, the UN lifted its economic and military sanctions, signaling that the nation's long international isolation had finally come to an end.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by Ian M. Matley, Professor of Geography, Michigan State University.
\par \tab {\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR YUGOSLAVIA}
\par \tab Cohn, Lenard. Broken Bonds: The Disintegration of Yugoslavia, 2nd ed. (Westview, 1995).
\par \tab Crnobinja, Mihailo. The Yugoslav Drama (Univ. of Toronto Press, 1994).
\par \tab Dragnich, Alex. Serbs and Croats: The Struggle in Yugoslavia (Harcourt Brace, 1992).
\par \tab Pavlowitch, Stevan. Tito--Yugoslavia's Great Dictator: A Reassessment (Ohio State Univ. Press, 1992).
\par \tab Silber, Laura, and Little, Allan. Yugoslavia: Death of a Nation (TV Books/Penguin, 1996).
\par \tab Singleton, Fred. A Short History of the Yugoslav Peoples (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1985).\par \tab The largest island of the West Indies is Cuba. It is one of four islands--with Jamaica, Hispaniola, and Puerto Rico--that make up the Greater Antilles archipelago. Located just south of the Tropic of Cancer in the Caribbean Sea, Cuba's western tip extends into the Gulf of Mexico between Florida and the Yucatßn Peninsula. Cuba commands three strategically located sea-lanes: the Straits of Florida, between the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean; the Windward Passage, from the Atlantic to the Caribbean between Cuba and Haiti; and the Yucatßn Channel, between the Caribbean and the Gulf of Mexico. Havana, the capital city, is on the northwest coast, 92 nautical miles (170 kilometers) from Key West, Fla.
\par \tab The long, narrow main island lies in an east-west direction. It is about 780 miles (1,255 kilometers) long and averages 60 miles (97 kilometers) in width. The Isle of Youth with 926 square miles (2,398 square kilometers), off the southwest coast, and nearly 2,000 smaller islands bring the country's area to nearly 43,000 square miles (111,400 square kilometers). Cuba's population was nearly 10.5 million in 1988.
\par {\b Land and Climate}
\par \tab Most of the island is a rolling limestone plain. Its median elevation is less than 300 feet (91 meters) above sea level. Mountainous areas cover only about one quarter of the island and are widely separated. The most rugged is the Sierra Maestra, which rises steeply from the southeastern coast to 6,496 feet (1,980 meters) at Pico Turquino, the highest point on the island. Near the middle of Cuba, the Sierra de Trinidad and the Escambray Mountains have maximum elevations of more than 3,800 feet (1,160 meters). In the west the Sierra de los ╙rganos are characterized by curious limestone hills shaped like organ pipes.
\par \tab Cuba's 2,000-mile (3,200-kilometer) indented coastline is bordered with coral reefs and mangrove swamps. There are more than 280 white-sand beaches. Hundreds of pouch-shaped bays and inlets provide many fine harbors, including Guantßnamo Bay in the southeast, which was leased by the United States in 1903 for use as a naval base and is still under American control. There are more than 200 short, swift rivers. Seasonal flooding is common. Only the Rφo Cauto is navigable for a short distance.
\par \tab The surrounding bodies of warm water and the mild northeasterly trade winds moderate Cuba's tropical climate. The average annual temperature is about 77░ F (25░ C). The average temperature in winter is about 70░ F (21░ C), and in summer it is about 80░ F (27░ C). Rainfall averages 54 inches (137 centimeters) a year. It is heaviest from May to June and from September to October. Hurricanes pose a threat from July through October.
\par {\b Agriculture}
\par \tab Cuba's leading industry is agriculture. The most valuable crop is sugarcane. Cuba is the world's major exporter of cane sugar and the third greatest producer after Brazil and India. Now, as before the revolution of 1958 under the leadership of Fidel Castro, more than half of the cultivated land is devoted to sugarcane. The manufacture of sugar from cane is the chief industry. By-products include molasses, syrups, industrial alcohol from molasses, and rum. The cane harvest occurs during the dry months of January through April. Since the establishment in 1959 of a centrally planned economy under the Communist government, sugarcane has been grown mainly on large state farms and cooperatives. The Soviet Union and Eastern European countries were the principal importers of Cuban sugar. Sugar accounted for more than three quarters of all export revenues. The heavy dependence on a single crop continues to hinder Cuba's economy.
\par \tab Cuban tobacco is famous worldwide. Traditionally it has been the country's second most valuable crop. The finest tobacco is grown in Pinar del Rφo Province. During the 1980s tobacco production declined. By the late 1980s it occupied only about 1 percent of the land under cultivation, and its position as the second leading agricultural export was being challenged by citrus fruits.
\par \tab Other major crops are coffee, rice, tropical fruits, and vegetables, especially corn, yucca, plantains, beans, and yams. There are dairy farms and large cattle ranches. In spite of government efforts to improve these herds, fresh milk and meat are in short supply and are rationed.
\par \tab In May 1959 the government of Fidel Castro signed into law the Agrarian Reform Bill. At that time fewer than 10 percent of the landowners controlled more than 70 percent of the agricultural land. The bill established 1,000 acres (405 hectares) as the maximum amount of land that any person or company was allowed to own. A second Agrarian Reform Bill passed in October 1963 reduced that figure to 167 acres (68 hectares). Under these agrarian laws only Cuban citizens may buy or inherit land. The government took back all land owned by foreigners. Approximately 100,000 formerly landless farmers were given plots of about 67 acres (27 hectares) each to farm. Most of the confiscated land was transformed into large government farms.
\par {\b Natural Resources and Industry}
\par \tab The huge forests that once covered the island are nearly gone. In remote mountains a few stands of mahogany, cedar, ebony, and other fine cabinet woods and dyewoods remain. Reforestation, a major government goal, is underway. Fishery resources were relatively undeveloped until recent years. Since 1959 the annual fish catch and consumption of fish throughout the island have increased substantially. Cuba is the world's fourth largest producer of nickel and has about 10 percent of the world's estimated reserves. There are large deposits of iron ore and copper. Gold, silver, chromium, and cobalt are also mined. Although petroleum has been produced since 1916, more than 90 percent of Cuba's petroleum demand was supplied by the Soviet Union until 1990.
\par \tab Diversifying Cuba's industry is an objective of the Castro regime. Lack of inexpensive fuel and comparatively few raw materials have hindered the development of heavy industry. Trade and credit agreements have been made with the Soviet Union and its allies to help Cuba build factories.
\par \tab Tourism was once a source of income second only to the production of sugar. After the revolution in 1958 tourism declined, as hotels and casinos were seized by the Castro government. Since the mid-1970s tourism has again become a major source of income. More tourists visit the island now than did before the revolution. Most of them come from Canada, Europe, and other countries of Latin America.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab Cuba was a colony of Spain until 1898. The great majority of its white population is of Spanish descent. The Indians who lived on the island when Christopher Columbus arrived in 1492 were Taino and Ciboney. They were almost completely eliminated by disease, warfare, and the hardships of slavery. Black Africans were first brought to Cuba in 1522 to work on the sugar plantations. Slavery was abolished in 1886. About 66 percent of the present population is white, 12 percent black, and 22 percent of mixed heritage. The annual rate of population growth is 1.1 percent, one of the lowest in the Caribbean. Life expectancy at birth is 73 years for males and 76 years for females.
\par \tab Cubans speak Spanish, and their way of living reflects their Spanish background. African folkways--art, music, and dancing in particular--have profoundly influenced the people and helped produce a uniquely Cuban culture. Since the 1958 revolution, the role of religion in Cuban society has become relatively insignificant. Education is free and compulsory. On average, Cubans attain a seventh-grade education. About 96 percent of adults are literate. The University of Havana is the leading institution of higher education.
\par \tab About 70 percent of the Cuban population resides in urban areas. Havana, with a population of about 2 million, is the capital and largest city. It is nearly six times larger than the next largest city, Santiago de Cuba. Transportation by air, rail, and highway is well developed. All the provincial capitals are linked by the Central Highway, a 711-mile (1,144-kilometer) road that extends from Pinar del Rφo in the west to Santiago de Cuba in the east.
{\b HISTORY}
\par \tab Columbus came to Cuba in 1492. Spain conquered it under Diego Velßsquez in 1511. Frequent insurrections failed to end Spain's harsh rule. From 1868 to 1878 occurred the armed rebellion known as the Ten Year's War, led by plantation owner Carlos Manuel de CΘspedes, a coauthor of Cuba's declaration of independence. After the loss of more than 200,000 lives, the revolt ended in failure.
\par \tab "Cuba libre" (Free Cuba) became the rallying cry for another revolt in 1895. One of its leaders was the poet and Cuban hero JosΘ Julißn Martφ, who died in battle early in the struggle. The cruelties of the Spaniards led to protests by the United States. On Feb. 15, 1898, the USS Maine blew up in Havana Harbor, and the United States declared war on April 25, 1898. A peace treaty, signed in December, forced Spain to surrender Cuba and provided for its temporary military occupation by the United States. In 1902 the Republic of Cuba was established. The Platt Amendment to the Cuban constitution gave the United States the right to intervene in the interests of a stable government. The United States intervened several times to help settle revolts, reform corrupt administrations, and supervise elections. In 1934 the United States canceled the Platt Amendment. It had asked for several "coaling or naval stations" at first, but finally retained, in a 99-year lease, only the strategic naval base on Guantßnamo Bay, guarding the Windward Passage route to the Panama Canal.
\par {\b Dictatorship and Revolution}
\par \tab Fulgencio Batista led a "sergeants' revolt" in 1933 that toppled the despotic rule of Gen. Gerardo Machado y Morales. Batista thus became the most powerful man in Cuba. Batista was elected president in 1940. He retired from office in 1944. In 1952 he overthrew the civilian government a second time. Suspending the constitution, he made himself chief of state with dictatorial powers.
\par \tab Years of corrupt government, embezzlement, and terrorism--generally condoned by the United States--led to a revolt in the fall of 1958 under the leadership of Fidel Castro. Batista fled to the Dominican Republic on Jan. 1, 1959. A week later the Fidelistas were in control of Havana. Castro, at age 32, became premier.
\par \tab At first many Cubans applauded Batista's downfall and hoped that Castro's promised reforms would benefit their country. Before long, however, it became evident that the new regime had embraced Communism. A visit from the Soviet Union's First Deputy Premier Anastas Mikoyan in 1960 brought Cuba a credit of 100 million dollars and a promise that the Soviets would buy 5 million tons of sugar. Offers of loans, trade, and technicians from mainland China and the Soviet satellite countries followed. Many critics of the new regime were put to death by firing squads or were imprisoned. Thousands of anti-Communist Cubans went underground or fled the country. The vast majority of the refugees sought exile in the United States.
\par {\b Communism in the Western Hemisphere}
\par \tab Cuba's turn to Communism raised serious problems for its neighbors in the Americas. Castro repeatedly criticized the United States in long speeches at rallies in Cuba and in messages to the United Nations (UN) and the Organization of American States (OAS). He frequently charged that the United States was plotting to invade Cuba. United States citizens suffered more than those of any other foreign country from the confiscation, or nationalization, of property because they had the largest investments in Cuba. Cuba's promises to pay for the property went largely unfulfilled.
\par \tab During the first two years of Castro's rule in Cuba, the other governments of the Western Hemisphere attempted to maintain friendly relations with their neighbor. On Jan. 3, 1961, however, United States president Dwight D. Eisenhower broke off diplomatic relations with Cuba after Castro charged that the United States Embassy in Havana was the center of counterrevolutionary activities. Eisenhower also canceled the United States sugar imports and imposed a total export embargo that seriously damaged the Cuban economy.
\par \tab Eventually the Latin American nations, with the exception of Mexico, severed relations with the Castro regime. In January 1962 a conference of OAS foreign ministers voted to expel Cuba from the organization.
\par \tab Meanwhile, anti-Castro refugees in the United States and elsewhere in the Americas clung to their hope that with outside help the Communist government in Cuba could be overthrown. The exiles carried out hit-and-run raids on Cuban ports and trained for an invasion, which was planned by the United States Central Intelligence Agency. On April 17, 1961, a force of 1,500 Cuban exiles landed at the Bay of Pigs, some 90 miles (145 kilometers) southeast of Havana. Their attempt to liberate the island failed. More than 1,100 of the invaders were taken prisoner.
\par {\b Soviet Financial and Military Aid}
\par \tab In February 1962 President John F. Kennedy proclaimed an embargo on most United States trade with Cuba. Castro then signed a 700-million-dollar trade agreement with the Soviet Union. The Cuban economy was in serious danger. Industrial plants, most of them confiscated during the revolution and now in disrepair, lacked the raw materials to keep operating. Spare parts for factory equipment and motor vehicles made in the United States were no longer available. Crop yields were poor. Food rationing began in March 1962.
\par \tab After mid-July shipments of goods from the Soviet Union were not limited to peacetime products. Freighters entered Cuban ports loaded with military equipment and supplies. Transports brought thousands of Soviets. Soviet spokesmen gave assurances that the armaments were defensive and that only Soviet technicians, not military personnel, were being sent to the island.
\par {\b Soviet Missiles in Cuba}
\par \tab On Oct. 22, 1962, President Kennedy announced in television and radio broadcasts that photographs taken by reconnaissance planes showed that Soviet atomic-missile sites were being built in Cuba. The missiles, already in place, according to Kennedy, had a range of 1,000 miles (1,600 kilometers). Sites for intermediate-range missiles were also under construction. The Soviet jet bombers that were already in Cuba were also capable of carrying nuclear weapons.
\par \tab Kennedy charged that the presence of these weapons constituted a threat to the security of the nations of the Western Hemisphere and violated the Rio Treaty of 1947. He called for the withdrawal of the missiles and bombers and announced that the United States was imposing a quarantine on ships carrying offensive military equipment to Cuba. He warned that an aggressive act from Cuba would be regarded as an attack by the Soviet Union and that the United States would retaliate with nuclear force.
\par \tab A week of international tension followed, during which the United States prepared for war. United States naval vessels patrolled the Caribbean, but the Soviet ships carrying missiles had turned back.
\par \tab On October 26 Kennedy received a letter from Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev that indicated his willingness to remove the missiles from Cuba. Khrushchev also asked Kennedy to promise that the United States would not invade Cuba. Kennedy accepted the condition, and on October 28 Khrushchev ordered the missiles withdrawn. The United States lifted the quarantine on November 20.
\par {\b Migrations of Cubans}
\par \tab Castro's relations with the United States and the Soviet Union followed a quieter course after the missiles crisis. On Dec. 21, 1962, he agreed to exchange the prisoners taken at the Bay of Pigs for 53 million dollars worth of drugs and food from the United States. In 1965 Castro agreed to permit Cubans with relatives living in the United States--except for youths of military age--to migrate to the United States on chartered flights. These so-called Freedom Flights carried nearly 300,000 Cubans to the United States between 1965 and the end of the agreement in 1973.
\par \tab Meanwhile, the Soviet Union continued to pour money and goods into Cuba. Its outlay was estimated at 1 million dollars a day. Castro's drive to diversify Cuba's economy by industrializing proved unsuccessful. Since Cuba needed sugar to carry out its trade agreements with the Soviet Union and its allies, emphasis was again placed on agriculture.
\par \tab Castro's advocacy of violent revolution throughout Latin America weakened Cuba's relations with the Soviet Union in the late 1960s. The Soviets favored a more moderate policy. In 1967 Ernesto (Che) Guevara, a leader of the revolt that brought Castro to power and one of Castro's most trusted associates, was captured and executed while trying to spark a guerrilla uprising in Bolivia. In 1968 several high-ranking Cuban Communists were arrested because of their pro-Soviet stand. Soviet-Cuban ties were revitalized in the 1970s, however, and the winning faction in the 1975-76 Angolan civil war was supported by Cuban troops and Soviet arms. A phased withdrawal of Cuba's 50,000 troops began in 1988 when South Africa agreed to grant independence to Namibia.
\par \tab The first steps toward resumption of United States-Cuban diplomatic relations were taken in 1977. Agreements were reached on fishing rights and maritime boundaries and the partial lifting of bans on travel to Cuba. On Feb. 24, 1976, Cuba's first socialist constitution took effect. It created a National Assembly of the People's Power led by a Council of States. The premiership was abolished, and in December 1976 the assembly elected Castro to be the council president--making him chief of state as well as the head of government.
\par \tab In early 1980 nearly 10,000 Cubans sought asylum in foreign embassies in Havana. After Castro removed restrictions on emigration, about 125,000 Cubans fled to the United States in boats from the Cuban port of Mariel. An estimated 3,000 of these refugees were later found to have serious criminal records or to be otherwise undesirable immigrants. Most of them were jailed, and Castro resisted the United States attempts to send them back to Cuba. In June 1984 Jesse Jackson, then a candidate for the Democratic presidential nomination in the United States, secured the surprise release from Cuba of 22 United States citizens who had been imprisoned for drug dealing or illegal entry and 26 Cuban political dissidents. In December a normal immigration policy between the two countries was restored; the deportation of unwanted Cuban exiles began in February 1985.
\par \tab In May 1985, however, the United States began broadcasting programs to Cuba over a service called Radio Martφ, based in Miami. In angry response, Castro suspended the immigration agreement. In 1988 the return of undesirable refugees began again.
\par \tab The Soviet Union for many years provided Cuba with an estimated 5 billion dollars annually in economic assistance. In April 1989 Soviet premier Mikhail Gorbachev visited Castro to discuss cutbacks in aid. As the Soviet Union disintegrated into economic chaos after 1990, the aid to Castro's government nearly ceased. The Cuban economy was soon beset by serious shortages of nearly everything, and rationing became more stringent. Castro nevertheless vowed to persist with his Communist policies.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by James Curtis, Professor of Geography, Oklahoma State University.\par \tab An island nation in the Mediterranean Sea, Cyprus is located approximately 40 miles (65 kilometers) south of Turkey and 60 miles (100 kilometers) west of Syria. It is the third largest island in the Mediterranean and has an area of 3,572 square miles (9,251 square kilometers). Since 1974 the northern third of the island has been under the control of the Turkish Cypriot community.
\par \tab Four major physical regions characterize Cyprus: the Kyrenia Mountains in the north, the Tro÷dos Mountains in the south, the Mesaoria Plain in between, and the coastal plains that surround almost the entire country. The island's highest point, Mount Olympus, is in the Tro÷dos range and reaches a height of 6,406 feet (1,953 meters). Copper was once plentiful in this range, but reserves are now largely depleted. (The name of the metal was actually derived from that of the island, since copper was once so significant a resource. It was mined there as early as 2500 BC.) The Mesaoria is the island's agricultural area, but some crops must be irrigated. The Kyrenia range is noted for its castles dating from the time of the Crusades.
\par \tab Cyprus has a Mediterranean climate with hot, dry summers and rainy winters. In the capital city of Nicosia, average daytime temperatures reach a maximum of 97░ F (36░ C), and the sun shines for more than 11 hours a day in the summer. During the winter, freezing temperatures can occur in the Tro÷dos. The average yearly rainfall is only 19 inches (48 centimeters), and every river is dry for at least part of the year.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab The majority of Cypriots are of Greek descent. They speak Greek, are mostly Cypriot Orthodox Christians, and make up approximately 95 percent of the total population. Those of Turkish descent, a legacy from the Ottoman period, speak Turkish and are mostly Muslims. As a result of the Turkish invasion of 1974, most Greek Cypriots fled the northern part of the island and now live in the south. The island is primarily rural with only two cities having more than 100,000 inhabitants--Nicosia and Limassol. Both Greek and Turkish are official languages.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab Although the Turkish invasion in 1974 greatly disrupted Cyprus' economy, there has been slow but steady recovery. Agriculture employs the highest percentage of the population. Major crops include potatoes, citrus fruits, grapes, and barley. Raw agricultural products are a major component of total exports. Manufacturing products include apparel, food, beverages, cement, bricks, and tiles. Important manufacturing exports include clothing, shoes, cement, paper products, and cigarettes. Gypsum and asbestos have replaced copper as the major minerals produced. Tourism, despite the unsettled political conditions, remains a strong contributor to the economy.
\par {\b History and Government}
\par \tab Cyprus has been inhabited for more than 7,000 years. Sometime between 2000 and 1000 BC, Greek Achaeans colonized the island. The island fell to the various great Middle Eastern empires and was part of the Roman Empire when the Apostle Paul and his assistant Barnabas introduced Christianity there. Cyprus was part of the Eastern, later Byzantine, Empire but fell to the Crusaders in the late 12th century. The Ottoman Turks captured it in 1571. The British leased Cyprus from the Ottomans in 1878 and took it as their own in 1914.
\par \tab Disagreements between the Greek and Turkish communities hampered the struggle for independence. Many Greek Cypriots wanted to be part of Greece, while many Turkish Cypriots wanted the island split into two distinct political areas. When independence was achieved in 1960, the constitution guaranteed representation to both communities, but continuing conflicts made the document unworkable. In 1963 the Turkish community withdrew from the coalition government, and each community governs itself with its own president, council of ministers, and legislative assembly.
\par \tab In 1974, when a coup forced out the president of Cyprus, Turkish forces invaded and took control of the northern third of the island for the Turkish minority. Efforts to restore a united country were further hurt when the Turkish-occupied zone declared independence in 1983.
\par \tab This declaration was condemned by the United Nations and was recognized internationally only by Turkey. Talks, however, continued between the two communities, and efforts were directed toward establishing some kind of federal republic. Population (1984 estimate) 662,000.\par \tab The nation of Czechoslovakia split peacefully into two countries on Jan. 1, 1993. The western provinces of Bohemia and Moravia became the Czech Republic, while the eastern section became Slovakia. Of the two new countries, the Czech Republic was the larger, with a land area of 30,441 square miles (78,842 square kilometers), compared to Slovakia's 18,919 square miles (49,000 square kilometers). Its population was almost twice as large: 10,314,000 compared to Slovakia's 5,297,000. Economically, too, the Czech Republic was better off, with a much higher gross domestic product, less unemployment, and greater success in returning former state industries to private hands.
\par {\b Land}
\par \tab The Czech Republic is bordered on the south by Austria, on the north by Poland, on the west by Germany, and on the east by Slovakia. The country's greatest length, west to east, is about 300 miles (480 kilometers); and its greatest width, north to south, is about 160 miles (260 kilometers). Most of the country consists of the Bohemian Massif, a large basin circled by low mountain ranges that occasionally exceed 3,000 feet (900 meters) above sea level. In the southwest is the large Bohemian Forest. The highest mountains are in the Sudeten Mountains, along the Polish border in the north.
\par \tab The country's main river is the Elbe, which flows into Germany and becomes a major waterway. The Oder and Vistula rivers flow north into Poland. Other significant rivers are the Berounka, Vltava, Sßzava, Iser, Uhlava, and Morava. Of these, the Vltava (Moldau in German) is the longest within the country, flowing 270 miles (435 kilometers). There are no sizable lakes, but there are several man-made reservoirs, of which the Lipno in the far southwest is the largest.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab Nearly 95 percent of the population consists of Bohemians--or Czechs--and Moravians. The other major ethnic groups are Hungarians, Slovaks, and Gypsies. The large German population that occupied the Sudetenland (the mountainous border regions of Bohemia and Moravia) before World War II was removed after the war. The Gypsy population may be the largest in Eastern Europe, but they have no legal standing as a recognized ethnic group. About 39 percent of the people are Roman Catholic, while a slightly larger percentage are atheists. Russian Orthodox and Protestant churches have much smaller followings.
\par \tab More than 75 percent of the people live in urban areas, though most of the cities are of modest size. Prague, the capital, exceeds 1 million in population. The second largest city, Brno, has a population of only about 390,000, however. Ostrava, in the northeast, and Pilsen, in the southwest, are the other major cities. The latter is one of the most famous beer-brewing centers in the world.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab The Czech Republic is highly industrialized, compared to Slovakia. However, much of the industry was, in the early 1990s, obsolete--a leftover from Communist central planning. The country has some modern plants that were expected to become productive when economic reforms took root. The largest single industry is engineering, followed by food production, electronics, chemicals, rubber, asbestos, and iron and steel. During Communist rule the country was a leader in production of automobiles and diesel locomotives.
\par {\b Government and History}
\par \tab The Czech Republic has a parliamentary, multiparty form of government. The head of state is the president. Vßclav Havel, who had resigned as president of Czechoslovakia in July 1992, was elected president of the Czech Republic in January 1993. The head of government is the prime minister, who governs with a cabinet. The one-house parliament has 200 deputies.
\par \tab From the early Middle Ages until 1918 Moravia and Bohemia were both Central European kingdoms. Moravia was settled in the 4th century by Germans and Celts and in the 6th and 7th century by Avars. The Slavs, ancestors of the present occupants, arrived in the late 8th century. The Slavs had settled in Bohemia by the 6th century. By the mid-9th century the Moravians had formed a kingdom, which eventually grew into Great Moravia and included part of Poland, all of Bohemia, and part of Hungary. This small empire was destroyed by Magyars in 906.
\par \tab The decline of Moravia led to the ascendancy of Bohemia. The kingdom of Bohemia, in the 10th century, included Moravia and part of Poland. The kingdom's greatest extent was in the 13th century, when it added sections of Hungary and Austria.
\par \tab After the 14th century the Moravians and Bohemians were caught between more powerful neighbors and torn by religious controversies. Both regions came under the control of the Hapsburg monarchy of Austria in 1526. A Czech revolt against Austria was harshly put down in 1620, and the two kingdoms became provinces within the empire of Austria-Hungary.
\par \tab Czech nationalism revived in the 19th century, inspired by such popular rebellions as the Revolution of 1848. The Czech language was put on the same footing as the more prevalent German. Bohemia, Moravia, and neighboring Slovakia drew closer together as they sought to throw off the yoke of Austria-Hungary. This goal was achieved in 1918, with the formation of Czechoslovakia and the end of Austria-Hungary. Bohemia and Moravia remained part of Czechoslovakia until Jan. 1, 1993, when Slovakia broke away to form an independent state.\par \tab One of the most prosperous nations of Europe, Denmark is a small country with few natural riches. Its location on the North Sea, however, makes it easily reached by the industrial states of Western Europe, and it is a physical, cultural, and commercial bridge between Scandinavia and Central Europe. Although it is dependent on foreign trade, Denmark has one of the highest standards of living in the world.
\par \tab Denmark proper is made up of a long peninsula called Jylland, or Jutland; two large islands--Fyn, or Fⁿnen, and SjΣlland, or Zealand; and 483 smaller islands that dot the entrance to the Baltic Sea. People live on 97 of those islands.
\par \tab Denmark's only landward neighbor is Germany. A strip of land about 30 miles (48 kilometers) wide joins Jylland to the German Plain at the south. The long peninsula at its northern tip is 70 miles (113 kilometers) from Norway across the Skagerrak, a rectangular arm of the North Sea. The North Sea itself lies to the west. To the east, between Denmark and Sweden, stretch the strait called Kattegat, meaning "cat's throat," and the narrow strait called ╓resund.
\par {\b The Lowland and Its Produce}
\par \tab Denmark has an area of 16,629 square miles (43,069 square kilometers) without counting Greenland, the world's largest island, and the Faeroe Islands, located in the North Atlantic between Iceland and the Shetland Islands. Both are self-governing parts of Denmark.
\par \tab The surrounding sea makes Denmark's climate quite mild for its location between 54░ and 58░ N. latitude. The temperature averages 61░ F (16░ C) in summer and 32░ F (0░ C) in winter. Periods of frost seldom last long. Rainfall is plentiful, with the greatest monthly amounts occurring in August and October.
\par \tab The Jylland peninsula makes up two thirds of the area of the country proper. The western side is a broad plain of moor, heath, and sand. Swept by winds, it is rimmed at the coast by dunes and low cliffs. This part of the peninsula was all wasteland at one time. As a result of the efforts of the Danish Heath Society, a large part of it is now producing grains, sugar beets, pasturage, and pine trees. The middle of the peninsula is a wide strip of irregular hills. The eastern shore is fertile and wooded with a coast indented by shallow fiords, each with a small town or fishing village at its head.
\par \tab The harbor of Frederikshavn, at the northern end of Jylland, is the sailing point for Sweden. Aarhus, halfway down the east coast, is an important seaport and Denmark's second largest city. The only city of any importance on the west coast is Esbjerg, from which food exports go to Great Britain.
\par \tab The islands are fertile spots, alike in formation, with low hills, tiny lakes, and sandy beaches. Even the smallest ones are richly green and wooded by the typical beech trees. The soil is of glacial origin, constantly moistened by the damp sea winds and fogs that blow in off the North Sea.
\par \tab Just to the east of Jylland, across the Little Belt, by ferry or over the half-mile bridge, is the garden island of Fyn. Its largest city, Odense, is famous as the birthplace of the beloved writer of charming fairy stories, Hans Christian Andersen.
\par \tab East from Fyn, 10 to 15 miles across the Great Belt, lies ZjΣlland, the largest of the islands and the seat of the capital city of Copenhagen. The city is the country's largest port, its only important industrial center, and the metropolitan area for more than a quarter of the population.
\par \tab The two-mile Storstrom Bridge links SjΣlland to the southern island of Falster. West of Falster is Lolland Island; east is M÷en. Some 100 miles farther east is Bornholm Island, site of Denmark's deposits of brown coal and the kaolin used in making porcelain. These deposits were long thought to be Denmark's only minerals, but great salt beds were found elsewhere in the years 1946 to 1948.
\par \tab The Danes were once primarily a farming people, but only about 8 percent of the workers now are farmers. Many are dairy or stock farmers. About three fourths of the land can be cultivated. Much of it is difficult to work. The soil is kept fertile by the use of fertilizers. The combination of mild climate, usable soil, skillful scientific farming, and government aid has made Denmark one of Europe's richest farming countries. Most farmers are small landowners. Laws forbid the merging of small farms into larger units.
\par \tab Denmark has the most successful system of rural cooperatives in the world. They include nearly nine tenths of the farmers in the country. The cooperative societies pool capital and buy farm machinery. They handle the marketing of milk, butter, cheese, eggs, and bacon. They also help to keep members informed about the best agricultural methods.
\par \tab Much of the farmers' prosperity depends upon pigs, cows, and chickens. These provide the bacon, eggs, and dairy products for their export business. The crops of grain and vegetables are now raised almost exclusively for home use or to feed the livestock. Until the mid-19th century, grains and cereals were Denmark's largest exports. Then American competition made it impossible for the farmers to market these products profitably. Many of the farmers were ruined. They changed to stock and dairy farming.
\par {\b Fishing and Industry}
\par \tab Fishing is a profitable occupation for many Danes. Some of the fishing villages are shining and modern; others are old and weathered. All along the coast fishermen are hard at work with boats and nets to bring in the plaice, or flatfish, herring, cod, eels, and other fishes that, with fish products, make up a large part of the country's food and exports.
\par \tab Industry now provides more of the national income than does agriculture. Each year more people are employed in manufacturing and handicrafts. Artistic designers and skilled craftsmen turn out elegant modern silver goods, china and ceramics, textiles, and furnishings that are admired and widely bought abroad. The leading industries are iron and other metal manufacturing and the processing of foodstuffs. Also important are the paper and graphics industries, transport, footwear and clothing, wood and furniture, and mineral extraction industries.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab The cities, even around the port districts, are so clean that they look as if they are carefully scrubbed every night. The buildings and streets are modern and well constructed. The most popular method of transportation is the bicycle. Here and there rise old castles, many built in the 16th century.
\par \tab The Danes seem to have discovered a fine philosophy of living well and vigorously. They are happy, friendly, and helpful. The farmer and his family do most of the work on the land. Their home is equipped with central heating, telephone, and refrigeration. Most farms have low, white-plastered buildings built around small courts. They have either thatched or red-tile roofs. In front of the house, a neatly fenced flower garden grows in gay colors. A little summerhouse offers an outdoor dining room for use in the brief summer months, as the sun-loving Danes never stay inside when the weather is good.
\par {\b Education and Social Welfare}
\par \tab The Danes have no racial problems. They are almost all of the same northern stock--tall and blond. Neither have they any racial prejudices. There are no extremes of wealth and poverty; there is almost no illiteracy, as education is compulsory. An outstanding feature of Danish education is the system of folk high schools. Though called high schools, they are institutions of advanced education and part of the adult education movement. Their founding was inspired by the writer and teacher Bishop Nikolai Grundtvig (1783-1872). He believed that understanding and love of country would arouse his people to an active interest in their government. The schools specialize in Danish history, literature, folklore, and methods of democracy.
\par \tab Denmark has kept in advance of many other countries in social legislation. Its government, a constitutional monarchy with legislative powers delegated to the Folketing, or Parliament, was founded in 1849. Before the end of the 19th century, Denmark's laws had provided for old-age pensions, health and hospital insurance, and trade unions. The government also maintains the National Health Service. Its members give instruction in hygiene, nutrition, and related subjects. Living standards are so nearly uniform that it has been possible to organize these measures along similar lines for all the people. There is uniformity of religion also, as a large majority of the people belong to the established Lutheran church.
\par \tab The principal universities in Denmark are the Copenhagen University, founded in 1479, and the University of Aarhus, opened in 1933. Since the days of the 16th-century astronomer Tycho Brahe, Denmark has produced many distinguished scholars and artists. Among them are philosopher S÷ren Kierkegaard, geologist Nicolaus Steno, physicists Hans Christian Oersted and Niels Bohr, sculptor Bertel Thorvaldsen, and novelist Isak Dinesen.
\par {\b History}
\par \tab The ancient history of the Danes previous to the Viking period is founded on tradition and sagas. The Norse heroes were savage and warlike and loved fighting for its own sake. The Vikings were pirates whose galleys sailed to the shores of all the countries of the known world. They were a scourge to all the lands within their reach.
\par \tab Although the "wild Danes" were mentioned in a document written in the 6th century, the first authentic historical record of these people dates from AD 800. From 800 to 1042 they constantly raided the British shores. They conquered and sent colonists to southern England.
\par \tab In 826 the missionary monk Ansgar brought the first Christian teachings to the wild northland. True Christianization of Denmark was not accomplished until the Viking period ended in the reign of Harold Bluetooth (960).
\par \tab Under King Canute, Norway was conquered. After Canute's death the kingdom was in a state of chaos, with bitter jealousy and fighting among the nobles. The free Danes were forced to accept a feudal system under which they became serfs. Poverty and dissatisfaction were widespread.
\par \tab With the reign of Valdemar I (1157-82) Denmark regained its power. The Danes conquered northern German territory as far as Hamburg. The Baltic became Denmark's sea. After the reign of Valdemar II (1202-41) the whole political structure of the nation again fell apart through internal strife and religious differences. It was not until the reign of Valdemar IV (1340-75) that the country became reunited. This monarch again made Denmark a great Baltic power. His work for the welfare of his people was carried on by his daughter, Margrethe I.
\par {\b Union of Kalmar}
\par \tab In 1397, during Queen Margrethe's reign, the Union of Kalmar was formed. This agreement gave each of the Scandinavian countries--Norway, Sweden, and Denmark--the right to manage its own affairs, but it united them against aggression. Sweden was never satisfied with the Union, as Denmark was the powerful member. After many quarrels it withdrew in 1523. Norway and Denmark kept the Union until 1814, when the Peace of Kiel ceded Norway to Sweden.
\par \tab There were then 50 years of peace. But in 1864 Denmark was attacked by Austria and Prussia and lost the provinces of Schleswig and Holstein. After that war the Danes were at peace until the German invasion in 1940. In the intervening period they built their present strong democratic structure. In World War I the country remained neutral, though its sympathies were with the Allies. After Germany's defeat, a plebiscite gave back to Denmark the northern third of the province of Schleswig.
\par {\b Resistance to German Occupation}
\par \tab In April 1940, disregarding its nonaggression pact with Denmark, Germany sent in its troops. King Christian X asked his people not to resist. He remained in Copenhagen, regarding himself a prisoner. He refused to appoint a new cabinet, as the Germans wished him to do. Later, all semblance of authority was taken from the Danish government. The people's trade, homes, and lives were controlled by the invaders. Sabotage against the Germans increased. Trains were wrecked, manufacturing plants were blown up, and general strikes were called.
\par \tab The Danes saw few battles and little bombing, and Denmark fared better than other occupied nations. In 1947 Frederik IX succeeded his father, Christian X, as king. Denmark joined the European Recovery Plan in 1948 and ratified the North Atlantic Treaty in 1949. In 1953 it amended the constitution and changed the parliament to one body, the Folketing.
\par \tab Greenland was made part of Denmark and given representation in the Folketing, with full home rule granted in 1979. Denmark was one of the seven charter members of the European Free Trade Association formed in 1959. In 1967, faced with severe economic difficulties, Denmark applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), based on Britain's acceptance into the organization. Membership became effective on Jan. 1, 1973. Frederik IX died in 1972, and his eldest daughter succeeded to the throne as Margrethe II.
\par \tab After 1973 rising petroleum prices and the international depression increased unemployment. A tax bill controversy in 1973 led to the dissolution of the Folketing. Two new parties were elected, and Poul Hartling became prime minister. His Venstre party, however, was defeated in 1975 elections. A Social Democratic government was in control until 1982, when economic problems forced Prime Minister Anker J÷rgensen to resign. He was replaced by conservative Poul Schlⁿter. Population (1984 estimate), 5,112,100.
{\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR DENMARK}
\par \tab Eriksen, Peter and others. Fⁿnen--the Heart of Denmark (Nordic, 1980).
\par \tab Linker, Robert, trans. Misfortunes of Ogier the Dane (Blair, 1964).
\par \tab MacHaffie, I.S. and Nielsen, M.A. Of Danish Ways (Harper, 1984).
\par \tab Wohlrabe, R.A. and Krusch, W.E. The Land & People of Denmark, rev. ed. (Harper, 1972).\par \tab A small country in the Horn of Africa, on the eastern coast, Djibouti faces the Strait of Bab el Mandeb between the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden. Formerly known as Afars and Issas, the country has been called officially the Republic of Djibouti since 1977. Djibouti is bordered almost entirely by Ethiopia; Somalia borders on the southeast, and the Gulf of Aden is on the east. It covers an area of 8,900 square miles (23,050 square kilometers). Its coastline, deeply indented by the Gulf of Tadjoura, runs some 500 miles (800 kilometers) from north to south. The capital is the port city of Djibouti.
\par \tab Djibouti is both a desert land of traders and nomads, or wandering peoples, and a busy commercial trade center at the western end of the Gulf of Aden. The country has few natural resources. Djibouti city, a deepwater port located on the southern shore of the Gulf of Tadjoura, is the only seaport connected by rail to neighboring Ethiopia.
\par \tab Temperatures average 86░ F (30░ C) yearly at Djibouti city. There is a less warm season from November to April. Precipitation is scarce and plants are mostly scrub. Animal life includes hyenas, jackals, antelopes, and gazelles.
\par \tab The two major ethnic groups of the country are the Issas, who are of Somalian ancestry, and the Afars, who are of Ethiopian ancestry. The Afars are concentrated in the north and west and the Issas in the south and east. Both groups are largely nomadic and adhere to the religion of Islam.
\par \tab Agriculture is limited to small-scale production of fruits and vegetables. Livestock includes goats, sheep, cattle, and camels. There is limited fishing along the coast but most takes place at the seaport of Obock. Salt mining, cement manufacturing, and a bottling plant are in various stages of development.
\par \tab Djibouti's economy relies almost entirely on services and external trade, but its unfavorable balance of trade makes it dependent on foreign assistance. Imports are mainly foods and beverages, textiles, machinery and electrical machines, coal, and chemical products. Exports include live animals and food and food products. Djibouti city has several piers, warehouses, water reservoirs, and fuel-storage tanks. The closing of the Suez Canal from 1967 to 1975 adversely affected trade in Djibouti. Destruction of parts of the Djibouti-Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, railway during the Ethiopian civil war of 1977 led to further disruption of Djibouti's economy.
\par \tab From the Djibouti city airport there are international flights to and from France, parts of the Middle East, and East African countries. There are two radio transmitters and one for television; they broadcast programs in French, Afar, Issa, and Arabic. The country's cultural life is centered in Djibouti city. A weekly newspaper is issued by the government.
\par \tab The port of Djibouti was created in 1888 by LΘonce Lagarde, the first governor of French Somaliland, as the area was then called. Shortly after the port city became the capital in 1892, work began on the railway that finally linked it to Addis Ababa in 1917. The area was a French colony until 1967, when it became an overseas territory of France. It remained so until it became a republic in 1977. Djibouti is a single-party republic governed by a president elected by the National Assembly. A prime minister heads the Council of Ministers. Population (1993 estimate), 565,000.\par \tab In the Caribbean Sea, lying between Guadeloupe and Martinique, Dominica is an island republic of the Lesser Antilles. It is a mountainous island of volcanic origin covering an area of 290 square miles (750 square kilometers). Its main physical feature is a high, forest-covered mountain range that runs from north to south. Morne Diablotin, in the north, is the highest point at 4,747 feet (1,447 meters). A plain breaks the mountain range at about the center of the chain. The Layou, Pagua, and Castle Bruce rivers all drain the plain. These and the many other rivers and streams on the island are mostly unusable by boats larger than canoes.
\par \tab There are volcanoes on the island, and, though they are probably now extinct, a number of thermal springs and Boiling Lake in the south are definite signs of continuing volcanic activity. The island soil is rich, and there is dense tropical plant growth and lush rain forests. Dominica has a warm year-round tropical climate with temperatures that range from 78░ F (26░ C) to 90░ F (32░ C). Rainfall is very heavy, averaging 250 inches (635 centimeters) in the mountains and 70 inches (178 centimeters) along the coast. Animal life on the island includes 135 species of birds, the iguana, opossum, agouti, boa constrictor, and many species of bat.
\par \tab Dominica is one of the poorest of the Caribbean nations. Bananas are its main agricultural product and major export. Grapefruit, coconuts, limes, oranges, and vegetables are produced. Coconuts are used in copra, oils and fats, soap, and detergents. Fruit juices and rum are also produced from local agricultural products. Pumice, which is mined, is the only known mineral resource on the island. There is some livestock raised on the island and a small commercial fishing industry. In addition to bananas, exports include coconut oil and fruit juices. Manufactured goods, machinery, transport equipment, foods, and chemicals are imported. Handicrafts also contribute to the economy, and a local industry produces cigarettes from imported tobacco.
\par \tab Tourists are attracted to Dominica for the island's rich tropical environment and mild climate. It has excellent swimming, boating and fishing facilities, and an unspoiled wilderness.
\par \tab There are more than 400 miles (644 kilometers) of paved roads and paths. A deepwater port was completed in 1976 at the capital city of Roseau. A number of steamship services call there. The main airfield is Melville Hall, about 40 miles (64 kilometers) from Roseau.
\par \tab When Christopher Columbus sighted Dominica in 1493, the island was inhabited by fierce Carib Indians. Because of its steep coastal cliffs, it was one of the last islands to be explored by Europeans. The Carib Indians, French, and British later fought for control of the island, however, and it was awarded to Britain in 1783. Dominica has been under the control of various governments, but it finally became independent in 1978 as the Commonwealth of Dominica. Population (1990 estimate), 82,200.\par \tab Located in the Caribbean Sea, the Dominican Republic covers an area of 18,703 square miles (48,440 square kilometers), occupying the eastern portion of Hispaniola, the second largest island of the Antilles. It shares the island with Haiti but the two neighbors have little in common. The inhabitants of Haiti are predominantly black, have French and African cultural roots, and live in an overpopulated and poor environment. In contrast, the population of the Dominican Republic is predominantly mulatto or white, Hispanic in culture, and belongs to a country that suffers from some environmental deterioration but also has areas of lush vegetation and rich farmland.
\par {\b Land and Climate}
\par \tab The Dominican Republic has the most rugged and complicated terrain on any of the islands of the Antilles. In general terms there are four major mountain systems and three intervening lowlands, lying roughly in an east-west direction.
\par \tab One of the systems, the Cordillera Septentrional, is located between Montecristi and Nagua across the northern coast, and only small areas of coastal plain are found squeezed between the hills and the Atlantic Ocean. The principal mountain system is the Cordillera Central, which runs across the middle of the country from northern Haiti almost to Santo Domingo. Here there are more than 20 mountains with heights greater than 6,500 feet (2,000 meters), including the highest peak in the Antilles called Pico Duarte at 10,417 feet (3,175 meters). The Cordillera Central has a maximum width of 50 miles (80 kilometers) but makes up more than one third of the country. Two smaller mountain systems called Sierra de Neiba and Sierra de Baoruco are in the southwest.
\par \tab These four mountain systems fix the limits of three lowlands. Between the Cordillera Septentrional and the Cordillera Central is the Cibao Valley. It contains areas of flat land that are particularly fertile to the east of the city of Santiago in a region called the Vega Real. It is well known for producing bananas, cacao, and rice. The San Juan Valley lies between the Cordillera Central and the Sierra de Neiba. This valley also has excellent soil and, with irrigation, has become a major rice-growing region. Farther to the south, between the Sierra de Neiba and the Sierra de Baoruco, is the Enriquillo Basin, which has a drier climate and contains the salty Lago Enriquillo 130 feet (40 meters) below sea level.
\par \tab The only extensive coastal plain is in the southeast. Called the Caribbean coastal plain, it is the principal sugar cane and beef producing area.
\par \tab Although the country is at tropical latitudes, the trade winds, the surrounding ocean, and high elevations combine in some areas to produce a climate that is far from typical of the tropics. In fact, frost is common on the highest peaks of the Cordillera Central. In most areas, however, temperatures are moderately high and vary little from season to season. Rainfall is normally greatest on the mountain slopes over which the easterly trade winds blow and decreases on the opposite slopes and in the major valleys.
\par {\b Plant and Animal Life}
\par \tab The Dominican Republic once had many pine, hardwood, and mixed pine-hardwood forests. But hurricanes, fire, uncontrolled cutting, and conversion to agriculture have destroyed most of this woodland. Only 14 percent of the country still had hardwood forests in 1980. These are concentrated in the dry southwest and northwest and are being rapidly degraded by charcoal manufacturers and by goats that graze on seedlings. Pine forests remain in the higher and least accessible parts but now cover less than 10 percent of the nation. The country imports $30 million more wood products than it exports annually.
\par \tab Its wide variety of topographic and climatic conditions has given the Dominican Republic the richest plant life in the Antilles. About 36 percent of the approximately 5,600 species are thought to be native. Over 125 plant species are threatened or in danger of extinction, including many kinds of orchids. A total of 139 resident and 90 migratory bird species have been identified. Serious habitat destruction, hunting, and the introduction of such species as the mongoose and rabbit, however, have reduced most native populations.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab Most inhabitants live in the central part of the country, especially in the Cibao Valley and the Santo Domingo region. In the west along the Haiti border, population is sparse. The annual rate of growth is high at 2.6 percent. At this rate, population doubles in 27 years. Poverty has forced many people to leave the countryside and move into the towns, especially to the capital city, Santo Domingo. The urban population now exceeds the rural, and it is increasingly difficult for the new urban dwellers to find employment. Thousands of Dominicans have chosen to leave the country, particularly to go to the United States.
\par \tab Although mulattos are most numerous, power has historically been in the hands of Dominican whites. They dominate business, finance, the prestigious professions, government, and high society. Mulattos are the majority in the military officer corps, the provincial towns, the less prestigious professions, and among lower- to middle-level government officials. Almost everyone speaks Spanish and is Roman Catholic. The church is influential on some issues--education, divorce, birth control--but its overall influence has diminished with time.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab The economy is still dominated by agriculture, with 56 percent of the country used for crops or pasture. Small farmers produce staple foods, especially bananas (plantains), yucas, beans, and sweet potatoes. Although they make up the bulk of the rural population, these farmers have little land and they are too poor to apply the best farming practices. As a result their incomes remain low, and many migrate to urban areas in search of a better way of life. Foodstuffs are imported to make up the ever-increasing shortage in the nation's food production. Large farmers own the most fertile land and concentrate on crops for export, particularly sugar cane, coffee, cocoa, and tobacco; they also raise beef cattle.
\par \tab There is growing concern about farming hillsides, especially by small farmers who cut down the forest and grow their crops without using conservation techniques that would protect against rapid soil erosion. To make things worse, much of the eroded soil is transported by rain into rivers that carry it into expensive reservoirs built for water supply, irrigation, and hydroelectric energy systems.
\par \tab Agricultural products account for two thirds of export earnings. The rest comes largely from minerals, especially bauxite, nickel, and gold. The Dominican Republic is among the top ten gold-producing countries of the world and has the largest single gold mine in the Western Hemisphere. The income from the export of these metals is about equal to the amount spent on imported petroleum. Most of the remaining imports are manufactured goods such as machinery, chemicals, and foodstuffs.
\par \tab In recent years the government has made great efforts to improve the economy by stimulating the tourist industry. More than 500,000 tourists visit the country each year to enjoy the warm climate, attractive beaches, and the capital city.
\par {\b History and Government}
\par \tab Christopher Columbus' brother Bartholomew founded Santo Domingo in 1496. This makes it the oldest permanently occupied town in the Americas. At that time there were more than a million native inhabitants on the island, but within 50 years most had died of starvation, overwork in the gold mines, and epidemics of European diseases. The gold that could be obtained using 16th-century mining techniques was exhausted by 1530, and Spain lost interest in her Santo Domingo colony soon afterward with the discoveries of Mexico and Peru. The Spaniards who remained on the island turned to cultivating sugar cane, using black slaves imported from Africa.
\par \tab In 1697 Spain ceded the western third of Hispaniola to France. By the end of the 18th century, the new French possession known as St. Domingue was one of the world's richest colonies, producing vast quantities of sugar and cotton. It had 524,000 inhabitants, of whom 88 percent were African slaves. Santo Domingo, with twice the territory of its neighbor, had barely one fifth the population, and its economic growth was slow.
\par \tab France gained control in 1795 of the whole island, but slave uprisings in the west led in 1804 to the creation there of Haiti, the world's first black republic. In 1814 Spain again got control of the eastern part of the island, but the Dominicans declared independence in 1821. Soon afterward the Haitians invaded the Dominican Republic and ruled it by force for 22 years. This occupation is often considered the cause of an antagonism that still separates Dominicans from Haitians. One favorable consequence of Haitian rule, however, was the freeing of slaves.
\par \tab Unhappily, liberation from the Haitians did little to bring peace and economic progress. During the rest of the 19th century, the Dominican Republic suffered scores of revolutions, more armed invasions from Haiti, and another period of Spanish domination from 1861 to 1865. Money was borrowed recklessly by corrupt governments, and by 1916 the country was in political and economic chaos. World War I was in progress, and the United States decided to occupy the Dominican Republic to restore order and protect approaches to the Panama Canal. This occupation lasted for eight years, and, though there was opposition to it, the enforced political stability permitted major social and economic advances.
\par \tab In 1930, however, there was another revolution, and the country fell into the hands of a dictator, Gen. Rafael Leonidas Trujillo Molina. For nearly 31 years, until his assassination in 1961, Trujillo headed a ruthless police state. At the cost of political freedom, the Dominican Republic had another period of imposed stability that, combined with favorable sugar prices, stimulated impressive economic growth. Five years of political turmoil after Trujillo's death led in 1965 to another intervention by the United States, which was concerned about the possibility of a Cuban-style Communist takeover. Since then the political scene has been relatively orderly with freely elected presidents. Joaquφn Balaguer was president from 1966 to 1978, and was reelected in 1986 and 1990. Antonio Guzmßn Fernßndez won a controversial election in 1978 and held office until 1982.
\par \tab Much wealth has been generated, but it has always been unequally distributed. The bulk of the population remains poor and undernourished. In the 1980s the low price of sugar in the world market brought on a series of economic crises. Under Salvador Jorge Blanco, who was president from 1982 to 1986, the government instituted an austerity program. Wage controls and the removal of food subsidies led to rioting in 1984.
\par \tab Economic difficulties persisted in the debt-ridden nation through the 1990 election, in which Balaguer defeated his long-time opponent, Juan Bosch. Austerity measures dictated by the International Monetary Fund were still in force in 1992. The 1991 deportation of illegal Haitian immigrants worsened relations with Haiti. Population (1991 estimate), 7,320,000.\par \tab The republic of Ecuador became an independent nation in 1830. Its small area of about 108,000 square miles (280,000 square kilometers) gives it a limited range of natural resources.
\par \tab Its relatively small population also limits the size of the domestic market. It is bounded on the north by Colombia and surrounded on the east and south by Peru, with which it has had frequent border disputes. Since 1973 it has benefited from petroleum exports that have stimulated both industrialization and increasing urban migration.
\par {\b Regions}
\par \tab Ecuador can be divided into three ecological regions: the coastal lowlands, the Andean highlands, and the eastern forested plains--known respectively as costa, sierra, and oriente. The Andean highlands run like a wide backbone north-southward through the center of the country, and it is their altitude that dramatically diversifies the equatorial climate and vegetation of the whole country.
\par \tab Two parallel ranges containing high volcanic peaks--such as Cotopaxi at 19,347 feet (5,897 meters) and Chimborazo at 20,702 feet (6,310 meters)--mark the edges of these highlands. The ranges are separated by a wide trough composed of ten basins averaging more than 7,000 feet (2,100 meters) in height. Though each basin varies in size and altitude, all are characterized by rugged relief, the result of rivers cutting through glacial terraces and extensive fans of volcanic ash. Quito, the national capital--like Ibarra, Cuenca, Ambato, and Loja--nestles within one of these basins. In the sierra region the principal resources are a fertile but easily eroded soil and a climate that has been compared to an eternal spring.
\par \tab The plains that descend abruptly eastward from the flanks of the highlands toward the Amazon River are predominantly shrouded in thick tropical rain forest. The resources of hardwoods and petroleum and other minerals have hardly begun to be explored, let alone exploited.
\par \tab The characteristics of the western coastal region perhaps explain the relative neglect of the east of Ecuador. Here, at elevations of normally less than 1,000 feet (300 meters), there is relatively flat land that is easily accessible from the historic highland core. It is firmly connected to the outside world by international commerce. On the coast one can pass within a few degrees of latitude from tropical rain forest in the north to absolute desert conditions in the south. This is the region that for generations has produced Ecuador's best-known export--bananas. It is now not only the agricultural breadbasket of the country but also the focus of industrial development. Guayaquil and Esmeraldas are the two dominant cities of the costa, the former exceeding the population of Quito since 1910.
\par {\b People and Culture}
\par \tab Ecuador has four ethnic groups: Indians, mestizos, blacks, and whites. The historic homeland of the Indians--some 40 percent of the total population--is the sierra. It was here that a relatively advanced culture was encountered in the 16th century by the invading Spaniards. For the last 400 years this Indian population, after recovering from near destruction caused by the introduced European diseases, has struggled to maintain some of the symbols and functions of its cultural identity: the quichua language, traditional dress (especially the ruana shawl), foodstuffs, the strength of local community organization, and a suspicion of non-Indian ways. Yet modernization has encouraged change that has normally meant migration out of the sierra and the adoption of modern technology in agriculture. Indians are the least significant population element of Ecuador in terms of economic and political power as well as social status.
\par \tab The mestizos--called cholos in the highlands--are the product of the rapid racial intermixture of whites with Indians. The majority of this group--some 40 percent of the total population--live in the coastal region and are employed on the rice, banana, and cacao plantations. Many have gained economic benefits, but relatively few have political power.
\par \tab The 10 percent of blacks and mulattoes reflects the colonial past of Ecuador when black African slaves were imported to work coastal plantations. They are now mostly concentrated in the northern section of the coast.
\par \tab The whites of Spanish descent, who make up the remaining 10 percent of the population, are the elite of Ecuadorian society. Since they form the majority of the industrialists, large agricultural estate owners, politicians, and businessmen, they usually decide what other Ecuadorians will have and what they can do. This group is typically urban-based, concentrated in the largest cities.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab Each of Ecuador's ecological regions has a distinctive economic base and has experienced a distinctive economic history. The sierra economy continues to be directly or indirectly based on agriculture, primarily subsistence production for domestic use. Typical crops are corn, potatoes, wheat, and barley. On the high grassy pastures sheep and cattle are also raised to supply the urban markets with meat. The most significant problem in agriculture is that of the uneven distribution of land. Farms are either too large or too small. In spite of agrarian reform laws that were passed in 1964 and 1974, 10 percent of the land area still accommodates 75 percent of the total number of farm units. Almost 2 million peasant farmers have less than 4 acres (1.6 hectares) each on which to make a living, and fragmentation continues at a rapid rate. The only manufacturing industy in the sierra is the remnant of the so-called Panama hat industry in the city of Cuenca. It uses palms brought from the southern coast. The textile industry of Quito and other towns of the highlands was destroyed by competition from British imports in the 19th century. For this reason persons who abandon farming in the sierra have few alternative employment opportunities. They thus tend to migrate directly out of the central region to seek their fortune on the coast.
\par \tab The coast has experienced what is best described as a series of "boom" economic cycles, each of which has further strengthened the coast's dominant role in Ecuadorian development. From 1870 to 1924 cacao cultivation triggered an economic boom that quickly boosted national revenues, financed the construction of the railway from Guayaquil to Quito, and stimulated agricultural colonization in the Guayas River basin. Cacao production was badly affected, however, by the effects of witchbroom disease after 1922. In the 1930s first rice and then coffee were cultivated, but it was not until around 1945 that Ecuador's principal export crop--bananas--spread rapidly throughout the coastal zone. Ecuador's coast has almost optimum conditions for the cultivation of this crop that rapidly achieved popularity in Western Europe and the United States. Before the export of petroleum, bananas accounted for some 60 percent of total export revenues, and by 1953 Ecuador had become the world's leading supplier. The two centers of production and export have been Esmeraldas and Guayaquil. Since the construction of a specialized port near Guayaquil, there has been a significant shift southward of areas under cultivation. Access to foreign markets is the key to success in banana production. The activity in and relative prosperity of the costa have attracted serranos, or natives of the sierra, in very large numbers. Many work as sharecroppers on the commercial estates.
\par \tab The oriente, long an isolated and undeveloped region except for scattered logging camps, quickly reoriented the entire national economy following the major petroleum strikes in 1967 near Lake Agrio in the northeast. With the rapid construction of a pipeline from the oil fields to Quito and then to Esmeraldas on the coast, Ecuador began to export petroleum in 1971 and joined the OPEC group in 1974. The rapid rise in world prices for oil after 1973 meant huge gains in foreign currency for Ecuador. Export earnings rose fivefold between 1971 and 1975, and Ecuador came to be seen as a creditworthy nation by the international financial market. Income from the new export earnings and loans began to be invested in major planned projects. The national road network, for example, was extended from 6,200 to 17,400 miles (10,000 to 28,000 kilometers) between 1970 and 1985. The government also invested money in industrial enterprises such as steel, petrochemicals, shipbuilding, and fishing after 1973. In spite of such attempts to diversify the basis of the economy, and as a result of the disadvantageous competitive position of Ecuador in world trade, in the mid-1980s the processing of foodstuffs and consumer goods still accounted for two thirds of industrial production, three quarters of which is located in Quito and Guayaquil.
\par \tab The changing regional basis of resource development in Ecuador has had a dramatic effect on population distribution. By 1974 the coastal region's share exceeded that of the sierra for the first time, and cities everywhere acted as magnets to poor migrants who saw little hope in agriculture. New settlements began to appear in the forests of the eastern region, as did vast shantytowns around almost all of the coastal towns. Thousands of Ecuadorians were literally on the move to a better future. As many were to find to their bitter disappointment, modern industrial technology did not require their eager hands. Thus, thousands were forced to enter the so-called "informal" industrial sector, working part-time in a variety of menial jobs such as shoe shining, garbage collecting, or street vending. For those who did not speak Spanish, had little formal education, and did not have personal contacts who could find jobs for them, the rosy future became a desperate present.
\par {\b History and Government}
\par \tab In 1533 Sebastißn de Benalcazar was sent northward from Peru by Francisco Pizarro to conquer the local Indians. Present-day Ecuador was occupied by a culture that had only recently been absorbed within the Inca empire. The sierra became rapidly colonized by the Spaniards, who established a chain of townships through the length of the mountains to connect settlement areas in Peru with those of New Granada (now Colombia).
\par \tab From 1563 the province of Quito became part of the Viceroyalty of Peru, but it was later transferred to become a subdivision of the Viceroyalty of New Granada. This closer relationship with the north, rather than the south, was strengthened after political independence from Spain in 1822. Ecuador became one of three regional units in the Federation of Greater Colombia--together with Venezuela and Colombia. This grand idea of Sim≤n Bolφvar, however, did not endure the strains of nationalistic feelings.
\par \tab Ecuador separated in 1830 to become an independent nation-state. Since that date Ecuador insists that it has unjustly lost vast territories to its several neighboring states, especially Peru. As recently as 1981 armed conflict broke out in a disputed sector of the Condor Mountains on Ecuador's southern border. Ecuador controls the Galßpagos Islands and insists on its rights to a 200-mile limit for its territorial waters in the Pacific.
\par \tab Based on the Constitution of 1978, Ecuador is a republic with a one-house legislature known as the National Congress. The president, elected to a single five-year term, is both head of state and head of the government. The judicial system is headed by the Supreme Court of Justice, which is elected by the National Congress.
\par \tab During the first century of political independence, Ecuador experienced a rapid sequence of presidents, dictators, and ruling juntas. Between 1922 and 1948, for example, some 22 chiefs of state began, but did not finish, their terms of office. Political power in Ecuador has been fought over by two rival groups. The first is a combination of Roman Catholic conservatives whose power base is in the landholding elite of the sierra and the extensive national bureaucracy of Quito. The second is a group of more liberal progressives of Guayaquil and the coast who challenged the longstanding authority of the traditional elite of the sierra. For this second group commerce and wealth were avenues to power and prestige. Great inequalities of wealth are still evident in almost every sector of Ecuador. The most wealthy 20 percent of the nation still receives almost 80 percent of the national income. The country is divided into two classes: the one rich, powerful, and bent on modernization; the other poor, powerless, neglected, and questioning the alleged benefits of modern life.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by David J. Robinson, Dellplain Professor of Latin American Geography, Syracuse University, N.Y.; Director of USAID Technical Assistance to the Integrated Regional Development Project, Peru (1981-84); and author of 'Studying Latin America' (1981) and 'Social Fabric and Spatial Structure of Colonial Latin America' (1979).
\par \tab {\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR ECUADOR}
\par \tab Foley, E. Ecuador (Cavendish, 1995).
\par \tab Hurtado, O. Political Power in Ecuador (Westview, 1985).
\par \tab Luzuriaga, C. Income Distribution and Poverty in Rural Ecuador (Arizona State Univ. Press, 1983).
\par \tab Schodt, D.W. Ecuador (Westview, 1986).
\par \tab Whitten, N.E., ed. Cultural Transformations and Ethnicity in Modern Ecuador (Univ. of Ill. Press, 1981).\par \tab The Arab Republic of Egypt occupies the northeastern corner of the African continent and the Sinai Peninsula. It has an area of about 390,540 square miles (1,011,500 square kilometers), including the 23,440 square miles (60,710 square kilometers) of the Sinai. Ninety-nine percent of the Egyptian population lives on only 3.5 percent of the land. Most of them are in the Nile River valley and large, fertile delta of the river. Egypt is bordered on the south by the Republic of the Sudan and on the west by Libya. Its northern coast is on the Mediterranean Sea, and its eastern coasts are on the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aqaba, between Sinai and Saudi Arabia. The Gulf of Suez and the Suez Canal separate African Egypt from Sinai. In northern Sinai Egypt's border with Israel was fixed in 1979 by a peace treaty, though the disputed territory did not return to Egyptian sovereignty until 1982.
\par {\b The Land and Climate}
\par \tab The headwaters of the Nile River are in the highlands of East Africa. The Nile flows northward across the Sudan and enters Egypt near Wadi Halfa. It is 4,130 miles (6,650 kilometers) long, with 960 miles (1,545 kilometers) in Egypt. Annual flooding is a natural feature of the Nile. Fed by summer rains in the highlands, the flood travels northward, reaching Egypt in August.
\par \tab The Upper Nile is confined to a narrow valley that is no more than 2 miles (3 kilometers) wide. Outcrops of resistant granite rock form stretches of cascades and rapids called cataracts. The First Cataract is at Aswan, the only one in Egypt. A dam was built here in 1902 to help control the floodwaters for irrigation. Four other cataracts are located upstream of Aswan in the Sudan.
\par \tab The Aswan High Dam is located upstream of the original dam. Construction began in January 1960 and was completed in July 1970. The high dam created Lake Nasser, the largest artificial lake in the world. It extends for 350 miles (560 kilometers) southward to the Third Cataract and averages 6 miles (10 kilometers) wide. The high dam makes possible the large-scale storage and use of Nile water independent of natural floods, and it provides Egypt with low-cost hydroelectric power.
\par \tab Between Aswan and Cairo the Nile Valley widens into a plain ranging in width from 6 to 9 miles (10 to 15 kilometers). The delta of the Nile begins near Cairo, where the river separates into the Damietta branch on the west and the Rosetta on the east. The delta, which contains about 8,500 square miles (22,000 square kilometers), has numerous small waterways and canals. At its northern edge several large shallow lakes have formed as the delta continues to expand into the Mediterranean. The largest of these is El Manzala, which is between Damietta and Port Said.
\par \tab West of the Nile the Western Desert is one of the world's driest areas. It is a low-lying plateau that gradually rises from a narrow coastal plain to an elevation of more than 3,300 feet (1,000 meters) in the southwest. In the Libyan Desert large areas are covered by shifting sand dunes. Several large depressions have been hollowed out of the limestone and sandstone by wind erosion. The oases of Bahariya, Dakhla, Farafra, and Siwa and the great oasis of Kharga have underground water supplies that support permanent agriculture. A branch of the Nile, the Bahr Yusef, flows through a gap in the Nile's western cliffs to water the town of El Faiyum. In Wadi Natrun northwest of Cairo and the Qattara Depression, the water is salty. Located near Siwa on the edge of the Libyan Plateau, the Qattara is 437 feet (133 meters) below sea level.
\par \tab The area between the Nile River and the Red Sea is the Arabian, or Eastern, Desert. It is a rugged, heavily dissected plateau with elevations of more than 3,300 feet (1,000 meters). Along the Red Sea coast, Jebel, or Mount, Shayib is 7,178 feet (2,188 meters) above sea level. The highest point in Egypt is in the Musa Mountains of southern Sinai, where Jebel Katherina reaches 8,655 feet (2,638 meters). In the north is the Sinai Desert, which extends to the coast between the Suez Canal and Israel.
\par \tab Egypt has an arid climate. Alexandria has the highest rainfall, with a mean of 7.4 inches (18.8 centimeters) annually. Other parts of the Mediterranean coast receive even less rainfall, with only 2.5 inches (6.4 centimeters) annually at Port Said. Most rain falls in the winter, none in the summer. The mean annual temperature is 69░ F (20░ C), reaching a high of 80░ F (27░ C) in the summer.
\par \tab Cairo is a desert capital. It receives slightly less than 1 inch (2.5 centimeters) of rainfall annually, and the mean annual temperature is 71░ F (22░ C). In the spring and summer early morning fogs on the Nile Delta provide some additional moisture. The rest of Egypt has only a few centimeters of rainfall annually. Most of the year is hot and dry, and periodic droughts extending over several years are common. Aswan, for example, has a mean annual rainfall of 0.2 inch (0.5 centimeter) and a temperature of 80░ F (27░ C) with a high of 94░ F (34░ C) in the summer.
\par \tab During the spring, hot dry khamsin winds blow northward from the Sahara across Egypt to the Mediterranean coast. The khamsin, which often produces sandstorms, can last for several days, destroying crops. Egypt has no forests and only a few permanent grasslands for pasture. At best the deserts support sparse drought-resistant scrub vegetation.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab Egypt's population is about 48.5 million. The average annual rate of growth is 1.7 percent. In the delta and valley of the Nile, densities reach 3,243 persons per square mile (1,252 per square kilometer). About 49 percent of the population live in cities. The majority of Egyptians live in rural agricultural villages, some of which have 20,000 or more people.
\par \tab Egypt's largest cities are Cairo, the capital, and Alexandria. Together they contain about two thirds of the urban population. Cairo and its suburbs occupy both banks of the Nile just south of the delta. It is the largest city in Africa. Greater Cairo was estimated to have 10 million people in the mid-1980s. Giza is its largest suburb. Alexandria, the chief seaport, had about 3 million. Fifteen other cities, most located in the delta and the valley of the Nile, had populations of 100,000 or more. The Suez Canal cities of Port Said, Ismailia, and Suez, which were abandoned during the 1967 war with Israel, have been rebuilt.
\par \tab Large-scale migration from rural areas to cities, especially Cairo and Alexandria, has caused urban population growth at twice the average national rate. Both cities have severe housing shortages and lack basic services. Extensive urban redevelopment programs are under way, and new towns are planned near Damietta, Cairo, and Aswan. Land reclamation in the Nile and planned agricultural settlements in the Western Desert are designed to help relieve population pressures.
\par \tab Most Egyptians are Hamitic Arabs. They are descendants of the Hamites of ancient Egypt and of the Arabs who migrated to Egypt after the Muslim conquests of the 7th century. The Nubians, who are related to the Berber tribes of North Africa, are located south of Aswan. They were resettled in new villages near Kom Ombo when Lake Nasser flooded their homeland. A few Europeans, primarily Armenians and Greeks, live in cities. Most are in Alexandria.
\par \tab About 86 percent of the Egyptians, including Nubians, are Sunni Muslims. Islam is the state religion and the basis for Egyptian law. The largest minority is made up of members of the Coptic church, one of the oldest Christian churches. The Copts, who are also descended from the Hamites, number about 6 million, or 13.5 percent of the total population. Egypt also has about 250,000 other Christians, and a small Jewish community remains in Cairo.
\par \tab Arabic is the official language. Although it is spoken by all Egyptians, there are many dialects. Classical Arabic is used in printed materials and in the schools. Through radio and television the government is attempting to develop a vernacular Arabic as the common language. Educated Egyptians use English and French as second languages. French-language publications have wide circulation in Cairo and Alexandria. The Coptic language, related to ancient Egyptian, is used only in church services. The Nubian dialect, while still spoken, is no longer written.
\par {\b Operation of the Economy}
\par \tab Major segments of Egypt's economy are controlled by the government. Most commercial and industrial companies are either state-owned or are run under government supervision. Only agricultural land and urban real estate are relatively free of government control. President Gamal Abdel Nasser instituted a centrally planned socialist economy. His successor, Anwar el-Sadat, encouraged foreign investment and private enterprise. Increased aid came from petroleum-rich Arab states, primarily the Gulf Organization for the Development of Egypt.
\par \tab After the 1979 peace treaty with Israel, most Arab countries withdrew economic and political support from Egypt. President Hosni Mubarak reestablished ties with Arab countries and instituted policies to increase exports, particularly of petroleum, and private investment.
\par \tab From 1970 to 1980 Egypt's gross domestic product (GDP) grew at an average annual rate of 8.1 percent. Agriculture contributed 19 percent, mining 17 percent, and manufacturing, wholesale and retail trade, and services 12 to 13 percent each. Because of limited opportunities in Egypt, many professionals and skilled workers took jobs in other Arab countries, primarily the Gulf States and Libya.
\par {\b Agriculture and Industry}
\par \tab Agriculture in Egypt depends almost entirely on irrigation from the Nile. Barrages and dams on the Nile, especially the Aswan High Dam, allow water to be stored for use when the river level is low. Canals distribute it where it is needed throughout the year. Under perennial irrigation, a field may yield several crops each year. Cotton, rice, corn (maize), and sorghum are grown in summer. Barley, wheat, and beans are winter crops. Citrus fruits and vegetables are grown on the Mediterranean coast. Although enough fruits and vegetables are grown for the Egyptian people, only 38 percent of the demand for wheat is met. Egypt imports about half of its food supplies, primarily wheat and flour.
\par \tab Three quarters of Egypt's agricultural income is from cotton and rice. Cotton and cotton products account for 23 percent of its export trade. Egypt produces about one third of the world's long-staple cotton. The area planted in cotton, however, has declined by half since 1968, and exports have been limited. Rice, fruits, and vegetables are also export crops. Sugarcane is grown to produce sugar for Egypt. Most cattle are used as draft animals, and sheep and goats are raised for wool and hair. Despite recent attempts to improve livestock husbandry, Egypt is a net importer of meat.
\par \tab Egypt faces growing food shortages. Rapid population growth, rapid urbanization, and an increased production of commercial export crops have intensified the pressure on a limited supply of agricultural land. Farms are limited to a maximum of 50 feddans, or 52 acres (21 hectares). Cooperatives aid farmers by renting implements and distributing seeds, fertilizers, and pesticides. Programs to increase the cultivated area through land reclamation, however, have not had significant results. The Aswan High Dam's potential to add 30 percent to the cultivated area has not been realized. In fact, large areas have gone out of cultivation because of poor drainage and salinization, urban expansion, and industrial growth--especially in the Nile Delta. The government has plans to reclaim 3 million acres (1.2 million hectares). The largest projects are at West Nuberiya, which is near Alexandria, and in the northern Tahriv region. Projects are also planned for the "new territories" in the oases of the Western Desert.
\par \tab Textiles and food processing are the most important industries. Textiles, primarily cotton, account for one third of the total output. Food processing, including the refining of sugarcane and preparation of fruits, is the second largest industry. Iron and steel plants are located at Helwan and El Dikheila, near Alexandria. An aluminum plant at Nag Hammadi processes imported bauxite. Cement is produced for the construction industry, but Egypt imports half of the cement used. Ten new cement plants are under construction. Fertilizer plants that use Egyptian natural gas are located at Takla and El Dikheila, and plants are planned or under construction at Alexandria, Mansura, and Asyut.
\par {\b Energy and Natural Resources}
\par \tab Egypt depends on fossil fuels and hydroelectric power for its energy supplies. In the late 1970s petroleum supplied the majority of the energy and hydroelectric power, 20 percent. Other renewable resources--such as crop residues, animal wastes, and wood--supplied 14 percent of the total energy consumed. Industry used 48 percent of the energy; residential, commercial, and municipal, 32 percent; and transportation, 14 percent. Only 6 percent was for agriculture and irrigation.
\par \tab Egypt has the capacity to generate 5,610 million kilowatt hours. Two thirds is generated by hydroelectric plants, most at the Aswan High Dam. Power plants that burn petroleum produce most of the rest. These facilities are near Cairo and Alexandria and on the Nile Delta. High-voltage transmission lines link the Aswan hydroelectric plants with Cairo.
\par \tab Industrialization and a national program of rural electrification have demanded additional generating capacity. A large coal-burning power plant near Cairo supplies three quarters of the city's electricity. Eight nuclear reactors, which will generate 8,000 megawatts, are also planned. The first two units were being built at El Dabaa, about 100 miles (160 kilometers) west of Alexandria. Plans to generate hydroelectricity by flooding the Qattara Depression with water from the Mediterranean are also under way.
\par \tab Crude oil provided about 60 percent of Egypt's export revenues in the early 1980s, helping the nation to remain financially independent of its Arab neighbors. Petroleum exports have increased since 1976, with crude oil production reaching 860,000 million barrels per day in 1984. The main fields are in the southern Gulf of Suez and adjacent coastal areas of the Arabian Desert and the Sinai. The offshore fields of El Morgan, Ramadan, July, October, and Belayim accounted for about 90 percent of the total crude oil production. In the Western Desert are the major fields of El 'Alamein, Razzak, and Abu Gharadiq. Large new reserves were found as the Egyptian government encouraged exploration and made concessions.
\par \tab Egypt has six petroleum refineries with a total capacity of 369,000 barrels per day. Two are located near Alexandria (47 percent of the total), two are at Suez, and the others are at Tanta and Mostarud near Cairo. They are linked by pipeline to the main producing fields. The largest and most important is the Suez-Mediterranean (Sumed) pipeline, which extends from Ain Sukhna on the Gulf of Suez to Sidi Krer west of Alexandria. It is being expanded. A new refinery planned for Asyut will be linked by pipeline to the Ras Gharib and Ras Shuqair fields in the Arabian Desert.
\par \tab Natural gas is produced from five fields. Located at the edge of the delta, the Abu Madi field supplies gas to Tanta and Abu Qir, to Alexandria. Cairo (Helwan) is supplied by Abu Gharadiq, which is 124 miles (200 kilometers) to the west. In addition, two offshore fields provide a quarter of total production. Egypt uses all of the natural gas it produces, and demand is growing rapidly.
\par \tab Manganese, phosphates, iron ore, and coal are in the western Sinai. Iron ore is also mined near Aswan, and large deposits have been found in Bahariya. Phosphates are mined in the Nile Valley and near Safaga in the Arabian Desert. Chromium, lead, asbestos, gypsum, granite, and talc are also mined. Limestone comes from the cliffs along the Nile.
\par {\b Transportation, Communication, and Education}
\par \tab Water transportation is of primary importance in Egypt. It has about 1,925 miles (3,100 kilometers) of navigable waterways, half on the Nile and the other half on canals, mostly in the delta. The main canals are the Nubariya on the delta and the Bahr el Yusef, which links El Faiyum with Asyut on the Nile.
\par \tab The Suez Canal is an international shipping link between the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea. The canal extends 121 miles (195 kilometers) from Port Said to Suez, on the Gulf of Suez. It has a 624-foot (190-meter) channel and a maximum draft of 54 feet (16.5 meters). Since 1975 the canal has been expanded to accommodate supertankers. Alexandria, Port Said, and Suez are Egypt's major ports. Alexandria's port is being expanded, and new ports are planned or are under construction at Dakheila, Damietta, and Safaga.
\par \tab Egypt has 3,327 miles (5,355 kilometers) of railways. From Cairo lines extend along the Nile to Aswan, across the north coast to Salum, and to Alexandria, Port Said, and Suez. A railroad parallels the west bank of the Suez Canal between Suez and Ismailia. A railway also connects the iron ore mines at Bahariya with Helwan. A 26-mile (42-kilometer) subway transit system for Cairo began operation in 1988.
\par \tab Egypt also has about 28,000 miles (45,000 kilometers) of roads, of which about 19,000 miles (30,600 kilometers) are paved. The 1-mile (1.6-kilometer) Ahmad Hamdi tunnel under the Suez Canal opened in 1980. Egyptair operates a full schedule of domestic and international flights. Service to Tel Aviv began in March 1980. The Nuzbah International Airport near Cairo opened in 1983.
\par \tab Cairo is the major publishing center in the Middle East. It has four major publishing companies. Al Ahram, which was founded in 1875, is the most authoritative daily newspaper.
\par \tab Cairo is also a center for radio and television. Egyptian radio and television broadcast in several African and Asian languages. Egyptians have 14 million radios--more per capita than any other Middle Eastern or North African country--and nearly 3.5 million television sets.
\par \tab Illiteracy is one of Egypt's most severe problems. Although elementary schooling is compulsory, an estimated 55 percent of the population is illiterate.
\par \tab Secondary-school graduates may take examinations for entrance to universities, or they may attend technical institutes specializing in agriculture, commerce, and industry. Egypt has 13 independent universities. The six major state universities are coeducational. The largest of these is the University of Cairo at Giza, founded as the Egyptian University in 1908. Universities were opened at Alexandria in 1942 and at Asyut in 1957. Ain Shams University, incorporating several other schools near Cairo, was established in 1950. There are also state universities at Helwan, Mansura, and Tanta.
\par \tab One of the world's oldest centers of Islamic education is El Azhar University in Cairo. Shortly after El Azhar Mosque was built in 972, it had one of the leading academies in the Muslim world. Since 1961 it has also provided secular education. The American University in Cairo was founded in 1919, and the Suez Canal University was established in Ismailia in 1976.
\par {\b Government}
\par \tab The Arab Republic of Egypt is governed under the 1971 constitution. Islam is the state religion, and Islamic jurisprudence is the basis of Egyptian law. Arabic is the official language. The constitution provides for a strong presidency and a unicameral, or one-house, legislature--the People's Assembly. About half of the members of the assembly must be farmers and workers. Members are elected for five-year terms by direct universal suffrage. The president has extensive executive powers. He is nominated by at least one third of the members of the People's Assembly, approved by at least two thirds of them, and elected by popular referendum.
\par \tab From 1962 to 1977 the Arab Socialist Union was the only legal political organization in Egypt. Political parties had been abolished in 1953. In 1976, however, groups within the union were allowed to support candidates. Political parties were legalized in 1977. The National Democratic party replaced the Arab Socialist party as the majority, and the Socialist Labor party formed the official opposition.
\par \tab In 1979 the People's Assembly was expanded from 350 to 392 members, ten of whom the president appointed. In the 1984 elections new laws required parties to receive at least 8 percent of the vote in order to be represented, and the number of seats was increased. In 1990 elections the principal electoral change was to move to voting for individual candidates rather than party lists. The Assembly has 444 members chosen from 222 constituencies and 10 members appointed by the president.
\par \tab The National Democratic party continued to dominate Egyptian politics. Its strongest opposition since Egypt became a republic came from the New Wafd party. The other independent parties were forced to form a coalition in order to gain more than 8 percent of the vote.
\par {\b History}
\par \tab After the death of the prophet Muhammad in 632, Arabs conquered Egypt in 639 to 641. Most Egyptians, who were Christians, converted to Islam. Those who resisted despite persecution were called Copts, from an Arabic word meaning "Egyptian." Arabic replaced the Egyptian language, which was restricted to use in the Coptic church. In 973 Cairo was founded, replacing the old capital of Al Fustat. Egypt became part of the Ottoman Empire in 1517. Napoleon I invaded Egypt in 1798, defeating the Turks in the battle of the Pyramids, but his fleet was destroyed by Britain's Admiral Horatio Nelson. The British left Egypt by 1803. Mehemet Ali, an Albanian officer in the Ottoman forces, became pasha, or governor, of Egypt in 1805. He defeated the British at Alexandria in 1807 and conquered most of the northern Sudan between 1820 and 1822. In 1856 Sa'id Pasha, Mehemet Ali's son, granted Ferdinand de Lesseps the right to build the Suez Canal. It was opened in 1869 during the reign of Ismail Pasha. To repay his debts to British and French bankers, Ismail Pasha sold Egypt's shares of Suez stock to Britain, giving it control of the canal. In 1876, again in debt, he allowed British and French officials strict control of Egypt's finances. In 1883 British forces occupied Egypt to support the monarchy in the face of a growing nationalist movement. In 1899 the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan was established under joint British and Egyptian rule.
\par \tab In World War I Turkey sided with Germany, but Egypt supported the British. Britain proclaimed Egypt a protectorate in November 1914 and assumed responsibility for defending the Suez Canal. The Wafd, or nationalist, movement gained strength in wartime. After failing to reach a settlement with the Wafd, Britain abolished the protectorate and recognized Egyptian independence on Feb. 28, 1922. Britain retained responsibility for the security of the Suez Canal and the defense of Egypt.
\par \tab In 1923 a constitutional monarchy was established with Sultan Fuad as king. He was succeeded in 1936 by his son Farouk. A treaty that year ended the British occupation of Egypt but confirmed its control of the canal zone and joint rule of the Sudan. When the British left Palestine in 1948, Egypt and its Arab allies invaded the area proclaimed as the state of Israel. Although defeated, Egypt kept the Gaza Strip.
\par \tab Farouk was overthrown by a military junta on July 23, 1952. The Revolutionary Command Council, which was led by Major General Mohammed Naguib and Colonel Gamal Abdel Nasser, controlled the government. The constitution was abolished, and political parties were dissolved. Egypt was declared a republic on June 18, 1953, and Nasser became prime minister. An Anglo-Egyptian agreement in the same year ended the union of Egypt and the Sudan, resulting in independence for Sudan.
\par \tab After a new Egyptian constitution was approved in June 1956, Nasser was elected president. The British forces left Egypt in July. Nasser declared the internationally owned Suez Canal Egyptian property. The United States and Britain had withdrawn financial aid for the Aswan High Dam, and Nasser planned to use revenues from the canal to finance Egypt's share of the project. Israel invaded Sinai in October, and British and French forces landed in the canal zone in November. Nasser sank some 40 ships in the canal to block it. United Nations (UN) pressure brought a cease-fire and withdrawal of forces, and the canal reopened in March 1957 under Egyptian control, with guarantees of international use.
\par \tab Egypt and Syria merged as the United Arab Republic in 1958 and, with Yemen, formed the United Arab States. Syria withdrew from the union in 1961 after a military coup, and Egypt ousted Yemen. A 1963 agreement between Egypt, Syria, and Iraq to form another United Arab Republic failed, though steps were taken in 1965 to join Egypt and Iraq.
\par \tab Because of tensions between Israel and Syria, Nasser forced UN troops to withdraw from Egypt and blockaded the Gulf of Aqaba against Israeli shipping. Israel attacked on June 5, 1967, defeating the allied Arab forces in a six-day war and occupying the Gaza Strip and the Sinai. The Suez Canal was again blocked by damaged ships. A UN-negotiated cease-fire failed to result in a peace settlement. After the war Egypt faced severe financial crises and widespread discontent among students and workers. As efforts to reach a settlement continued through 1970, Egyptian and Israeli forces dueled across the canal.
\par \tab Nasser died in September 1970 and was succeeded by Anwar el-Sadat. In April 1971 Egypt, Libya, and Syria agreed to form the Confederation of Arab Republics. Full union was prevented by worsening relations between Egypt and Libya. On Oct. 6, 1973, Egypt and Syria launched surprise coordinated attacks on Israeli-held Arab lands. A UN-sponsored cease-fire took effect, and in January 1974 Egypt and Israel signed a disengagement agreement that returned to Egypt a strip of land east of the Suez Canal. The canal was reopened in 1975.
\par \tab Egypt reestablished diplomatic relations with the United States after the 1973 war with Israel. In 1976 Sadat canceled a 1971 mutual friendship treaty with the Soviet Union. In 1977 he became the first Arab head of state to visit Israel. As a result of the 1979 Camp David agreements, moderated by United States President Jimmy Carter, Egypt and Israel signed a peace treaty that provided for a phased withdrawal of Israeli forces from the Sinai. As Palestinian autonomy talks continued, the two countries established diplomatic relations, and Egypt took control of parts of the Sinai. Egypt was suspended from the Arab League, which it had once dominated, and most member countries withdrew economic aid from Egypt.
\par \tab Sadat was assassinated by Muslim extremists in October 1981. Vice-President Hosni Mubarak became president. In October 1984 Egypt withdrew from its 1971 confederation with Syria and Libya. Despite economic difficulties, Mubarak remained in control of the government after the 1984 legislative elections. A five-day mutiny in Cairo by security police in 1986 raised questions about his ability to cope with forces that were steadily eroding the nation's stability.
\par \tab In October 1987 Mubarak began a second six-year term after receiving 97 percent of the vote in a popular referendum. As a result of his moderate policies Egypt gradually improved its relationships with other Arab states, and many of the members of the Arab League reestablished diplomatic relations with Egypt. In 1989, Egypt rejoined the Arab League, and Mubarak was elected chairman of the Organization of African Unity. Egypt was thrust onto center stage in 1990 by the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait, first through Mubarak's attempts to bring about an Arab diplomatic solution and later by the deployment of Egyptian troops and tanks as part of a multinational force in defense of Saudi Arabia.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by Gary L. Fowler, Chairman and Associate Professor of Geography, University of Illinois at Chicago.
\par \tab Hart, George. Ancient Egypt (Harcourt, 1990).
\par \tab Lye, Keith. Take a Trip to Egypt (Watts, 1983).
\par \tab Romer, John. Ancient Lives (Holt, 1984).
\par \tab Stead, Miriam. Egyptian Life (Harvard Univ. Press, 1986).\par \tab One of the smallest, poorest, and most crowded nations in Central America, El Salvador is equal in area and population to the state of Massachusetts. Unlike its neighbors, it does not border on the Caribbean Sea, and it has no empty frontiers into which people may move.
\par \tab Shaped like a rectangle, it extends 150 miles (241 kilometers) westward from the Gulf of Fonseca to the border with Guatemala. The mountainous Honduran frontier lies 60 miles (97 kilometers) north of El Salvador's southern Pacific shoreline. There are about 8,100 square miles (21,000 square kilometers) within its borders. Because it is such a small nation, El Salvador lacks a wide range of natural resources. But it has easy access to the markets of nearby nations.
\par {\b Land and Climate}
\par \tab Between the southern Pacific shoreline and its northern border with Honduras, four distinct landscapes extend across the east-west breadth of El Salvador. A 10- to 12-mile- (16- to 19-kilometer-) wide coastal plain, interrupted by volcanic hills, parallels the Pacific Ocean. It is separated from a narrow interior valley by a row of recent volcanoes, both active and inactive. Between the interior valley and the Honduran border to the north lies an old and badly eroded volcanic upland. Although two peaks in the volcanic row and several summit areas in the volcanic plateau near the Honduran border reach 7,000 feet (2,134 meters), very little of the land surface in El Salvador lies above 5,000 feet (1,524 meters) in elevation.
\par \tab The Rφo Lempa, a major source of hydroelectric power, drains the northwestern part of El Salvador. Taking a course southward midway across the country, the river cuts across the interior valley, the volcanic row, and the coastal plain before emptying into the Pacific.
\par \tab Because El Salvador is small and without major high mountains, there are few variations in rainfall and temperature. Since El Salvador lies on the drier Pacific side of the isthmus, it receives less rain and only during the summer. Yearly rainfall throughout the country averages between 60 and 85 inches (152 and 216 centimeters). Ninety percent of this falls between the months of May and October.
\par \tab The average annual temperature in the capital, San Salvador, at an elevation of 2,230 feet (680 meters), is 74░ F (23░ C). On the coastal plain it is slightly warmer.
\par \tab El Salvador has suffered repeatedly from natural catastrophes. Earthquakes have badly damaged or destroyed the city of San Salvador on 14 occasions. Major eruptions of the nearby volcano of Boquer≤n last occurred in 1917. Hurricanes are rare, but severe droughts have caused widespread losses.
\par {\b People and Culture}
\par \tab When the Spanish entered El Salvador, they encountered a dense population of Indians. Since the countryside was open, Spaniards managed to settle throughout the land. Thus most of the natives came under their direct influence. Because of this, Indians gradually adapted many European customs and came to be classified as Ladinos. Today Indians make up less than 5 percent of the population.
\par \tab There were 800,000 people in El Salvador in 1900. They increased to 1.6 million by 1940 and now number about 5.5 million. Because of the high rate of population increase, it is predicted that the country will have 8.5 million people by the year 2000. The density of population is 644 persons per square mile (249 per square kilometer). This is three and a half times denser than Guatemala and up to 10 times denser than other Central American nations. Because of the high density, many Salvadorans have migrated to less populated areas in surrounding countries.
\par \tab Urban and rural populations are about equal, and both are concentrated on the inner coastal plain and within the volcanic row and interior valley. The three largest cities--San Salvador, Santa Ana, and San Miguel--lie in basins along the lower flanks of volcanoes.
\par {\b Economy, Transportation, and Communication}
\par \tab For 100 years coffee has dominated the economy of El Salvador. It has been the major source of employment, has financed the cost of governments, and has paid for the construction of highways, railroads, and ports. Village lands were converted into coffee estates on which peasants labored. The owners became the aristocracy of El Salvador. Present-day culture and politics are products of the coffee economy.
\par \tab After its introduction in the 1850s, the planting of coffee spread rapidly within the volcanic row. By 1870 it had replaced the dye indigo as the nation's major export. Coffee made up about 90 percent and never less than 75 percent of Salvadoran exports between 1900 and the early 1940s. After World War II forested areas and natural pastures on the coastal plain were converted into cotton farms. Sugar produced for export increased in the 1960s.
\par \tab The limited area within El Salvador makes the further expansion of commercial agriculture difficult. There are no empty lands onto which poor subsistence farmers, who make up 40 percent of the population, can move to produce their corn, beans, and sorghum.
\par \tab A disciplined work force and the favorable location of El Salvador have contributed to the development of manufacturing. Textiles, food processing, and the manufacture of shoes, clothing, and pharmaceuticals are leading industries. Manufacturing increased dramatically during the 1960s after the establishment of the Central American Common Market, which eased the exchange of products between member nations of the region. During the 1970s the growth of manufacturing slowed as a result of a war with Honduras.
\par \tab Because El Salvador is a small nation restricted to a landscape of volcanic origin, few minerals are available for mining. There is a very small output of silver. There are no domestic supplies of coal or petroleum. Energy requirements are met by dams that produce hydroelectric power on the Rφo Lempa. El Salvador was the first nation in Central America to develop geothermal energy from underground volcanic steam.
\par \tab Lumbering is restricted, as few forests remain. Offshore in the Pacific fishermen harvest shrimp and fish, but the industry is not well developed. The port of La Uni≤n on the Gulf of Fonseca is the primary harbor for fishing fleets.
\par \tab Exports have expanded since World War II from the rise of manufacturing and the expansion of agriculture into cotton and sugar. Coffee, however, continues to make up half of all sales abroad. The agricultural products are sent primarily to western Europe, the United States, and Japan. Manufactured products are exported to neighboring countries of Central America.
\par \tab Imports come primarily from the United States, Central America, Europe, and Venezuela. They consist of petroleum, textiles, food products, chemicals, machinery, and transport equipment.
\par \tab Since landforms offer limited obstacles to transportation, it has been possible to build the best system of railroads and highways to be found in Central America. Railroads were constructed after 1880 to carry coffee to the ports of Acajutla and La Uni≤n. A railroad was completed to the Caribbean coast through Guatemala in 1927 that allowed coffee to be shipped more directly to Europe and the United States. The Inter-American Highway passes through the interior valley with links to the coastal highway and to the seaports on the Pacific.
\par {\b Education}
\par \tab Although education is supposed to be compulsory, many people neither read nor write. Thirty percent of all children do not attend primary schools. While 80 percent of those living in cities can read and write, this is true of only half of those living in rural areas.
\par {\b History}
\par \tab After defeating Indian armies in Guatemala in 1524, the Spanish conqueror Pedro de Alvarado continued into El Salvador. Here he encountered the armies of the Pipil, a Nahuatl people of Mexican origin. It was not until the following year that the conquest was completed. During Spanish rule El Salvador was a province of the Kingdom of Guatemala.
\par \tab The first revolt in Central America against the Spanish took place in El Salvador in 1811, but it was not until 1821 that independence from Spain was achieved. In 1823 El Salvador joined the United Provinces of Central America. The breakup of the United Provinces led to complete independence for El Salvador in 1840. For nearly a century there was a succession of conservative governments.
\par \tab The 1970s were a period of political turmoil, when JosΘ Napole≤n Duarte failed to be seated as president after an election. The outbreak of civil war between the right-wing military and left-wing guerrilla forces (FMLN) in the late 1970s resulted in the deaths of thousands of civilians. The government was accused of atrocities and ousted in 1979. A new constitution in 1983 paved the way for the election of Duarte as president in 1984 and marked the return to civilian government.
\par \tab In March 1989 Alfredo Cristiani of the ultraconservative Nationalist Republican Alliance was elected president. Despite sporadic peace talks, the fighting continued between the government and guerrillas. In April 1990 the rebels and the government agreed to United Nations-sponsored peace talks. Government and rebel leaders signed a peace treaty on Jan. 16, 1992, after almost two years of talks. Key provisions of the agreement included a UN-sponsored cease-fire that would last until October 31, when the FMLN was to disarm and become a legal political party. The government promised to cut the military forces in half by 1994 and absorb the National Police and the Treasury Police into the army. A civilian police force was created and included former rebels. In the 12 years of civil war, more than 75,000 people were killed. Armando Calderon Sol was elected president in March 1994.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab Oscar H. Horst\par \tab A republic on the west coast of Africa, Equatorial Guinea includes an area on the mainland called Rφo Muni (or Mbini) and five islands: Bioko, Corisco, Great Elobey, Little Elobey, and Annob≤n. The total land area is 10,831 square miles (28,052 square kilometers). Rφo Muni is bordered on the north by Cameroon and on the east and south by Gabon. The Gulf of Guinea separates Rφo Muni from the islands.
\par \tab The mainland area of Rφo Muni has coastal hills and inland plateaus that rise eastward toward the Gabon border. It is divided by the Benito River, which runs generally from east to west. Bioko Island is made up of volcanic cones, crater lakes, and rich lava soils. There is an extinct volcano in the north that is 9,868 feet (3,008 meters) high. The capital, Malabo, is on Bioko.
\par \tab The climate is tropical, but the wet and dry seasons differ somewhat between the mainland and the island. The rainfall of the coastal mainland region ranges between about 95 and 180 inches (240 and 457 centimeters) a year. Less rain falls in the interior. The average yearly temperature is about 79░ F (26░ C). Thick tropical rain forest dominates the mainland region. More than 140 species of wood are found, including okoume (known as gaboon mahogany), African walnut, and various mahoganies. Animal life--including the gorilla, monkey, leopard, elephant, and crocodile--has been hurt by overhunting. Bioko Island has mangrove swamps along the coast and no big game.
\par \tab Equatorial Guinea has a mixed, developing economy based largely on agriculture. Cacao, coffee, and lumber are the only exports; cacao accounts for more than 42 percent of exports. Coffee is grown mainly along the Cameroon border. Other crops are bananas, grown on Bioko, and palm oil and cassavas on the mainland. Petroleum was discovered off the north coast of Bioko in 1981. A fishing industry is developing.
\par \tab The country depends heavily on international aid, mostly from the International Monetary Fund and from Spain. The country's economic progress depends mainly on its good relations with Spain.
\par \tab Industry is limited to the processing of agricultural products. Shortages are a continuing problem. The country has a fairly extensive road system, though it is in urgent need of repair. The main harbor, Malabo, was updated and has regular services to Europe. There is an international airport.
\par \tab Traditional customs have a large influence. Witchcraft, traditional music, gorilla and elephant hunting, and storytelling are important to the Fang people, who form the majority of the population on the mainland. Spanish is the official language, though each ethnic group also speaks its own. About four fifths of the population is Roman Catholic, but the Bubi people on Bioko Island retain their traditional forms of worship.
\par \tab Five years of primary education are required. In the late 1980s it was estimated that more than 50 percent of school-age children were attending primary school. Only a small percentage goes on to secondary school. Higher education is limited to vocational schooling and training for teachers and government workers.
\par \tab Health conditions are generally poor. The average life expectancy is about 50 years with an infant mortality rate of 127 per 1,000 live births. Malnutrition is common, and more than three fifths of the people suffer from malaria at some point in their lives. Health problems are worsened by poor sanitation and a shortage of physicians. In the early 1980s major steps toward preventive health care were begun.
\par \tab The first inhabitants of the mainland appear to have been Pygmies. The Fang and Bubi, who displaced them, form the majority of the modern-day population, reached the mainland region and Bioko, respectively, in the 17th and 19th centuries. Equatorial Guinea was part of the large area that went from Portuguese to Spanish domination in the late 18th century. It was a stopping point for slave traders and British, German, Dutch, and French merchants. Bioko Island, known as Fernando Po until 1973, was administered by the British from 1827 to 1858.
\par \tab Through the early and mid-20th century, the site was called Spanish Guinea. Independence was declared in 1968 and was followed by a reign of terror and economic troubles brought on by the dictatorial president, Francisco Macφas Nguema. He was overthrown by a coup in 1979 and was later executed. Equatorial Guinea has since been governed by a Supreme Military Council and is attempting to develop democratic social and political norms and its economy. A new constitution was approved in 1982, and on Aug. 28, 1983, a 41-member National Assembly was elected. Population (1984 estimate), 325,000.\par \tab For 30 years, beginning in 1962, rebel groups in the northern part of Ethiopia fought for the secession of the historic region of Eritrea. Its name comes from the Latin words for "Red Sea," Mare Erythraeum.
\par \tab Eritrea occupies the Red Sea coast north of Ethiopia and covers an area of 36,170 square miles (93,680 square kilometers). It is bordered by Djibouti on the southeast, by Sudan on the northwest, and by Ethiopia on the south. Unreliable rainfall and locusts make Eritrea agriculturally poor and prone to famine. Industry is concentrated in the capital, Asmara, and is based mainly on the production of food products, textiles, salt, and leather goods.
\par \tab The region was linked to the beginnings of the Ethiopian kingdom, under the Aksumite empire. It retained much of its independence, though, until it fell under the rule of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century. A treaty between Italy and Menelik II of Ethiopia recognized Italian possessions on the Red Sea, and in 1890 the colony became part of Italian East Africa. After 1941 the area was under British administration until Eritrea became an autonomous unit of Ethiopia in 1952.
\par \tab In 1962 Eritrea became part of the Ethiopian Empire. From that period on, government troops battled Eritrean secessionist groups, notably the Eritrean People's Liberation Front (EPLF). In the years between the overthrow of Emperor Haile Selassie in 1974 and the dissolution of the military-Marxist government of Mengistu Haile Mariam in 1991, fighting was particularly fierce. The rebel capture of Addis Ababa in 1991 assured Eritrean victory. Eritreans voted overwhelmingly for independence in an April 1993 referendum. Their authorities vowed to give now-landlocked Ethiopia access to the Red Sea ports of Massawa and Aseb. Rebel factions promised to cooperate with the new government after the referendum. Population (1992 estimate), 3,317,600.\par \tab The three small Baltic republics of the Soviet Union--Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania--were the first of the republics to declare their sovereignty and regain their independence in 1991. An attempted coup in Moscow in August to stop the reform movement begun by the Baltics led instead to a popular uprising and the dissolution of the Soviet Union. The smallest and northernmost of these three Baltic states is Estonia. Its area of 17,413 square miles (45,100 square kilometers) includes about 800 islands off the coast. These control the traffic lanes from the Baltic Sea to St. Petersburg, the chief Russian port. Tallinn is the capital.
\par \tab Except in the southeast, where the land is hilly, the ground is flat with many lakes, streams, and marshes. Dairying is a major industry. The chief crops are rye, wheat, oats, and barley. Forests are abundant and furnish wood for match, furniture, and paper industries as well as for fuel.
\par \tab The most significant mineral is oil shale, from which petroleum and fuel gas are obtained. Estonia produces great quantities of oil shale, and one fifth of its industrial workers are employed in its production. The shale-processing industry was also responsible for 75 percent of the Soviet Union's synthetic gas, and it contributes to the production of thermal electric power for all the Baltic states. A chemical industry that relies on shale makes benzine, adhesives, tanning agents, resins, formaldehyde, and detergents. The chief manufacturing centers are Tallinn, Tartu, and PΣrnu.
\par \tab Woodworking has long been a traditional industry in Estonia, but exploitation of the forests threatened the enterprise until extensive reforestation policies were implemented in the 20th century. Estonia is also noted for its textiles, especially cotton cloth. It produces wool, linen, silk, knitted and woven garments, and shoes.
\par \tab Agriculture was collectivized at the end of World War II, when small, private farms were converted into collectives and state farms. After independence in 1991 the old collective system began to be dismantled and private ownership reintroduced.
\par \tab The Esths, or Estonians, are a blond people related to the Finns. Their language is much like Finnish, which is Mongolian and not European in its origins. Most of the people are Lutheran in religion.
\par {\b History}
\par \tab Little is known of the early history of Estonia. The Danes held the north from 1219. In 1346 they sold it to German landholders--the so-called Balts, or Baltic barons--who held the south. Later the land was divided between Sweden and Poland. Sweden ruled all of Estonia for about 100 years until 1721, when it was lost to Peter the Great of Russia.
\par \tab Estonia won its freedom after the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917, becoming an independent republic. Estonia's later destiny was decided by a nonaggression pact signed by Germany and the Soviet Union in August 1939. A secret protocol assigned Estonia and other Eastern European nations to the Soviets. In 1940 during World War II, Soviet forces occupied the Baltic states, and Estonia became the Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic. The next year the Germans drove out the Soviets. With the return of the Red Army in 1944, about 30,000 Estonians escaped to Sweden and 33,000 to Germany. Peasant farms were brought into collectives, and industries were nationalized.
\par \tab In 1988 Estonia's constitution was amended to give the republic the right to veto Soviet laws, and Estonian was made the official language. As Eastern Europe abandoned Communism in 1989, efforts continued to secure political and economic independence from Moscow. An Estonian congress completely outside the official Soviet structure--Estonian voters had to establish that they or their ancestors lived in the republic before it was annexed--called on the Soviet parliament and the United Nations to restore the "free and independent republic of Estonia." On March 30, 1990, the Estonian parliament approved a declaration of a gradual transition to independence. By April, however, it ended compulsory service in the Soviet Army and declared Soviet rule over its territory to be illegal. The Soviet defense ministry responded in January 1991 by sending thousands of army paratroops to Estonia and six other republics to enforce military conscription and round up draft dodgers. In an open plebiscite held March 3, 1991, Estonia voted overwhelmingly for independence. On Sept. 6, 1991, following an unsuccessful coup in Moscow, the Soviet Union's new ruling council recognized Estonia's independence. Population (1990 estimate), 1,583,000.\par \tab Located in northeastern Africa, in an area known as the Horn of Africa, Ethiopia is one of the largest and most populous countries in Africa. It is bordered by Djibouti and the former Ethiopian autonomous region of Eritrea on the north, Somalia on the east, Kenya on the south, and Sudan on the west. Ethiopia's landscape varies from lowlands to high plateaus and its climate from very dry to seasonally very wet. The Ethiopian population is also very mixed, with broad differences in cultural background and traits, methods of gaining a livelihood, languages, and religions.
\par \tab While influenced and even occasionally occupied by other nations, Ethiopia is one of the few countries in Africa or Asia never truly colonized. Since World War II Ethiopia has often been economically, politically, or militarily dependent on the major world powers. Its substantial balance-of-trade deficit has been attributed to internal disorder.
\par {\b Land and Climate}
\par \tab The landscape of Ethiopia is dominated by the northern end of the East African Rift system and by central highlands of plateaus and mountains that rise from about 6,000 feet (2,000 meters) to more than 14,000 feet (4,300 meters). Surrounding these highlands are hot, usually arid, lowlands. The highlands are cut by deep river valleys.
\par \tab Situated in the tropics, Ethiopia has climatic regions that vary with elevation: the hot and arid lowlands at elevations from below sea level to about 5,000 feet (1,500 meters); the densely populated warmer uplands and the cooler uplands at about 5,000 to 7,500 feet (1,500 to 2,300 meters) and 7,500 to 10,000 feet (2,300 to 3,000 meters), respectively; and alpine regions above 10,000 feet (3,000 meters). Daily temperatures range seasonally from well above 100░ F (40░ C) in the lowlands to below freezing in the cooler upland elevations and higher.
\par \tab Moisture is also unevenly distributed. Most areas have regular wet and dry periods in the year. The amount of rainfall often depends on altitude--higher areas are wetter, lowlands drier. There is also a fairly predictable annual amount of rainfall from the drier northeast to the wetter southwest. Drier areas occasionally receive much less moisture than even their already low average. Rains may start later or end earlier than usual, or storms may be separated by a few weeks, allowing the soil to dry out. Such drought is most common in the northern and eastern highlands and in lowland areas. When this happens farming and herding suffer, causing famine.
\par {\b Environment and Resources}
\par \tab Under natural conditions the nondesert parts of Ethiopia are grasslands or forests. After many thousands of years of farming and herding, much of this natural landscape is altered. At least 85 percent of the natural forest has been cleared, especially in the northern part of the country, usually to create fields. From the 1960s onward local and government efforts at environmental rehabilitation have led to the replanting of trees in some deforested areas.
\par \tab The most valuable natural resource is the soil. It is potentially highly productive for traditional and modern agriculture, but this potential is largely unmet. In parts of Ethiopia soil resources suffer from declining fertility and erosion. The decline results from the continuous inefficient use of the soil, including the cultivating of land that is better for grazing or that should be left fallow, or unplanted, for a while. This is partly the result of a socioeconomic system that does not reward investment in soil protection and partly the result of the increasing demands of a rapidly growing population. As a consequence, agricultural production per person has declined in the late 20th century. This decline in agriculture is common not only in Ethiopia but also in much of the rest of Africa.
\par \tab Little has been done to find possible mineral resources in Ethiopia. Those known and exploited include gold, platinum, manganese, and salt. There is little extraction of either metallic ores or mineral fuels such as coal or petroleum.
\par {\b People and Culture}
\par \tab Ethiopia has historically been an empire, expanding in area and incorporating new groups into the population. A major expansion of the empire in the second half of the 19th century incorporated new peoples in the west, south, and east. The result is a population of great diversity.
\par \tab Many languages and dialects are spoken. The greatest numbers of people speak either Semitic or Cushitic languages and their dialects. Semitic includes Amharic, the official national language, Tigrigna, Tigre, and Guragingna. Cushitic includes Oromigno, Somali, Sidama, and Afar. In the west and southwest some people speak Nilotic languages. Some of the Semitic languages have been written since before European influences.
\par \tab Various religions are represented, with numerous people following Christianity, Islam, and traditional sects. Most Christians are Coptic, or Ethiopian Orthodox, Christians who follow rites similar to those of Eastern Orthodox Christianity. Christianity was introduced into Ethiopia in the 4th century and was the official state religion until 1974. Although there is often a great mix of religions in any given place, Christians tend to be the most numerous in highland areas, Muslims in the lowlands, and traditional religious groups in the south and west. There is also a small Jewish religious group known as Beta Israel, or Falasha, in the northwest.
\par \tab The diversity of people has always played a significant role in Ethiopia. Disagreements and problems between groups are often tied to differences in language, religion, and other cultural lines.
\par \tab According to a 1992 estimate, the national population is about 54 million. It is most densely concentrated in the highland areas. Almost 90 percent of the people live outside cities. More than 45 percent of the people are 15 years of age and younger. Both birth and death rates are high. The average life expectancy at birth is about 45 years for males and 49 years for females, among the world's lowest.
\par {\b Economy}
\par \tab The Ethiopian economy is one of poverty. Average annual incomes are estimated at between 100 and 150 dollars per person in United States dollars. Little is produced that is not needed within the country. Most people work as farmers or as herders. Traditionally farmers have worked small, scattered plots and have low harvests per cultivated area. Until 1974 most Ethiopians worked the land either as tenants, as members of a community or a lineage, or as private owners. The government officially took ownership of all land in 1975. All farming families were allotted a parcel of land, but they did not own it nor could they sell it.
\par \tab Throughout most of Ethiopia there is mixed farming, the raising of both plants and animals. In most areas the major crops include grains such as teff (a grain native to and commonly grown only in Ethiopia), wheat, barley, sorghum, millet, and corn (maize). In the southern half of the country, an additional main crop is ensete, a banana-like plant whose starchy stem is eaten rather than the fruit.
\par \tab Other crops include oilseeds like nugg (another crop common only to Ethiopia), linseed, and sesame. Pulses--beans, peas, and lentils--are important protein sources in the diet. Regionally, cotton, coffee, and khat (grown for a leaf that is chewed for its mild narcotic effect) are important to subsistence and cash economies. Animals raised include cattle, sheep, goats, donkeys, mules, horses, camels, and chickens.
\par \tab There are some areas with large commercial farms. Their products go largely to Ethiopian urban markets or international trade. When the government took the land, these farms were converted to collective, or state, farms. Their significant crops include sugarcane, cotton, and fruits from the Awash River valley in the north, sesame, sorghum, and grains from the East African Rift system in the south.
\par \tab Manufacturing forms only a small part of the Ethiopian economy. Factories are concentrated in and around the two largest cities, Addis Ababa and Dire Dawa. Processed foods, textiles, and beverages are the major products, mostly for local consumption.
\par \tab Ethiopia's main exports are agricultural products. Coffee makes up more than half of exports by value. Other significant exports are hides and skins, edible seeds, and oilseeds. The major imports are machinery, petroleum products, and manufactured goods.
\par {\b Transportation, Communication, and Education}
\par \tab Until the 20th century transportation in Ethiopia was on foot or on pack or riding animals. Even with the development of mechanized transport, a high proportion of people and goods moves on foot or on the backs of animals.
\par \tab Central Ethiopia was connected to the Red Sea coast in 1917, when the railway from Djibouti reached Addis Ababa. This line still functions as a major mover of goods between the highlands and the rest of the world.
\par \tab A highway network for motor vehicles was built by the Italians during their occupation from 1935 to 1941. All-weather roads connect most of the larger cities and towns, but there are few feeder roads connecting the countryside to this network. Much of the road system in the less stable areas in the north fell into disrepair or was damaged during the civil war.
\par \tab Ethiopia has telegraph, telephone, and postal services between the larger towns. With the availability of inexpensive battery-operated radios since the mid-1960s, radio broadcasts are received everywhere. Television reception is still confined to large cities.
\par \tab There is a long history of church-based education in Ethiopia, but modern education dates only from the early 20th century. There was limited access to classroom education until the 1960s, with no secondary level until the 1950s. Elementary schools have been built in market towns since the 1960s, making formal education more accessible to children in the countryside, but only a limited number of school-age children actually entered school. About 15 percent of the children in the appropriate age group are enrolled in elementary and secondary schools.
\par \tab University education began in Addis Ababa in 1950, and by the late 1950s specialized colleges of agriculture and public health opened in the provinces. Education development has often depended upon aid and teachers from other countries. It is estimated that only about 5 percent of Ethiopian adults, most of them men, can read and write. Most of them live in towns and cities. This picture has been improving somewhat with more children attending school and with the influence of national literacy campaigns. There is still a shortage of teachers and facilities, however.
\par \tab While there has been much expansion of the education system, opportunities remain concentrated in the major cities and towns. This is also true for many other services, including health care, piped sanitary water, electricity, telecommunications, and banking.
\par {\b History and Government}
\par \tab Ethiopia's history is virtually that of a continuous feudal monarchy. Originally centered in the north of modern Ethiopia and Eritrea, the monarchy predates the Christian Era and continued under various guises to 1974. Over the last 2,000 years Ethiopia and its center of power have moved southward. The greatest expansion of the empire occurred with the conquests of Emperor Menelik II in the late 19th century, when the modern national boundaries were drawn.
\par \tab The Ethiopian monarchy was a Solomonic dynasty, claiming descent from the Biblical joining of Solomon and Sheba. Anyone accepted as possessing Solomonic descent could claim monarchical rights. This caused frequent internal strife, civil wars, and wars of succession.
\par \tab Ethiopian history also includes wars with neighbors and colonial nations. The 16th-century war with forces from the eastern lowlands of the Horn of Africa nearly succeeded in conquering Ethiopia. Italian colonial influences expanded into Eritrea and Ethiopia in the last two decades of the 19th century, but the Italian armies were defeated in 1896 at the battle of Aduwa. This preserved Ethiopia as one of the few noncolonized nations of Africa, but in 1935 Italy once again invaded Ethiopia, occupying the country until 1941. Much of Ethiopia's 20th-century history is dominated by Emperor Haile Selassie. He was named regent in 1916 and subsequently crowned emperor in 1930. His regency and rule were characterized by the breaking of regional feudal powers. He encouraged some movement toward becoming a modern nation and ruled until 1974, when he was deposed in a Marxist revolution.
\par \tab After 1974 Ethiopia had a Marxist military government run by the Provisional Military Administrative Council (PMAC), also called the Derg. The Derg was rocked by internal power struggles until Lieut. Col. Mengistu Haile Mariam emerged as the head of state.
\par \tab Under Mengistu, the Derg enlarged the military tenfold. Beginning in 1975 it also instituted a program of nationalization of industry, banking, insurance, and large-scale trade. Many Ethiopians who opposed military rule supported the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary party, which fought the military regime in the cities until it was crushed in 1978. Separatist movements arose in attempts to break away from Ethiopia or to change the people or the pattern of government. The most active of these movements were in the north, in Eritrea and in Tigre.
\par \tab There was also warfare with the Somalia-backed Western Somali Liberation Front, beginning in 1977. Ethiopia shifted its international ties with the United States to an alignment with the Soviet Union, which became its chief source of weapons.
\par \tab Economic aid and foreign investment from the West dried up, while Ethiopia's own resources were consumed by the wars. In 1987 a new constitution was approved to make the country the People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. This constitution established a civilian Communist government. The PMAC was dissolved, members of the new assembly, or Shengo, were installed, and Mengistu became the first president of the republic.
\par \tab Ethiopia was struck by a major famine in the early 1970s and two more during the 1980s. More than 200,000 people may have died in the first of these. Ethiopia has been heavily dependent upon international donations to overcome starvation in famine areas.
\par \tab Conflict between Eritrean and Tigrean rebel groups and the government continued. By 1991 rebel forces controlled all or parts of seven provinces. Already facing a bankrupt economy and famine, the government saw its army fall apart. Mengistu resigned and fled the country. An unstable transitional government, led by Meles Zenawi, was appointed in August 1991. The government planned a general election for 1993. The Eritreans' goal, for which they had been fighting for more than 31 years, was finally realized. Eritreans voted overwhelmingly for independence in an April 1993 referendum. They promised to allow Ethiopia free access to the Red Sea ports of Massawa and Aseb when granted their independence. Ethiopia, meanwhile, was beset by factional violence and famine. Meles's government seemed unable to improve the country's economy.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by Robert W. Roundy, Assistant Professor of Human Ecology, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, N.J.
\par \tab {\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR ETHIOPIA}
\par \tab Abebe, Daniel. Ethiopia in Pictures (Lerner, 1988).
\par \tab Pankhurst, Richard. Ethiopia (Chelsea House, 1988).\par \tab Historically, the continent of Europe has been a dominant force in world development. Starting in the late 1980s world attention again focused on the region, as Communism crumbled and Western Europe's economic and monetary union took shape. This next-to-smallest continent possesses a large, ethnically diverse, and highly productive population. The continent consists of 40 independent countries, including five small monarchies, principalities, and duchies. Normally, the most populous western part of Russia is also included in Europe, as is European Turkey.
\par \tab Europeans and their ideas have penetrated into every corner of the Earth. This influence has been expressed through the development of empires, the widespread distribution of European peoples and their cultures, and the adoption and adaptation of European political, economic, and social innovations throughout the world. The democratic form of government and modern, technological, industrial development both originated in the countries of Western Europe and have had a major influence on the rest of the world.
{\b NATURAL ENVIRONMENT}
\par \tab Europe is a peninsula of the much larger Eurasian landmass. The traditional boundary of the continent follows roughly the crest of the Ural Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian Sea, the crest of the Caucasus Mountains, the Black Sea, the Bosporus, the Sea of Marmara, the Dardanelles, the Aegean Sea, the Mediterranean Sea, and the Strait of Gibraltar. In the past other significant boundary lines have included the line separating the European countries from the Soviet Union and the ideological boundary between Eastern, Communist Europe and Western Europe that followed the eastern boundaries of Finland, West Germany, Austria, and Italy.
\par {\b Land}
\par \tab The continent of Europe totals more than 4 million square miles (10 million square kilometers), or 7 percent of the world's land area. It spreads from 35░ to 81░ N latitude and from 60░ E to about 10░ W longitude. Norway's Svalbard (Spitzbergen) extends European islands to more than 80░ N, and Iceland extends to nearly 25░ W. Europe is centrally located among the world's landmasses. Fortunately, its location in the westerly wind belt brings to the land the marine influences of the nearby oceans, seas, and bays. The peninsular shape of the continent and its numerous islands and indentations along the coasts facilitate the influence of the marine winds. The result is a moderate climate with a long growing season over much of Western Europe. This is quite in contrast to the severe cold conditions of comparable northerly latitudes along the East coast of North America for much of the year.
\par \tab The highly disrupted coastline brings the advantages of a location near salt water to much of the continent. The Scandinavian, Iberian, Italian, and Balkan peninsulas--plus the major islands of Crete, Sardinia, Corsica, and Sicily in the Mediterranean Sea and Ireland, Great Britain, Iceland, Greenland, and Svalbard off Northwestern Europe--are features of the irregular, disrupted coastline. The Mediterranean and Black seas on the south and the North, Baltic, and Barents seas on the north give many countries and many peoples easy access to ocean transportation. No one in Western Europe is more than 450 miles (720 kilometers) from salt water, and even in the European portion of Russia the maximum distance is 800 miles (1,300 kilometers).
\par \tab Europe has a complex geologic structure. The highlands in the north contain some of the oldest known rock formations, and the Alps in the south are a geologically young mountain system. East of the Carpathian Mountains and the Vistula River is a low, stable, geologic platform. West of this platform repeated uplift, folding, and erosion have left mountains, plateaus, hills, and plains close to one another. The Caucasus, the Pyrenees, and the Alpine system are young mountains in Southern Europe that result from plates, or large portions of the Earth's crustal rock structure, pushing northward from Africa. Mount El'brus in the Caucasus rises 18,481 feet (5,633 meters). The highest peak in the Pyrenees, Pico de Aneto, is 11,168 feet (3,404 meters), and Mont Blanc in the French Alps is 15,771 feet (4,807 meters). The highlands in Norway, Sweden, and Finland are part of the old Fennoscandian Shield. This is a rock base composed of crystalline, resistant rocks that have been uplifted and eroded many times over geologic history. The Kj÷len Mountains are on the border between Norway and Sweden and occupy most of northern Norway. They have peaks averaging from 6,000 to 8,000 feet (1,800 to 2,400 meters). The highest point, at 8,104 feet (2,470 meters), is Glittertinden in south-central Norway.
\par \tab The most recent event that affected the natural environment as well as the landmasses of much of Europe was the Pleistocene Ice Age. The huge ice sheets of this period sculptured, scoured, and smoothed the highland topography of Northern Europe and deposited sands, silts, and clays over lowland Europe to the south.
\par \tab The mountains and plateaus of Central and Western Europe are middle in geologic age between the Alps and the Scandinavian highlands. The long erosion periods have resulted in rounded landforms that extend from the western part of the Czech Republic through the highlands of southern Germany, the Vosges Mountains and Central Plateau of France, and the upland Meseta, or plateau, of Spain. These highlands are broken up by frequent river valleys and lowlands.
\par \tab The Alpine system, a complex system of young folded mountains with associated forelands and basins and plains between the mountain systems, dominates Southern Europe. The Alps average 12,000 feet (3,700 meters) in height, with higher, individual, sharp peaks such as Mont Blanc. The river valleys are narrow, steep, and rocky, with fertile, water-deposited soil normally found in narrow valley bottoms. The southern slope of the Alps is steep and abrupt. The northern slope is a gradual decline to the plateaus of southern Germany. Despite the high altitude of the Alps, numerous passes and tunnels exist. The Pyrenees and Caucasus are much more formidable transportation barriers than the Alps. The highlands of Italy and Balkan Europe are unstable and subject to devastating earthquakes and periodic eruptions from such volcanoes as Mount Etna and Mount Vesuvius.
\par \tab Most of the rivers of Central and Western Europe have their sources in the Alps and associated mountains. Large northward-flowing rivers--such as the Vistula and the Oder--drain into the Baltic, and the Elbe and the Rhine flow into the North Sea. They have swift currents and are valuable for waterpower near their source, but they become broad and sluggish streams when crossing the European Plain. France has three major rivers flowing to the west--the Seine, Loire, and Garonne--and the Sa⌠ne-Rh⌠ne flowing to the south. The Po in Italy, the Tagus, Ebro, and Guadalquivir in the Iberian Peninsula, the Thames in England, and the Shannon in Ireland are also major waterways. In Eastern Europe the Danube, Don, and Volga are the principal rivers.
\par {\b Climate}
\par \tab The moderate climates of Europe result from the peninsular, marine, and mid-latitude location in the path of the prevailing westerlies. These winds bring the warmth and moisture of the North Atlantic to Western Europe. The almost daily changes in weather conditions result from the passing of large low- and high-pressure systems. These have cold and warm fronts that cause temperature changes and frequent but normally slow precipitation. The lack of blocking mountains allows air and moisture to flow into the plains of Central and Eastern Europe, though the amounts of precipitation decrease toward the east. Temperature ranges--both daily and seasonal--are narrow in Western Europe and wide in Eastern Europe. The Alps and the high-pressure system of the Azores help prevent moisture from entering the Mediterranean region during the summer. As the Azores high moves southward in winter, the cyclonic storm systems penetrate from the north and west into the Mediterranean and give Southern Europe a cool and rainy winter season.
\par \tab Reliability is the keynote of Western European climate. The decreasing precipitation toward the east reaches drought conditions north of the Caspian and Black seas as well as in eastern Greece and eastern Spain. Summer droughts are common throughout the Mediterranean lowlands. The heaviest precipitation occurs in the mountains and coastal regions of Western Europe and reaches 200 inches (500 centimeters) per year in the high peaks of Wales and Scotland. The average precipitation ranges from 20 to 30 inches (50 to 75 centimeters) in the Western European lowlands and from 30 to 80 inches (75 to 200 centimeters) in higher areas, and it decreases eastward to less than 10 inches (25 centimeters) north of the Caspian Sea.
\par \tab The water-moderated climate of Western Europe is called west coast marine; the warm to hot summer and cold winter conditions of Eastern Europe make a continental climate; and the dry, hot summer and cool, rainy winter in the south form a Mediterranean climate. Central Europe has a frequently changing climate as the area shifts from marine to continental influences. The highland climates change in temperature and precipitation characteristics from the lower slopes to the higher peaks, depending on orientation and elevation. Parts of the higher Alps are permanently covered with snow and glaciers.
\par {\b Vegetation and Soils}
\par \tab The natural vegetation and soils of Europe relate closely to the varied climate, relief, subsurface rock structure, and drainage conditions. The intensive use of the land by a dense population has greatly changed the original natural patterns of Europe, especially the vegetation. The Ice Age glaciation scoured some areas bare of soil and deposited sandy, gravelly, and stony soils in others. In general the glacier left behind soils highly varied in both composition and fertility.
\par \tab Broad associations of climate, vegetation, and soil can be better defined in Eastern than in Western Europe. The north to south zones begin with the acid, poor, swampy tundra soils in the far north that have mosses, lichens, and shrub vegetation. To the south of this zone, evergreen trees are found in the taiga zone, which has a gray, acid, infertile soil low in the vegetable matter called humus. Agriculture is more widespread in the next zone south, which has deciduous, or broadleaf, trees that lose their leaves each year. This adds vegetable matter, which results in a brown-colored soil. To the south of the tree zone in Eastern Europe--as precipitation becomes less and less reliable--natural grass replaces trees. The first zone has tall-grass prairies, changing to short-grass prairies, then semiarid shrubs, and finally desert vegetation. In the Mediterranean lowlands the natural vegetation consists of drought-resistant species such as olive, cypress, and scrub trees and maquis shrubs that have leaf adaptations to prevent water loss. Mediterranean soils are often red from the high iron content and are frequently of volcanic origin. Alluvial, or water-deposited, soils found in the river valleys are the most productive. Mountain soil and vegetation types change with varying elevations.
\par {\b Animal Life}
\par \tab Animal life is as highly varied as are the physical conditions. Intense population pressure over history has resulted in the disappearance of many wild animals such as the bison, European ox, and wild horse. Native wild animals are most abundant in areas less disturbed by people, such as the far north, the coniferous forests, and the mountainous regions. The reindeer in northern Finland, Norway, and Sweden have become major domestic animals that feed on the Arctic pastures of mosses, lichens, and shrubs.
{\b REGIONAL CONTRASTS}
\par \tab The regional contrasts of Europe are related closely to its physical diversities. The geologic and environmental variations have been modified by people over history, resulting in marked political, economic, and cultural differences. The physical environment sets the stage for human activity and often places limits on what people can do with the available climate, landforms, and natural resources. Urban landscapes have become dominant--especially in Western and Central Europe--as a result of the impact of the Industrial Revolution.
\par {\b Western Europe}
\par \tab Western Europe is the urban, industrial core of the continent. It is dominated by the three major powers of the United Kingdom, Germany, and France but also includes the Benelux countries (Belgium, The Netherlands, and Luxembourg), Switzerland, and Austria. These nations have a large percentage of their population classified as urban. Economic activity has been dominated by manufacturing, but service industries have grown rapidly since 1960.
\par \tab Western Europe has a number of assets that have resulted in high levels of productivity. With the exception of Austria, all European countries have direct access to world ocean transportation. The countries bordering the North Sea form one of the major international trade generating areas of the world. The navigable rivers flowing into the North Sea, especially the Rhine, facilitate the movement of goods in and out of Western Europe. The level land aided the development of rail and highway transportation and the building of canals. The region has abundant coal and iron ore, the basic raw materials for the Industrial Revolution, but petroleum had to be, for the most part, imported until 1970. Streams flowing out of the Alps provide waterpower. The highlands are also sources of forest products. The marine conditions provide a reliable climate with a long growing season for crop and livestock production. These advantages are capped by the skills, education levels, and abilities of the people. The result is the most productive region in Europe and one of the most productive in the world.
\par {\b Northern Europe, or Norden}
\par \tab Northern Europe is often referred to as Scandinavia, but this term technically covers only the Scandinavian peninsula countries of Norway and Sweden. The Fennoscandian Shield refers to the old, resistant, crystalline basement rock of the area that extends from the Kola Peninsula of Russia westward through Finland, Sweden, and Norway to the northern portion of Scotland. The people of Northern Europe have adopted Norden, which simply means the "north," as the preferred term for their area. Norden includes Denmark, Finland, Norway, Sweden, and Iceland.
\par \tab The Norden countries have much in common physically and culturally, but there are also major differences. Norway, Sweden, and Finland are part of the geologically old Northwest Highlands. The river valleys draining into the Baltic Sea and into Skagerrak between the Baltic and North seas are gentle and produce much hydroelectric power. The streams to the west are short and swift with frequent falls. The west coast of Norway has many beautiful fjords with sheer cliffs and narrow, deep, drowned valley bottoms. The result of severe continental glaciation in Norden is a rocky, often barren, inhospitable, unproductive, and lake-dotted landscape.
\par \tab The area is sparsely populated compared to the rest of Europe. Most people live along the coast or in the river valleys. Agriculture, fishing, forestry, and mining are the major occupations. Manufacturing has developed rapidly since 1900 based on available hydroelectric power.
\par \tab Denmark and the southern tip of Sweden are part of the European Lowlands. Glacial hills provide the only relief in these areas. Dairying and crop agriculture are intense on the fertile soil of the eastern islands of Denmark. The western part of the Jutland peninsula of Denmark is sandy, infertile, and less productive. Copenhagen is the major Danish industrial and commercial center. Iceland, a largely volcanic island in the North Atlantic, has fishing, sheep grazing, and food processing as the major economic activities.
\par \tab Culturally the Norden countries have strong historical ties. The languages and racial characteristics are Germanic except for the Finns and Lapps, who originated in Central Asia. The Lutheran state religion dominates, and the governments are socialist democracies with figurehead monarchies in Norway, Sweden, and Denmark. The region is a strategic area both in terms of its geopolitical location on air and sea polar routes between Eastern Europe and the powers of Western Europe and its economic importance in its oil and natural gas production.
\par {\b Southern, or Mediterranean, Europe}
\par \tab The countries that occupy the three peninsulas--Iberian, Italian, and Balkan--jutting into the Mediterranean Sea make up Southern Europe. They are separated from the rest of Europe by the Pyrenees, Alps, Pindus, and Rhodope mountains. Italy, Greece, and European Turkey are in an unstable geologic area with frequent volcanic eruptions and earthquakes. Spain and Portugal occupy a large, high, dry plateau that is separated from areas of similar geologic age in France by the Pyrenees. Until the 1600s, when Western civilization shifted to Western Europe, the centers of Europe and the world were the Mediterranean countries. Political and economic power shifted from Mesopotamia to Greece, to Rome, and lastly to Spain and Portugal. After 1600 Southern Europe did not possess the physical and economic resources for leadership in a world that was becoming increasingly industrialized. The Industrial Revolution largely passed by these countries until the second half of the 20th century, when they broadened and strengthened their economies. Agriculture remains a major occupation throughout the area.
\par \tab The area has many problems. The excessive slopes and poor soil of the predominantly hilly and mountainous topography limit agricultural productivity. The lack of water, especially during the dry summer, is a problem throughout Mediterranean Europe. Agricultural techniques and mechanization lag behind those of Western Europe. Raw materials for industry are limited, especially the basics of coal, iron ore, and petroleum. Greece, Italy, Spain, and Portugal have been subject to political instability throughout much of their history.
\par \tab Economic development is spotty. Certain areas are highly developed, such as northern Italy, the Costa del Sol of Spain, and the major metropolitan areas of Lisbon, Madrid, Barcelona, Rome, Naples, and Athens. Rural, southern Italy, northern Portugal, and mountainous Greece typify very poor areas.
\par {\b Eastern Europe}
\par \tab The countries bordered by the Baltic and Barents seas on the north; the Adriatic, Black, and Caspian seas and the Caucasus Mountains on the south; and the Ural Mountains on the east make up Eastern Europe. In the western part of the region Poland largely occupies part of the glaciated plains, and Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, Yugoslavia, Albania, and Bulgaria are split between the mountains and highlands associated with the Alpine system and the river valleys and structural basins between the highlands. The eastern part of the region consists of a large, relatively flat, stable, geologic plateau. Continental glaciation has left its imprint of frequent lakes, glacial ridges, and disrupted drainage systems on the northeastern part of the region. The major rivers are the Vistula, the Danube, the Volga, the Dnepr, the Don, and the Ural.
\par \tab The eastern part of the region comprises nine of the former republics of the Soviet Union--the Baltic republics of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania; the Slavic republics of Belarus, Ukraine, and Moldova; and the Caucasus republics of Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia. It also includes part of a tenth, the western part of Russia. Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, and Romania were in the Soviet realm as satellites for some 40 years after World War II. Only Yugoslavia and Albania stayed relatively independent. Albania was aligned with China from 1961 to 1978 and again from 1991, and Yugoslavia was governed until 1990 by an independent form of Communism developed under the leadership of Marshal Tito.
\par \tab The major mineral resources are coal, iron ore, petroleum, natural gas, and bauxite. The Czech Republic is the leading industrial nation of the western part, and Ukraine, the Moscow region, the Ural Mountains, and along the Volga River are the major urban-industrial regions of the eastern part. Manufacturing industries are growing throughout Eastern Europe, including some growth in Albania.
\par \tab Wheat and corn are major products of the Danube Valley countries. Poland has an agricultural system based largely on rye, potatoes, and livestock. Ukraine, north of the Black Sea, is one of the most important wheat-growing areas of Europe and for years was known as the Breadbasket of the Soviet Union. It also produces sugar beets, potatoes, and livestock. The growing season shortens to the north, making crop agriculture more and more difficult. There are, however, excellent commercial forests. The area north of the Caspian Sea is among the driest, most unproductive areas in Europe.
\par \tab The economy and politics of the region, once dominated by the Soviet Union, changed greatly in the 1980s and 1990s. Nations in the western part began a shift from Communist-controlled governments and economies to more democratic and capitalist systems. The Soviet Union splintered in 1991 amid cries for increased political and economic freedom. Many of the newly independent republics aligned themselves with the capitalist democracies of Western Europe. The Commonwealth of Independent States, a loose confederation of 11 former Soviet republics, attempted to assume some control and create stability in the period of transition.
{\b PEOPLES AND CULTURES}
\par \tab The continent of Europe had about 700 million people in the early 1990s, or about 15 percent of the world's population. The annual population growth rate is 0.4 percent, with many countries in Western and Northern Europe at or near zero population growth. Today the average birthrate is 14 and the death rate 9 per thousand. Europe's population is expected to grow at 0.3 percent per year for the rest of the 20th century. The average population density for the continent is 168 per square mile (65 per square kilometer). Comparable figures for Norden are 129 (50), Western Europe 396 (153), Southern Europe 277 (107), and Eastern Europe 293 (113). This compares to an average of 88 people per square mile (34 per square kilometer) for the world and 65 (25) for the United States.
\par \tab Over the thousands of years of settlement in Europe the peoples have been so mixed that it is virtually impossible to find pure racial types. Most of Europe's peoples, however, are considered part of the fair-skinned, or Caucasoid, race.
\par {\b Racial and Ethnic Types}
\par \tab There are only small differences in shape of head, stature, and color of skin, hair, and eyes as compared to the peoples of other continents such as Africa and Asia. Some major characteristics and geographic distributions of racial and ethnic types can be identified, however. Fair-skinned people of the Nordic subrace predominate around the Baltic and North seas--in Norden countries, northern Germany and Poland, the countries on the Baltic Sea, The Netherlands, the east coast of Great Britain, Iceland, eastern Ireland, and portions of the northern European Soviet Union. The largest number of fair-skinned people are found in Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. The people of these areas are also generally tall, averaging more than 5 feet 10 inches (178 centimeters), and have a narrow or oblong head.
\par \tab Members of the Mediterranean subrace--located in the Iberian Peninsula, southern Italy, the Balkan Peninsula, southern France, and Wales--generally have darker skin color and brown to dark brown hair and eyes. They are also short in stature and tend to have broader head shapes.
\par \tab Central Europe is a transition zone between the predominantly darker-skinned people to the south and the lighter types to the north. The stature, size, complexion, and head characteristics are a blend of the Nordic and Mediterranean subraces. Exceptions may be found to these broad generalizations. The Lapps in Northern Europe are darker skinned, shorter in stature, and have a broader head shape than their Scandinavian neighbors. Many individuals throughout Europe do not fit the racial generalizations of their region.
\par {\b Language}
\par \tab The 50 to 60 languages spoken in Europe fall into the two classifications of Indo-European and Ural-Altaic. Germanic, Slavic, and Romance are the three major linguistic groups within Indo-European, but Greek, Albanian, Celtic, and Baltic are also included. The Germanic language group includes German, English, Norwegian, Swedish, Danish, Icelandic, Dutch, and Flemish. The Slavic languages include Russian, Ukrainian, Polish, Czech, Slovak, Serbo-Croatian, Bulgarian, and Macedonian.
\par \tab The Romance group, which descended from Latin, is made up of Italian, French, Portuguese, Spanish, Walloon, Romanian, Romansch, and Provenτal. Celtic remains as a language in the Breton peninsula (Brittany) of France as well as in Wales, western Ireland, and northwestern Scotland.
\par \tab Ural-Altaic languages are principally used by the Lapps, Finns, Karelians, Estonians, and Hungarians, or Magyars. Turkic, another Ural-Altaic language found mainly in Asia, is spoken by scattered groups in Balkan Europe. Maltese on the island of Malta and Basque on the French-Spanish border are two other languages used by small groups of people in distinct regions.
\par \tab During the nationalistic period in the 1800s, attempts were made to adjust political boundaries to include a distinct language and culture within a given country. This has not been successful. Belgium, for example, is nearly equally divided between the Walloons and the Flemish. The large postwar movement of people into Western Europe introduced new languages such as Turkish in West Germany. Many Europeans are fluent in more than one language, especially those in the small countries in which English, French, German, or Spanish is normally a must in daily activities in addition to their native tongue.
\par {\b Religion}
\par \tab Three great religions believing in only one god spread from Southwest Asia to Europe in early historical times--Islam, Judaism, and Christianity. Islam, which was introduced temporarily by the Moors into the Iberian Peninsula, is now found primarily in Balkan Europe--particularly Albania, southern Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, and European Turkey.
\par \tab The Jewish religion is scattered throughout Europe--particularly in the larger cities of Central and Eastern Europe, including Russia. Jews were greatly decreased in numbers by the genocidal policy of Germany during World War II. Those remaining in Communist Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union experienced difficulties after the war in continuing to practice their religion.
\par \tab Most Europeans are influenced by one of the three major divisions of Christianity--Roman Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy, and Protestantism. Roman Catholics are greatest in number and geographic spread. They are dominant in the Iberian Peninsula, Italy, France, southern Belgium, Ireland, and southern Germany, and from Lithuania and Poland to northern Yugoslavia. Eastern Orthodox Christianity follows the leadership of the ecumenical patriarch of Constantinople (Istanbul).
\par \tab The split into two separate churches in 1054 has been a factor separating the peoples of Eastern and Western Europe since that date. The Eastern Orthodox church is not as highly organized as the Roman church, and the influence of the patriarchate is not as effective as that of the Vatican. The Communist governments of Eastern Europe generally did not encourage religious activities.
\par \tab Protestantism is the dominant religion in Northern Europe--northern Germany, Scandinavia, The Netherlands, and the United Kingdom. Protestant churches grew in the 1500s and 1600s as a protest against Roman Catholicism. Martin Luther in Germany was a major contributor to the split of Protestants from Rome. Lutheranism in Scandinavia and Germany, Presbyterianism in Scotland, Anglicanism in England, and the Dutch Reformed church in The Netherlands are major Protestant subgroups.
\par \tab Religious movements in Europe have been significant in preserving and spreading alphabets, culture, agricultural technologies, and political, economic, and social ideas throughout the continent. Europe's history is very much tied to the religious character of various time periods and of different parts of the continent. The traditional role of religion has been weakened by government actions such as the Communist-controlled nations discouraging religion and governments assuming financial support for churches, as in Scandinavia. The rise of affluence in Europe also seems to have lessened interest in religion.
\par {\b Art and Literature}
\par \tab The artistic and literary heritage of Europe is extremely rich and has had a major impact on the rest of the world. Prehistoric art has been found well preserved in caves of southern France and northern Spain. In early historical times the Greeks developed systems of philosophy, the beginnings of science, various kinds of literary expression such as the poems of Homer, and new architectural types. The Romans provided the Latin language, Roman law, an architectural vocabulary, and the art and architecture of Rome and cities throughout the empire.
\par \tab As the center of civilization shifted to Western Europe in the 1600s, the influence of this region in art and literature grew rapidly. The printing press was developed in Europe in the 15th century, aiding greatly the spread of literature and culture. The concentration of more and more people in cities as a result of the Industrial Revolution, the advance of educational systems, and the ability of more Europeans to read and write increased the market for books.
\par \tab Almost every region in Europe is known for its writers, musicians, actors, and artists. The schools of literature, drama, and art that developed are major influences throughout the world. The opera, symphony orchestra, and ballet had their origins in Europe. The Dutch, French, Italians, Spanish, Flemish, and others have all had periods that produced noted painters, such as Rembrandt and Van Gogh. Such composers in Germany as Bach, Beethoven, and Brahms and the Austrians Haydn and Mozart had monumental importance in the music world. European literary contributions are too numerous to summarize adequately. Such names as Homer, Dante, Goethe, Shakespeare, Shaw, and Tolstoi stand out.
\par \tab The innovative abilities of Europeans in the arts and in literature continue and are greatly affected by the free flow of people and ideas. The mixture and movement of people and ideas have been accelerated by wars, changing economic and political conditions, and the voluntary movement of large numbers in search of better employment opportunities and improved lives. Thus new artistic and literary thrusts are constantly evolving. The great works of the past are well preserved in the countless museums, cathedrals, palaces, private homes, and libraries of Europe as well as in private and public collections elsewhere throughout the world.
\par {\b Health and Education}
\par \tab Europe is a world leader in health and education. The standards are somewhat lower in Southern and Eastern Europe than those in the western and northern parts of the continent. The ability to read and write is virtually universal among the populations of Northern and Western Europe. Life expectancy at birth in the late 1980s ranged from 66.8 years for males in Poland to 80.7 years for females in Switzerland. The daily caloric intake of the people in Europe is among the highest of any region in the world--with an average of 3,500 calories per day per person--as is the number of physicians and nurses per population. Most European countries have national health insurance plans that provide health care for all residents.
\par \tab The primary, secondary, and higher education systems are well developed. The proportion of children between the ages of 6 and 11 enrolled in primary school is nearly 100 percent in all countries. Enrollment of those eligible for secondary and higher education varies considerably within Europe but was generally low until after World War II. As countries began to subsidize secondary school and university education, the numbers greatly increased.
\par \tab Education in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe was used to promote the virtues of Communism until the Communist parties lost their constitutionally guaranteed controls. The governments in Eastern Europe paid the costs of primary education as well as education at secondary and higher levels.
\par \tab Universities were first begun in Europe during the Middle Ages by groups of students who had similar interests. Examples of well-known institutions of higher learning are in Cambridge, Oxford, London, Edinburgh, Paris, Leipzig, Vienna, Heidelberg, Moscow, Warsaw, and Leiden.
{\b ECONOMY}
\par \tab The Industrial Revolution, which began in England and spread throughout Western Europe, changed the leading economic activity from agriculture to manufacturing. Fortunately the continent possessed large amounts of coal and iron ore, which were necessary for the basic metal and chemical industries that dominated early manufacturing in Western Europe. Waterpower was available in addition to coal as an energy source. Europe was poor in petroleum, but its location made importing from the Middle East and other producing areas relatively easy. Raw materials not available in Europe were obtained elsewhere.
\par \tab Europe's highest per capita gross national product (GNP) in the mid-1990s was Switzerland, with $33,510, followed closely by tiny Liechtenstein, with $32,780. Germany had $23,650 in spite of the costs of reunification since 1990. The former Communist countries of Eastern Europe were not faring so well. The per capita GNP for the Czech Republic was only $2,450; for Poland, $1,830; and for Romania, $1,340. In the republics of the former Soviet Union, all such figures were misleading, since their economies were in desperate conditions.
\par \tab Post-World War II economic development in Europe was facilitated by regional economic and political organizations. These integrating organizations helped offset the small size of countries that resulted from the nationalistic movements of the 19th century. In Western Europe the union that became the Benelux Economic Union was formed during the war to integrate the economies of three small political units--Belgium, The Netherlands, and Luxembourg. This idea was enlarged upon in 1952 when the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) was established. France was the major promoter, but it also included Belgium, The Netherlands, Luxembourg, West Germany, and Italy. In 1957 the European Economic Community (EEC), or Common Market, was established, with the same ECSC members agreeing to the terms of the Treaty of Rome. The European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom) was also formed in 1957.
\par \tab The three communities merged in 1967 as the European Communities (EC), from 1994 the European Union (EU), which from 1986 included Belgium, The Netherlands, Luxembourg, the United Kingdom, West Germany, France, Italy, Denmark, Ireland, Greece, Spain, and Portugal. The agreement promotes "harmonious development of economic policies" by eliminating trade barriers, allowing free flow of labor, and developing other measures to facilitate economic cooperation among the 12 member countries. Plans were made in the 1980s and 1990s for the development of a single European market with open borders and for eventual monetary and political union.
\par \tab The remaining Western European countries--Austria, Finland, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, Sweden, and Switzerland--are members of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA). By the early 1990s Austria, Finland, and Sweden had applied for membership in the EU. In 1991 the countries of the EC and EFTA reached an agreement to create a European Economic Area (EEA), which was viewed as a step toward an eventual full merger of the two groups.
\par \tab In Eastern Europe, under pressure from the Soviet Union, the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA), known unofficially as Comecon, was set up in 1949 to facilitate trade agreements and economic cooperation between the Soviet Union and its satellite countries. Yugoslavia was an observer nation, and Finland had a cooperation agreement with Comecon. Albania was a member until 1961. The organization closely integrated the economies of Eastern Europe with that of the Soviet Union. With the upheaval in Eastern Europe and the breakup of the Soviet bloc, Comecon became obsolete. The organization was formally disbanded on June 28, 1991, and several of its members subsequently applied to become associate members of the EC.
\par {\b Urban-Industrial Dominance}
\par \tab The village and the city are the dominant settlement types in Europe. Scattered or isolated farmsteads are found only in Northern Europe, parts of the British Isles, The Netherlands, and some mountainous areas. Urban development grew rapidly during the Roman period. Ancient Rome reached an estimated population of 1 million people, with well-developed water distribution, sewers, roads, and other facilities.
\par \tab Urban growth declined in the Dark Ages but was begun again by the traders of the Middle Ages. The Industrial Revolution was the major stimulus to urban growth after 1800. Manufacturing became the major economic activity in most cities. The great need for labor drew many people from rural areas to the city. As employment in factories grew, additional people were needed to provide for housing, retail stores, and services of many kinds. Factories served as "growth poles" around which cities of various sizes grew. Many urban areas such as London and Paris reached more than a million people for the first time since Rome had reached that level at the height of the empire.
\par \tab Western Europe became the core area for industrial Europe based on the rich coal mines of the United Kingdom, the Ruhr area of Germany, northern France, and southern Belgium. Abundant iron ore was also available in the Lorraine area of northeastern France. Labor, capital, raw materials, food, a central location, and both water and land transportation facilitated the rapid industrial growth. The outer, or peripheral, regions of Europe provided raw materials such as minerals, fish, food, and forest products for the factories and urban population of the core region. These peripheral areas were also markets for the manufactured products from the various countries of Western Europe.
\par \tab Russia and Eastern Europe followed with urban-industrial developments in the 1900s, utilizing the abundant coal, iron ore, and petroleum that were locally available. Cities such as Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kiev, Khar'kov, and Ekaterinburg grew to be major industrial, commercial, and government centers. Urban centers in Eastern Europe grew more rapidly after World War II under Communist economic planning.
\par \tab The cities of Europe are different from those in the United States primarily because they are much older. They were built before the railroad and the automobile. The major characteristics of the European city are: a low profile with buildings of three to six stories except for recent tall buildings in large cities; compact form so that they could be more easily defended; the dominance of multiple family, or apartment, residences; many people living and working downtown; frequent outdoor markets; city centers dominated by public squares with churches and government buildings; many downtown public parks; lack of wood as a building material; few areas of slums; large use of public transportation; and narrow, winding side streets.
\par \tab Most countries in Europe classify more than 50 percent of their populations as urban. In the early 1990s there were only two exceptions--Portugal with 30 percent and Albania with 36 percent. The United Kingdom with 92 percent and Germany with 86 percent were among the most urban in Europe. The percentage of urban population is closely related to the degree of industrialization.
\par {\b Agriculture}
\par \tab As manufacturing and industry increased during the Industrial Revolution, the percentage of the labor force employed in agriculture markedly decreased, especially in Western Europe. Rural manpower was drawn to higher-paying occupations in urban areas, and mechanization and scientific methods developed that required less labor for greater agricultural productivity. Agriculture also changed to meet the food needs of the densely populated cities by placing more emphasis on horticulture, market gardening, and cash crops and less on subsistence-type agriculture that produced food primarily for large farm families.
\par \tab The percentage of the labor force employed in agriculture in the late 1980s ranged from 1 to 13 percent in Western Europe, with the United Kingdom lowest and Ireland highest. In Southern Europe percentages were higher, with 24 percent in Greece, 21 in Portugal, 14 in Spain, and 9 in Italy. Albania was the most rural in Eastern Europe with 51 percent. East Germany was lowest with 11 percent. The Soviet Union had 18 percent, and most of the rest of Eastern Europe averaged between 12 and 29 percent.
\par \tab Despite decreases in the number of farmers, agricultural productivity has been maintained because of subsidies provided by governments that artificially support prices for such products as milk, wheat, and potatoes. The goal of the price support is to assure the availability of certain farm products and to increase income in the agricultural sector to assure the continuance of the family farm.
\par \tab Farms also increased in size to facilitate the use of machinery. Farm holdings were consolidated by government programs in such places as West Germany, France, and the Benelux countries. Inheritance systems over the years had split fields into smaller and smaller plots that were often not contiguous and where it was difficult to farm and to utilize machinery practically. Large state farms and collective farms dominated the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, with the exception of Yugoslavia and Poland.
\par \tab The degree of farming success is closely related to the nature of climate, soil, and topography. The best yields, often the highest in the world, are found in Western Europe, where moderate temperatures, adequate moisture, and a long growing season combine with high levels of scientific agriculture. The extensive lowland areas generally have productive soils, though sandy, unproductive soils exist in many places. The emphasis in Western Europe is on livestock and dairying, as growing conditions are favorable for pasture and fodder crops. The needs of a large urban market caused a considerable change from livestock to cash crops such as wheat.
\par \tab Eastern Europe has much less reliable precipitation, but the higher summer temperatures allow the successful growth of corn (maize) and spring wheat. Average yields are lower than in Western Europe because of less scientific agriculture and less reliable natural conditions. The former system of state farms and collective farms also lessened private initiative and resulted in lower productivity.
\par \tab Southern Europe specializes in fruits and vegetables, often irrigated, as a result of the dry, subtropical, Mediterranean climate. Dry summers make irrigation necessary in the lowlands for successful crop farming. Sheep and goats are common animals in the hilly topography with marginal conditions for crop agriculture. Many farms are small, which makes successful farming difficult. Much land held in large estates by wealthy landowners is often not managed well.
\par \tab The problems of consolidation of fields and small farms, the production based on subsidy rather than market demand, the continuing movement of farm labor to the cities, the increased cooperative development of agriculture both in Western and Eastern Europe, and the agricultural role of regional organizations such as the EC are still in the process of solution. Throughout Europe agriculture remains important for food and employment as well as in the use of land. In several European countries, including Greece, Italy, and Ireland, more than 50 percent of the total area is used as agricultural land.
\par {\b Fishing}
\par \tab The disrupted, peninsular nature of much of Europe means that many nations have much of their land in the form of seacoasts. Thus it is natural that fishing became a major occupation. About 30 percent of the world's fish catch in the late 1980s came from nations bordering the Mediterranean, North, Baltic, Norwegian, and Barents seas.
\par \tab The fishing fleets of these nations have become increasingly efficient in catching and processing their catch. Russia, Poland, and Germany have developed a worldwide fishing industry with the aid of specialized equipment, including trawlers and fish-processing factories on vessels at sea. Among the leading fishing nations of Europe (by total catch) are Russia, Denmark, Norway, Iceland, and Spain. Cod and herring are caught in the largest quantities by European fishermen. Fish products are the principal exports from Iceland.
\par \tab The significance of fishing to Norway has dropped greatly with the development of petroleum and gas in the North Sea. The fishing industry not only feels the economic competition of offshore oil and gas production but also faces pollution threats that may affect fish reproduction.
\par \tab The extension of territorial waters to 200 miles (322 kilometers) aids in the control of coastal fishing grounds by such countries as Norway, Iceland, and the United Kingdom. The legality of this zone, though, is still a subject of controversy.
\par {\b Forestry}
\par \tab Throughout history dense forests have given way to agriculture, cities, and other needs of increasing populations. It is estimated that four fifths of Europe was once covered by forest, of which two thirds has been removed during the long settlement process. Forest destruction is especially severe in the Mediterranean region and the intense urban-industrial core of Western Europe.
\par \tab The best commercial forests are found in the taiga, or coniferous forest, of Northern Europe and on the flanks of the mountains, especially the Alps. Reforestation is being promoted in certain poor, sandy soil areas such as the Jutland peninsula of Denmark and the sand dune coast of southwestern France. Russia, Sweden, Finland, Germany, France, and Poland are major producers of roundwood.
\par {\b Minerals}
\par \tab The variety of mineral resources has been a key to Europe's successful economic development. Abundant coal and iron ore contributed to the Industrial Revolution. Russia, Ukraine, Poland, the United Kingdom, Germany, Slovakia, the Czech Republic, the former Yugoslav republics, and Romania are coal producers. Russia, Ukraine, Sweden, France, Spain, and Norway provide iron ore. Copper, zinc, lead, bauxite, potash, sulfur, silver, and gold are also mined in a number of European countries. Georgia and Ukraine are among the leading world producers of manganese, an alloy used in hardening steel. European mining activities are increasingly faced with the difficulties of depth, heat, flooding, poisonous gases, and antiquated equipment.
\par {\b Energy Resources}
\par \tab Until the petroleum and natural gas developments in the North Sea, industrial Western Europe imported most of its petroleum supply from other continents. Prior to 1970 the Soviet Union and Romania were the only European countries producing enough oil and natural gas to supply their needs and have surpluses to export to others. The recent finds in the North Sea have added Norway and the United Kingdom to the surplus producers. The natural gas field in the northern Netherlands has supplied both local needs and surpluses to neighboring countries since 1950. Italy is also a major producer of natural gas.
\par \tab The discovery of petroleum and gas in the North Sea is one of the most significant finds in the world since the discoveries in the Middle East. The development of these resources may result in the ability to supply as much as three fourths of Western Europe's needs.
\par \tab The North Sea bottom was divided into sectors for exploration by international agreements reached from 1958 to 1972. The agreements were based on median lines between countries and resulted in the United Kingdom's and Norway's receiving the largest and most productive areas. Norway has additional offshore continental shelf along its west coast in the Barents Sea and around the Svalbard island group that may supply future riches.
\par \tab The North Sea and other offshore areas, however, face many problems, such as increasing costs in deeper waters, the high winds and cold of a rigorous climate, sufficient and safe offshore living space for workers, transportation costs, and increasing costs for exploration and production platforms and other equipment. But the North Sea energy source is ideally located to help supply the needs of the densely populated and heavily industrial Western Europe.
\par \tab Russia is a world leader in oil and natural gas reserves. Azerbaijan has significant reserves in the Baku field on the flanks of the Caucasus Mountains and the Caspian Sea borderlands. The region is a major supplier of the world's crude oil. Pipelines supply oil and gas to other countries of Eastern Europe, and Russian natural gas reaches Germany by pipeline. Oil and natural gas have replaced coal as a major energy source.
\par \tab The mountainous topography and the damming of rivers made possible considerable amounts of hydroelectric energy. Almost all of Norway's electric energy is generated from waterpower. Hydroelectric power is produced from dams in rivers originating in the mountains of France, Switzerland, Austria, Italy, Sweden, Finland, Spain, and Portugal. In Russia and Ukraine, waterpower is created by huge dams on the major rivers flowing southward into the Black and Caspian seas, such as at Dnepropetrovsk on the Dnepr River.
\par \tab Most European countries obtain some electricity from nuclear plants. More than 70 percent of France's electricity comes from nuclear production.
\par {\b Manufacturing and Services}
\par \tab As the modern industrial economy becomes more complex, increasing numbers of people are required in the service industries such as banking and financial services, personal professional services, the repair of mechanical equipment, and government services. When services in a nation become greater than manufacturing in terms of employment and value produced, a postindustrial economy is reached. Much of Europe has become postindustrial since 1965, particularly Western Europe. Sweden had the highest percentage, with nearly 60 percent of its labor force employed in services in the early 1990s, compared to 36 percent in industry and only 3.5 percent in agriculture, forestry, and fishing. Most Western European countries average from 45 to 60 percent of their labor force in services and 35 to 45 percent in industry and manufacturing. In Southern and Eastern Europe, both services and manufacturing are relatively less important and agriculture is more important. Most Eastern European countries have a larger percentage of their labor force in manufacturing as compared to services.
\par \tab Industry and services are the leading contributors to the gross national product (GNP) per capita in most European nations. The average for Western Europe was $18,169 GNP per capita in 1989; for Eastern Europe, excluding the Soviet Union, $2,283; in Northern Europe, $21,474; and in Southern Europe, $6,250. Using the measure of value added by manufacturing as an indicator of economic development, West Germany ranked third in the world behind the United States and Japan in the late 1980s.
\par \tab The Western European manufacturing belt extends from the Scottish Lowlands and England across the English Channel to the Benelux countries, the Rhine and Ruhr valleys of Germany, northern France, Switzerland, and northern Italy. These areas have changed from basic iron and steel and other so-called heavy industry to high-quality machine and metal products, textiles based mostly on artificial fibers, chemicals, appliances, and materials needed by the increasingly demanding population of Europe and the world. High-technology production is increasingly significant. The location of this kind of industry can be scattered, as it is dependent on the skill of workers rather than on heavy materials such as coal and iron ore. The overall emphasis is more on quality in order to make products that are competitive in world trade. The manufacturing of Northern Europe also emphasizes quality in processing the raw materials of the region, using cheap hydroelectric power. Major electrometallurgical and electrochemical industries have been developed.
\par \tab Changes in industrial locations in Western Europe have resulted from the need to import large quantities of raw materials from the rest of the world, the removal of tariffs on goods flowing between EC countries, the large use of petroleum rather than coal as an energy source, and the attempts of governments to decentralize industry to less developed areas of countries. New steel mills and oil refineries, for instance, have been located along the coasts of Western Europe to take advantage of bringing in bulky raw materials by cheap and efficient ocean transportation. Electrical engineering and chemical manufacturing are examples of growth industries that depend primarily on electric power. This source of power allows industry to be dispersed throughout Europe rather than concentrated in certain locations.
\par \tab Eastern Europe is in earlier stages of industrialization. Here the more traditional industries are found--food processing, textiles and clothing, basic iron and steel and metals industries, and those industries that satisfy local needs or that previously found a market in the Soviet Union before its breakup. Manufacturing in Eastern Europe was highly dependent on raw materials, equipment, energy, and capital as supplied by the Soviets. East Germany, the former Czechoslovakia, and Poland emerged as industrial leaders in Communist Eastern Europe, but manufacturing increased in other nations as well. Major industrial zones include: Donbas in southern Ukraine, based originally on abundant local coal and iron ore; the central region focusing on Moscow, with diverse industries; the Ural Mountains, with an abundance of metal manufacturing; and the banks of the Volga River, based on water and land transport and local oil and gas resources for energy. The industrial emphasis in each of these regions changed as resources and population concentrations developed elsewhere. The needs of the people and the plans of the various governments also caused shifts in industrial locations.
\par \tab In Southern Europe manufacturing is very spotty. The major cities stand out, along with northern Italy's Po Valley and northern Spain. The Mediterranean countries do not have the raw materials, energy resources, capital, and skilled labor to compete yet with the rest of Western Europe. Manufacturing is increasing in all countries, however, especially in Italy in recent decades. Greece and Portugal have particularly low proportions of their labor forces in industry.
\par {\b Tourism}
\par \tab Income from European and international tourists offsets unfavorable balances of trade in most European countries. The attractive scenery, combined with a long and fascinating historical heritage, provides numerous tourist attractions throughout the continent. An example is Switzerland, with its unsurpassed Alpine landscape combined with lakes, picturesque cities, historical buildings, and charming farming scenes on the populated central plateau. Swiss hotel, restaurant, and recreation site management have become models for the world.
\par \tab Europe has varied environments from subtropical to polar, each with its attraction for the tourist. Major cities--such as London, Paris, Copenhagen, Amsterdam, Vienna, Madrid, Rome, Athens, Budapest, and Moscow--attract millions of visitors and billions of dollars each year. In the EC countries about 2 percent of gross domestic product comes from tourism, with an annual growth rate of 3 to 10 percent. There are some negative effects of rapid tourism growth. These include the pollution of lakes and rivers, overcrowding of beach areas, and misuse of rural, mountainous, and scenic land by increasing numbers of recreational visitors. Large numbers of foreigners also tend to change the culture of an area, often undesirably.
\par {\b Transportation and Communication}
\par \tab The dense population and high economic productivity created an early demand for a good transportation network, especially in industrial Western Europe. The small size of most European countries required a transport system to connect bordering and nearby countries. Individual governments provided financial support, and the short distances and relatively flat topography lessened costs of construction. Small-scale systems developed in each country or in regions rather than a single large, internationally integrated system. Europe's oceangoing vessels and a well-developed system of interconnected rivers and canals led to the best water transport system in the world. The railway mileage in Europe represents about one third of the world's total.
\par \tab Automobiles on the roads of Western Europe in the early 1990s totaled 139 million. The tremendous rise in numbers of private automobiles, trucks, and buses has put great pressure on increasing the effectiveness of the highway system. The Germans had an excellent autobahn network built for military purposes in the 1930s. Most of the remainder of Europe's expressways were built after 1950. Roads in Western Europe now account for more than three quarters of the freight carried in that area and for more than 85 percent in Norden.
\par \tab The number of automobiles has begun to increase in Eastern Europe, especially in Romania, the Czech Republic, and Poland. Trucks and buses, however, are still more important than private cars in transporting people and goods in this part of Europe.
\par \tab As the number of automobiles, trucks, and buses increased, the role of railways decreased. Railroads are used to carry heavy commodities such as coal, iron ore, and bulky manufactured products throughout Europe. The mileage of rail lines has decreased, especially in Western Europe. Some high-speed express trains have been added--for example, one from Paris to Nice and the Trans-European Express from England to Italy. These fast trains, as well as commuter trains serving cities, have helped maintain railway passenger service. In 1987 construction began on a tunnel under the English Channel. Completed In May 1994, it links auto and rail traffic between England and France.
\par \tab Water transportation has also suffered in competition with highways and pipelines. The Rhine River system from Basel, Switzerland, to the North Sea is the major European waterway, in volume of traffic, for goods flowing into and out of the EU countries.
\par \tab Air transport and pipelines are significant forms of transportation in and between the countries of Europe. Major airports in each country serve primarily passenger traffic but also transport mail and high-value, low-bulk products. Europe has become a focus for air traffic because of its large population, and it attracts business and tourist traffic from all over the world. The largest generators of air traffic in Europe are Russia and the United Kingdom.
\par \tab Pipelines have grown rapidly as the chief means of transporting oil and natural gas. Pipelines connect coastal refineries with inland consumer cities as well as coastal crude oil terminals to inland refineries. With the oil and gas developments in the North Sea after 1970, pipelines were built to bring these products ashore in Scotland, England, Germany, and Norway. They are then distributed further by pipeline or by tanker to world destinations.
\par \tab In both Eastern and Western Europe, regional integration is an important consideration to more effective water, rail, highway, air, and pipeline transportation. One of the EC's major goals was the development of a unified, effective, and viable transportation system within its member countries. Comecon had the same objective in Eastern Europe.
\par \tab Telephone, telegraph, radio, television, and newspaper communications are well developed throughout the continent. Newspaper circulation is high in all of Western Europe. In Eastern Europe, Communist dailies were party-run and spoke for government policy. Independent opposition newspapers--first permitted in the late 1980s as dramatic changes took place in Eastern Europe--competed with the official party newspapers, outselling them in many cases.
\par \tab {\b Author Credit:}
\par \tab This article was contributed by Lawrence M. Sommers, Professor and former Chairman of Geography, Michigan State University, East Lansing.
\par \tab {\b FURTHER RESOURCES FOR EUROPE}
\par \tab Barzini, Luigi. The Europeans (Simon & Schuster, 1983).
\par \tab Gay, Peter, and Webb, Robert. Modern Europe, 2 vols. (Harper, 1973).
\par \tab Holmes, George, ed. The Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe (Oxford Univ. Press, 1990).
\par \tab Hughes, H.S., and Wilkinson, James. Contemporary Europe: A History, 7th ed. (Prentice, 1991).
\par \tab Jordan, Terry. The European Culture Area (Harper, 1987).
\par \tab PΘrin, Patrick, and Forni, Pierre. The Barbarian Invasions of Europe (Silver Burdett, 1987).
\par \tab Pimlott, John. The Cold War (Watts, 1987).
\par \tab Riordan, James. Eastern Europe: The Lands and Their Peoples, rev. ed. (Silver Burdett, 1987).
\par \tab Sabbagh, Antoine. Europe in the Middle Ages (Silver Burdett, 1988).
\par \tab Taylor, A.J.P. The Struggle for Mastery in Europe, 1894-1918 (Oxford Univ. Press, 1954).
\par \tab Thompson, W.C. Western Europe (Stryker, annual).
\par \tab Tuchman, Barbara. The Proud Tower: A Portrait of the World Before the War (Macmillan, 1966).
\par \tab Tusa, Ann, and Tusa, John. The Berlin Airlift (Atheneum, 1988).\par \tab Three hundred miles (480 kilometers) east of the Strait of Magellan, near the tip of South America, lie the Falkland Islands. Rocky and treeless, they are swept by winds and pelted much of the year by cold rains. The islands, a British self-governing colony, are near the trade routes approaching the strait.
\par \tab The 200 islands of the group cover 4,618 square miles (11,961 square kilometers). The main islands are East Falkland, which is 90 miles (145 kilometers) by 55 miles (89 kilometers), and West Falkland, which is 80 miles (129 kilometers) by 45 miles (72 kilometers). The capital is Stanley, or Port Stanley, on East Falkland. A governor and executive and legislative councils rule the islands. Under their 1985 constitution, South Georgia, which has a small military garrison, and the uninhabited South Sandwich Islands ceased to be dependencies of the Falklands.
\par \tab The British claim that navigator John Davis discovered the islands in 1592. The French, Spanish, and Argentines occupied them in succession. The British took control of the islands in 1833 and held them thereafter. Most of the islanders today are British, and their chief industry is sheep raising.
\par \tab Argentina also claims the Falklands, which they call the Malvinas. In 1965 a United Nations resolution urged Britain and Argentina to resolve their dispute over control. In April 1982, after 17 years of diplomatic deadlocks, Argentina invaded the Falklands. Britain retaliated and triumphed after ten weeks of combat in which about 1,000 were killed. A "fisheries protection zone" policed by British vessels was set up around the islands in 1987. Problems such as Argentine fishing rights remain as both countries still claim sovereignty. They resumed diplomatic ties in 1990. Population (1988 estimate), 1,950.\par \tab The southwestern Pacific island nation of Fiji was a crown colony of Great Britain for 96 years until it won independence in 1970. It is an archipelago, or group of islands, having several hundred islands. Fiji is in the tropics about 500 miles (800 kilometers) southwest of Samoa and 1,100 miles (1,800 kilometers) north of New Zealand. The total land area of Fiji is 7,055 square miles (18,272 square kilometers). The port city of Suva is the nation's capital.
\par \tab The larger Fijian islands are of volcanic origin and are mountainous. The smaller ones are coral atolls. The two largest islands, which make up almost 90 percent of Fiji's land area, are Viti Levu, on which Suva is located, and Venua Levu. Rainfall is heaviest on the windward side of the larger islands, whose rugged, thickly forested peaks, often rising to more than 3,000 feet (900 meters), block the moisture carried by the prevailing southeast trade winds. Fiji has two seasons--a hot, wet period lasting from November through April, and a relatively cooler, drier period from May through October.
\par \tab The chief exports of Fiji are partially refined cane sugar and molasses. Grown mainly on small plots of land, the sugarcane is crushed and partly refined by the government-owned Fiji Sugar Corporation. Other important exports are coconut products (copra and coconut oil), fish, and gold. Rice is the main staple food crop in Fiji. Other agricultural products are ginger, cocoa, root crops, and fruits and vegetables. The pine timber, beef cattle, and dairying industries have grown rapidly with government support.
\par \tab Tourism is an important industry. Most of the vacationers are from Australia, New Zealand, and North America. The favorite resort area is the beach on the south coast of Viti Levu, between Suva and Nadi. Nadi is the principal international airport. The harbor at Suva is able to accommodate the largest passenger ships.
\par \tab In rural areas Fijians traditionally live in a communal village society, and about 83 percent of the land is owned communally by about 6,600 land-owning groups called mataqali. The Native Land Trust Board, which oversees all Fijian land matters, insures that Fijians have land to meet their own requirements and arranges leases and collects rent for the mataqali. In addition to insuring that small farmers have adequate land to grow food, the board must make long-term arrangements for the development of tourist facilities, industrial sites, sugarcane farms, cattle ranches, and commercial pine forests.
\par \tab Late in the 19th century the British brought in Indian laborers to work on the Fijian sugar plantations. As a result, more than half of all Fijians today are of Indian descent. Native Fijians make up about 45 percent. Persons of other Pacific-island origin and those of European and Chinese descent comprise almost all the remainder.
\par {\b History and Government}
\par \tab The discovery of Fiji is usually credited to Abel Jansen Tasman, a Dutch navigator, who visited the island group in 1643. Captain James Cook of England sailed through the islands in 1774. Major credit for the discovery and charting of the islands goes to another Englishman, William Bligh, who navigated the islands after being set adrift in a small boat by the mutinous crew of his ship, the ill-fated Bounty. After 1830 Christian missionaries gained influence over natives who had practiced cannibalism. King Cakobau accepted the faith in 1854. Twenty years later the islands were ceded to the British.
\par \tab In 1970 Fiji became independent from Britain. Fiji remained a member of the Commonwealth with the British sovereign as head of state. In 1987 Sitiveni Rabuka and his soldiers led two coups against the Indian-dominated government. He suspended the constitution and proclaimed Fiji a republic, severing ties to the Commonwealth. Conflicts between native Fijians and those of Indian descent continued under the interim civilian government of President Penaia Ganilau and Prime Minister Kamisese Mara. A proposed new constitution kept political power in the hands of indigenous Fijians and caused tension and violence. Population (1989 estimate) 734,000.\par \tab One of the northernmost countries of Europe, Finland is located between Russia on the east, Sweden on the west, and the tip of Norway on the north. On the southwest the land juts into the Baltic Sea, which splits into the Gulf of Bothnia on the country's western side and the Gulf of Finland along its southern edge. About one third of the length of the country lies north of the Arctic Circle. The country's Ahvenanmaa, or Aland Islands, extends from the southwestern shore into the Baltic. The climate, soils, and landforms make human settlement difficult in the northern two thirds of the country. Most of the Finnish people live in the southern third of the country, either along the coast on the Baltic Sea and the Gulf of Finland or around the edges of the numerous lakes that dot the glacially formed landscape.
\par \tab Finland is a stable, progressive country despite natural, political, and economic handicaps. It has been independent only since 1917. The young republic was defeated twice by the forces of the Soviet Union during World War II. The Finns were forced to give up valuable land areas, resettle more than 400,000 people, and pay large reparations to the Soviet Union. Since that time the Finns have rebuilt their country and have maintained a neutral foreign policy.
\par {\b Land and Climate}
\par \tab Finland's land area covers 130,129 square miles (337,033 square kilometers). In 1990 there was an average of about 42.5 people per square mile (16.4 per square kilometer). The land surface of Finland is underlain by ancient granitic rocks that were severely eroded during the Ice Age. Most of the country lies at low elevations, with mountainous terrain restricted largely to the far north. Poorly drained land dominates much of the surface, which is dotted by an estimated 55,000 lakes. Inland water covers about 10 percent of Finland's area. The hilly areas, ridges, lakes, and marshes were formed by glaciers. The most fertile soils lie mainly along the coast and around the inland lakes, but they are sparse.
\par \tab Finland has what is called a high latitude, continental type climate. In the southern part, moderating winds off the North Atlantic and the Baltic Sea prevent severe weather conditions. The northern portions of the country have long, severe winters and short, cool summers.
\par \tab Frost can occur during any month in the north, and even in the south the growing season averages only three months or less. Because of the country's far northern latitude, however, it has long hours of summer daylight, which somewhat offsets the short growing season. The annual average precipitation ranges from 24 inches (61 centimeters) in the south to 16 inches (41 centimeters) in the far north. Winter snowfall is considerable.
\par {\b Plants and Animals}
\par \tab Forests cover much of Finland, and lumbering is a major industry. Pines and spruce are the main coniferous species, and in the south they are mixed with deciduous trees, such as birch, hazel, aspen, maple, alder, and linden. Trees of the northern forests are often dwarfed in size because of the poor growing conditions. The northern tundra, or bogland, zones have lichens, moss, and cloudberries in addition to the stunted trees.
\par \tab The animal life of Finland is adapted to a land of large forest and water areas and a rather rugged climate. Waterfowl abound on coastal and inland waters. Animals such as bear, wolf, elk, wolverine, and lynx inhabit the forests. Abundant reindeer serve as domesticated animals in the northern Lapland area. Among fish species are Baltic herring in the coastal waters; salmon, trout, and whitefish in northern inland waters; and perch and pike in the southern lakes and streams.
\par {\b People}
\par \tab The Finnish language belongs to the Finno-Ugric language group, which also includes Hungarian. Notable minority groups include the Lapps in the north and the Swedes along the Baltic Sea coast and in the Ahvenanmaa. The Lapps may be descendants of the original Finnic or Mongolian tribes who came to the region. There are several thousand Lapps, and the Swedish group totals about 6 percent of the population but is steadily decreasing in number.
\par \tab Finnish and Swedish are both official languages. The Evangelical Lutheran church is the state church, but freedom of religion is granted to all religious groups. About 88 percent of the people are Lutherans, 1 percent are Greek Orthodox, and 10 percent are not affiliated with a particular religion or have other beliefs.
\par \tab Because Finnish culture has been rather isolated, it has developed distinct characteristics. The 'Kalevala', a national folk epic published in 1835, has fostered the Finns' pride in their heritage and a sense of national unity. Elias L÷nnrot, a Finnish folklorist, conceived the idea of writing down the folk tales and songs that evolved throughout Finnish history and molding them into this epic poem.
\par \tab A number of Finnish musicians, artists, and authors have achieved international acclaim. The symphonies of the composer Jean Sibelius are especially well-known. Frans SillanpΣΣ won the Nobel prize for literature in 1939. Contemporary Finnish architecture and sculpture have won a worldwide reputation. The Finns are particularly noted for their accomplishments in industrial arts, especially ceramics and glassworking. The Finnish theater is represented by some 40 professional companies. Opera, symphonies, and music festivals are popular.
\par \tab Sports also play an important role in Finnish society. Finns compete internationally in such events as cross-country skiing, ski jumping, long-distance running, and other track and field events. Also popular are waterskiing, riding, fishing, and shooting. The sauna, a dry-heat bath in which water is sometimes poured over hot stones to produce steam, is a national tradition. It is common on farms and in city homes.
\par \tab Finland has been a leader in the passage of social legislation. It was one of the first countries to enforce the eight-hour workday; paid holidays; employee pensions; disability, life, and survivor's insurance; and the protection of women and children in industry. In 1906 Finland granted equal suffrage to all its citizens. Cooperative economic activities, in which large numbers of people share both labor and rewards, are major elements of Finnish society.
\par {\b The Economy}
\par \tab Agriculture is decreasing in importance in the Finnish economy. Agriculture and forestry accounted for 36 percent of the labor force in 1960 but for less than 6 percent in the early 1990s. Nevertheless, as a matter of government policy, Finland remains self-sufficient in food staples.
\par \tab Farming is difficult due to the short growing season, infertile soils, and poorly drained land. About 8 percent of Finland's area is cultivated. The chief crops are hay, barley, oats, sugar beets, potatoes, wheat, rapeseed, and rye. Frost is a major problem and frequently causes some degree of crop failure. Cattle are raised for beef and for dairy products, including milk, butter, and cheese. The majority of the farms are small, averaging only 10 to 50 acres (4 to 20 hectares) in area.
\par \tab Forests provide Finland with a significant economic resource. Two thirds of the forestland is privately owned by farmers, and forest products normally provide more than one third of an average farm income. Lumbering is an important part-time activity for farmers in southern Finland and is also a major commercial activity. The nation is a major supplier of wood and paper products to Western European nations.
\par \tab Finland has a variety of metallic mineral deposits; the country, however, does not have any coal or petroleum. Low-grade iron ore is the chief mineral product; more than one million tons of iron ore are mined annually. Zinc, copper, nickel, gold, and silver are other important metallic minerals. Granite is quarried for the building industry.
\par \tab Manufacturing, based largely upon the processing of forest products and using hydroelectric power for energy, has grown rapidly. This trend has drawn more people to the cities for employment and the urban population has grown to three fifths of the population. Forest products were Finland's most important earner of foreign exchange throughout the 1980s.
\par \tab Metalworking, however, surpassed woodworking in both value added and employment. In 1991, 29 percent of manufacturing employees were in the wood, paper processing, and printing and publishing industries; 36 percent were in the metal, machinery, and transport equipment industries; and the remainder were in industries producing chemicals, textiles, tobacco, food and beverages, and other products. Glass, porcelain, and earthenware are important craft industries. Manufacturing industries are mostly located in Helsinki and other coastal cities, and in southern inland centers.
\par \tab Finland depends heavily upon foreign trade to obtain items such as machinery, oil, coal, food, chemicals, vehicles, and others required for its economy. Germany, Sweden, the United Kingdom, the United States, and Ja
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